American Government
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5 The Presidency
Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
Describe the sources of the president's power and authority Explain the basis of expanding presidential power over time Analyze the difference between a domestic and foreign policy president Describe the organization of the White House Analyze the role of presidential character in choosing a president
In March 2011, an alliance of NATO countries, including the United States, launched air strikes against
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Members of President Obama's administration, Defense Secretary Robert Gates and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Adm. Mike Mullen, testified before the House Armed Services Committee on American military operations in Libya. Some Congressional members contend that U.S. involvement in this operation violates the War Powers Act.
Libya in a humanitarian mission to assist rebels fighting against Libyan strongman Moammar Gadhafi. In justifying American involvement, President Obama insisted that the United States was only part of a broad coalition. As operations reached the three‐month point, questions arose about the legality of American involvement.
The Constitution states that only Congress has the authority to declare war, but it also obligates the president to preserve and protect the Constitution. This obligation has led many presidents to engage in military acts without congressional authorization or a formal declaration of war. According to the War Powers Act of 1973, a president who dispatches military units for any reason must fully notify Congress. Congress then has to either authorize the operation or demand that the units come home. In the case of Libya, President Obama did formally notify Congress of American participation. However, Republican Speaker of the House John Boehner demanded that the president explain the mission before Congress and obtain the body's authorization to continue action. The president insisted that he had no obligation to seek authorization because actions in Libya were "hostilities" rather than a war. This response angered many in Congress, who perceived it as splitting hairs. The War Powers Act does not differentiate war from hostilities; rather it requires notification of dispatching military units. But was President Obama really in violation?
As the War Powers Act placed the ball in Congress's court, the House of Representatives voted down a bill that would authorize the president to continue American involvement. This would imply that the president must bring American forces back to NATO bases and refrain from any further action. But Congress also voted down a bill that would cut off funding for the operation, which would have forced the president to cease American involvement. By allowing funding to continue, Congress appeared to at least tacitly sanction American involvement. For his part, the president maintained, as all presidents before him, that the War Powers Act is unconstitutional because it interferes with his role as commander in chief.
The episode raises several questions. The first is just how much authority the president has to make decisions. Is protecting the innocent in another country the same as preserving and protecting the Constitution? And what were the Framers of the Constitution attempting to accomplish when they imbued the office of the president with the powers of commander in chief?
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In this chapter, we will look at the American presidency and how it has evolved over time. While the Constitution grants the president some formal authority, his actual power is limited. In fact, to the extent that he has any real power, it stems from his ability to establish and cultivate it on his own. On the one hand, the Framers did not fully address the issue of presidential power because they were not always sure what the president would do. But on the other hand, they knew they could not foresee all the contingencies that might arise that would require the exercise of presidential power. By being vague on the subject, the Framers left open the door for a president to infer that he could do something if it was necessary to preserve and protect the Constitution.
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President Obama speaks to U.S. Troops in
5.1 Presidential Constitutional Authority The president of the United States is one of the world's foremost leaders. However, when our country was founded, the Framers left the role of the president largely undefined. The Constitution establishes the office and gives its occupant express authority to preserve and protect the Constitution, but it does not say exactly what that means.
Article II of the Constitution specifically establishes the concept of executive power and who may hold it: "The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America." The article also establishes his formal authorities. First and foremost, he is commander in chief of the U.S. Armed Forces, a role that is viewed as essential to safeguard the laws of the land and preserve and protect the Constitution. The president also has the authority to grant pardons, to veto acts of Congress, and to negotiate treaties. Thus, the president might be said to have military power as commander in chief, judicial power through his pardon authority, and diplomatic power through his treaty negotiating authority. But at the end of the day, his real power stems from his ability to convince others that when he decides to exercise any of these formal authorities, it is absolutely necessary.
Commander in Chief
Section 2 of Article II of the Constitution states that: "The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States." In legal terms, this means that the president must authorize any use of force by the military. It does not mean that he will personally lead troops into battle like a medieval European king. The requirement that presidents authorize the use of force establishes the sacred principle of civilian control of the armed forces. If the military establishment were equal in power to other institutions, it could easily overthrow the civilian government and thus upend one of the hallmarks of modern democratic governance, the peaceful transfer of power.
Civilian control, at least in the early days of the American republic, was assured by the absence of large standing armies. In fact, the Constitution only mentions an army and navy because when it was written, these were the only two branches that existed. They were separate departments, and each was equal to the other. The secretary of war and the secretary of navy both sat in the president's cabinet and competed for his attention.
Today's cabinet includes a single secretary of defense,
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Afghanistan. Article II of the Constitution specifically establishes civilian control of the Armed Forces.
but that position wasn't created until after World War II, with the passage of the 1947 National Defense Act. Until that global conflict, the United States called state
militia—what we today know as National Guard Units—into national service. (Much of American fighting forces are still made up of National Guard units. They were called up in 2001 when the nation went into Afghanistan, and again in 2003 when it went into Iraq.) Militia members of these units are normally under the command of their respective governors, but once called, they are under the command of the president.
Use of the state militias for national service was formally adopted in the Militia Act of 1792, which gave the president the authority, in the event or threat of an invasion, to call into service as many troops from state militia as would be needed to repel the invasion. The president would be able to call upon those militia companies that would be "most convenient to the place of danger or scene of action." This meant that if the country were invaded off the shore of Maine, the president could call on militia companies in Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts. Because they would be close to the place of invasion, they could respond quickly. This would also give the states a role in the national defense. Instead of having to build national bases in all the states to house a standing army, the army would be formed as needed. Less than a week later Congress passed a second Militia Act of 1792, which required each able‐bodied white male citizen between the ages of 18 and 45 to enroll in the militia of his respective state.
In the twentieth century, the organization of the country's military forces fundamentally changed. In 1903, Congress passed legislation to organize the various state militias into the current National Guard system, which was to be administered jointly by the National Guard Bureau and the U.S. Department of Defense. With passage of the 1916 National Defense Act, approximately one‐half of the United States Army's available combat forces and approximately one‐third of its support organizations were National Guard units.
To call the militia into service during a time of crisis is to rely on civilian defense and to democratize the sense of sacrifice, a concept that still resonates today. As an example, when the United States went to war with Iraq in 1991, it amassed around 500,000 troops on Iraq's border. Most of these troops were taken from state National Guard units. The U.S. certainly could have used its professional national army, but by calling on state units the president gave all citizens a stake in the outcome.
Pardon Power
Section 2 also grants the president the authority to issue pardons. The president "shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offenses against the United States, except in cases of Impeachment." This would seem to suggest that the president can pardon anybody who has committed a crime against the United States, meaning violations of federal law. It is not clear that the president can
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The question of whether presidents should be able to exercise a line‐item veto dates all the way back to the administration of Andrew Jackson.
pardon somebody who has violated a state law.
Presidents often pardon convicted criminals who have already served part of their prison sentence. The president might issue a partial pardon, which often amounts to a commutation of a sentence, or pardon somebody who has long been a fugitive from justice. President Clinton, for example, pardoned Marc Rich, a financier charged with evading $48 million in taxes and committing more than 50 counts of fraud. Rich had fled the country during his prosecution and was living in Switzerland.
As another example, in 1974 President Gerald Ford issued a full pardon to Richard Nixon for Nixon's role in the Watergate cover‐up, which meant that the former president could never be charged for crimes related to Watergate. The Nixon pardon was viewed as an attempt to heal a badly divided nation and move forward.
A president does not usually decide on pardons by himself. Most of the time, he does not know the person being pardoned. Rather, somebody may apply for a pardon, in which case White House lawyers and the Justice Department study the matter and make a recommendation.
Veto Authority
As a check on the power of the legislative branch, the Constitution gives the president the authority to veto bills passed by Congress. Just as in the case of pardons, a veto is often a collective decision made in the name of the president. It is often made in consultation with various officials in the White House and members of the cabinet whose departments might be affected by a particular piece of legislation. As an example, in February 2011 Congress, after failing to pass a budget for fiscal year 2011 (which began in October 2010) was considering a continuing resolution that would temporarily fund the government until a final budget was passed. However, the continuing resolution would have appropriated less money to defense. The Office of Management and Budget, on the advice of the Defense Department, issued a statement that President Obama would veto it if there were defense cuts that compromised national security.
A veto has to be a collective decision because it usually has widespread consequences. One potential consequence is that it could invite Congress to respond, if Congress has the votes, by overriding the veto. An override is often seen as a huge political defeat for a president.
The U.S. Constitution, unlike many state constitutions, does not provide for a line‐item veto, so when
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the president vetoes a bill, he has to veto the entire bill. While a governor, for instance, can get a budget bill from the state legislature and then veto, say, the appropriations for parks because they are too expensive and the appropriations for school lunches because he doesn't think they are important, the president has no such option.
The idea of a line‐item veto (or item veto), actually dates back to the presidency of Andrew Jackson. Jackson sparked a controversy when, in 1830, he signed a bill but also notified Congress that he intended to restrict the reach of the statute. Because the House was in recess, it wasn't able to respond to this notification. A House report later interpreted this action to be, in effect, an item veto of one of the law's provisions.
Table 5.1 Presidential Vetoes (partial list)
President Regular Vetoes Votes Overridden
Washington 2 ‐
Adams ‐ ‐
Jefferson ‐ ‐
Madison 5 ‐
Monroe 1 ‐
Jackson 5 ‐
Pierce 9 5
Lincoln 2 ‐
A. Johnson 21 15
Grant 45 4
Hayes 12 1
Cleveland 304 2
B. Harrison 19 1
Cleveland 42 5
McKinley 6 ‐
T. Roosevelt 42 1
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Taft 30 1
Wilson 33 6
Harding 5 ‐
Coolidge 20 4
Hoover 21 3
F. D. Roosevelt 372 9
Truman 180 12
Eisenhower 73 2
Kennedy 12 ‐
L. B. Johnson 16 ‐
Nixon 26 7
Ford 48 12
Carter 13 2
Reagan 39 9
G. H. W. Bush 29 1
Clinton 36 2
G .W. Bush 10 3
Obama ‐ ‐
Source: Office of the Clerk, US House of Representatives: http://artandhistory.house.gov/house_history/vetoes.aspx (http://artandhistory.house.gov/house_history/vetoes.aspx)
Treaty Making and Effective War Making Authority
Section 2 also says that the president "shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur." This means that the president can make treaties with other countries, but they are not binding on future governments unless they are ratified by the U.S. Senate. What would happen if the president negotiated a peace treaty to end a war with another nation, and the Senate failed to ratify it? The United States would still technically be at war.
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In the aftermath of World War I, President Woodrow Wilson sought to make the United States a signatory to the Versailles Treaty, which was the agreement that effectively ended the war. Part of the treaty was a call for the formation of a new League of Nations, an intergovernmental organization that would foster peace and international disarmament. Wilson wanted the United States to join this league, but some members of Congress felt it was not advisable because it could lead to U.S. involvement in conflicts that did not concern the country. When Wilson refused to compromise on any parts of the treaty, the Senate voted against ratifying it. Wilson never recovered politically. When the Senate refuses to ratify a treaty, it puts the president in a vulnerable position because it can be construed as a sign of weakness. But there is a danger for the nation in this as well. Another country, sensing a president's weakness, may view it as an opportunity to wage war against the United States.
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Iowa democrats participate in a caucus to choose their candidate for the 2004 presidential election.
5.2 Presidential Elections In addition to stipulating some of the powers of the presidency, Article II also sets forth guidelines for how and how often a new executive shall be elected. For example, it states that the president "shall hold office during the term of four years."
Presidential elections tend to be momentous events in American history. They take place in two distinct phases. First there is the primary season, which often begins around January of a presidential election year. Through a series of races run on a state‐by‐state basis, delegates are chosen to attend party nominating conventions. Following the conventions, the official nominees for president begin campaigning for the general election that is always held on the first Tuesday following the first Monday in November.
Presidential Primaries
Although the primary season begins in January, those seeking the presidency often begin their quest as early as two years before a national election. Candidates may declare their intentions to run a year in advance of primary season. During this time they travel around the country and meet ordinary voters, state party chairs, and potential donors. The process of running for office entails a lot of such retail politics.
The season begins in earnest with the Iowa Caucus, which is a participatory caucus. Individuals gather for a few hours at a local meeting place and move to a section of the room designated for their favorite candidate's supporters. During this process they can be challenged by another candidate's supporters. At the end of the exercise, the number of delegates apportioned to a candidate is based on the percentage of support they have.
Iowa does not produce many delegates, but, as the first state in the primary season, it provides momentum going into bigger contests. The next contest is traditionally the New Hampshire primary, which is an election rather than a caucus. Again delegates are apportioned based on the percentage of the vote that each candidate receives.
A candidate who wants to win the nomination of his party must win either the Iowa caucus or the New Hampshire primary. The reason for this is simple: money follows winners. Candidates who win either of these contests are able to draw significant
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contributions, which in turn enable them to spend considerable money on advertising in bigger contests that produce more delegates. Those who do not fare well early in the season usually find it difficult to raise money and are forced to drop out. Raising funds is critical because a successful candidate can end up spending $50 million–$100 million. Often, the big states that produce the largest number of delegates, like New York and California, do not have their primaries until relatively late in the season. By this time the field of candidates has narrowed to two, and sometimes one.
The first part of the presidential election season ends during the summer of the election year with party nominating conventions, whereby each party chooses a nominee. The nominees are usually the ones who obtained the most delegates. The official campaign for president then begins in September of the election year.
The Electoral College
The president is ultimately elected by the Electoral College, which is made up of electors from each state. The number of electors each state is allotted is dictated in Article II: "Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress; but no Senator or Representative . . . shall be appointed an elector." There are a total of 538 electoral votes cast (including three for the District of Columbia), and a candidate needs a simple majority—270—to win. For most states, the candidate who wins a majority of votes in that state takes all of its electors. The only exceptions are the states of Maine and Nebraska, which split their electoral votes in proportion to the popular vote.
Each candidate's party goes to each state and signs up a slate of electors who are then pledged to vote for that candidate. As an example, New York casts 31 electoral votes. In 2008, both John McCain's and Barack Obama's campaigns signed up slates of 31 electors each in the state. Because Obama won the popular vote in New York, his slate voted in the Electoral College and McCain's slate went home. Because most states employ a winner‐take‐all system, a candidate could conceivably win each state by the narrowest of margins, say 50.5% to 49.5%, and still win by a landslide in the Electoral College.
Figure 5.1: Electoral College Map of 2008 Election
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As leader of the Senate, Al Gore presided over the electoral vote count that named George W. Bush the victor in the 2000
The founding fathers established the Electoral College as a compromise between election of the president by Congress and election by popular vote.
In choosing where to invest resources, candidates usually pick states with close races. They tend not to spend too much time or money in states where they are already likely to win. Because minority groups, whether racial, ethnic or religious, tend to be concentrated in large, electorally rich states, the electoral system provides representation for these groups that they otherwise might not enjoy. If they vote as a group, they can form a voting bloc that can make or break the state for a candidate.
Still, there are those who maintain that the Electoral College system is not very democratic. It rarely happens that one who wins the popular vote loses the Electoral College, but it has happened, and the result was typically ill feelings. In the presidential election of 1876, Samuel Tilden, a Democrat from New York, won the popular vote over Republican Rutherford B. Hayes from Ohio. The Electoral College, however, was in question because Florida, Louisiana, and South Carolina each sent two sets of electoral votes to Congress. Then in 2000, Vice President Al Gore won the popular vote
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election. over Republican Texas Governor George W. Bush. Gore was leading in the Electoral College, but one state was
in dispute, Florida. Without Florida, neither one would have the needed 270 electoral votes to win, but with Florida either one would be put over the top. There were issues of absentee ballots and how votes were being counted. After several recounts and an order from the Florida Supreme Court to have a full recount, the U.S. Supreme Court ordered the recounting to stop, thereby handing Florida over to Bush. After more than a month, Gore conceded defeat, but many in Florida, especially minorities, felt that their votes were not counted. This election especially left a sour aftertaste because it appeared as though the U.S. Supreme Court, for the first time in American history, was deciding the outcome of a presidential election. Many also believed that Bush in effect stole the election.
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President Obama, with his Council of Economic Advisors behind him, speaks on financial reform in the wake of the economic
5.3 Two Presidencies The president of the United States is the most important political leader in the country. When the president speaks, the words carry weight and have influence. But the president's influence is not even in all policy realms. Political scientist Aaron Wildavsky famously observed that from a political standpoint, the nation is usually led by two presidents embodied in one person. One is a domestic policy president who tends to be weak, and the other is a foreign policy president who tends to be strong.
Domestic Policy President
In the realm of domestic policy, Congress tends to be dominant because Americans tend to be more concerned about issues closer to home than they are about issues abroad. You may recall from the last chapter that former Speaker of the House Tip O'Neill's famous observation that "all politics is local." Because most members of Congress are elected and reelected on the basis of local issues and their ability to deliver goods back to their districts, Congress is reluctant to defer to the president on those domestic issues. On the contrary, if a presidential agenda interferes with the interests of a member's constituency, that member is likely to vote against the president even if he is of the same political party.
A domestic policy president is also reined in by changes in the composition of Congress. It is not uncommon for presidents to sustain midterm losses in their party. This weakens a presidential mandate, a perception that he can do almost whatever he wants because he won election in the first place by a wide margin. Additionally, those who remain are anxious about the next election and, as a result, are less likely to be supportive of the president's agenda. In the midterm election of 2010, President Obama's party lost over 60 seats in the House of Representatives, and its majority in the Senate was significantly narrowed. While the end result may be gridlock, it may also be viewed as an assertion of constitutional checks and balances.
Still, the president is increasingly expected to play more of a role in domestic policy. During economic recession, when more people are out of work, we tend to hold the president responsible and expect that he will pursue policies that create jobs. During the Great Depression President Franklin D. Roosevelt actively pursued policies to get the nation back to work. Following World War II, Congress passed the Employment Act of 1946, which specified a greater role for the president in economic policy. The act
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downturn of 2008.established that the U.S. government would strive to achieve as high a level of employment as would be "practicable." To that end, the law established the new office of the Council of Economic Advisors, a group that would monitor the economy and prepare reports that the president would annually submit to Congress. As we saw in the last chapter, the Budget and Accountability Act of 1921 gave the president responsibility to submit unified budgets to Congress. This meant that the president and his staff would be involved in planning the budget and, by extension, establishing the nation's domestic policy priorities.
The president was to increasingly have more of a voice in domestic affairs as his ability to appoint officials, even to independent regulatory agencies, meant that he would be able to appoint those who were sympathetic to his policy priorities. In Article II, Section 3, of the Constitution it says that the president "shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the Officers of the United States." This means that the president is responsible for carrying out laws and implementing policies and programs that have been passed. As this responsibility falls on the president, the president's role in domestic affairs only grows as Congress creates more programs, especially when power and authority (also discussed in the last chapter) is delegated to the executive branch.
Even though the Constitution does not give the president a formal role in the legislative process, other than to sign or not sign legislation, his ability to veto legislation does allow him to influence the process. A public announcement that he will veto something is often sufficient to force Congress to present him with legislation that, at the very least, he doesn't find objectionable.
Foreign Policy President
In the realm of foreign affairs, presidents are usually strong and can often act with fewer congressional constraints. There are several reasons for this. First and foremost, the president is the face of the nation when dealing with other countries. When it comes to negotiating treaties, for instance, there can only be one president, not 535. Even though treaties are subject to the advice and consent of the U.S. Senate, senators tend to defer to the president on them because of the need for the country to speak with one voice. Secondly, foreign affairs don't usually affect the way Americans live their lives from day to day, and therefore most people tend not to care about them as much. A Congress that defers to the president in foreign policy is therefore not perceived as shirking its representative function in the way that a Congress that defers to the president in domestic policy might be.
Finally, most of what the Constitution says about the president's authority pertains to foreign policy, whereas most of what it says about the authority of Congress pertains to domestic policy. Similarly, with the federal division of power and authority between the states and the national government,
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the Framers assumed that states would naturally be responsible for domestic policy and the national government would be responsible for foreign affairs. The Constitution clearly assigns the president, not Congress, to be commander in chief of the armed forces. The president also has the express authority to conduct foreign affairs by appointing and maintaining ambassadors and counselors abroad, and the express authority to negotiate treaties with other countries. Congress can hold hearings and request reports from the president, but it does not have much foreign policy authority other than to ratify already negotiated treaties, raise armies and formally declare war.
Arguably, declaring war and raising armies go hand in hand with Congress's primary power of the purse. A declaration of war would require raising an army to wage that war, which in turn would require a congressional appropriation. A president who would wage war without the approval of Congress would, in effect, be spending money he is not authorized to spend. Still, much of the president's more expansive powers in foreign affairs is derived from what is known as presidential prerogative.
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Exponential Growth of the Presidency
Over the course of history, each of the president's constitutional powers has expanded beyond that which was originally envisioned. Foreign policy is a case in point. During most of the 19th century the federal government's policymaking role was small, as was its bureaucracy. But with the Great Depression of the 1930s and World War II that followed, the president's role increased dramatically.
Thomas Jefferson exercised presidential prerogative when he purchased the Louisiana Territory from France without the
5.4 Presidential Prerogative Presidential prerogative is essentially an implied power that enables a president to expand his authority in ways not specifically stated in the Constitution. It is similar to Congress's "necessary and proper" clause, but it is also different. In the case of Congress, the Constitution states that Congress may do what is "necessary and proper" to exercise its enumerated powers. In the case of the president, the Constitution says no such thing; rather the president infers that in the absence of a specific grant of authority or prohibition that he may do something to fulfill his larger constitutional obligations. Presidential prerogative, like presidential power generally, has historically been left to individual presidents to define.
Thomas Jefferson and the Louisiana Purchase
In 1803, President Thomas Jefferson purchased the Louisiana Territory from France for around $15 million. He had no
congressional authorization to take such action, and it could have been considered an impeachable offense. (Recall from the last chapter that impeachment is generally defined as "high crimes and misdemeanors," which is taken to be the president's abuse of power in that he took action either without Congressional authorization or against the will of Congress. A high crime and misdemeanor can also refer to the president usurping Congressional power by performing a function specifically reserved to Congress.) By making a purchase without an express congressional authorization, Jefferson could be interpreted as
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authorization of Congress. Jefferson believed his actions would help save the country by allowing its citizens to stave off the inequalities of industrialization.
effectively usurping Congress's power of the purse.
Jefferson thought that it was acceptable to assume authority beyond the bounds of the law in matters of
higher necessity. As he put it, "A strict observance of the written laws is doubtless one of the highest duties of a good citizen, but it is not the highest. The laws of necessity, self‐preservation, of saving our country when in danger, are of higher obligation." If the country were lost, the written law would have no meaning. Jefferson saw that the nation was threatened by industrialization and the consequences that it would have on agriculture. He believed that the Louisiana Territory would enable citizens to spread out, settle the land, become independent yeoman farmers, and stave off the inequalities of industrialization. By that reasoning, purchasing Louisiana, even if he did not have authority to do so, was necessary to save the country.
Abraham Lincoln and the Emancipation Proclamation
In 1863, during the American Civil War, President Lincoln issued his famous Emancipation Proclamation, which granted freedom to the slaves who were in Confederate territory. Technically, this move was unconstitutional. For the slaves to be freed legally, the Constitution would have to be amended, but Lincoln issued his proclamation as a matter of presidential prerogative.
The Emancipation was an executive order and had no binding authority except in those Confederate states that had fallen under Union control, which also meant that as the Union army advanced, more slaves would be freed. A constitutional amendment would have required a two‐thirds vote in each house of Congress, and then three‐quarters of the states to vote in favor. As a practical matter, those states that seceded from the union were not going to participate in the amendment process, as they no longer considered themselves to be bound by the U.S. Constitution. Even if three‐quarters of the remaining states of the Union had ratified an amendment abolishing slavery, it would have no force and effect in territories not occupied by the Union.
As Lincoln put it, "My oath to preserve the Constitution to the best of my ability, imposed upon me the duty of preserving, by every indispensable means, that government—that nation—of which that constitution was the organic law." Lincoln argued that he could undertake any action to preserve the Union because that was the only means by which the Constitution could be preserved and protected, and this was precisely what he swore to uphold when he took his oath of office. Just like Jefferson, Lincoln was saying that if the country were destroyed because of a rigid adherence to written law, the law would have absolutely no meaning and the Constitution would effectively be rendered a worthless piece of paper.
Teddy Roosevelt and the Regulation of Trusts
Until Theodore Roosevelt was president at the beginning of
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President Theodore Roosevelt opted to exercise prerogative in regulating trusts because he believed he was the steward of the people and was therefore bound to serve them.
the twentieth century, presidents—with the exceptions of the unusual circumstances described above—were for the most part passive. Congress made policy, and presidents and the executive branch carried out its will. The activist presidency began with Roosevelt, who came to office in 1901, and revolved around the authority of the executive branch to regulate trusts. Toward the end of the nineteenth century, corporations were buying up smaller companies and forming trusts in restraint of free trade. The only remedy, it seemed, was to regulate the trusts and, if necessary, break them up.
Roosevelt adopted this stance, and he worked tirelessly to regulate business combinations and break up the great railroad trust in the Northwest. For his efforts, he earned the nickname, "the trust‐buster." While the Constitution specifically grants Congress the authority to regulate interstate commerce, it does not say that the executive cannot regulate or that the president himself cannot be activist. President Roosevelt justified his prerogative to act on the grounds that he was a steward of the people and was therefore bound to serve them. As he put it, "I declined to adopt the view that what was imperatively necessary for the nation could not be done by the President unless he could find some specific authorization to do it. My belief was that it was not only his right but his duty to do anything that the needs of the nation demanded, unless such action was forbidden by the Constitution or by the laws." Roosevelt echoed John Locke, but he took Locke's ideas a step further. The country did not merely have to be in a state of emergency for the president to exercise his prerogative. Rather, he could do so on the basis of what he thought would be necessary to serve the public interest.
George W. Bush and the War on Terrorism
Following the terrorist attack of September 11, 2001, President George W. Bush declared a war on terrorism. In making this declaration, he made it clear that the United States would go after terrorists around the world as well as those countries that harbored terrorists. This initially led to war in Afghanistan because that was where terrorist training camps were located, and then to war in Iraq on an assumption that it too was supporting terrorism. The War on Terrorism was actually uncharted territory because a declaration of war usually involves Congress's authorizing the use of force against another nation–state. Bush, in contrast, declared war against nontraditional, non‐state actors. As in our previous examples, he justified his action as a legitimate exercise of presidential prerogative
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President George W. Bush speaks in support of the 2003 Patriot Act, which was enacted as part of his War on Terrorism. The act allowed federal law enforcement to arrest those suspected of terrorism and hold them indefinitely without trial.
because of his presidential obligation to preserve and protect the Constitution. The United States, after all, was attacked. Previous terrorist attacks against U.S. interests, including the first attack against the World Trade Towers in 1993, were treated as criminal justice matters. The 2001 attack, however, was of a different magnitude. More than 3,000 innocent civilians died, probably the largest number killed on American soil since the Civil War. Again, the Constitution does not say that he cannot act. Moreover, as all these cases demonstrate, there was sufficient precedent for the president to claim prerogative.
As part of the War on Terrorism, Congress passed the Patriot Act, which allowed federal law enforcement officials to arrest those suspected of terrorism and hold them indefinitely without trial. In most cases, the FBI would round up several thousand Muslims and then release them a couple of weeks later after it determined they were not terrorists. In the meantime, the detainees could not have access to a lawyer, and even if their families contacted one, lawyers were not allowed to know what charges were being filed. In effect, one could be detained without the basic constitutional rights that we take for granted: the rights to know what charges are being levied, the right
to face our accusers, the right to a trial by jury, and the right to be represented by counsel.
Critics of the War on Terrorism were quick to point out that in the name of protecting the country, the government was effectively undermining the basic constitutional principles the nation was founded upon. They also noted that the War on Terrorism was so broad that it could be endless and that anything that was defined as terrorism would allow for a broad expansion of executive power. Defenders of the War on Terrorism argued that the need for national security justified drastic measures and that sacrifice and inconvenience were required. In other words, it was a matter of the public interest.
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5.5 Political Power As we noted earlier, the powers of the president are formally undefined, but presidents, employing the principle of presidential prerogative, have carved out their own powers as they have needed. The effect has been to expand the scope of presidential power over time. Historian Arthur Schlesinger argued that through the use of presidential prerogative, particularly during periods of emergency, American presidents have in effect become imperial. But there is also a political component to presidential power. The president still has to persuade others that his actions are legitimate.
Power as Persuasion
Nearly fifty years ago Richard Neustadt, a professor of government at Harvard and a former aid in John F. Kennedy's White House, defined presidential power as the power to persuade. The president is surrounded by aides who have stature in their own right and are under no obligation to obey orders. Likewise, members of Congress are elected independently of the president, and the president has no control over them. All the president can do is attempt to convince others that his ideas are the correct course of action. A president who can get others to do what he wants through persuasion can be said to truly possess power.
Neustadt offers several examples of presidential power, but he illustrates his point especially well with a case where a president had to use force because he failed to persuade. In 1952, while the nation was in the midst of the Korean War, President Truman seized the country's steel mills in response to a labor dispute between the United Steel workers and major steel companies. With a strike set for April 9, 1952, labor and public members of the Wage Stabilization Board, which was in charge of wage control and allied functions during the war, came to an agreement; but it was rejected by the companies. The White House tried to press both the companies and the union toward a settlement. Collective bargaining was resumed but no settlement was reached. To avoid a disruption in production while the nation was at war, Truman seized the steel mills. The companies sued, and the case ultimately reached the Supreme Court. The Court held the seizure to be a violation of the Fifth Amendment.
To Neustadt, Truman's failure to persuade proved his weakness. The fact that he resorted to command meant that he failed to convince through the art of persuasion. Had he been able to persuade, he would truly have had power. At the end of the day, presidential power through persuasion is about the president's political abilities.
The Importance of Public Support
A president's ability to persuade will be enhanced if he is popular among the public and his party happens to be the majority in Congress. Popularity is important because he can always point to it as
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a reason why critics should not be so quick to dismiss what he has to say. Party support in Congress is also important because he can always appeal to party loyalty to forward his agenda. His ability to persuade members of his own party in Congress is also enhanced by his ability, especially if he enjoys widespread public support, to campaign on their behalf for reelection.
But a president's ability to persuade can easily be hindered by a drop in public support or by significant congressional midterm election losses in his own party. It is not uncommon for the president's party in Congress to suffer losses during a midterm election, and these losses are often taken as a rejection of the president's previous two years of governing. President Bill Clinton, who was elected in 1992 with Democratic majorities, lost both houses of Congress in the 1994 midterm election. In the House of Representatives, his party lost fifty seats. These types of losses make it more difficult for a president to persuade.
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5.6 Presidential Organization The Constitution only provides for an executive. It says nothing about a cabinet or a White House Staff. When George Washington was president, he had a handful of staff members. By the time Franklin Roosevelt took office in 1933, his staff was around eight. Today, there are more than 2,000 members of the president's staff. These positions and offices were founded and developed over time to help the president fulfill specific functions.
Cabinet
The president's cabinet is composed of the heads of executive branch departments, most of whom carry the title of secretary. The term was coined by newspaper reporters during George Washington's presidency to refer to his four department heads: the secretary of state, the secretary of treasury, the secretary of the army, and the attorney general. Today it includes secretaries of Commerce, Energy, Transportation, Defense, Labor, Interior, Health and Human Services, Housing and Urban Development, Agriculture, Education, and most recently, Homeland Security. Presidents have also in recent years granted cabinet status to the vice president and the ambassador to the United Nations.
The role of the cabinet is largely undefined. A president may seek the counsel of his cabinet and call for regular meetings. More often than not, a president uses the cabinet to demonstrate that he is not acting alone. Cabinet members are often individuals who have built up reputations in their own right. But often, presidents take the advice of staffers in the White House over cabinet members.
Executive Office of the President
The Executive Office of the President (EOP) consists of immediate staff members reporting directly to the president and multiple levels of support staff. It is generally headed by a White House chief of staff. The EOP has its origins in 1936 when President Roosevelt established a Committee on Administrative Management to evaluate administrative procedures in the executive branch. The concern was that the business of government had become so vast that it was too much for one man to oversee.
The original EOP, formally created by executive order in 1939, was to consist of six administrative assistants to the president, along with three advisory bodies: the National Resources Planning Board, the Liaison Office for Personal Management, and the Office of Government Reports. By the time Jimmy Carter took office in 1977, the EOP had around 1,700 full‐time staff members. Today the EOP consists of the president, plus eleven other councils and offices (see Table 5.2). The EOP also contains the White House Office, which includes the president's immediate staff of advisers.
Table 5.2 Divisions within the Executive Office of the President Council of Economic Advisors
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White House staffers gather outside the White House. Since 1937, the White House staff grew from 45 employees to 417 under George W. Bush.
Council on Environmental Quality
National Security Council and the Homeland Security Council
Office of Administration
Office of Management and Budget
Office of National Drug Control Policy
Office of Science and Technology Policy
Office of the United States Trade Representative
Office of the Vice President
Executive Residence
The White House
Source: Executive Office of the President: http://www.whitehouse.gov/administration/eop (http://www.whitehouse.gov/administration/eop) .
White House Staff
The White House staff is made up of analysts and advisers, such as communications advisers, political advisers, the press secretary, speech writers, legislative aids, and the White House physician. These are usually people the president can trust. Unlike cabinet members, a staffer does not need to be confirmed by the Senate.
The White House staffers are organized within several office units, which also employ additional staff members. Table 5.3 shows only those who immediately serve the President, or those who work in the White House West Wing, but if the table included members of the EOP, the number of staff would be close to a couple of thousand. The White House Staff also includes temporary people who are sent over from other Executive Branch agencies and departments to work in the White House.
Table 5.3 Expanding White House Staff*
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Year President Full‐time Employees
1937 Franklin Roosevelt 45
1947 Harry S. Truman 190
1957 Dwight D. Eisenhower 364
1967 Lyndon B. Johnson 251
1972 Richard M. Nixon 550
1975 Gerald R. Ford 533
1980 Jimmy Carter 488
1984 Ronald Reagan 575
1990 George H. W. Bush 623
1996 Bill Clinton 511
2004 George W. Bush 417
*These figures are for the Office of the President, the Executive Residence, and the Office of the Vice President.
Source: for years 1937–1990, Table 7.6 in Theodore J. Lowi and Benjamin Ginsberg, American Government: Freedom and Power Second ed. (New York, W.W. Norton & Co., 1992), 284; for 1996 Figure 6.3 in Theodore J. Lowi, Benjamin Ginsberg and Kenneth Shepsle, American Government: Power and Purpose Eight Edition, (New York, W.W. Norton & Co., 2005), p. 249; and for 2004 United States Office of Personnel Management, Federal Civilian Workforce Statistics: Work Years and Personnel Costs Fiscal Years 2004, Table 1a, p. 10.
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In a 1977 interview with David Frost, former President Richard M. Nixon explained his view of the imperial presidency. He said that if the president does something, it is legal.
5.7 Wartime President We have already noted that foreign policy presidents tend to be stronger than domestic policy presidents. During times of war, however, it has not been uncommon for American presidents to assume greater authority and claim greater power. In some cases, wartime presidents have been almost dictatorial. As we saw earlier in the chapter, this usually begins with presidents exercising their prerogative. Add to that a tendency on the part of Congress to defer to the president on foreign policy‐related matters, and a president, especially during a time of crisis, often has free rein to do as he pleases.
Even when wartime presidents have been challenged legally, the Supreme Court has tended to claim that the issue is political and does not concern them. The principal reason that the Supreme Court has taken this position is because it knows that during a crisis a president is unlikely to listen, and the Court lacks enforcement power. Historically, when the crisis has ended and the country is no longer facing threat, the Supreme Court has tended to reassert the constitutional separation of powers.
Imperial Presidency
We noted earlier Arthur Schlesinger's argument that the historic use of presidential prerogative, coupled with a tendency to defer to the president in foreign affairs, has at times led to an imperial presidency. By this he meant a president who assumes he can do what he pleases, whether it is because he can claim that there is a crisis and subsequent need to exercise authority, or because he won the election by such a large margin that he can claim a mandate.
Schlesinger was specifically thinking of Richard Nixon, who famously observed in an interview with David Frost that if the president does something, it is legal. It was not uncommon for Nixon to invoke a national emergency to justify the exercise of his prerogative. At other times he would call attention to a "silent majority" of people who supported him but were not vocal, thereby suggesting that a Congress that opposed him did so at its own peril.
In truth, Nixon wanted to act according to the French concept of a plebiscitory presidency. A plebiscitory president assumes that so long as he is operating within the law he can do as he pleases because he was elected and the people empowered him to do so. If the people do not like what he has done, they are always
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The Japanese internment camp at Manzamar, California, in 1943. The Supreme Court ruled that certain individuals of Japanese ancestry might constitute a security risk, and therefore forcing them into internment camps was a legitimate wartime action.
free to vote him out of office. But if they reelect him, and they do so by a large majority, that only confirms that his actions have been correct and he has the power, if not even more power, to continue doing as he pleases. Nixon's comment to David Frost might suggest that he believed that the president makes his own law. However, Nixon understood that he couldn't make himself a dictator and remain in office indefinitely. Rather, the limits to his authority were public tolerance, as expressed through Congress. But he also understood that tolerance was greater in specifically foreign policy‐related emergency situations.
Wartime Dictatorship
During times of war, American presidents have declared martial law on a limited basis. Abraham Lincoln did it in certain sections of the country during the Civil War, and Franklin Roosevelt did it in Hawaii during World War II. Areas under martial law are governed by military authorities, with military courts in the place of civilian ones.
During the Civil War, Lincoln placed Confederate territories that fell to the Union under military rule and ordered the arrest of people who were believed to be causing insurrection. If they were to be tried at all, it was only to be by military tribunal. Private homes were routinely searched without warrant, and men were imprisoned without trial.
Moreover, in the case of Ex Parte Merryman, Lincoln effectively ignored a judicial opinion. John Merryman was a pro‐Confederate lieutenant in the Maryland Militia and was involved in recruiting and training soldiers for the Confederacy as well as cutting telegraph wires and blowing up rail lines on bridges. Because Maryland was close to the nation's capital in Washington, which was under constant threat, Lincoln declared martial law there. Union soldiers arrested Merryman for treason. Through an attorney he requested a writ of Habeas Corpus. Technically a demand by a court for the jailer to produce the accused and announce the charges, we commonly understand the concept to mean that an accused person has a right to know the charges made against him. Merryman's attorneys appealed to the United States Circuit Court for the County of Maryland, which
in those days did not have permanent judges. Instead, Supreme Court justices sat in the circuit while the Supreme Court was not in session. The justice willing to hear this case was Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court Roger Taney. Taney issued the writ of Habeas Corpus and sent a federal
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marshal to deliver it, but Union soldiers stopped him. In response, Taney issued his own opinion for the Circuit Court condemning Lincoln for his abuse of power. Still Lincoln did not budge. Taney's opinion was his own opinion, and it is an open question how the full Supreme Court would have ruled had it gone that far.
Another incident involving the Supreme Court occurred during World War II, when President Franklin Roosevelt ordered the quarantine of Japanese Americans. Suspected of being loyal to Japan, they were rounded up in California, Washington State, and Oregon and brought to what were essentially detention camps. These were American citizens whose only offense was that they were of Japanese ancestry. But the case of Hirabayashi v. United States in 1943 demonstrated the Supreme Court's willingness to defer to the president during war time. Gordon Hirabayashi was a student at the University of Washington who never had visited Japan and was never suspected of disloyalty to the United States. Nevertheless, he was convicted of disobeying a military curfew. The Court ruled that the curfew was a legitimate defensive measure during a time of war. Because Americans of Japanese ancestry regularly communicated with family members in Japan, the Court argued, authorities had a reasonable basis to conclude that certain individuals might constitute a security threat.
But following the war, in the 1946 case Duncan v. Kahanamoku, Sheriff, the Supreme Court was not nearly as ready to defer to presidential power. This case involved the effective declaration of martial law in Hawaii following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. A military court convicted Lloyd Duncan, a civilian shipfitter, of assaulting two navy yard sentries in 1944. But by that date the war was almost over and the civilian courts had reopened. In this case, the Supreme Court made it clear that the American system of government was the antithesis of military rule. If the civilian courts had already reopened, it ruled, there was no excuse to try him in a military court. The Supreme Court proved eager to reassert the Constitution and Bill of Rights once the crisis was over.
Use of Military Tribunals
During times of emergency, many American presidents have sought to use military tribunals to try enemy combatants. This issue is actually quite current. Following the 9/11 terrorist attacks and the launching of war in Afghanistan, the question arose about what to do with enemy combatants captured by American soldiers. According to the Geneva Convention on war, captured enemy soldiers are to be considered prisoners of war and held in prison camps until the end of the conflict, at which point they are to be sent home. Suspected terrorists, however, are neither soldiers, as they are not fighting for a nation state, nor civilians. Can they be tried in military courts? Critics argue that to do so would not only violate the Geneva Convention, but is also contrary to the basic protections guaranteed by the Constitution. Defenders of the policy point to precedent, the most notable being Ex Parte Quirin in 1942.
This case involved four German marines who came
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In Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, the Supreme Court ruled that the "president in time of war, has the authority to use military tribunals as an emergency measure."
ashore on Long Island, New York, from a submarine with orders to sabotage American war industries. After changing into civilian clothes and burying their uniforms and explosives, they headed to New York City. Several days later, another four marines came ashore in Florida with similar orders. The leader of the New York group then defected to the FBI and the remaining seven were rounded up, tried, and convicted by a military commission specially appointed by President Roosevelt under a broad claim of emergency authority. On appeal to the Supreme Court, the "Nazi saboteurs," as they came to be known, claimed that they should be tried in civilian court because they were not wearing
their uniforms when arrested. The government argued that they were enemy aliens who entered the country as belligerents. The Court noted that neither the Congress nor the president possessed powers not derived from the Constitution, but also that the Constitution was clear about its purpose, stated in the preamble, to "provide for the common defense." Suspects who associate themselves with the military arm of an enemy government are considered enemy combatants and are not then entitled to use civilian courts. Since 2001, this has become a tricky question because our War on Terror is against paramilitary terrorist groups who aren't tied to a state.
Recall that the Patriot Act allowed the executive to round up those suspected of terrorist activities in the United States and detain them without access to attorneys. In the 2004 case of Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, the Court addressed whether such detention was legal. The case was brought by the father of Yaser Esam Hamdi, who wanted to know what charges his son faced. Since Hamdi was being held in a military facility, the case was in effect a request that Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld produce the accused and announce the charges. In this case, the Supreme Court was not ready to give the presidency the same authority it had in World War II. On one level, the case was different from the German saboteurs' because the saboteurs weren't U.S. citizens. But on another level, there was a similarity: if those suspected could be labeled enemy–combatants, they could be viewed no differently from the saboteurs. The problem here was that suspicion alone was enough to deny one his/her constitutional rights.
The Court held that a citizen‐detainee seeking to challenge his classification as an enemy combatant must receive notice of the factual basis for his classification and a fair opportunity to rebut the government's claims. The Court held that circumstances might also dictate that "enemy proceedings" may be tailored to alleviate their uncommon potential to burden the executive at a time of ongoing military conflict. The Court concluded with the observation that "There remains the possibility that the standards we have articulated could be met by an appropriately authorized and properly
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constituted military tribunal." A president in a time of war, then, has the authority to use military tribunals as an emergency measure. The problem remains, however, that since this is a war on terror, it has the potential to go on indefinitely.
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5.8 Controlling Presidential Power As our preceding discussions of both presidential prerogative and wartime presidents show, a president can assume a great deal of authority and become quite powerful unless the other branches of government impose restraints. Historically, the balance of power between the president and Congress has swung back and forth. Often, after periods of strong presidential authority or perceptions that a president has exceeded the bounds of prerogative, Congress responds with attempts to control his power. Occasionally Congress has passed what has been referred to as presidency curbing legislation. The two most notable examples were the 1973 War Powers Act and the 1974 Budget Reform and Impoundment Act.
War Powers Act
The War Powers Act was intended to make the president more accountable to Congress when it comes to waging war. American presidents have always assumed that it was their right, if not their duty, to respond to an attack with force, and that this was essential to their obligations to preserve and protect the Constitution of the United States. It is also worth noting that when Congress initially passed this law, President Nixon vetoed it, claiming that it was unconstitutional. Congress overrode his veto. By responding to fire with fire, the president is, in effect, making war.
Presidents, however, have not always sought a formal war declaration. In some cases, such as the wars in Korea and Vietnam, presidents have circumvented the need for a formal declaration by labeling the conflicts "police actions." In Vietnam, President Johnson did seek and received a congressional resolution to respond to an attack on American ships in the Gulf of Tonkin in 1968. Still, the war, which ended up being deeply unpopular, was considered to be undeclared, and the situation was only exacerbated with President Nixon's secret bombings in Cambodia and elsewhere in subsequent years. The War Powers Act requires that any time the president sends troops, aircraft, ships, or any other military units anywhere in the world, he must notify Congress within forty‐eight hours of doing so. Congress, then, can decide whether to approve the action or order the forces home, in which case the president must recall them within sixty days. If the president goes back to Congress and says that is not enough time, he is entitled to an automatic thirty‐day extension. As in the case in the the vignette at the beginning of the chapter, Congress can fail to pass authorization, thereby suggesting that the president does not have its support. However, in the case of Libya, Congress also voted down a bill to stop funding, perhaps recognizing that pulling the plug would have disastrous implications for America's image abroad.
Presidents have uniformly called the War Powers Act unconstitutional because it infringes on their commander in chief function. But all the act really does is require the president to notify Congress and be accountable. It also, in effect, allows a president to fight a ninety‐day undeclared war. The
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pitfall is that in ninety days, American forces could become so entrenched that they would find it very difficult to withdraw, forcing Congress to formally declare war. The act is considered to be a control on the imperial presidency because a president can no longer act unilaterally. Rather, he must act within the bounds of his authority as provided by law.
The Budget Reform and Impoundment Act
The Budget Reform and Impoundment Act was Congress's response to Richard Nixon's practice of not spending money for programs that he did not want or thought already had too much money. Nixon, who opposed the social spending programs of the 1960s, would ask for less money for them and Congress would respond by appropriating more. Nixon responded by impounding the difference. The effect of this practice was to use impoundment as a form of line‐item veto. Historically, it was actually considered a sound fiscal practice because it enabled a president to move funds from over‐ funded programs to under‐funded ones, or to reduce spending so that the government would not run a deficit.
Like the War Powers Act, the Budget Reform and Impoundment Act is about presidential accountability to Congress. Title X of the act expressly forbids the president from impounding funds, though he can defer spending funds for forty‐five days. Congress, however, has the right to veto that deferment, which means that the funds would have to be spent as appropriated. If Congress fails to act within forty‐five days, the deferment continues indefinitely, which in effect means that the funds have been impounded. The president can pursue another course by requesting that Congress rescind the amount of money appropriated for a program over what was initially requested. If Congress passes a rescission bill within forty‐five days, the funds are also effectively impounded. But if Congress fails to act, the money must be spent as appropriated. This measure also created a Congressional Budget Office (CBO) to offer independent analyses of budgets proposed by the president. The CBO was designed to be a counterweight to the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) in the White House
Impeaching a President
As discussed in the previous chapter, the impeachment process is the formal mechanism by which Congress can remove a president from office. A president is not above the law and can certainly be tried in a regular criminal court for violations of it. However, a president convicted of a crime could still be president until formally removed from office through the impeachment process. The standard of high crimes and misdemeanors is often understood to mean a constitutional crisis where Congress feels that the president is usurping its powers or is refusing to abide by its wishes.
In Federalist Paper No. 65, Alexander Hamilton explains that impeachment deals with matters that have violated the public trust: "The subjects of its jurisdiction are those offenses which proceed from
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the misconduct of public men, or, in other words, from the abuse or violation of some public trust. They are of a nature which may with peculiar propriety be dominated POLITICAL, as they relate chiefly to injuries done immediately to the society itself."
By political standards, Hamilton would appear to be alluding to the separation of powers. When the president usurps the authority of Congress, he has committed the political crime of violating the separation of powers. When Congress investigated the break‐in at Democratic Party headquarters at the Watergate hotel and the possible cover‐up by the White House, it often requested information from the president. He typically refused to hand over such information, claiming that it was a matter of national security. On a couple of occasions Congress went to court to force the president to turn over information. The Judiciary Committee of the House of Representatives voted to impeach President Nixon, but following a court order to turn over White House tapes, he finally resigned before he could be impeached by the full House and tried in the Senate.
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5.9 Presidential Character As the president is head of state and head of government, as well as a world leader, much is made about a president's character and what that character says about his ability to lead. Political scientist James David Barber argues that a president's character can be divided into four distinct personality types: active‐positive, active‐negative, passive‐positive, and passive‐negative. If the public can identify a presidential candidate's personality type, Barber claims, it can predict his performance in office.
Active‐Positive
Of the four personality types, the active‐positive president is said to be the healthiest. This is the person who comes to office with an active policy agenda and sets out to achieve it through hard work. This person has a positive outlook on life and is very energetic.
Examples of the active‐positive president include John F. Kennedy and Franklin Roosevelt. They were optimistic, especially true for Roosevelt during the Great Depression, and they were ready to work with members of Congress to get their agendas passed. It is not clear, however, that the active‐ positive president always has to be successful in accomplishing his agenda to earn the title. Rather, the person has to come with the right attitude. Kennedy, for instance, was not very successful in getting Congress to pass his legislative agenda, but following his assassination his agenda formed the basis of the War on Poverty and Great Society programs of the 1960s. It took the skill and experience of his successor, former Senate majority leader Lyndon Johnson, to get much of Kennedy's agenda passed.
Active‐Negative
The active‐negative president is often seen to be the least healthy of the personality types. The active‐negative person also comes to office with good ideas, energy, and a desire to accomplish great things, but something in his personality brings him down and results in his failure. Barber considered Woodrow Wilson, Lyndon Johnson, and Richard Nixon to be examples of active‐negative presidents.
Wilson, who was president from 1913–1921, came to office with an active domestic policy agenda and was at the forefront of transforming the American presidency from a passive institution into an active one. But he could also be uncompromising, a trait that showed itself over the battle to join the League of Nations. His refusal to compromise with Republican members of the Senate resulted in their failure to ratify the Versailles Peace Treaty following World War I. Following this battle, Wilson suffered a stroke and his wife effectively served as president until he left office. In the end, he died a broken man. Despite his domestic policy achievements, history has not viewed him as a great success.
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President Woodrow Wilson, who led the United States from 1913 to 1921, was considered an active negative president. He came to office with an active domestic policy agenda, but his refusal to compromise with Republican members of the Senate led to the failed ratification of the Treaty of Versailles.
Similarly, Lyndon Johnson was energetic in his domestic policy achievements, including the historic Voting Rights Act of 1965. But his determination to prosecute the war in Vietnam amidst massive public protest brought down his presidency. Facing strong challenges in the 1968 primaries for the Democratic Party nomination, Johnson withdrew from the race. Nixon, who came to office with intelligence and energy, was widely seen as paranoid. He often viewed his political opposition as his personal enemies. Mired in the Watergate cover‐up, he resigned in disgrace in the face of impeachment proceedings.
Passive‐Positive
The passive‐positive president is often viewed as a caretaker who does not come to office with any great enthusiasm but might rise to the occasion during a time of crisis. As Barber explains, they are responders; not initiators or pushers. They like to accentuate the positive and be cheerleaders. "In the Presidency they are, in many ways, nice guys who finished first, only to discover that not everyone is a nice guy."
Passive‐positive presidents often seek the office because electoral victory represents personal affirmation and boosts their self‐esteem. They are often said to seek the love of their countrymen, and the fact that they are elected demonstrates that love. Barber offers the example of Warren G. Harding as a passive‐positive president. Harding spent little time on "Presidential homework." He played golf and poker a couple of nights per week. He always maintained that he wasn't prepared for the job, which Barber suggests was an appeal for reassurance. He appeared to have had little interest in exercising power, and even disliked it.
Recent students of the presidency often suggest that Bill Clinton was passive‐positive because he always craved the love and adulation of the public. Clinton was also active‐positive in many respects, because he came to office with a strong agenda and worked hard to achieve much of it. Arguably, there may have been traits of the active‐negative in Clinton. He allowed himself to get embroiled in an extramarital relationship that ultimately led to his impeachment. By Barber's thesis, had we known or understood this about his character, we might have opted not to elect him.
Passive‐Negative
The passive‐negative type of president is a relic of the past. He does not really want to be president
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but will serve out of a sense of duty if called upon by his countrymen. Examples of this type include the nation's Founding Fathers like Washington and Jefferson. Washington would have preferred to stay home in Mount Vernon, Virginia, but it was a foregone conclusion that he would be the nation's first president because the public expected it of him. Jefferson, too, is said to have preferred to stay home in Monticello, Virginia, and indeed he did spend much of his presidency there, but he also served because he thought it was expected of him.
Given the amount of time and money that it takes to run for office today, it is hard to imagine anybody would seek the office who does not really want it. The only modern‐day president who might have come close was George H. W. Bush, who was elected in 1988. He did not enter office with an active policy agenda. Rather, he came from a patrician family tradition where members of the upper crust of society—the wealthy elite—serve because they see it as their duty. He often gave the appearance that he wanted to be president because it was his turn. He is not a perfect fit, however, because there is no evidence that the public overwhelmingly sought him out.
Does Character Matter?
Presidential character is important, but it is not always clear that we can know a candidate's character prior to his taking office. At times, circumstances arise that could not have been foreseen. We could not have known when Wilson was elected in 1912 that World War I would erupt in 1914, the United States would get involved in 1917, and he would in the end be uncompromising over the terms of a peace treaty. At the same time, there were indications that he was a person of principle who was not always willing to compromise. Biographers point to his inability to please all the relevant factions when he was president of Princeton University earlier in his career. He was, however, a successful governor of New Jersey. There is really no way for the public to psychologically test a president because there is no way of knowing what circumstances will arise.
But for some voters there is the question of moral character. Stories of Bill Clinton's infidelity were widely known before he ran for president. He escaped conviction in his impeachment hearing largely because the public did not believe his private life was relevant to his performance in office. Of course, others disagreed. Issues of fidelity are about trustworthiness, and if a president is not trustworthy it may be extremely difficult for him to form working relationships with members of Congress and the end result may be inability to lead.
Ultimately, the issue of character speaks to whether the person is really fit to be president. Other than a minimum age and that one be a natural‐born citizen, there are no formal constitutional requirements for office. In many cases, voters vote based on a perception of whether this person comes across as presidential. Being president, in the minds of most, may mean acting appropriately, having good character, being dignified and trustworthy, and to some extent appearing to be above the political fray.
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Summary and Application The Constitution of the United States grants the president the formal authority to be commander in chief of the armed forces, to make appointments subject to the consent of the Senate, to negotiate treaties also subject to the consent of the Senate, to issue pardons, and to veto legislation. Beyond that, it has been up to presidents to carve out their own roles in American history and define for themselves the scope of their power.
Because the Constitution specifically requires the president to preserve and protect the Constitution, but is silent about what that means, presidents have inferred authority on the basis of prerogative. This has meant different things to different people, but historically presidents have used it to expand their powers, and in some cases to become imperial presidents. A president's power is limited by the necessity for him to persuade others. During times of crisis and in the realm of foreign affairs, presidents tend to enjoy greater authority and power. At the same time, there are mechanisms by which Congress can control presidents and curb their power. Presidential power has at times been curbed through legislation and at other times by a large loss of seats of the president's party in Congress.
Key Ideas to Remember
Article II establishes formal presidential powers such as commander in chief, pardoning, treaty making, and executing the laws of the land, but it also leaves much of his power undefined. Presidents enjoy a great deal of prerogative because of the silence of the Constitution on any number of issues. If the Constitution does not say that the president cannot do something, but he feels something needs to be done, he often exercises his prerogative. Ultimately the basis of presidential power is political. It is the president's ability to persuade others to do what he wants or think he is right. Presidents are often said to lack power when they are unable to persuade. Presidents are often said to have more power in foreign policy than in domestic policy. In foreign policy there is a greater tendency to defer to the president and in domestic policy a greater tendency for Congress to check what the president does. The American presidency is larger than the president himself; it includes him, the Executive Office of the President, the White House staff, and the cabinet. During times of emergency, presidents have tended to exercise their prerogative to the point of becoming imperial, and, during times of war, even dictatorial. Congress can control the power of presidents through hearings, legislation, and impeachment.
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Presidential elections in the United States are unique in that they are long, drawn‐out processes and take place on a state‐by‐state basis. In selecting a president, voters often consider his character, which might say something about how he can be expected to perform in office if elected.
Questions to Consider
What does it mean for the president to be commander in chief? What is the meaning of presidential prerogative and how has it evolved? By some accounts, the president of the United States might be the most powerful person in the world, and by others he or she may be the weakest. Which do you think is the stronger argument and why? By what mechanisms can Congress limit presidential power? Had we understood presidents' personality types prior to the election, would we have been able to predict how they would behave in office? Why or why not?
Web Links
The White House: http://www.whitehouse.gov/ (http://www.whitehouse.gov/)
The International Public Library/Drexel University College of Information Science and Technology: http://www.ipl.org/div/potus/ (http://www.ipl.org/div/potus/)
Center for the Study of the Presidency and Congress: http://www.thepresidency.org/ (http://www.thepresidency.org/)
The American Presidency Project: http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ (http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/)
American Presidents Life Portraits/C‐SPAN: http://www.americanpresidents.org/ (http://www.americanpresidents.org/)
The Miller Center at the University of Virginia: http://millercenter.org/president (http://millercenter.org/president)
Key Terms
Key Term Definition
active‐negative
The type of president who comes to office with good ideas and energy, but is ultimately prone to failure due to personality
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traits.
active‐positive The type of president who comes to office with optimism, energy, an active policy agenda, and a positive outlook.
Budget Reform and Impoundment Act
Statute that makes it more difficult for the president to impound funds.
cabinet Collection of executive branch department heads who may advise the president when asked.
constitutional crisis When Congress believes that the president has abused his power and authority by defying the will of Congress.
domestic policy president A president who is generally weaker in domestic policy relative to Congress.
Emancipation Proclamation
The proclamation, issued by President Lincoln during the Civil War, that freed the slaves.
Executive Office of the President (EOP)
Created in 1939, a division that consists of White House staff and other advisers who help the president direct the activities of the executive branch.
foreign policy president A president who is generally stronger in foreign policy relative to Congress.
Geneva Convention An international understanding about the rules of war between nation states.
Habeas Corpus A demand by a court to a jailer to produce the prisoner and announce the charges.
imperial presidency That of a president who assumes that he is above the law and can do as he pleases.
line‐item veto When a chief executive can reject portions of a bill rather than having to veto the entire bill.
mandate When a president believes he enjoys broad popular support because of the size of his electoral victory, and this support allows him to do what he thinks the people want.
National Defense Act The law that created a unified Defense Department.
participatory caucus A gathering to choose delegates during the primary phase of a presidential election.
The type of president who doesn't want to be president but
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passive‐negative serves out of a sense of duty.
Passive‐Positive The type of president who seeks office because he wants the adoration of the public.
plebiscitory presidency When victory at the polls allows the president to do as he pleases.
presidency curbing legislation
Legislation passed by Congress in an attempt to control presidential power and reassert checks and balances.
War Powers Act The requirement that the president notify Congress of the use of force.
Further Reading
Barber, J. D. (2008). The presidential character: Predicting performance in the White House. Fourth edition revised edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
DiClerico, R. E. (1999). The American president. (5th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Fisher, L. (2005). American constitutional law (6th ed.). Volume 1 constitutional structures, separated powers and federalism. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.
Fisher, L. (2007). Constitutional conflicts between congress and the president. (5th ed.). Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas.
Mansfield, H. C. (1989). Taming the prince: The ambivalence of modern executive power. New York: The Free Press.
Nelson, M. (2009). The presidency and the political system, (9th Ed.). Washington, DC: CQ Press.
Neustadt, R. E. (1960). Presidential power. New York: Signet Books.
Pious, R. M. (1979). The American presidency. New York: Basic Books.
Pyle, C. H. and Pious, R. M. (1984). The president, congress, and the constitution: Power and legitimacy in American politics. New York and London: The Free Press.
Schlesinger, A. M. Jr. (1973). The imperial presidency. New York: Popular Library.
Skowronek, S. (1997). The politics presidents make: Leadership from John Adams to Bill Clinton. Cambridge, MA and London: Belknap Press.
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Wildavsky, A. (1969). The two presidencies. In A. Wildavsky (Ed.). The presidency. Boston: Little, Brown.