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Article

Evolution Patterns of Apparel Brands in Asian Countries: Propositions From an Analysis of the Apparel Industry in Korea and India

Byoungho Jin 1 , Parvathi M. Kandagal

2 , and

Sojin Jung 1

Abstract Evolution of apparel brands constitutes an important role in the process of apparel industry development in a nation. However, brand evolution patterns are not included in most existing models of industry development, and very limited information is available in the literature on brand evolution patterns. As an earliest attempt, and based on an extensive literature review, the authors analyzed the emergence timing and order of three types of apparel brands (international brand, national brand, and private brand) and the socio-economic background that is related to the emergence in Korea and India. By juxtaposing the emergence of the three types of apparel brands with the textiles and apparel industry development stages in each country, five propositions are suggested with each describing when and how each type of apparel brand emerged. Academic and practical implications are provided based on the findings.

Keywords brand, evolution, Korea, India

How and when do national brands emerge in a developing country? Many assume the availability

of apparel brands across a nation and fail to understand that not every developing country has

national brands as seen in advanced nations. The existence of a national brand indicates that the

nation’s apparel industry has reached a certain economic level, since the development of a national

brand requires certain conditions such as a set of knowledge and skills needed for apparel products

development, an understanding of consumer demands, financial capital, marketing concepts, and

so forth. Emergence of a national brand is an important part of the apparel industry development in

1 The University of North Carolina, Greensboro, NC, USA

2 Symbiosis Institute of Design, Pune, India

Corresponding Author:

Byoungho Jin, The University of North Carolina, 210 Stone Building, Greensboro, NC 27402, USA.

Email: [email protected]

Clothing and Textiles Research Journal 31(1) 48-63 ª The Author(s) 2012 Reprints and permission: sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0887302X12470023 ctrj.sagepub.com

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a nation. Accordingly, the apparel brand evolution pattern may be related to that of the textile and

apparel (T & A) industry development within a nation. Nonetheless, most theories and models

concerning industry development disregard the brand evolution patterns in their analyses and very

few explain the timing of apparel national brand emergence. In analyzing the development pat-

terns of the T & A industry, Toyne, Arpan, Barnett, Ricks, and Shimp’s (1984) model has been

largely utilized. While the model serves as an important basis to predict the development patterns

of the T & A industry by providing the distinctive characteristics of each stage, it fails to explain

the evolution patterns of apparel brands. For the sake of analysis, we classify apparel brands into

three types: international brand, national brand, and private brand (PB). Given that each brand

type requires a different set of conditions for its emergence, an understanding of the emergence

as well as the emergence order among the three brand types will shed light on apparel industry

development patterns more comprehensively.

As a preliminary attempt to understand the development of apparel brands in a nation, this study

explores when and how three types of apparel brands emerge and evolve in two Asian economies

with differing levels of economic development (i.e., Korea and India). The when aspect will be ana-

lyzed by juxtaposing the emergence of the three apparel brand types with the apparel industry devel-

opment stages and the how aspect will be estimated by relating social and industrial changes to the

emergence. South Korea (from now on, Korea) was chosen because in the last six decades the coun-

try has undergone all six apparel development stages suggested by Toyne et al. (1984) and has

witnessed the entry of international brands and the development of national brands and PBs; thus,

Korea provides a good setting to observe the evolution process of the different levels of apparel

brands. India was selected since it shows a dissimilar pattern of textile complex development

compared to the East Asian newly industrialized economies (NIEs; i.e., Korea, Taiwan, and Hong

Kong; Tewari, 2008); yet, India’s apparel industry shows significant growth and the three types of

brands have been developing rapidly. By comparing the different levels of apparel industry devel-

opment, common apparel brand evolution patterns and socioeconomic backgrounds contributing to

the evolution will be identified across these two countries.

To map the emergence of apparel brands in Korea and India, an extensive literature search was

conducted, which included government websites, reports from trade organizations, company web-

sites, and academic and trade journals. Information available from these sources was compiled and

consolidated. Based on the analysis, five propositions are suggested, followed by implications for

practitioners and theory development.

Industry Development Models

The basic assumption of this study is that the apparel brand evolution pattern is related to a country’s

T & A industry development pattern. Therefore, it is important to understand models with regard to

industry development. In the literature, two approaches have been used to explain industry develop-

ment. The first approach focuses on understanding the pattern through the industry life cycle.

Examples of this approach include Rostow’s (1960) stages of economic growth model, Toyne

et al.’s (1984) six development stages in textile complexes, and Akamatsu’s (1962) flying geese

model. The other approach explains why and how an industry upgrades. Gereffi’s (1994) global

commodity chain (GCC) is an example of this approach. The next section briefly introduces each

model.

Rostow’s Five Stages of Growth Model

Rostow (1960) explains a nation’s economic growth with five sequential stages in very general

terms. The five stages include: the traditional society, the preconditions for takeoff, the takeoff, the

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drive to maturity, and the age of high mass consumption. The intent of Rostow’s model is to exhibit

an economic way of looking at how whole societies evolve; thus, it offers an extremely macro per-

spective but is limited in giving an idea of how the sequential developmental pattern can be applied

to understanding the growth pattern of a particular industry.

Toyne et al.’s Six Development Stages of the T & A Industry

Compared to Rostow’s (1960) general approach, Toyne and his colleagues focus on the textile com-

plex development and specifically classify it into six stages: embryonic, initial export, rapid expan-

sion and upgrading, The Golden Age, full maturity, and significant decline. The six stages can be

observed in various parts of the world as a country belongs to one stage and then moves to the next.

The characteristics of each stage and when Korea and India experienced each stage is summarized in

Table 1. As with other developing economies, the apparel industry was the starter industry for Korea

and played a major role leading the country’s early export growth, which began in the 1960s. Now

the country has grown enough to successfully sell its own branded apparel goods to international

markets, representing the significant decline stage (Jin & Moon, 2006; Korea Federation of Textile

Industries, 2012). India’s early export of apparel stage began in the 1970s, but the country is now one

of the world’s top 10 exporters of apparel and textiles (Tewari, 2008) and the fifth country from

which the U.S. imports apparel goods (American Apparel & Footwear Association, 2009), repre-

senting the Golden Age stage.

As with other stage models, Toyne et al. (1984) also views the development process as sequential;

however, not every country passes through the proposed sequential stages. It is important to note that

due to government intervention, fiber and textile production in India occurred earlier than the rapid

increase of its apparel exports. This is a contrast to Toyne et al.’s (1984) view in that the increase of

apparel exports and textile production took place at the same time as the more advanced production

of fabric and apparel stage. As early as 1965, two decades before India became active in apparel

exports (1985), India’s textile exports had a 7.3% share in the global market, ahead of the United States (6.6%) and Hong Kong (2%), while the rankings were totally changed later. This is because of the Indian government’s variety of regulatory policies on the T & A industry with the intent of job

creation and local development starting in the late 1960s and lasting until the mid-1980s (Tewari,

2005). Despite this exception, the six development stages model provides a clear understanding

of the directions that textile complexes follow within a nation.

Akamatsu’s Flying Geese Model

While Rostow (1960) and Toyne et al. (1984) illustrate the development process within a nation,

Akamatsu (1962) considers the influence of other nations on the process in the flying geese model.

On the basis of Japan’s experiences in catching up with the West, Akamatsu explains national

economic development with three-series curves, representing import, production, and export,

respectively. In this model, the import–production–export activities usually occur sequentially for

each product category with the passage of time. During the first wave, the follower economy starts

to import foreign goods from the advanced economies, which instills the formation of local indus-

trial development. The second wave begins with actual production of the imported manufactured

goods with either local or foreign capital or a combination of the two. When the local production

becomes excess, the third curve, export, starts (Kasahara, 2004). The original three curves model

was later extended to explain the dynamic change of different industries in the same country and

further to explain the shift of industries from an advanced country to less developed countries

(Kwan, 2002). For example, industry development in a country starts with textiles, followed sequen-

tially by chemicals, iron and steel, automobiles, and electronic/electrical industries. In addition,

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51 at CALIFORNIA ST UNIV NORTHRIDGE on August 26, 2015ctr.sagepub.comDownloaded from

most economies start industrialization with the textile industry, but as they lose their competitive

advantages the industry moves to less-developed countries (Kwan, 2002). As with the geese flying

in an inverted V shape, in the textile industry Japan was the lead goose. The next tier geese, such as

the NIEs (e.g., Taiwan and South Korea), follow the lead goose. The third tier, Association of

Southeastern Asian Nations (e.g., Thailand), are followed by the next tier, China, then India, and

Vietnam. The basic driving force of such a shift is emulation; a latecomer economy emulates the

industries of advanced economies in pursuit of development (Kwan, 2002). Even though the flying

geese model has drawbacks, it is regarded as a very effective tool to describe the regional economic

development patterns in East Asia.

Gereffi’s (1994) GCC Framework

The above stage models suggest the characteristics of each stage and roughly project the direction,

but they are largely limited in explaining why and how each stage moves to the next. In the 1990s,

Gereffi (1994, 1999) addressed the why and how aspects of the change dynamics with the GCC

framework. GCC refers to ‘‘the whole range of activities involved in the design, production, and

marketing of a product’’ (Gereffi, 1999, p. 38). The research focus of GCC has been governance

structure (i.e., how lead firms determine and control the factors under which others operate in a given

chain). Buyer-driven versus producer-driven commodity chains are two classifications of GCC by

governance structure, and the apparel industry is a typical example of a buyer-driven commodity

chain.

With the framework of GCC, Gereffi explains why and how the apparel commodity chain in East

Asian NIEs (e.g., South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong) upgrades from simple assembly to full package

supply or OEM (original equipment manufacturing) production and then to OBM (original brand

name manufacturing) production. Such industrial upgrading involves organizational learning gained

through participation in GCC (Gereffi & Tam, 1998). In other words, applying the GCC framework

Gereffi contends that in large measure, apparel firms in East Asian NIEs were able to improve them-

selves by establishing close linkages with various lead firms (e.g., big U.S. buyers such as J.C. Pen-

ney and Wal-Mart) that serve as the primary learning agents, and that provide material inputs and

technology transfer, and coordinate the production networks.

Propositions

Through the extensive analysis of literature, the approximate timing of emergence, growth, and

decline of three types of brands were identified. The findings are summarized in Figure 1 with the

juxtaposition of Korea and India’s developmental process of the apparel industry. Timing here

means the approximate periods when a group of brands show significant patterns of development.

In other words, the emergence of one or two brands or negligible numbers is not considered a clear

pattern. Based on the analysis, the three stage models, and the GCC framework provided above, five

propositions were proposed and the socioeconomic background and underlying dynamics that pro-

pelled the evolution were identified.

Proposition 1: In developing countries, international brands are launched in the more advanced

production of fabric and apparel stage, earlier than national brand emergence.

Our literature review revealed that the entry of international brands in Korea and India began when

export activities took off—the mid-1970s for Korea and the late-1980s and early 1990s for India

(i.e., more advanced production of fabric and apparel stage in each country; see Figure 1). In devel-

oping countries, traditional dress is more prevalent as everyday wear, and Western style dress is

introduced with the start of modernization, meaning that traditional and Western style dress coexist

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until a certain level of modernization. In the case of Korea, it took 20 years for every Korean woman

to adopt Western style dress as everyday wear (Delong, Koh, Nelson, & Ingyoldstad, 1998).

When both countries were in the more advanced production of fabric and apparel stage, the traditional

forms of dress (Hanbok in Korea and Sari in India) were still seen in the street; in fact, Sari is still used as

everyday wear in India. The domestic apparel market was largely served by tailor shops for traditional

forms of dress and ready-to-wear apparel for Western dress was just being introduced by local manufac-

turers, meaning that the domestic market was not ready for developing apparel brands in terms of

demand and supply. Regarding demand, ready-to-wear clothes were only partially demanded by the

population. Concerning supply, the skills and knowledge required for developing apparel brands were

not developed yet. Because an apparel industry in the more advanced production of fabric and apparel

stage focuses only on OEM production for foreign buyers, the industry has not had opportunities to

develop the skills and knowledge needed for apparel brand development. This means that the branding

concept is new and innovative and needs to be learned from more advanced economies.

In most developing countries, the government discourages imports in order to protect domestic

development. Korea and India were no exception. Nonetheless, for the purpose of learning from for-

eign apparel companies, both governments partially allowed foreign brand entry via licensing or

technical contract. However, direct import of finished apparel goods and direct investments from

foreign companies were limited. Thus, at the early stage of international brand entry, most foreign

branded goods were produced under a licensing agreement. In Korea, 43 international brands were

licensed by 26 companies between 1979 and 1983 (Min et al., 1986). The French apparel brand

Cacharel was licensed in the late 1970s and the U.S. brand Arnold Palmer in 1981 (Jung, 2005).

Many U.S. jeans brands, including Jordache, Levi’s, and Lee, were introduced in the early 1980s

as well (Delong et al., 1998).

In India, international brand entry became more active in the early 1990s due to India’s economic

reforms that released trade barriers. The U.S. brand Van Heusen entered in 1990, and Reebok, Lee,

Figure 1. Evolution patterns of apparel brands in Korea and India. Note. Developed by authors.

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Nike, and Levi’s all entered in 1995 (Son, 2007). Here it is important to note that a couple of ready-

to-wear brands, such as Bando Fashion in Korea (started in 1974) and Park Avenue in India (started

in 1986), existed when international brands entered the countries; however, most of these initial

domestic brands were available only in major cities and focused on men’s suits for high-end custom-

ers (Hwang & Jung, 1993). Therefore, it is more accurate to understand these brands as the begin-

ning of ready to wear as opposed to tailor shops, not national brands that require established

distribution channels and merchandizing functions across the nation. The development of national

brands in its true definition took place after the presence of international brands in each country.

Proposition 2: When international brands are first introduced in developing countries, they are

positioned as premium brands since they have the competitive advantage in high quality and

design.

In most developing countries, aspects of design and quality are largely lacking as apparel com-

panies focus on offering simple assembly or OEM for foreign buyers; thus, international brands have

a competitive advantage over domestic apparel goods in terms of design and quality (Hwang & Jung,

1993; Min et al., 1986). Owing to this competitive advantage, international brands are typically posi-

tioned as a premium image in developing countries, even though the brand is not necessarily a pre-

mium brand in the home market. For example, Levi’s and Tommy Hilfiger are currently considered

premium brands in India while their premium image has been lost in the United States. All brands

launched by Korea’s E-land Group in China—E-land, Scofield, Teenie Weenie, Roem, Prich, Scat,

and Teresia—are regarded as premium brands with the average price of an item about 2 times higher

than that of the average worker’s monthly income, while in fact they are perceived as mid-priced

brands in the Korean market. E-land group is phenomenally successful in China, ranking second

in the Chinese apparel market by revenue and achieving a 63% annual average growth rate since 2000 (E-land, 2012). As with the E-land group’s brands in China, the Korean brand TB2 is a huge

success in China with its premium positioning strategy, while it is sold in the mid-priced range in

Korea (Lee, 2012, June).

Consumer preference toward international brands over domestic brands in developing countries

is well documented and widely accepted in the literature (e.g., Batra, Ramaswamy, Alden, Steen-

kamp, & Ramachander, 2000). For example, in India the Levi’s brand was evaluated positively for

its quality and emotional benefits compared to local jeans (Kumar, Lee, & Kim, 2009). The prefer-

ence was even more fervent when international brands first became available, since they were a

scarce commodity and served as a status symbol (Ger, Belk, & Lascu, 1993). Using international

brands to exhibit one’s social standing is more prominent in developing countries where status mobi-

lity exists (Kottak, 1990). Ownership of an international brand is thus perceived as a sign of success

and empowerment among consumers (Willis, 2006). Among Indian consumers, an international

brand is a sign of ‘‘foreign envy,’’ so ‘‘if you own something that’s from abroad, it sets you apart

from your peers’’ (Kavilanz, 2007, May 1). The significant amount of newspaper and media cover-

age vigorously reports consumers’ willingness to buy international brands regardless of their high

prices. In India, in particular, foreign brand popularity is such that about half of working women’s

salaries is often spent on purchasing international brand apparel (Hasan, Issar, Ojha, & Singh, 2006,

November 6).

Such popularity of international brands encourages domestic players to develop their own brands

for domestic markets, as the flying geese model explains. However, the premium image of interna-

tional brands may not last forever, as countries develop their own national brands and the quality and

design aspects of national brands continuously improve. With the development and enhancement of

domestic national brands, the premium image of international brands may progressively wane

(Alden, Steenkamp, & Batra, 1999).

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Proposition 3: In response to the influx of international brands, major apparel manufacturers and

exporters start to develop national brands. The emergence of national brands occurs in the

Golden Age stage in developing countries.

Our extensive analysis revealed that the emergence of national brands in each country happened dur-

ing the Golden Age stage after international brands were introduced in the market—the early 1980s

in Korea and the mid-1990s in India (see Figure 1). The socioeconomic background around the

national brand emergence can be explained by both the demand and supply sides. From the demand

side, consumer demand for branded apparel goods is augmented during the time international brands

are introduced in the market, owing mostly to growing middle-income consumers. In the case of

Korea, the 1980s witnessed a large trade surplus and remarkable economic growth achieving gross

domestic product (GDP) per capita of $6,303 in 1990, up from $1,660 in 1980 (Cho, Park, & Kang,

2012). This means Korea experienced a 280% increase in GDP per capita during one decade, result- ing in rising income as well as a growing number of middle-income consumers. This economic suc-

cess led to the hosting of the Asian games in 1986 and the Seoul Olympic Games in 1988. As a

result, consumer demand for active sportswear and leisure wear increased. In addition, the liberal-

ization in the early 1980s of the decades-long tradition of school uniforms allowed consumers to

look for more casual clothes (Korea Federation of Textile Industries, 2012). Taken together, Korean

consumers’ demand in the 1980s became more diversified and sophisticated. India’s economy has

grown steadily since 1990 after the economic liberalization of 1991. Responding to this growth, the

introduction of organized retail formats such as department stores and shopping malls started in the

mid-1990s and increased the demand for high quality brand goods (Tewari, 2008).

From the supply side, major apparel manufacturers and exporters were able to cultivate the

knowledge base needed for developing an apparel brand through direct production of garments for

foreign buyers (Ha-Brookshire & Lee, 2010), indirect observation of the international brand man-

agement launched in the market, or both. This is in line with Gereffi’s GCC model in which learning

gained through participation in GCC is shown as a major asset that helped Asian NIEs upgrade from

OEM to OBM (Gereffi & Tam, 1998). National brand development was, in fact, a viable growth

strategy for many apparel manufacturers and exporters because of the growing penetration of inter-

national brands and pressures to develop their own brand. With well-matched supply and demand

sides, the two countries’ prominent national brands emerged. A commonality found in both coun-

tries during the analysis was that national brand development evolved first in the men’s suits for

high-end markets and then gradually expanded to women’s apparel and mid-priced casual wear.

Korea’s three major apparel brands emerged in the 1980s: women’s formalwear brand Deco, by

Deco, Inc.; Mine, by Handsome, Inc.; and mid-priced casual brand E-land targeting young consumers

(Deco, 2012; E-land, 2012; Handsome, 2012). The E-land, Brenntano, and Underwood casual wear

brands developed in the 1980s were especially a huge success, which eventually helped with the estab-

lishment of the E-land Group that later expanded to retail sectors. E-land Group is now Korea’s largest

fashion company by revenue, and it owns more than 60 apparel brands in Korea (E-land, 2012).

Starting in the late 1980s, Korean apparel exporters lost their competitive advantage in exporting

goods owing to labor cost increases, which made them turn to domestic markets. Leveraging their

decades-long export experience, access to new technologies, and knowledge of world-class finishes,

fabrics, colors, and styles, Korean apparel exporters were able to successfully turn to the domestic

market. The Parkland mid-priced menswear brand, developed by Parkland, Inc. in 1989, is a good

example. Based on the knowhow acquired through dress shirt exports since 1973, the company suc-

cessfully launched the Parkland brand, targeting a mid-priced menswear market that had not existed

before (Parkland, 2012). The women’s brands Bestibelli and Si by Sinwon, Inc. and Mercoledi by

Yulim, Inc. (all launched in 1990) were the next examples developed by export houses (Park, 1990,

August 27).

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Since the mid-1990s, the emergence of national brands in India has been steadily growing, and

the top 20–30 T & A firms have all introduced their own national brands (Tewari, 2005); Color Plus

in 1993, Flying Machine relaunched by Arvind Mills in 1997 after a fail, Parx by Raymond in 1999,

and Indian Terrain by Celebrity Fashion Limited (CFL) in 2001 are a few examples (Arvind Mills,

2012; Color Plus, 2012; Kamath, 2010, March 5; Raymond Group, 2012).

Color Plus is a leading national brand that ignited the evolution of national brands in India. The

brand was developed in 1993 by Ambattur Clothing Company, a leading apparel exporter, and was

bought a few years later by the Raymond Group, India’s foremost vertically integrated apparel com-

pany established in 1925 (Raymond Group, 2012; Tewari, 2005). The brand has made continuous

growth with 350 stores now across the country (Color Plus, 2012). Flying Machine is India’s repre-

sentative jeans brand, developed by Arvind Mills, the flagship company of the Lalbhai Group. Head-

quartered in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India, the company is India’s largest denim manufacturer and the

world’s fourth largest producer and exporter of denim. The company not only retails its own brands

like Flying Machine, Newport, and Excalibur but it also licenses international brands such as Arrow,

Lee, Wrangler, and Tommy Hilfiger through its nationwide retail networks (Arvind Mills, 2012).

Another leading national brand in India is the premium menswear brand Indian Terrain established

in 2001 by CFL. CFL, established in 1988 in Chennai, is an exporter producing both shirts and trou-

sers for Gap, Timberland, Dockers, Nautica, The North Face, Ann Taylor, Armani Jeans, and Eddie

Bauer, as well as for European union markets (Kamath, 2010, March 5). In summary, national

brands emerge in the Golden Age stage when developing countries grow enough economically to

form diversified and sophisticated consumer demand for branded apparel and when the skills and

knowledge required for apparel brand development are learned from export experiences and obser-

vation or participation in international brands’ management in the country.

Proposition 4: Internationalization of a national brand begins when a country’s industry transfers

to the significant decline stage from the full maturity stage.

Our analysis discovered that Korea’s national brands began selling goods with their own brand

names in international markets in the late 1990s when the country’s apparel industry transitioned

from the full maturity stage to the significant decline stage. However, internationalization of

national brands has not yet emerged in India since the country has not reached the full maturity stage.

In the 1990s in Korea, virtually all the apparel companies, including mid-sized exporters, catered to

the mid-priced casual sectors, responding to increased demand for sports casual apparel after the Seoul

Olympic Games in 1988 and the significant apparel export decline, which led to an explosive launch of

apparel brands. In 1990 alone, more than 10 mid-priced casual wear brands were launched. Launched

brands included J vim by Sungdo Apparel Inc., Ompalos by SG Corporation, Tipi Cosi by Bando Fash-

ion, Cascade by Kolon Ltd., and Caspi by Sun Kyung Ltd. (Mid-priced apparel is struggling, 1991).

The surge of national brand development in the 1990s made the domestic market overheated, which

led companies to turn their attention to international markets. This finding is consistent with the flying

geese model that specifies the sequential occurrence of import–production–export activities in each

product category. The model contends that export starts when local production becomes oversupplied.

That is, when the local market is full of brands (i.e., oversupply), the export of apparel brands (i.e.,

internationalization) becomes the next strategic focus to survive. This view also supports Singleton

(1997), who suggested that internationalization is a viable strategy in the decline stage, and Rostow

(1960), who suggested that international activities begin in the drive to maturity stage.

According to a recent survey of more than 2,000 Korean apparel companies, approximately 180

Korean apparel brands have entered international markets with 80% operating in China. These inter- nationalization activities have become very active since 2000 across all apparel sectors including

men’s, women’s, children’s wear, sportswear, and innerwear (The status of internationalization,

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2007). China was the first country that most Korean apparel companies chose to enter because of

proximity in culture as well as geography, but the scope of the international countries has been diver-

sified ever since. Not every Korean apparel brand that expanded to international markets succeeded,

but E-land Group and Beaucre Merchandising Co., Ltd. are two leading Korean companies success-

fully operating in various international markets.

E-land Group is the earliest company to escape the saturated home market and expand to inter-

national markets. After opening a concession store in Shanghai in 1997, the group continued to

expand its operations in China, commanding 1,084 concessions located in 428 department stores

in 119 cities and 29 provinces in China as of December 31, 2007. The company now operates in the

United States with Who.A.U. launched in 2007, as it continues to open more stores (E-land, 2012).

Beaucre Merchandising Co., Ltd. started its internationalization in China in 1999 with its brand

On & On. Now the brand has 187 stores with 757 employees ranking within the top five international

brands in Chinese department stores in terms of sales volume (Jean, 2012, May 3). On & On entered

Russian and Singaporean markets in 2011 (Beaucre Merchandising, 2012). The brand W, another

successful brand of the company launched in Korea and China simultaneously in 2004, is now oper-

ated in Vietnam, Hong Kong, and Taiwan (Beaucre Merchandising, 2012). In summary, the inter-

nationalization of national brands starts when the domestic market becomes competitive with an

oversupply of national brands in the middle of the transition from the full maturity stage to the sig-

nificant decline stage.

Proposition 5: The emergence of a PB happens after national brand development.

Our analysis found that the emergence of PBs in Korea happened in the early 1990s during the full

maturity stage, but in India they emerged in the late 1990s during the Golden Age stage. However,

the emergence order (i.e., development of PBs follows national brands) was found to be identical

between the two countries; thus, Proposition 5 only specifies the emergence order not the emergence

stage in apparel development.

PBs (store brands or private labels) are developed by retailers for the purpose of differentiating

their stores from competitors by carrying unique products that do not exist elsewhere, as well as for

generating higher margins. Retail stores carry both national brands and PBs, and the proportion var-

ies by retail format and country. It is generally known that PB development is practical only when

the retailer has high levels of volume; thus, retail concentration is a key factor in private label devel-

opment (Lincoln & Thomassen, 2009). In Korea, a PB was not introduced until the early 1990s,

probably because of the late development of mass retailers and the small number of branch stores

that enable retailers to take advantage of economies of scale owing to the country’s small geogra-

phical size. Examples of PBs developed in Korea include Ottman Elegance by Lotte department

store in 1990, Peacoco and Sharday by Shinsegae department store in 1992 and 1993, respectively,

and Milano Story by Hyundai department store in 1997 (Kim, 1999).

PB development in India came early, right after national brand development in the Golden Age

stage, as opposed to occurring in the full maturity stage in Korea. The reason for the early development

of PBs in India can be explained by the rapid rise of department stores and shopping malls across urban

areas of the country starting in the mid-1990s; this development was led by leading retail groups that

are mostly subsidiaries of Indian conglomerates (Tewari, 2008). Starting in 2001, modern retail space

in India increased dramatically. In 2003 alone, roughly 10 million square feet were added (Deloitte

Development, LLC, 2007). Such abrupt establishment of retail malls required a large volume of high

quality branded goods to fill the sales floors; however, national brand development was not as fast as

retail sector development, which motivated department stores to develop their own labels (Tewari,

2008). Therefore, the emergence of a department store meant the emergence of a PB in India. As a

result, Indian department stores carry higher proportions of PBs than do Korean department stores. For

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example, the retailer Westside carries 90% of its goods as a PB, meaning only 10% of goods are national brands in the store, followed by Reliance at 80% and Pantaloons at 75% (Muralidharan, 2009, September 1). One unique aspect of PBs in India is that the name of the PB and the store are

the same. For example, Pantaloons is a store name as well as a PB name. PBs in three major depart-

ment stores in India include: Shoppers’ Stop (Chandru L. Raheja Group) developed in 1991, Panta-

loons (Future Group) developed in 1997, and Westside (Trent, a subsidiary of Tata Group)

developed in 1998 (Pantaloon retail India, 2012; Shopper’s Stop, 2012; Trent, Ltd., 2012).

Discussion

Through the five propositions postulated on an extensive literature review, the authors were able to

identify the emergence timing as well as the emergence order of three types of apparel brands in the

development of the textiles and apparel industry in Korea and India. Emergence facts were further

explained by the socioeconomic background information associated with the development.

The identified emergence timing and order of apparel brands largely support existing industry

development models. In particular, at the brand level, we identified the same sequential emergence

pattern of import–production–export that the flying geese model (Akamatsu, 1962) suggested. The

concept of apparel brand in developing countries is first debuted via importing of international

brands from economically advanced countries (Proposition 1) and then domestic production of the

countries’ own national apparel brands follows (Proposition 3). Once the apparel brands are over-

supplied, internationalization of a country’s national brands begins (i.e., export; Proposition 4).

We also discovered that the development of national apparel brands occurs in the Golden Age stage

after extensive OEM export activities happen in the more advanced production of fabric and apparel

stage (Proposition 3). This finding supports the GCC model (Gereffi, 1994) that explains the indus-

try upgrade pattern from OEM (i.e., apparel production per buyers’ specification) to OBM (i.e.,

apparel production of their own brands). The model maintains that the upgrade is possible because

of learning gained via participating in GCC. The findings could not be explained by Toyne et al.’s

(1984) model since the model did not specify the brand emergence timing or order. However, as

posited, we found that the emergence patterns of three apparel brand types are, to a large extent,

related to a country’s T & A industry development as Toyne et al. (1984) suggested. As shown in

Figure 1, relationships were found between emergence and the apparel industry development stages.

When both T & A production increases greatly in terms of quantity, quality, and sophistication (i.e.,

more advanced production of fabric and apparel stage), international brands from economically

advanced countries are launched (Proposition 1). In the Golden Age stage, national brands emerge

(Proposition 3), and in the significant decline stage, internationalization of national brands starts

(Proposition 4).

The authors also found that in both countries, international brands emerged first, followed by

national brands and PBs (Propositions 1 and 5). In addition to this emergence order, a common

premium branding strategy of international brands entering developing countries (Proposition 2)

was provided. In each type of brand emergence, social, economic, and industrial changes led to

the brand emergence, but the changes were not necessarily the same by country. Each country has

a different export policy, industry structure, country legacy, and dynamics in the T & A com-

plexes, thus it is important to understand the background that impacted the evolution of apparel

brands.

Overall, the two countries are similar in emergence timing and order except the emergence timing

of PBs. PB development happened in the full maturity stage in Korea but in the Golden Age stage in

India. Compared to Korea, PB development came earlier in India because of the varying differences

in speed, scope, and timing in retail development between the two countries. Therefore, Proposition

5 proposes only the emergence order (i.e., PB development occurs after national brand

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development), not the timing in certain developments of the T & A industry. The timing of PB devel-

opment merits further studies with more country cases.

Theoretical and Practical Implications

As an initial attempt to understand apparel brand evolution patterns in developing countries, the

authors proposed five propositions. Existing literature largely focuses on sequential patterns of

industry development and overlooked the dynamics of apparel brand development in the process

of the apparel industry development in a nation. For example, Rostow (1960)’s model is quite

macro and does not specifically explain the developmental patterns of the apparel industry. Both

Toyne et al. (1984) and the GCC model (Gereffi, 1994) explain the pattern within the T & A indus-

try but from the production perspective. The flying geese model (Akamatsu, 1962) also explains a

country’s development pattern in various industries, but again from the production perspective.

Because of the focus on production, brand development patterns are largely disregarded. In that

sense, this study contributes to the literature in at least identifying several points around apparel

brand development with empirical cases in two countries; not every country, however, has apparel

national brands. Apparel brands evolve at a certain stage of T & A industry development. The tim-

ing of national apparel brands occurs when demand for branded apparel goods and supply for the

development are met, which takes place after a country’s economy reaches a certain level. Three

types of apparel brands emerge in a certain order, and the five propositions proposed in this study

specify when and how these three types of apparel brands emerge. Since no industry development

models specifically suggest the emergence timing and order of the three types of apparel brands in

the process of apparel industry development in a nation and the socioeconomic background related

to the emergence, the findings of this study serve as a basis on which more refined industry devel-

opment models can be established. It is hoped that more dialogues and case studies are conducted

around the propositions so that more accurate propositions toward a theory can be developed.

The findings of this study provide important implications for the apparel industry in developing

countries as well as in developed countries. Based on the findings, the apparel industry in developing

countries can decide what strategies and investments they should make at different periods of their

evolution as this study projects when and how three types of apparel brands emerge. For examples,

the Golden Age stage provides a good time for apparel national brands to be developed

(Proposition 3) because demand and supply for the development matches and the socioeconomic and

industry environment matures. PBs can be developed after national brand development

(Proposition 5). When the industry reaches the significant decline stage, it is time to internationalize

national brands (Proposition 4).

For apparel companies in advanced economies, the findings can be utilized to determine interna-

tionalization timing, countries to enter, and a pricing strategy. In specific, the findings suggest that a

T & A industry in the significant decline stage will need to internationalize its national brands (Pro-

position 4), and it is most appropriate to enter countries in the more advanced production of fabric

and apparel stage (Proposition 1) as demands for branded apparel goods emerge. In such cases, a

premium pricing strategy will work best (Proposition 2) as design and quality of international brands

serve as a huge competitive advantage over T & A industries in the more advance production of fab-

ric and apparel stage. In addition, apparel firms in advanced economies will encounter competition

with local players by the time the T & A industries reach the Golden Age stage as local businesses

will develop their own national brands. Thus, more refined pricing and merchandizing strategies

need to be developed to compete with local players. Each branding development requires a certain

set of skills and knowledge. The required resources, together with suggested branding strategies

based on the propositions, are summarized in Table 2.

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The findings of this study can also be effectively used for governments in developing countries in

shaping the direction of their apparel industry. The development for each apparel brand type requires

a different set of skills and knowledge; thus, governments in developing countries will need to pro-

vide appropriate support for the necessary skills and knowledge development and release regulations

that inhibit the industry from further development.

Limitations and Future Studies

The suggested propositions are based on an analysis of two country cases; more cases should be ana-

lyzed to validate the propositions and fully understand the patterns. Developing countries in Latin

America or Africa may provide different patterns since the countries differ in terms of socioeco-

nomic background, cultural orientations, and so forth. Thus, analyses on developing countries other

than Asian countries are recommended. While not proposed, the authors found that export timing

Table 2. Suggested Branding Strategies Based on Propositions and Required Resources for Each Stage.

Stages Suggested Branding Strategies Based on

Propositions Required Resources

More advanced production of fabric and apparel stage

� Need to cultivate the knowledge base needed for developing an apparel brand through direct OEM production for foreign buyers, indirect observation of the international brand management launched in the market, or both

� Financial investment for large volume OEM production is needed

Golden Age � National brand needs to be developed since demand and supply for the development matches and the socioeconomic and industry environment matures (Proposition 3).

� Private brand can be developed after national brand development (Proposition 2)

� A skilled workforce that can lead design, branding, and marketing is needed

Significant decline stage

� Internationalize its national brands (Proposition 4)

� Where: To the countries in the more advanced production of fabric and apparel stage as demands for branded apparel goods emerge (Proposition 1).

� How: A premium pricing strategy will work best as design and quality of international brands serve as a huge competitive advantage (Proposition 2).

However, more refined pricing and merchandizing strategies need to be developed when local players develop their own national brands

� A workforce with good understanding of global markets is needed for the internationalization of its national brands

Note. OEM ¼ original equipment manufacturing.

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and volume, influx of international brands, and the level of retail development are largely dependent

on government policies. Therefore, for future studies, it is recommended that a nation’s government

policy related to the apparel and textile industry be taken into account when analyzing apparel brand

development patterns of the industry.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publica-

tion of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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Author Biographies

Byoungho Jin is Putman and Hayes distinguished professor at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro.

Her research interests center on international retailing, global branding, and global supply chain management in

the apparel and textiles industry.

Parvathi M. Kandagal is an assistant professor in the department of Fashion Communication at Symbiosis

Institute of Design, Pune, India. Her research interests are apparel industry, consumer behavior, and brand

management.

Sojin Jung is a PhD student in the department of Consumer, Apparel, and Retail Studies at University of North

Carolina, Greensboro. Research interests are fashion industry, small business, international business, and socio-

psychological aspects of clothing studies.

Jin et al. 63

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