American Government
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7 The Judiciary
Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
Describe the function of the federal courts Explain how the Supreme Court was able to establish a role for itself given the ambiguity in the Constitution about the judicial branch Analyze the federal judiciary and explain differences between courts of original jurisdiction and appellate courts Describe the role of judges in the American political system and how they are selected Analyze the meaning and significance of constitutional review in American constitutional government
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An artist's rendering of the U.S. Supreme Court hearing arguments in Citizens United v. The Federal Election Commission. The court ruled that federal laws restricting corporate contributions to political campaigns limited the free speech of corporations.
Analyze the difference among judicial activism, judicial restraint, and original intent and how those philosophies impact American politics
In its January 2010 decision in the case of Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission, the Supreme Court addressed the constitutionality of campaign finance regulation, particularly the McCain‐Feingold campaign finance law of 2002. Going back to the mid‐1970s the Court had held that candidates for office could spend unlimited sums of money on their campaigns, as that was considered to be a form of free speech. But for a long time campaign finance laws restricted corporate campaign contributions, as well as the money corporations could spend on advertising for their preferred candidates. The rationale for these laws was that without them corporations would have an unfair advantage over ordinary citizens, who tend not to enjoy as deep pockets. With the Citizens United decision, the Supreme Court ruled that such restrictions unfairly limited the free speech rights of corporations, and those restrictions were therefore unconstitutional.
Critics claimed that the ruling, by allowing big business to have disproportionate influence in American politics, was an assault on democracy. They further claimed that this was an act of judicial activism, whereby the Court defied the will of the people by overturning law made by a democratically elected legislative body, in effect making law itself. Because the campaign finance law that was the subject of this case was passed by Congress, critics said that the Court was invalidating the principle of judicial review. They further said that the Court should exercise judicial restraint and defer to the will of the people.
Supporters of the decision argued that the Supreme Court merely upheld the First Amendment rights of individuals to free speech. Corporations have been legally regarded as individuals since the 1870s, and democracy, as expressed in the people's will, could not take precedence over those individuals' constitutional rights. After all, if democracy were the only authority, there would be no need for a Supreme Court, or the judicial branch of government to exert checks and balances on the other two.
The question of whether the Supreme Court is activist or restrained goes to the heart of the debate
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about whether the Court should make law, which is the province of Congress, or only interpret it. At the center of the controversy is the question of just what the Supreme Court's role in American society should be.
The Supreme Court is the highest court in the land. But it sits at the top of an entire hierarchy, known as the federal judiciary. In this chapter, we will take a look at the history of the judiciary up to its modern‐day function, with particular attention to how it has carved out its role in the federal government.
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7.1 The Constitutional Basis for a Judicial Branch The Constitution states that there will be one Supreme Court and additional lower courts if Congress chooses to create them. It also establishes that judges will be appointed to the federal bench by the president, subject to the confirmation of the Senate, and that once appointed they serve for life and cannot be removed unless they are impeached.
The Constitution is otherwise ambiguous about the role of the judiciary. The principal reason for this is that the Framers were not sure what the Supreme Court should do. One idea was that it should determine whether laws were constitutional. Another was that it could offer legal advice to the president and members of Congress upon request. In the nation's early years, the Supreme Court actually did this, but in the interests of maintaining the separation of powers it stopped and sent President Washington a message informing him it was confident that his judgment would discern what was right.
Article III
Article III of the Constitution says, "The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish." In other words, the Supreme Court is the only judicial institution that is created by the Constitution. The lower courts are created by Congress.
The language of Article III goes on to make clear that the Framers assumed that most trials, especially those involving criminal behavior, would take place in state courts and would not fall under the authority of the federal government: "The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment; shall be by Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed; but when not within any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed." This contributes to the constitutional ambiguity of the role of federal courts, because if states were to be responsible for trying criminal wrongdoing, then what were the federal courts supposed to do?
The Least Dangerous Branch
In Federalist Paper 78, Alexander Hamilton famously asserted that the judiciary would be the least dangerous branch of government because it would possess neither the power of the sword nor the power of the purse. As he put it:
the judiciary, from the nature of its function, will always be the least dangerous to the political rights of the Constitution; because it will be least in a capacity to annoy or injure them. The executive not only dispenses the honors but holds the sword of the community. The legislature not only commands the purse but prescribes the rules to be
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regulated. The judiciary, on the contrary, has no influence over either the sword or the purse; no direction either of the strength or the wealth of the society, and can take no active resolution whatever.
The power of the sword refers to the president's power of commander in chief of the armed forces, as well as the primary responsibility of the executive to execute the laws of the land. In noting that the court does not have the power of the sword, Hamilton acknowledged that the judiciary has no mechanism to enforce its rulings; rather, it has to rely on the executive to literally "execute" them. In noting that it also lacks the power of the purse, Hamilton acknowledged that rulings that may require the appropriation of money will rely on the approval of Congress. All the judiciary can realistically do is issue an opinion on a matter and hope that the other two branches of government see fit to enforce it. This means the power of the judiciary is based on moral suasion, which is the notion that people abide by a court's ruling because it appeals to their sense of what is just and fair.
Hamilton suggested that the judiciary cannot be dangerous because for it to have authority it has to rely on the other branches, and the other branches have to see its rulings as reasonable. Only in this way will it have any authority.
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7.2 Jurisdiction and the Federal Court Structure The United States has a dual court system, with hierarchies of courts at both the state and federal levels. State courts have jurisdiction (authority) over matters that are governed by state laws, and each state has its own court system. Because Article III gives it the power to establish inferior courts as it deems necessary, Congress ultimately determines the jurisdiction of both the federal system and the court systems of the 50 states.
At the federal level, the Constitution mentions only one Supreme Court, but the judiciary is an entire bureaucracy unto itself. Like all bureaucracies it is hierarchical and pyramidal in structure. At the top sits the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice (Figure 7.1). The work of lower courts is subject to the review of higher courts. Just beneath sit the Circuit Courts of Appeal and below them sit the district courts and specialty courts, like international trade, tax, veterans affairs, federal claims, and military review courts. This federal court structure is entirely a creation of Congress.
Figure 7.1: Federal Court Structure
The federal court system consists of three levels of courts.
Judiciary Act of 1789
The foundations for the nation's judicial system lie in the Judiciary Act of 1789. It established that the Supreme Court would consist of one chief justice and five associate justices. The number of justices was never fixed in the Constitution, but was left to the discretion of Congress, and today the
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Supreme Court has eight associate justices, plus the chief justice. The Judiciary Act also established that the Supreme Court would sit in two sessions each year, with the first beginning in February and the second beginning in August. Today there is only one session, which begins in October.
The Judiciary Act divided the country into 13 districts and established a district court in each. It further divided the country into three circuits for the purposes of appeal.Congress also determined which states would fall into which districts and which districts would fall into which circuits. For example, there was the district of New York, the district of Pennsylvania, and the district of New Jersey. Each state comprised one district except for Massachusetts and Virginia, which comprised two. The three circuits were the eastern, the middle, and the southern.
In the early days of the republic, the circuit courts did not have their own judges; rather, Supreme Court justices would "ride circuit" and preside over court proceedings when the Supreme Court was not in session. Today, each circuit has its own judges, but each Supreme Court justice is still assigned to a circuit to be on hand to address urgent matters. This often happens in capital cases when somebody on death row makes a last‐minute appeal for a temporary stay of execution, which the justice responsible for that circuit can grant without calling the entire court back into session.
Also created by the Judiciary Act was the Office of Attorney General, responsible for representing the United States before the Supreme Court. In addition, it created a United States attorney and U.S. marshal for each district and authorized citizens to represent themselves or to be represented by attorneys in federal court. Today the solicitor general in the Justice Department represents the United States before the Supreme Court.
The Federal Court System Today
Today, the federal system still consists of three levels of courts: the district court (also known as trial court), the circuit courts of appeal, and the Supreme Court. The district courts are the entry point into the system, and their purpose is to host federal trials. There are 94 district courts nationwide, with at least 1 in each state, and up to 4 districts in the most populous states, like New York and California. No district court crosses state lines.
The losing parties in federal district court have an automatic right to appeal their judgments to the circuit courts of appeal. There are now 12 circuits in the United States, and each covers several states (Figure 7.2). So if a resident of Denver, Colorado, wanted to file an appeal, he or she would go to the 10th Circuit, which is located in Denver. A resident of Salt Lake City, Utah, would also go to the 10th Circuit, as its jurisdiction encompasses Oklahoma, Kansas, New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah. Congress can create more courts, and it can determine how many judges sit on an appellate court, including the Supreme Court; how many courtrooms there are in each district; and whether there ought to be additional layers of courts.
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Figure 7.2: Federal Court Circuits
There are 12 circuit courts in the federal court system: 11 multistate circuits plus the DC circuit.
In practical terms, this structure means that a suspect is first tried in a district court; if convicted he can appeal to the circuit court. If the circuit court upholds the conviction, he can appeal to the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court then decides whether it wants to consider the appeal. This process gives the Supreme Court authority over the lower courts. But if it wanted to, Congress could create a court between the Supreme Court and the circuit courts to decide whether a case would reach the Supreme Court, thereby narrowing the authority and jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.
District Courts and Original Jurisdiction
District courts are called courts of original jurisdiction because they are where cases, both civil and criminal, begin. They generally determine liability, or guilt or innocence of a defendant (matters of "fact"), rather than the validity of a law. As an example, a suspect charged with a federal hate crime would be tried first in a district court. The court would determine whether the suspect committed a crime, but it would not determine whether the federal hate crimes law is constitutional. That is a question for appellate courts to decide. Similarly, in a civil suit between an individual and a corporation, the court would determine whether the corporation was guilty of the accusation levied by its accuser; it would not determine whether the law the alleged violator abused was constitutional.
There are some cases where district courts, in their capacity as the arena for first hearing, do decide matters of law. For instance, following passage of the Affordable Care Act in 2010, a coalition of
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states immediately sought to block its implementation on the grounds that requiring individuals to purchase insurance is unconstitutional. In January 2011, a federal district court in Florida ruled that key provisions of the law, most notably the individual mandate, were unconstitutional but did not prevent its implementation, pending an appeal. This would suggest that district courts would rather not determine matters of law.
Another quality unique to courts at the district level is that cases tried in district courts involve juries, while those in the higher courts involve only judges. The idea of jury trials is found in the Sixth Amendment, which states that "In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed." Additionally, the Seventh Amendment says, "In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re‐examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the Common law."
The right of the accused in a criminal prosecution to be tried by a jury of his or her peers in the district where the crime occurred means that, for instance, the trial of a person accused of committing a federal crime in Arizona would be held in the Federal District Court of Arizona. Defendants in civil cases also have the right to a trial by jury in the district in which the allegation originates. So if a group of Microsoft employees brings a class‐action law suit against Microsoft, this group is entitled to have a jury in a Washington State district court.
The second part of the Seventh Amendment suggests that the jury only determines matters of guilt, innocence, or liability. The idea that no other jury will hear the case suggests that appeals can be heard only by judges. In both criminal and civil cases, this would seem to make sense. Since appellate courts are courts of law, only experts in law—the judges—are really equipped to make decisions. But in the courts of fact, a judge only needs to referee as juries of one's peers weigh the evidence.
Although the courts at the bottom of the judicial hierarchy are usually the courts of original jurisdiction, the Supreme Court does have original jurisdiction in some cases. For example, cases that involve states suing one another, disputes between the states and the national government, and disputes between the U.S. government and foreign governments are all referred directly to the Supreme Court.
A federal court is also said to have "federal question" jurisdiction, which means it hears cases that touch the Constitution or other federal laws. Article III states that the "judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority."
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The Supreme Court is the final voice on matters of constitutionality.
Appellate Courts
An appellate court is the next level in the judicial hierarchy after a court of original jurisdiction. A person who is convicted of a federal crime or who loses a civil suit in district court can appeal to the court of appeals in his or her circuit. Unlike the district courts, which decide liability, guilt, or innocence, appellate courts decide whether proper legal procedures were followed during the district court trial, or whether the law was properly applied by the district court judge. If the circuit court of appeals concludes that errors of law were made in the trial, it sends the matter back down to the district court for further action, which might include a retrial.
The Supreme Court
After being argued in the circuit court of appeals, cases can be further appealed to the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court, however, chooses the cases that come before it, and the majority of cases that are petitioned to the Court do not make the cut. The Court presently operates on the rule of four: if four justices want to hear a case, the entire Supreme Court will hear it.
Like the Circuit Court of Appeals, the Supreme Court decides matters of law, but it specifically decides matters of constitutionality. Whereas the lower appellate court was concerned with whether law was properly applied in trial, the Supreme Court is more concerned with whether a law was constitutional to begin with. It is from the Supreme Court and the way it decides cases that we get an understanding of the Constitution's meaning and the scope of its authority.
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Supreme Court Justice nominee Elena Kagan at her confirmation hearing before the Senate Judiciary Committee in June of 2010. The president nominates judges and the Senate either confirms or denies the appointments after hearings.
7.3 Selection of Federal Judges Article II, Section 2, of the Constitution says that the president "shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate . . . shall appoint . . . Judges of the Supreme Court and all other Officers of the United States. . . ." Otherwise, the Constitution says nothing about judicial selection or qualifications to serve on the federal bench. However, recall that the Constitution does give Congress authority over the lower courts. Judicial selection is therefore a shared power between the president and the U.S. Senate. The Framers of the Constitution wanted to ensure that both would have a role and that neither would be able to control the judiciary once appointments are made. At the same time, the Constitution is silent about how the Senate was to advise the president. Still, because the judiciary is a large institution with many judicial appointments to be made, the process of judicial selection is a bit more involved than it appears.
The Nominating Process
For the Supreme Court, a potential justice is identified either by a team in the Justice Department or the White House's Office of Legal Counsel. In some cases, a joint committee composed of White House and Justice Department officials will identify candidates and screen them. A list is prepared for the president, and he may opt to meet with prospective nominees. Once someone has been nominated, the FBI performs a background check, and the American Bar Association (ABA) provides an advisory evaluation. The nomination is then sent to the Senate, which refers the matter to the Senate Judiciary Committee for hearings. A Judiciary Committee clerk then sends a "blue slip" to the senators from the nominee's state asking them for their views. Hearings are then held, before which a
variety of groups can testify either for or against the nomination. Although the Judiciary Committee votes first, a negative vote in the committee does not necessarily kill the nomination. A Supreme Court nomination is subject to confirmation by the entire body of the Senate.
Most Americans are familiar with high‐profile confirmation hearings for Supreme Court nominees. But the president makes hundreds of other judicial appointments that usually go unnoticed. For judges being appointed to circuit courts of appeals, the same process that's used for the Supreme Court is used, with some modifications. At the district level, the review process almost mirrors a typical job application. Someone who wants to be a district court judge would contact his/her
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William Howard Taft first served as president of the United States, then later became the 10th Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. He is the only president to have held both offices.
senator to ask for an appointment. As a matter of senatorial courtesy, a president will defer to a senator of the state where the district court is located, especially if the senator is of the same political party. As an example, suppose Ms. Jones in New York City wants to be a judge in Manhattan District Court. She contacts the office of either Senator Kirsten Gillibrand or Senator Charles Schumer to ask to be considered for the appointment. Because the senators are both Democrats, as is President Obama, the president most likely will honor their preferences for judgeships. There will be a confirmation hearing, but it will not be a high‐profile public one like it is for the Supreme Court.
Who Is Qualified to be a Judge?
The Constitution does not establish any specific qualifications to sit on the federal bench. By tradition, judges have generally been lawyers, but it is not an absolute requirement that judges hold law degrees. They need to know the law, but they don't necessarily need to practice it.
In recent years, it has been common to appoint Supreme Court justices with prior judicial experience, particularly on the circuit courts of appeals. But this has historically not always been the case. As examples, Abraham Lincoln appointed his treasury secretary and rival for the presidency, Salmon Chase, to be Chief Justice. (In fact, it was Chase who expanded the title from Chief Justice of the Supreme Court to Chief Justice of the United States.) Franklin Roosevelt appointed several people with no previous judicial experience, including Hugo Black, Robert Jackson, Frank Murphy, and William Douglas, to the Supreme Court. Black had been a senator from Alabama, both Jackson and Murphy had been attorneys general under Roosevelt, and Douglas was a professor of law at Yale. Roosevelt also appointed Felix Frankfurter who had been a professor of law at Harvard.
However, the appointing of people with judicial experience has been quite common. In the early part of the 20th century, Chief Justice William Howard Taft was both a former state Supreme Court justice and a solicitor general, but he had also served as president of the United States, and Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes had 20 years earlier been an associate justice on the Supreme Court. He had resigned in 1916 to run as the Republican candidate for president against Woodrow Wilson, to whom he lost.
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Today, most nominees do come with a judicial background; however, there are still exceptions. In 2005, President George W. Bush attempted to appoint Harriet Miers, his White House counsel, who had never served as a judge and had little public‐sector or academic legal experience. Following intense criticism that she was not qualified, she withdrew her name from consideration. Even more recently, President Obama appointed Elena Kagan in 2010, who was serving as his solicitor general at the time. Prior to that she was the dean of the Harvard law school.
The Role of Ideology
One school of thought suggests that judges should be selected and evaluated on the basis of their qualifications, and that ideology should play no role. But ideology has historically played a role in both the president's selection and the Senate's evaluation of judges. Presidents tend to select judges who share their views, and members of the Senate either confirm or fail to confirm on the basis of ideology as well.
Law professor Erwin Chemerinsky suggests that there are three models for selection and evaluation. The first model, known as the professional qualifications model, holds that judges should be evaluated based on their credentials, such as their education, the nature of their legal practice, their prior judicial experience if any, and anything else that would indicate their ability to serve as a judge. Consistent with this model, the American Bar Association (ABA) rates judicial candidates based on a candidate's "integrity, professional competence and judicial temperament." When the Senate Judiciary Committee takes up judicial appointments, it relies heavily on ABA ratings, even though it has no legal obligation to do so. The ABA, however, does not consider a candidate's ideology.
The second model is known as the judging skills model, whereby a candidate's skills as a judge are examined, assuming this person has prior experience. Those who support this approach look at how a judge uses precedent, the quality of his or her written opinions, and his or her temperament on the bench. Using this approach, an issue might be whether a nominee's previous judicial rulings were overturned by the higher court. Some might infer that a record of overturned opinions suggests poor quality or incorrect interpretation of law.
The third model is referred to as the ideological orientation model whereby the ideological orientation of the individual judicial candidate is expressly considered in the selection process. This means that one's views on important issues, such as abortion, would be considered.
Different presidents look for different things in a judge, but perhaps the most important qualification is that judicial candidates share the same world view or hold a judicial philosophy that the president agrees with. Presidents have always considered ideology in making appointments. Presidents have also primarily appointed judges from their political parties. Franklin Roosevelt, for instance, wanted judges whom he could count on to uphold the constitutionality of the New Deal, while Presidents
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Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, and George W. Bush wanted conservative judges. President Reagan sought justices who would, in his view, interpret the law and not make it. This meant that if a legislature wanted to allow school prayer, the judge would be willing to defer to the legislative body that passed such a law. President Obama, on the other hand, sought to appoint judges who could empathize with the plight of working‐class or disadvantaged people. This was taken to mean that he wanted judges who would be ready to strike down laws as unconstitutional if they were considered to be in violation of individual rights, especially those of the poor and dispossessed.
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The inside of the chambers of the U.S. Supreme Court, where the court holds hearings. Tradition holds that, when the Supreme Court meets, the most recently appointed justice serves coffee to the rest of the justices.
7.4 How the Supreme Court Operates The Supreme Court operates according to its own rules. Generally, the justices meet to decide which cases to hear. For each case that the Court hears, each side has exactly 30 minutes to make its argument, and during that time each justice is free to ask questions. If answering questions takes up 10 minutes, for instance, then only 20 minutes are left to argue. Lawyers are cut off when their time is up.
Writing Opinions
After hearing the case, the justices meet and vote on a ruling. The chief justice, if he is in the majority, usually assigns either himself or another justice in the majority to write the opinion for the Court. Those in the minority then pick somebody to write a dissent, where this person explains why the minority thinks that the majority is wrong. Members of the majority are also free to attach to the majority opinion a concurring opinion, where they express agreement with the majority opinion, but use different reasons for their conclusions.
Once an opinion is written, the chief justice or a spokesperson for the Court announces the ruling. However, the Court is not obligated to explain itself. That is, it does not have to write an opinion for any given case and can issue a ruling without explaining the rationale for it. A written opinion, however, is useful because it helps establish precedents that will guide future judicial decision making. Also, by writing an opinion, the Supreme Court produces a guide for the application of law by lower courts.
When the Court hands down a ruling, the opinion of the majority is the official opinion of the Court. The majority opinion requires a minimum of five justices, which means that there can be decisions in which a significant minority—the remaining four justices—disagrees. That each case has majority, dissenting, and concurring opinions, demonstrates wide disagreement over how the Constitution is interpreted. It also sets the stage for political battles both on the Court and in American politics generally.
Role of Court Staff
The key staff members in the judiciary are the army of law clerks who assist judges in researching
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and writing opinions. On the Supreme Court, each justice hires three clerks for a one‐year period. These clerks are usually fresh out of the best law schools in the country. They do much of the research and, depending on the justice, can do much, if not all, the drafting of the opinions. (Some justices like to write their own opinions, but others prefer to have their clerks write preliminary drafts, which they in turn will edit and adjust into final form). The typical clerk's other responsibilities include legal research, checking citations, coordination of scheduling and other legal matters with lawyers, and drafting memoranda to the judge in which they summarize the facts of the case, the arguments of each side, and suggested holdings.
The first Supreme Court justice to hire a clerk was Horace Gray in 1882. Other justices began to adopt Gray's practice, and Congress began to appropriate funds for clerks in 1919. Then in 1930, Congress began to appropriate money for a law clerk position for each circuit court judge, and a few years later for each district court judge as well.
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7.5 Establishing Constitutional Review The ambiguity of the judiciary as laid out in the Constitution leads to numerous questions about the role and authority of the Supreme Court. Did the Framers mean for the Supreme Court to only offer advice? Or did they want the court to strike down acts of Congress and actions of the president that it found to be unconstitutional? If it could strike down actions, could the Court then order the Congress or the president, or even both, to desist from their actions? And if this authority existed, did it apply only to the national government, or did it extend to the states as well?
When we talk about constitutional review, it usually means that an action or a law has been evaluated to determine if it is constitutional. However, it was not initially clear that this was the sole province of the Supreme Court. Many of the Framers held that the political branches of government were just as equipped to determine the constitution's meaning as was any court. When the country was founded, many of the states scoffed at the suggestion that a national court, rather than the states, should be empowered to perform this function. At the end of the day the Supreme Court was left to carve out its own role and define the scope of its authority.
Marbury v. Madison
The first test of the Supreme Court's authority came in the 1803 case of Marbury v. Madison. The case revolved around a series of midnight appointments of 16 federalist judges to circuit courts, and 42 federalist justices of the peace created by the 1801 Judiciary Act. They were called midnight appointments because President John Adams made them on March 3, 1801, just before he left office. Although confirmed by the Senate en masse the next day, the appointments were not considered complete until the secretary of state delivered commissions to the appointees. The commissions were supposed to be delivered by John Marshall, who, though he had recently been appointed chief justice of the Supreme Court, was still serving as the acting secretary of state at Adams's request. The task was too great for Marshall to handle alone, and Marshall assumed that incoming Secretary of State James Madison would complete the task of delivering them. William Marbury failed to receive his commission to be a justice of the peace for the District of Columbia.
Upon entering office on March 4, 1801, the Jeffersonians refused to deliver Marbury's commission on the grounds that they considered the appointments to be illegitimate, alleging that they were made at the
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President John Adams' (top) midnight appointments of several judges led to James Madison (bottom) arguing in Marbury v. Madison that the appointments were illegitimate. The case would be the first real test of the authority of the Supreme Court.
Chief Justice John Marshall presided over the Supreme Court as it heard the case of Marbury v. Madison. The Court's ruling in this case largely created the authority of constitutional review.
last minute in an attempt to stack the courts with federalist judges. As far as Jefferson was concerned, appointments for which commissions were not yet distributed were not valid. Section 13 of the 1789 Judiciary Act, which had established the foundations of the federal judiciary by creating a variety of courts, stated that if the administration failed to deliver a commission, the appointee could petition the Supreme Court for a legal command called a writ of mandamus (an order from the court). An issuance of mandamus would imply that the Supreme Court had the authority to order the administration, through its Secretary of State James Madison, to deliver the commission. Marbury asked the Supreme Court for such a writ.
The new chief justice, John Marshall, was a distant cousin of Jefferson, but Jefferson and Marshall did not like each another. The Court found itself between a rock and a hard place. If the Court ordered the Jeffersonians to deliver the commission, it was most likely that they would refuse, in which case the Court would be seen as weak and impotent. But if it refused to do anything, the Court would be exposing itself as a powerless and irrelevant institution. After all, if the Court believed that the Jefferson administration was in violation of the Constitution, it was obligated to say so. To give meaning to the concept of constitutional review, the Court had to act.
In a narrow sense, the issue before the Court was whether Section 13 of the Judiciary Act provision—that the Supreme Court was the proper tribunal for Marbury's grievance and could issue a writ of mandamus— was constitutional. Writing for the Court, Marshall took a balanced, and some might even say political, approach. He stated that Marbury's appointment was legal and that the Jeffersonians were obligated to deliver a commission. But he also struck down as unconstitutional the
provision of the Judiciary Act that required the Supreme Court to issue a writ of mandamus. Marshall held that because the Constitution established the maximum original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court, Congress could not add onto it as it had in Section 13. In other words, Marshall established the precedent of constitutional review but stopped short of ordering the Jeffersonians to do anything by stating that the Supreme Court was not the proper tribunal for redress of Marbury's grievances.
In taking this position, the Court invalidated an act of Congress, but it avoided a confrontation with the executive that it might have lost. Understanding that it would ultimately have to rely on the
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executive branch for enforcement, the Court proceeded cautiously. This case, in many respects, proved Hamilton's claims that the Court had neither the power of the purse nor power of the sword. At the same time, and this is the decision's most important precedent, it established the principle of constitutional review.
Marbury v. Madison also marked an important beginning for the Supreme Court in establishing the country's identity as a nation. On one level, there was the principle of constitutional review and just where the Supreme Court would fit into the larger separation of powers. But on another level, there was the ongoing struggle between forces of nationalism and forces of sectionalism. In a dispute between states and the national government, was the Supreme Court to assert national authority or states' rights? The place of the Supreme Court in the newly established constitutional scheme very much depended on its asserting national authority. There was growing national sentiment following the War of 1812, and this new nationalism found expression in the Supreme Court. To assert national authority meant that the Court would have to assert its authority over the states.
Fletcher v. Peck
Marbury v. Madison had created the precedent for the Supreme Court to strike down actions of the national government that it deemed unconstitutional. But this did not answer the next question of whether the principle of constitutional review by the U.S. Supreme Court extended to the states. Section 25 of the 1789 Judiciary Act made it clear that a state action, such as a law or court decision, could be "re‐examined and reversed or affirmed in the Supreme Court of the United States." And because the Judiciary Act was passed by Congress and signed into law by the president, it was the supreme law of the land under the Constitution's Supremacy Clause.
Still, the Supreme Court needed to establish another precedent, which it did in Fletcher v. Peck in 1810. This case involved the Yazoo Land Scandal in Georgia. The state legislature in 1795 had sold huge tracts of public land, comprising what are now the states of Alabama and Mississippi, to private parties who in turn divided the land into smaller parcels to be sold to individuals. After the sale it was discovered that all but one of the members of the Georgia state legislature had been bribed to vote in favor of the sale. A newly elected state legislature voted to rescind the initial sale to the developer. This caused problems because the original purchasers had already sold millions of acres to presumably innocent individuals. If the initial sale was rescinded, then these people's land titles would be revoked and they would be left with uncompensated losses.
At issue for the Supreme Court was the validity of the third parties' titles. Why should innocent individuals be punished because they bought land that had been obtained through illegal means?
The landowners' argument before the Court was that
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The Yazoo Land Scandal was caused by land speculators who bribed Georgia state legislators to allow them to buy up tracts of land and resell them to individuals at a substantial profit. The Supreme Court then had to rule on whether the third‐party land holders' claims were invalidated by the scandal.
In Martin v. Hunter's Lessee, Justice Joseph Story cited the preamble of
rescinding the original sale was a violation of the Constitution and the third‐party titles were in fact legitimate. For the Court, the constitutional issue was the meaning of the Contract Clause—that contracts have to be respected by governments. If contracts were not respected there would be no basis for free exchange. Ultimately, the Marshall Court ruled unanimously against the state and held that the Georgia state legislature's attempt to rescind the sale was a violation of the Contract Clause.
By ruling in this case, the Supreme Court extended its authority of constitutional review, which it had established applied to the executive branch in Marbury v. Madison, to apply to the state governments. This was a critical case because it established the first clear
precedent that the U.S. Supreme Court could hold state laws unconstitutional.
Political scientist Robert McCloskey observed half a century ago that the Fletcher decision marked the "end of the beginning" of the Supreme Court's struggle to find its place in the American political system. Not only had the Court claimed the power of judicial review in theory, but it had applied it in concrete cases.
Martin v. Hunter's Lessee
In carving out its own role, the last question that needed to be addressed was whether the Supreme Court's role of constitutional review extended to state courts in addition to state governments. Could the U.S. Supreme Court overturn decisions of state supreme courts? The Court took up this question in Martin v. Hunter's Lessee, a case decided in 1816 that concerned the treaty negotiated by John Jay at the end of the Revolutionary War.
During the war, state governments confiscated land owned by British loyalists. One such case occurred when the state of Virginia confiscated the land of Lord Fairfax, who had fled back to Britain. Virginia proceeded to grant a section of Fairfax's land, which it claimed now belonged to the state, to David Hunter, who later sought to eject Fairfax's heirs through
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the Constitution to argue that the people, regardless of which state they lived in, were sovereign and could distribute their sovereignty any way they chose.
the Virginia courts. However, a provision of the treaty that was negotiated to end the war (the Treaty of Paris) directed that all land titles that existed prior to the war be restored to their original owners.
The Virginia Court of Appeals had ruled against Fairfax's heirs. The head of the Virginia Court, Spencer Roane, was a strong states' rights advocate and despised Marshall. Although Virginia judges conceded that they were bound to observe the federal Constitution, they also maintained that the meaning of that Constitution was for them to decide, and that the U.S. Supreme Court had no power to impose its interpretation on the states. Roane's alternative reading of the Supremacy Clause was that state judges alone were the ones to enforce it. But if each state‘s interpretation of the Constitution carried equal weight with that of the Supreme Court, then what authority did the Court have? For Virginia, this was a matter of states' rights. For the national government, it was a matter of national authority and what it meant to be a nation.
Because Marshall had been financially involved with the Fairfax interests, he disqualified himself from the case. Writing the opinion for the Court against the state's position, Justice Joseph Story pointed to the declaration of "We the people" in the preamble of the Constitution to establish that the people, regardless of which states they lived in, were sovereign and as such they could distribute that sovereignty any way they chose:
The Constitution of the United States was ordained and established, not by the states in their sovereign capacities, but emphatically, as the preamble of the Constitution declares, by "the People of the United States." There can be no doubt, that it was competent to the people to invest the general government with all the powers which they might deem proper and necessary; to extend or restrain these powers according to their own good pleasure and to give them paramount and supreme authority.
The people expressed their sovereignty by establishing a federal constitution that made it clear that treaties would be the supreme laws of the land. Also, in establishing this Constitution the people made it clear that Article III extended the judicial power to all cases arising under the Constitution, laws, and treaties. With Martin v. Hunter's Lessee, the Supreme Court further extended precedent of constitutional review by asserting its authority to overturn state court rulings.
Rule by Precedent
The concept of rule by precedent is known as stare decisis, which is Latin meaning "rule by decisions that were made in the past". It can be understood as rule by example. To rule by precedent means that judges are bound by earlier court rulings, and new rulings must conform to these previous findings. Law is not a list of statutes telling us what we can and cannot do; rather, it is a series of judicial rulings, each guided by past precedent and each further establishing precedent for the
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future.
Marbury v. Madison provided the precedent that the Court looked to in both Fletcher v. Peck and Martin v. Hunter's Lessee. The Court had to establish the principle of constitutional review in Marbury before it could extend it in Fletcher and Martin. By adhering to precedent, the potential for arbitrary exercise of judicial power can be checked.
The Supreme Court and Public Opinion
Unlike Congress or the executive branch of government, the Supreme Court is not a political body; it is supposed to be an interpretive one that is removed from politics. In fact, the reason that judges are appointed to life terms rather than elected is so that they will be immune to popular pressures. However, the Court is political in the sense that its findings need to stay within the mainstream of public opinion if they are to be considered legitimate in the minds of the public. Although its power is derived from the Constitution, it is not absolute. The Constitution can always be amended to strip the Court of its authority, or Congress can alter the scope of its role through legislation.
What the various cases show, then, is a Court that started with very little power and very much concerned with establishing its identity. It builds its power by deciding cases in ways that are perceived to be reasonable to all, which includes the public and those institutions that will be called upon, or relied upon, to enforce their rulings.
This point is perhaps best illustrated by the example of President Franklin Roosevelt's attempts to "pack" the Court in 1937. Following a string of Court decisions that struck down as unconstitutional many of the early New Deal measures, Roosevelt introduced a plan to add a new justice to the court for every justice who reached the age of 70 but did not retire, until the number of justices reached 15. This would help him change the composition of the court until it was more sympathetic to New Deal policies. His plan never attracted much support in Congress, where many viewed it as a blatant attempt to tamper with a sacred institution. But the public also did not support the plan, and the optimism surrounding Roosevelt in 1936 vanished as a result. The greatest impact of what came to be known as the Court‐packing fiasco was the breakdown of unity in the Democratic Party and the strengthening of a bipartisan anti‐New Deal coalition. For the Court, the writing was on the wall. Even if this attempt to pack it failed, the Court could not be sure that a similar attempt would not succeed in the future.
Supreme Court v. the Executive Branch
Hamilton's suggestion that the Court lacks the power of enforcement because it does not have the power of the sword would suggest that the Court relies heavily on the executive to enforce its rulings. This would also suggest that it would tend to shy away from confrontations with the
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When Special Prosecutor Archibald Cox filed a motion to subpoena audiotapes and documents relating to Watergate, President Richard Nixon claimed executive privilege and tried to avoid the request. In United States v. Nixon, the Supreme Court ruled that executive privilege could not set the president above the law.
executive branch. Marbury v. Madison was as much an attempt to avoid a confrontation with the executive as it was to establish the principle and precedent of constitutional review. But there have also been times when the Court has been willing to impose limits on the executive branch, especially in the area of executive privilege.
For the most part, the Court tends not to get involved in disputes between Congress and the president, claiming that they are non‐justiciable because they are political. However, there have been times when courts have involved themselves in disputes between the two branches, although it happens very rarely. Watergate is the most obvious example of this.
During the Watergate hearings, it was revealed that there were tapes of White House conversations between people in the Oval Office, including the president, and between the president and others over the phone from the Oval Office. The Congressional Watergate Committee requested that the tapes be released. President Richard Nixon refused to do so, claiming executive privilege. He then released edited transcripts of the tapes, which did not satisfy Congress. The special prosecutor appointed to investigate the Watergate affair filed a motion to subpoena the tapes and other documents relating to conversations between President Nixon and others, but Nixon, again claiming executive privilege, responded by filing a motion to squash the subpoena. While a district court judge rejected Nixon's motion, the order to deliver was stayed pending review by the appellate courts.
In the 1974 case United States v. Nixon, the administration tried to argue before the Supreme Court that the separation of powers precluded judicial review of the president's claim of executive privilege. The Supreme Court rejected the argument, claiming:
The impediment that an absolute, unqualified privilege would place in the way of the primary constitutional duty of the Judicial Branch to do justice in criminal prosecutions would plainly conflict with the function of the courts under Article III. In designing the structure of our Government and dividing and allocating the sovereign power among three co‐equal branches, the Framers of the Constitution sought to provide a comprehensive system, but the separate powers were not intended to operate with absolute independence.
The Court then concluded that the president's assertion of privilege on subpoenaed materials for use in a criminal proceedings, based only on a generalized desire to maintain confidentiality, could not
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take precedence over the demands for due process of law in the fair administration of justice. The Court, in short, was making it clear that the president could not invoke privilege as a way of setting himself above the law.
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The case of Gibbons v. Ogden was about New York State's exclusive contracts for steamship operations and whether Congress's power to regulate commerce trumped a state's right to protect its own industries.
7.6 Supreme Court's Place in Federal Separation of Powers The undefined role of the Supreme Court has meant that its place in the separation of powers framework has been ambiguous. If Hamilton's observation that it possesses neither the power of the purse nor the power of the sword is any guide, then the Court's relationship to the other branches has to be one of restraint. At a minimum, in a standoff between the national government and any other party, it must, as a national institution itself, maintain the integrity of the national government. This would suggest that most cases will be decided in favor of the national government. Also, because the Supreme Court must rely on the other branches of government, it rarely invalidates acts of Congress or the executive. On those occasions when it does so, it often prefaces its opinion with a statement about how grave the situation is when it finds itself in a position where it has to strike down actions of either Congress or the executive. This is very much how it proceeded in the early years of the republic.
Federal Authority and the Limits to State Authority
Until the 1860s, many of the cases before the U.S. Supreme Court revolved around the relationship between the states and the national government. Specifically at issue were the limits of state authority and the scope of national authority. If the Supreme Court was reluctant to invalidate actions of the national government, it was all too willing to invalidate actions of the states to limit them and assert national authority.
One of the more famous disputes at the heart of this tension was the 1819 case of McCulloch v. Maryland. At issue was the creation of a national bank and whether a state was required to recognize the legitimacy of one. In 1816, Congress passed a law establishing a national bank. Although the Constitution does not give Congress the express power to establish a bank, Congress did so on the basis of the Necessary and Proper Clause. In 1818, the state of Maryland passed a law imposing a tax on all banks or branches of banks in the state that were not chartered by the state legislature. The national bank's cashier, James McCulloch, refused to pay the tax on the grounds that states could not tax federal property.
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For Justice Marshall, this case provided an opportunity to clearly establish the limits to state authority. In his opinion, Marshall famously wrote, "that the power of taxing it by the states may be exercised so as to destroy it, is too obvious to be denied." To further make his point, he wrote " . . . that the sovereignty of the state, in the article of taxation itself, is subordinate to and may be controlled by the constitution of the United States." In other words, state authority was limited at the point at which it would violate the constitutional authority of national institutions that the states agreed to support through ratification. In establishing the constitutionality of the bank's incorporation, Marshall also put forth a classic statement of the doctrine of national authority. He again asserted that the Constitution was the product of the people who were sovereign, as Story had made clear in Martin v. Hunter's Lessee. Now he reinforced the notion that it was the people in their creation of this Constitution who made the national government supreme over all others within the sphere of its authority. By others, of course, he referred to the states.
As Marshall saw it, the issue in this case and in many others like it prior to the Civil War was the integrity of the federal system. If states could do what they wanted and the federal government was rendered powerless as a result, that would mean that the Supreme Court, too, would be powerless.
In an 1824 case, Gibbons v. Ogden, the question arose as to whether Congress's commerce power trumped a state's right to protect its own industry. The case revolved around New York granting exclusive privilege to Robert Livingston and Robert Fulton to operate steamboats on all waters within New York. Other states enacted similar laws, and the result was friction between the states, as each required out‐of‐state boats to pay substantial fees to be admitted into their waters.
When a state regulates commerce among several states, it tramples on a power reserved specifically for the national Congress. If New York's laws, or those of any other state, interfere with that authority, then those laws are unconstitutional. Cases like this established a role for the U.S. Supreme Court within the larger separation of powers. The power of the Court would be weakened only if it ruled in favor of states and their rights, and if the effect was to expose national authority as meaningless.
Marbury to Dred Scott
Between the 1803 Marbury v. Madison case and the Dred Scott decision in 1857, the Supreme Court did not invalidate a single act of Congress. That changed with Dred Scott, the infamous case that would ultimately pave the way to the Civil War.
Dred Scott was an African‐American slave who was taken by his master, a U.S. Army officer, from the slave state of Missouri first into the free state of Illinois and then to the free territory of Wisconsin. When the army ordered his master back to Missouri, Scott was taken back as well. After his master died, Scott, with the assistance of abolitionists, sued for his
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(Top) In the Dred Scott case, the court ruled that people of African descent who were imported or descended from slaves could never be citizens of the United States and were not entitled to any constitutional protections. (Bottom) Chief Justice Roger B. Taney ruled that the 1820 Missouri Compromise, which banned slavery in territories north of the parallel 36°30,' was unconstitutional.
freedom on the grounds that he had for a long period of time lived on free soil.
The Court under Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, a staunch states' rights advocate, ruled that the 1820 Missouri Compromise, which banned slavery in the territories north of the parallel 36°30,' was unconstitutional. The court determined that Congress did not have the power to enact a law that would establish certain states as free territories. Rather, the power of Congress to acquire territories and create governments in those territories was limited. The Court asserted that the Fifth Amendment to the Constitution prohibited states from passing any laws that would deprive slaveholders of their property, such as slaves, because those slaves were brought into free territory. The Court went on to assert that territorial legislatures has no authority to ban slavery and that neither slaves "nor their descendants, were embraced in any of the other provisions of the Constitution" that protected non‐citizens. In other words, the Court was saying that people of African descent who were imported into the country as slaves or were descended from imported slaves could never be citizens of the United States, and therefore were not entitled to the Constitution's protections.
The consequences of this decision were catastrophic. For abolitionists, it only fueled their passions to end slavery and helped strengthen their call for war. Since siding with the national government against the states was to, in effect, vote for the integrity of the United States as a nation, it was really an attempt to establish judicially the idea that the national government had authority over the states. The Civil War ended up settling militarily what the Court had been trying to establish judicially. By demonstrating that states would not be allowed to secede from the union, the war confirmed that national authority trumped states' rights. It brought to an end the sectionalist–nationalist debate, and there was no longer the same need for the Supreme Court to assert national supremacy. It could then turn its attention to other things.
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7.7 Role of Judges When judges strike down an act of a legislative body as unconstitutional, they overturn the will of the people as expressed through the people's elected representatives. The fact that judges are appointed to life terms means they do not have to answer directly to the people; it may also represent a challenge to a democratic society. Given these factors, how strong a role should the Court play in determining policy?
When a court takes the view that it should never invalidate acts of a legislature, it practices judicial restraint. When it takes the view that if a legislative body violates the rights of individuals it should strike down those acts to protect individual rights, it practices judicial activism. And when it takes the view that its decisions should be based on what the Framers or the authors of particular statutes or amendments intended, it practices original understanding. Those who take this last view often conclude that the Court overstepped its boundaries in Marbury v. Madison, similar to its actions in Citizens United. Marbury is often viewed as the first example of an activist Court because Chief Justice Marshall invalidated the will of the people when he struck down that section of the Judiciary Act.
Judicial Restraint
The legal scholar Alexander Bickel once expressed the idea that the role of the judge is to interpret the law, not to make it. He viewed the judicial philosophy of restraint as one where judges defer to the will of legislative bodies. Bickel argued that a court should never overturn the will of the people because to do so would violate the spirit and practice of democracy. A court that strikes down an act of a legislative body as unconstitutional is in effect making law.
Judicial Activism
Judicial activism refers to a school of thought that says that the role of judges is to protect individual rights and liberties, and that when legislative bodies act in ways that violate these liberties, judges are obligated to strike down those actions as being in violation of the Constitution. A democratic majority does not trump individual rights, the reasoning goes; rather, the purpose of the Constitution in the first place was to protect individuals from the arbitrary actions of legislative bodies. (Note that judges themselves do not generally refer to this reading of the Constitution as being "activist," so the term is not universally accepted; however, for the purposes of this chapter, we will use it to distinguish this mind‐set from that of judicial restraint.)
Suppose a community wants to have a segregated school system (which will be discussed in the next chapter). Discrimination against people based on race violates the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The activist judge considers it her moral and constitutional obligation to
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Estelle Griswold (left), who was the executive director of Planned Parenthood in New Haven, Connecticut, celebrates the court's ruling in Griswold v. Connecticut. The ruling stated that just because the Constitution does not mention the right to privacy does not mean that the Framers did not intend for there to be one.
protect individual rights from arbitrary and irrational legislative bodies. She does not see herself as making law; rather she is applying the Constitution and its meaning to circumstances the Framers of the Constitution could not necessarily have foreseen. The activist judge sees herself as being equally restrained.
The activist judge maintains that a law, especially if it is a ridiculous one, and even if it does reflect the preferences of a majority of the population, cannot be considered constitutional if it violates basic individual rights or the spirit of the Constitution. This judge will also point out that the American political system was never intended to be a pure democracy; rather, it was intended to be a republic or constitutional democracy where there would be well‐placed limits on the will and passion of the people. The activist judge might argue further that a law that really cannot be enforced is pointless.
Griswold v. Connecticut
Consider the following example: Connecticut had a law dating back to 1879 that prohibited the use of "any drug, medicinal article or instrument for the purpose of preventing conception" until this law was ruled unconstitutional in Griswold v. Connecticut in 1965. Truthfully, the law was never really enforced, but the case was instigated by a Planned Parenthood Group in concert with faculty of Yale medical school, which wanted to (1) expose the law as absurd, and (2) make the argument that birth control was really a matter of privacy.
Estelle Griswold, the executive director of Planned Parenthood, and Dr. Lee Buxton of the Yale Medical School opened up a birth control clinic in New Haven Connecticut, to test the law. They were duly arrested, tried, found guilty and fined $100 each. Their convictions were upheld by both the appellate division of the circuit court and the Connecticut Supreme Court. Nowhere in the Constitution does it say that individuals have a right to privacy, but the court asserted that such a right existed in what it referred to as the penumbra (or spirit) of the Constitution. The court held that Connecticut's law banning contraception was a violation of privacy.
The judicial restraintist might argue that if the people want to ban contraception, it is their democratic right
to do so, especially when it isn't violating an express provision of the Constitution. Rather, if the people of Connecticut think that such a ban is ridiculous, they should work through their legislature
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to repeal it. If the legislature refuses, the people then have the right to vote the legislature out in the next election. A judge practicing judicial restraint will defer to the legislative body that passed that law on the grounds that the legislature was democratically elected and is thus expressing the will of the people.
The judicially restrained judge also takes the position that rights, unless they are carefully spelled out in the Constitution, are matters for legislatures to decide. While the right to privacy arguably exists in the Fourth Amendment, that specifically applies to illegal searches and seizures. As this case did not involve police raiding a married couple's home to see if they were using contraception, there was no basis to say that the sale of contraception or dissemination of information about it was necessarily violating the privacy rights of a married couple. The restrained judge would argue that the meaning of privacy is ambiguous, and it is therefore preferable to defer to the will of democratic majorities.
The activist judge, in contrast, might argue that just because the Constitution does not mention a right of privacy doesn't mean that the Framers did not intend for there to be one. Rather the Framers intended to protect individual liberty, and the right of privacy is not only a matter of liberty, but one of human agency. Just because they could not have foreseen that contraception would be considered a matter of privacy does not mean that they would not have wanted it included.
Activism Versus Restraint in Modern Politics
Much of contemporary American politics revolves around just what the role of judges should be. People who do not like a particular decision because it either offends their moral sensibilities or it adversely affects their interests typically accuse the Court of activism and complain about it having too many "activist judges," which in this context is usually meant to be pejorative. Those who are happy with a ruling that leaves in place new legislation, even when it may be offensive to others, tend to express their admiration for the Court's restraint. On one level, the debate between activism and restraint has been a debate over the role of judicial philosophy and how to approach the Constitution. But on another level, it speaks to a fundamental tension in American politics between groups that seek to change policies that they disagree with through the courts and groups that want the courts to take a minimal role in policy decisions.
In contemporary American politics, political conservatives typically label courts that have asserted rights to privacy, rights of the accused, and other decisions contrary to their ideological views as activist. Political liberals who cheer these decisions as being necessary to create a more open, equal, and inclusive society only 100 ago accused the Court of activism when it upheld property rights of corporations against the interests of workers. Similarly, liberals in the wake of the Citizens United decision are accusing the Court of activism again.
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Amending and Interpreting the Constitution
The Constitution changes more through interpretation than through the formal amendment process, although there have been periods when numbers of amendments have been passed in a short period of time. The language of the Constitution tends to be very general, allowing institutions like the presidency to gradually change with the times. Some people argue for the literal interpretation of the Constitution, what's called "originalism." This is especially true with issues like gun control and the second amendment. Constitutional debates will continue to enliven the contemporary scene as it did in 18th century America.
Original Understanding
The common criticism of judicial activism is that judges overstep their bounds, by effectively making law. To safeguard against that, some argue, a judge should decide on the basis of original understanding (or original intent), which means to interpret the Constitution on the basis of what the Framers and later authors of various amendments intended when they wrote them. This idea was popularized by Judge Robert Bork in his 1987 confirmation hearings to be an associate justice of the Supreme Court. Bork's nomination was ultimately defeated, but sitting justice Antonin Scalia has also preached the idea of original understanding, or originalism. If judges limit the scope of their interpretations to a constitutional provision's or a statute's original intent, they are effectively barred from making law.
As an example, the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment is often used to strike down laws that discriminate against minorities because it says that no state shall "deny any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws." On the basis of this clause, the Court has struck down school segregation laws, discriminatory housing laws, gender discrimination laws, and many others. Judge Bork argued that all these cases were wrongly decided because the original understanding of the Fourteenth Amendment, as one of the Civil War amendments, was to protect the rights of newly freed slaves and no others. By using a provision in a way that it was not originally intended, the Court effectively overstepped its bounds.
Yet, it is not entirely clear what original understanding means. Does it refer to a conception of an idea based in time or does it refer to the concept itself? That is, the concept of equal protection applied to anybody being denied equal treatment may have been the intention of the Framers of the
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amendment. If so, then the original understanding was the concept of equal protection of individual rights. Or the original understanding might have been the more narrow application of equal protection only to former slaves. Its conception, after all, was based on the period following the Civil War when lawmakers were trying to protect the rights of newly freed slaves. The main problem with original intent is that we have no way of knowing precisely what that intent was.
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Summary and Application The U.S. Constitution creates a Supreme Court but says very little about what its role will be. Rather, it has been up to the Supreme Court itself to carve out its role through its mode of interpretation and the precedents it creates. Congress creates a federal judicial structure under the Supreme Court, and foundations for the current federal judiciary lie in the Judiciary Act of 1789, which created two tiers of lower courts at the district and appellate levels. This act also planted the seeds of constitutional review, as it created an opportunity to strike down a provision that the Supreme Court would issue a writ of mandamus in Marbury v. Madison. Through Marbury the Supreme Court established the principle of constitutional review, and the Court began to apply constitutional review primarily to the states, first by establishing the precedent that it could strike down as unconstitutional acts of state legislatures, and second by overturning state Supreme Court rulings.
In carving out its own role, the Supreme Court understood that it would have to remain within the general confines of public opinion so that its rulings would be accepted. As Hamilton pointed out, the Court was the least dangerous branch of government because it had neither the power of the purse nor the power of the sword. It also understood that its position within the larger scheme of separation of powers would be contingent on maintaining the integrity of the federal structure, which meant giving greater priority to national authority and power than to state power and authority. As a result, between 1803, when Marbury was decided, and 1857, when Dred Scott was decided, the Supreme Court did not strike down any act of the national Congress as unconstitutional; rather, it focused on the constitutionality of state laws and routinely struck them down if they interfered with national authority.
Critics in Citizens United claim that this was a case of judicial activism whereby the Supreme Court invalidated provisions of campaign finance laws, which advocates of judicial restraint claim reflects the will of the people. In its decision of the case, the Supreme Court essentially conferred on corporations rights that do not appear in the Constitution. The Court asserted that corporate entities, which included both corporations and unions, have the status as individuals.
The Court traditionally rules on the basis of stare decisis, as a way of limiting the scope of its rulings to existing precedent and to prevent it from making law. But the Citizens United decision also highlights one of the great debates over the role of judges in democracy. Those who argue for judicial restraint maintain that judges should defer to democratically elected legislatures, while those who argue for judicial activism maintain that judges should protect individual rights even if it means invalidating the will of the people. Those who want to limit the scope of judicial decision making to simple interpretation maintain that judges should rule on the basis of original understanding, as this would serve as a further check on the potential judicial abuse of power.
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Key Ideas to Remember
Because the Constitution does not really define the role of the Supreme Court, it has fallen to the Court to carve out its own role through constitutional review. Alexander Hamilton referred to the judiciary as the least dangerous branch of government because it has neither the power of the purse nor the power of the sword. This meant that it would be loath to rule against either Congress or the president because it would always rely on their goodwill to enforce its rulings. Although Article III of the Constitution establishes one Supreme Court, Congress creates lower courts such as district courts, which are courts of original jurisdiction that try matters of fact, and circuit courts, which are appellate courts that try matters of law. Federal judges obtain their positions through presidential appointment and senate confirmation. Presidents often factor ideology into their decision of whom to appoint, and the Senate also looks at ideology when deciding whether to confirm. The principal function of the Supreme Court is to review the constitutionality of actions of the government. It approaches constitutional review on the basis of stare decisis, which is rule by precedent. The Supreme Court established the principle of constitutional review with the case of Marbury v. Madison, which was the first instance in which the Supreme Court held an act of Congress to be unconstitutional. After establishing this principle, it wouldn't strike down another national action until Dred Scott; rather it would only strike down state actions. From Marbury v. Madison until the Civil War, the Supreme Court focused on asserting national supremacy over states' rights, as its role in the national separation of powers relied on the integrity of a strong national structure with national authority. The role of judges is to interpret the Constitution, but great debate has revolved around whether judges should be restrained and defer to the will of legislative bodies, be activists and overturn legislative actions if they believe those actions violate individual rights, or follow the doctrine of original intent whereby they interpret the Constitution based on what the Framers of the Constitution originally intended.
Questions to Consider
What is constitutional review? Why did Hamilton call the Supreme Court the least dangerous branch of government? How did the Supreme Court carve out its own role?
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What was the ultimate significance of Marbury v. Madison? What does it mean to call a court judicially activist as opposed to judicially restrained, and how does this relate to tensions in contemporary American politics? In deciding Citizens United v. FEC, was the Court acting in a restrained or activist manner?
Web Links
Southern Poverty Law Center: http://www.splcenter.org (http://www.splcenter.org)
United States Courts: http://www.uscourts.gov/Home.aspx (http://www.uscourts.gov/Home.aspx)
History of the Supreme Court, by Ronald l. F. Davis, CSU Northridge: http://www.historyofsupremecourt.org/overview.htm (http://www.historyofsupremecourt.org/overview.htm) .
Supreme Court of the United States: http://www.supremecourt.gov/ (http://www.supremecourt.gov/)
Supreme Court Cases: http://www.infoplease.com/us/supreme‐court/cases/ (http://www.infoplease.com/us/supreme‐court/cases/)
Key Terms
Key Term Definition
appeal An application to a higher court to review the decision made in a lower court.
appellate courts Courts that review findings made by lower courts.
concurring opinion A separate judicial opinion from the majority that is based on a different line of reasoning.
constitutional review The idea that a court can consider whether actions of government are constitutional.
courts of original jurisdiction Courts that decide matters of fact.
dissent A judicial opinion written by the minority that expresses disagreement with the majority opinion.
district courts The lowest courts in the federal hierarchy where cases originate; courts of original jurisdiction that decide matters of fact.
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dual court system System of national and state‐level courts that have separate jurisidictions.
judicial activism When judges invalidate the will of democratic majorities to protect rights and individual liberties.
judicial restraint When judges always defer to the will of the people and never invalidate the will of democratic majorities.
jurisdiction When a court has authority to hear a case.
moral suasion The notion that power is derived from an ability to convince others that a position is just and legitimate.
original understanding When judges interpret the Constitution on the basis of what the Framers intended when they wrote it.
senatorial courtesy When the president defers to the senator of a given state on matters of judicial appointment in that state's district courts.
solicitor general The government's lawyer who argues cases for the government before the Supreme Court.
stare decisis To rule by precedent, meaning that judges rule based on earlier court decisions.
Cases Discussed
Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission 558 U.S. 02‐205 (2010)
Dred Scott v. Sanford 60 U.S. (19 How.) 393 (1857)
Fletcher v. Peck 10 U.S. 87 (1810)
Gibbons v. Ogden 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) 1 (1824)
Griswold v. Connecticut 381 U.S. 479 (1965)
Marbury v. Madison 5 U.S. (1 Cr.) 137 (1803)
Martin v. Hunter's Lessee 14 U.S. (1 Wheat.) 304 (1816)
McCulloch v. Maryland 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) 315 (1819)
United States v. Nixon 418 U.S. 683 (1974)
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Further Reading
Abraham, H. J. (1998). The judicial process: An introductory analysis of the courts of the United States, England, and France. (7th Ed.). Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
Bickel, A. M. (1986). The least dangerous branch: The Supreme Court at the bar of politics. Second edition. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Black, C. L. Jr. (1960). The people and the court: Judicial review in a democracy. New York: The Macmillan Co.
Bork, R. H. (1990). The tempting of America: The political seduction of the law. New York: The Free Press.
Chemerinsky, E. (2003). Ideology and the selection of federal judges." University of California, Davis Law Review. 39: 619–631.
Fisher, L. (2003). American constitutional law, (5th ed., Vol. 1). Constitutional structures: Separated powers and federalism. Durham, NC: Carolina Press.
Gur‐Arie, M. (2004). Legal and court staff in the United States judiciary. Seminar on the Management of the Assistant Personnel to Judges. Changzhou, Jiangsu Province, China (November 22–26).
Kelly, A. H., Winfred A. H. & Belz H. (1991). The American Constitution: Its Origins and Development. (7th ed.). New York: W.W. Norton & Co.
McCloskey, R. G. (1960). The American supreme court. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Murphy, W. F. and C. H. Pritchett. (1986). Courts, judges & politics: An introduction to the judicial process. (4th ed.). New York: Random House.
Scalia, A. (1997). A matter of interpretation: Federal courts and the law. Princeton: Princeton University Press.