Assigment For Researcher_D

1 Objective

1. Define training and development.

Training and development (T&D) is the heart of a continuous effort designed to improve employee competency and organizational performance. Training provides learners with the knowledge and skills needed for their present jobs. Showing a worker how to operate a lathe or a supervisor how to schedule daily production are examples of training. On the other hand,development involves learning that goes beyond today’s job and has a more long-term focus. It prepares employees to keep pace with the organization as it changes and grows. T&D activities have the potential to align a firm’s employees with its corporate strategies. Some possible strategic benefits of T&D include employee satisfaction, improved morale, higher retention, lower turnover, improved hiring, a better bottom line, and the fact that satisfied employees produce satisfied customers. 10

In virtually every market, customers are demanding higher quality, lower costs, and faster cycle times. To meet these requirements, firms must continually improve their overall performance. Rapid advances in technology and improved processes have been important factors in helping businesses meet this challenge. However, the most important strategic competitive advantage for any firm is its workforce, one that must remain competent through continuous workforce development efforts. Organizations spend over $50 billion every year on formal T&D programs. 11 Recently, the average annual expenditure per employee for training rose to $955 but averaged $1,368 per employee in large organizations. 12 To many, this may seem like a tremendous amount of money. However, successful organizations realize that well-structured and significant employee T&D programs correlate strongly with long-term strategic success.

Improved performance, the bottom-line purpose of T&D, is a strategic goal for organizations. 13 Toward this end, many firms have become or are striving to become learning organizations. A learning organization is a firm that recognizes the critical importance of continuous performance-related T&D and takes appropriate action.

A learning management system moves beyond delivering tactical training projects to initiating learning programs aligned to strategic corporate goals. 14 Once undervalued in the corporate world, training programs are now credited with strengthening customer satisfaction, contributing to partnership development, enhancing research and development activities and, finally, reinforcing the bottom line. Being recognized as a company that encourages its employees to continue to grow and learn can be a major plus in recruiting. 15 In a learning organization workers are rewarded for learning and are provided enriched jobs, promotions, and compensation. 16 Organizations with a reputation of being a learning leader tend to attract more and better-qualified employees. 17

In a recent study of training professionals, approximately 80 percent responded that they plan to expand their training and development efforts to meet expected company growth. 18 What accounts for the increased interest? In its annual coverage of the “100 Best Companies to Work for in America,” each of the top 10 on the list was rated highest in the areas of learning and growth opportunities. 19 On nearly every survey, training ranks in the top three benefits that employees want from their employers and they search for firms that will give them the tools to advance in their profession. Remember the discussion at the beginning of this chapter, when it was stated that “With career security, workers are offered opportunities to improve their skills, and thus their employability in an ever-changing work environment.” It is clear that T&D is not merely a nice thing to provide. It is a strategic resource; one that firms must tap to energize their organizations in the twenty-first century.

HR Web Wisdom: American Society for Training and Development

2 Objective

1. Explain factors influencing T&D.

There are numerous factors that both impact and are impacted by T&D. These issues are discussed next.

For T&D programs to be successful, leadership support at the top is required. Henry Goldman, managing director of the Goldman-Nelson Group in Huntington Beach, California, can attest to this. His boss, the CEO of Goldman-Nelson, was adamant that the firm’s 24 vice presidents understand a new initiative. Goldman asked him to give a short speech at an introductory session so attendees would know that the new program was important to the chief executive. On the day of the program launch, however, the CEO did not show up to give the presentation. The message to the vice presidents was clear; the CEO did not think the change was important enough for him to become an active participant. The result: the change never got off the ground. 20 Without top management support, a T&D program will not succeed. The most effective way to achieve success is for executives to take an active part in the training and provide the needed resources.

In addition to top management, all managers, whether they are specialists or generalists, should be committed to and involved in the T&D process. The primary responsibility for training and development lies with line managers, from the president and chairman of the board on down. T&D professionals merely provide the technical expertise.

Perhaps no factor has influenced T&D more than technology. The computer and the Internet, in particular, are dramatically affecting the conduct of all business functions. As emphasized throughout this chapter, technology has played a huge role in changing the way knowledge is delivered to employees, and this change is constantly being extended.

Flatter organization structures resulting from fewer managerial levels give the appearance of a simpler arrangement of people and tasks. This, however, is not the case. The tasks of individuals and teams are now both enlarged and enriched. The result is that American workers are spending more time on the job and performing more complex tasks than ever before. Also, the interactions between individuals and groups have become more complicated. The traditional chain of command, which provided a sense of stability at the expense of efficiency, is outdated in many modern organizations.

Ethical Dilemma: Tough Side of Technology

You are the human resource director for a large manufacturing firm that is undergoing major changes. Your firm is in the process of building two technologically advanced plants. When these are completed, the company will close four of its five old plants. It is your job to determine who will stay with the old plant and who will be retrained for the newer plants.

One old-plant employee is a 56-year-old production worker who has been with your firm for 10 years. He seems to be a close personal friend of your boss, as they are often seen together socially. However, in your opinion, he is not capable of handling the high-tech work required at the new plants, even with additional training. He is not old enough to receive any retirement benefits and there are other qualified workers with more seniority who want to remain at the old plant.

What would you do?

In recent years, the increasingly rapid changes in technology, products, systems, and methods have had a significant impact on job requirements. Thus, successful employees constantly upgrade their skills and develop an attitude that permits them not only to adapt to change, but also to accept and even seek it. Many organizations have changed dramatically as a result of downsizing, technological innovations, and customer demands for new and better products and services. The outcome is often that fewer people must accomplish more work at a more complex level. Supervisors and employees performing in self-directed teams are taking up much of the slack from dwindling middle-management ranks. All these changes translate into a greater need for T&D.

Although much remains unknown about the learning process, some generalizations stemming from the behavioral sciences have affected the way firms conduct training. Some examples follow:

· Learners progress in an area of learning only as far as they need to in order to achieve their purposes. Research indicates that unless there is relevance, meaning, and emotion attached to the material taught, the learner will not learn.

· The best time to learn is when the learning can be useful. Global competition has dramatically increased the need for efficiency. One way this impacts T&D is the need for training on a timely basis. Just-in-time training is training provided anytime, anywhere in the world when it is needed. 21

· Depending on the type of training, it may be wise to space out the training sessions.

Computer technology, the Internet, and intranets have made these approaches economically feasible to a degree never before possible. The ability to deliver knowledge to employees on an as-needed basis, anywhere on the globe, and at a pace consistent with their learning styles, greatly enhances the value of T&D.

Research on student learning styles indicates that most college students have a practical orientation to learning, with a preference for concrete learning activities, rather than a theoretical orientation toward learning that is abstract. Active modes of teaching and learning appear to be more effective than the passive modes of learning most familiar to many instructors and students. Active learning is based on the assumption that students learn best by doing. Active learning situations provide students with the opportunity not only to apply and practice what they have learned, but also to see the results of their practice, determine if they really understood what they did, and gain insight for subsequent application.

Steven Covey, author of The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People, suggests that organizations create a culture where every learner becomes a teacher and every teacher becomes a learner. The firm supplies not only individual knowledge but also creates institutional knowledge so that when an employee leaves the organization, another individual in the company possesses the same knowledge. 22

Successful accomplishment of other human resource functions can also have a crucial impact on T&D. For instance, if recruitment and selection efforts attract only marginally qualified workers, a firm will need extensive T&D programs. A firm’s compensation package may also influence T&D efforts. Organizations with competitive pay systems or progressive health and safety programs will find it easier to attract workers who are capable of hitting the ground running, and to retain employees who require less training.

3 Objective

1. Describe the T&D process.

Major adjustments in the external and internal environments necessitate corporate change. You can see the general T&D process that anticipates or responds to change in Figure 7-1. First, an organization must determine its specific training needs. Then specific objectives need to be established. The objectives might be quite narrow if limited to the supervisory ability of a manager, or they might be broad enough to include improving the management skills of all first-line supervisors. In exemplary organizations, there is a close link between the firm’s strategic mission and the objectives of the T&D program. Review and periodic updating of these objectives is necessary to ensure that they support the changing strategic needs of the organization. After setting the T&D objectives, management can determine the appropriate methods and the delivery system to be used. Naturally, management must continuously evaluate T&D to ensure its value in achieving organizational objectives.

The first step in the T&D process is to determine specific T&D needs. In today’s highly competitive business environment, undertaking a program because other firms are doing it is asking for trouble. A systematic approach to addressing bona fide needs must be undertaken.

Training and development needs may be determined by conducting analyses on several levels.

· Organizational analysis: From an overall organizational perspective, the firm’s strategic mission, goals, and corporate plans are studied, along with the results of human resource planning.

· Task analysis: The next level of analysis focuses on the tasks required to achieve the firm’s purposes. Job descriptions are important data sources for this analysis level.

· Person analysis: Determining individual training needs is the final level. The relevant questions are, “Who needs to be trained?” and “What kind of knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) do employees need?” Performance appraisals and interviews or surveys of supervisors and job incumbents are helpful at this level.

Sky Foster, manager for training and associate development for South Carolina–based BMW, states, “We are now training for need, as opposed to rolling out a number of courses. First, it was a check-off list for many of the courses, but now they have more impact and meaning. We specifically ask, ‘What knowledge do you want your people to have? What skills do they need? What do they need to do differently from what they’re doing today?’ We ask more pointed questions and find out exactly what job knowledge and skills the person must have to perform.” 23

T&D must have clear and concise objectives and be developed to achieve organizational goals. 24 Without them, designing meaningful T&D programs would not be possible. Worthwhile evaluation of a program’s effectiveness would also be difficult at best. Consider these purposes and objectives for a training program involving employment compliance:

Purpose: To provide the supervisor with

1. Knowledge and value of consistent human resource practices

2. The intent of EEO legal requirements

3. The skills to apply them

Objectives: To be able to

1. Cite the supervisory areas affected by employment laws on discrimination

2. Identify acceptable and unacceptable actions

3. State how to get help on equal employment opportunity matters

4. Describe why we have discipline, disciplinary action, and grievance procedures

5. Describe our disciplinary action and grievance procedures, including who is covered

As you see, the purpose is established first. The specific learning objectives that follow leave little doubt about what the training should accomplish. With these objectives, managers can determine whether training has been effective. For instance, in the example above, a trainee either can or cannot state how to get help on equal employment opportunity matters.

4 Objective

1. Describe the various T&D methods.

When a person is working in a garden, some tools are more helpful in performing certain tasks than others. The same logic applies when considering various T&D methods. In some cases, it is not feasible to learn while performing a job at the same time. Although an increasing amount of T&D takes place on the job at the time the employee needs the training, many programs occur away from the work setting. Regardless of whether programs are in-house or outsourced, firms utilize a number of methods for imparting knowledge and skills to the workforce and usually more than one method, called blended training, is used to deliver T&D. 25 These T&D methods are discussed next.

The instructor-led method continues to be effective for many types of T&D. One advantage of instructor-led T&D is that the instructor may convey a great deal of information in a relatively short time. The effectiveness of instructor-led programs improves when groups are small enough to permit discussion, and when the instructor is able to capture the imagination of the class and utilize multimedia in an appropriate manner. Also, the charisma or personality that the instructor brings to class may excite the students to want to learn.

Trends & Innovations: Virtual Instructor-Led

Traditionally, instructors physically lectured in front of a real student body. Now instructors can deliver their lectures virtually. As before, the instructor is still in charge of the class but he or she is not physically standing in front of students. The instructor still lectures but in a different format. Students can do practically anything they could do in a traditional classroom. They can share a whiteboard, communicate as individuals and groups, view video material, and so forth. Students do not have to wait for a professor’s office hours since an e-mail may be sent anytime. The largest software provider of virtual instructor-led delivery systems is Blackboard. The Blackboard Learning System is a software application for delivering education online and has powerful capabilities for managing courses and tailoring instruction to enhance student outcomes. It enables instructors to use the full power of the Internet with access to any learning resource at any time from any place. Blackboard has licensed over 1,000 enterprise editions of the Blackboard Learning System. 26

Your author appreciated firsthand the power of the virtual instructor-led method when his university took a direct hit from Hurricane Rita in 2005. Under the mandatory evacuation order, students and faculty scattered in every direction, going to different states and countries. A few days after the hurricane struck, it was evident that the brick-and-mortar university would be out of service for some time. When your author evacuated to Fort Worth, Texas, he went to Blackboard and e-mailed all his students asking them to reply if they received his e-mail. Luckily, the server had been transferred to another school in the state and Blackboard could still be used by students. Surprisingly, most responded, some from their homes in New York, Mexico, Asia, and the Philippines.

Prior to the hurricane, students had been assigned a term paper which required library research using EBSCOhost, a business research database. They were encouraged to begin their research and to communicate often with their instructor. From Fort Worth, there began a steady flow of communication between instructor and students. Students would attach a rough draft of their research paper for the instructor to review. After review, the papers were returned in the same manner. Lectures were placed on Blackboard for students to read. Apparently other instructors were also using Blackboard to keep in touch with students. The semester was ultimately completed, although weeks later than normal, but only 8 percent of the entire student population failed to complete the semester.

The case study is a T&D method in which trainees study the information provided in the case and make decisions based on it.

If an actual company is involved, the student would be expected to research the firm to gain a better appreciation of its financial condition and environment. Research on companies has been significantly enhanced through the availability of library databases such as EBSCOhost. Often, the case study method occurs in the classroom with an instructor who serves as a facilitator.

Behavior modeling is a T&D method that permits a person to learn by copying or replicating behaviors of others to show managers how to handle various situations. Behavior modeling has been used to train supervisors in such tasks as conducting performance appraisal reviews, correcting unacceptable performance, delegating work, improving safety habits, handling discrimination complaints, overcoming resistance to change, orienting new employees, and mediating individuals or groups in conflict.

Role-playing is a T&D method where participants are required to respond to specific problems they may encounter in their jobs by acting out real-world situations. Rather than hearing an instructor talk about how to handle a problem or discussing it, they learn by doing. Role-playing is often used to teach such skills as disciplinary action, interviewing, grievance handling, conducting performance appraisal reviews, team problem solving, effective communication, and leadership style analysis. It has also been used successfully to teach workers how to deal with individuals who are angry, irate, or out of control. 27 Some restaurant chains use role-playing to train servers how to deal with difficult situations such as a couple having an argument at the dining table. 28

Role-playing may also serve to train managers. Consider this scenario:

“Be in the boardroom in 10 minutes,” reads the e-mail from Senior Vice President Alan Young. The CEO is out on his boat, and a storm has knocked out all communications. Worse, there has been a massive fire in the call center in South America. “We could lose billions,” Young says. The board has given senior staff emergency powers. You’re a top manager who has been called in to help. What do you do? 29

In the episode above, this is the final setting in a new computer-based role-playing exercise called Virtual Leader.

Business games is a T&D method that permits participants to assume roles such as president, controller, or marketing vice president of two or more similar hypothetical organizations and compete against each other by manipulating selected factors in a particular business situation. Participants make decisions affecting price levels, production volumes, and inventory levels. Typically, a computer program manipulates their decisions, with the results simulating those of an actual business situation. Participants are able to see how their decisions affect other groups and vice versa. The best thing about this type of learning is that if a poor decision costs the company $1 million, no one gets fired, yet the business lesson is learned.

In-basket training is a T&D method in which the participant is asked to establish priorities for and then handle a number of business papers, e-mail messages, memoranda, reports, and telephone messages that would typically cross a manager’s desk. The messages, presented in no particular order, call for anything from urgent action to routine handling. The participant is required to act on the information contained in these messages. In this method, the trainee assigns a priority to each particular situation before making any decisions. This form of training has been quite accurate in predicting performance success in management jobs. 30 Assessment centers, discussed in Chapter 6, commonly make use of this training method in the selection process.

The next four T&D methods involve learning by actually doing work-related tasks. On-the-job-training (OJT) is an informal T&D method that permits an employee to learn job tasks by actually performing them. The key to this training is to transfer knowledge from a highly skilled and experienced worker to a new employee, while maintaining the productivity of both workers. 31 Individuals may also be more highly motivated to learn because it is clear to them that they are acquiring the knowledge needed to perform their jobs. At times, however, the trainee may feel so much pressure to produce that learning is negatively affected. Firms should be selective about who provides on-the-job training. The trainers are often supervisors. However, peer-to-peer communication can provide a very powerful means for training. Regardless of who does the training, that person must have a good work ethic and correctly model the desired behavior.

Job rotation (sometimes called cross-training) is a T&D method where employees move from one job to another to broaden their experience. Higher-level tasks often require this breadth of knowledge. Rotational training programs help employees understand a variety of jobs and their interrelationships, thereby improving productivity. Job rotation is often used by organizations to encourage effective teamwork. 32 Organizations are widely applying entry-level rotational training programs. For instance, a college graduate may be given the opportunity to test his or her skills in a number of different roles such as finance, sales, and supply-chain management, before settling on a full-time management role within the company. Streamlined firms have to do more with less so it makes sense to develop employees who can jump in anywhere they are needed.

As mentioned in Chapter 5, an internship program is a recruitment method typically involving students in higher education who divide their time between attending classes and working for an organization. Internships as a T&D method allow participants to integrate theory learned in the classroom with business practices. In a recent WetFeet survey, 79 percent felt a good internship was essential to meeting their long-term career goals. 33 As evidence of their current popularity, three out of four students now complete internships before graduation; up from one in 36 in 1980. 34 A study by the National Association of Colleges and Employers found that employers offered higher starting salaries to graduates with internship experience. 35

Apprenticeship training is a training method that combines classroom instruction with on-the-job training. Such training is common with craft jobs, such as those of plumber, barber, carpenter, machinist, and printer. While in training, the employee earns less than the master craftsperson who is the instructor. Apprenticeship programs last from two to five years, with four years being the average length.

The days of narrow training just for job skills are past for some crafts. In today’s workplace, communication and interpersonal relationships are essential. For example, a Pennsylvania apprenticeship program now requires electrician hopefuls to earn an associate’s degree in order to graduate. The program requires academic courses right alongside electrical wiring in a mix of traditional vocational-technical training. 36

5 Objective

1. Describe training and development delivery systems.

The section above focused on the various T&D methods available to organizations; and, the list is constantly changing. In this section, our attention is devoted to how the training will be delivered to participants.

A T&D delivery system provided under the umbrella of the organization is referred to as a corporate university. The corporate T&D institution differs from many traditional education programs in that its focus is on creating organizational change that involves such areas as company training, employee development, and adult learning. 37 It is proactive and strategic rather than reactive and tactical and can be closely aligned to corporate goals. 38 An estimated 2,000 corporate universities exist in the United States today. 39 This number includes many Fortune 500 companies. If this growth rate continues, the roughly 3,700 traditional universities will someday be outnumbered. The best-known corporate universities include those at General Motors, McDonald’s, Disney, Motorola, GE, and Intel. Intel University in Arizona administers programs developed by 73 training groups located worldwide. Intel offers technology courses ranging from using Microsoft Word to training in lithography, one of the stages of computer-chip manufacturing. The university also teaches nontechnical skills such as dealing with conflict and harassment avoidance.

Growth in the number of corporate universities may be attributed to their flexibility, which permits students to learn on their own time, and the use of various modes including DVDs, audio- and videotapes, and, of course, the Internet. Also, firms are better able to control the quality of training and to ensure that their employees receive the same messages. The remarkable growth rate of corporate universities clearly illustrates that they have something going for them.

For decades, colleges and universities have been the primary delivery system for training professional, technical, and management employees. Many public and private colleges and universities are taking similar approaches to training and education as have the corporate universities. Corporate T&D programs often partner with colleges and universities or other organizations, such as the American Management Association, to deliver both training and development.

Community colleges are publicly funded higher education establishments that deliver vocational training and associate degree programs. Some employers have discovered that community colleges can provide certain types of training better and more costeffectively than they can.

In a report entitled “The Knowledge Net,” the American Association of Community Colleges (AACC) argued that community colleges should increase their collaborations with business, industry, and other educational entities as a primary strategy to develop a higher-quality, better-prepared workforce. 40 Apparently, many organizations agree. Rapid technological changes and corporate restructuring have created a new demand by industry for community college training resources. Here are some examples:

· In Phoenix, PepsiCo Inc., has established its own training program with community college help. Its Gatorade factory in suburban Tolleson and a neighboring container manufacturer host an electricity-theory class taught by Maricopa Community College faculty. 41

· In Cedar Rapids, Iowa, Kirkwood Community College is part of a development consortium known as the Workplace Learning Connection that helps 700 local firms recruit and train workers. 42

· Connecticut Community Colleges include as clients some of our nation’s most prestigious firms: Cigna, Clairol, Eli Lilly, Frito Lay Inc., General Electric, International Paper, Pitney Bowes, Pratt & Whitney, The Travelers, and United Technologies, to name a few. 43

The federal government has joined industry in an increased interest in community college involvement in educating the national labor force. The Workforce Investment Act (WIA), discussed later in this chapter, dramatically altered the federal system of job training and workforce development. This huge and comprehensive federal law assures the participation of community colleges, as they are a critical factor in the success of this legislation.

In recent years, there has been an increase in the use of online higher education as a means of delivering T&D. Online higher education is defined as educational opportunities including degree and training programs that are delivered, either entirely or partially, via the Internet. 44 One reason for the growth of online higher education is that it allows employees to attend class at lunchtime, during the day, or in the evening. It also saves employees time since it reduces their need to commute to school. It increases the range of learning opportunities for employees and increases employee satisfaction. According to a recent ASTD survey, approximately 29 percent of corporate tuition reimbursements now go to online or blended programs. 45 Enrollment in online universities continues to grow. The University of Phoenix has over 80,000 degree-seeking undergraduate students. 46 It even has 18,800 online MBA students. General Motors pays for its employees to earn an MBA through an Internet-based school launched two years ago by the New York Institute of Technology and Cardean University. Schools such as Indiana University and Arizona State University have also entered the online MBA market. 47

For a number of years, many firms in the United States have used videoconferencing and satellite classrooms for delivering T&D and the technology is rapidly improving. 48 The approach is interactive and appears to offer the flexibility and spontaneity of a traditional classroom. A great deal of T&D takes place using this technology, offering the prospect of increasing the number of trainees and at the same time saving companies money. Global firms, in particular, can benefit from this technology. With far-flung operations, videoconferencing cuts the cost of travel. 49 Potential terrorist attacks also make this approach more appealing. Videoconferencing and similar technology can increase access to training, ensure consistency of instruction, and reduce the cost of delivering T&D programs. There is seemingly no limit to its possibility.

Vestibule system is a T&D delivery system that takes place away from the production area on equipment that closely resembles equipment actually used on the job. For example, a group of lathes may be located in a training center where the trainees receive instruction in their use. A primary advantage of the vestibule system is that it removes the employee from the pressure of having to produce while learning. The emphasis is focused on learning the skills required by the job.

The use of video media such as DVDs, videotapes, and film clips continues to be popular T&D delivery systems. The media are especially appealing to small businesses that cannot afford more expensive training methods. In addition, they provide the flexibility desired by any firm. Behavior modeling, previously mentioned, has long been a successful training method that utilizes video media.

E-learning is the T&D delivery system for online instruction. It takes advantage of the speed, memory, and data manipulation capabilities of the computer for greater flexibility of instruction. A basic benefit is that it is self-paced and individualized and can be done while at work or off-shift. 50 The concept can be repeated as often as needed. Help screens can also be included in the program to give additional explanation for those who need it. In a computer lab, participants can be working on different parts of a program, at varying speeds and in different languages. E-learning systems may also utilize multimedia to enhance learning with audio, animation, graphics, and interactive video.

By 2008, the e-learning market should more than double, rising to $13.5 billion in the United States and $21 billion globally, according to International Data Group Inc. 51 The versatility of online learning has important implications for T&D since the demand for an educated and empowered workforce is critical in the economy. The advantages of using e-learning are numerous: it is available anytime, anywhere in the world, and in different languages. However, the biggest advantage is cost savings. According to Paul Walliker, Caterpillar Inc.’s collaboration and online training manager, “To create an e-learning module is three times less expensive than it is to create an instructor-led class.” 52

Individuals involved in e-learning are no longer constrained by the need to be in a classroom at a specific location and time. Animation, video, and multimedia make presentations vivid and appealing. E-learning is also considered the most effective way to control training costs. 53 For example, IBM found that using such technology has enabled the company to trim the cost of training by $400 million a year. Companies are treating e-learning strategically, with greater attention to ROI and more awareness of how to use online training. 54 Also, e-learning and classroom learning were found to be equally effective. 55

For Union Pacific, the largest railroad in North America, both distance and time have been hurdles to learning. About 19,000 of its 48,000 widely disbursed employees work on the railroad’s locomotives and freight cars, many on different schedules. So the company uses a blend of traditional learning and e-learning that provides the kind of training far-flung employees require, at a time when they can use it. 56

Firms that consistently have a high turnover rate are turning to e-learning because classroom learning is not cost-effective. Nike faced a challenge that a number of retailers today are confronting. Nike designed an online training program that the company could offer to employees in its own stores as well as at other retailers that sell Nike products. The program conveys a lot of information quickly, but it is also easy to learn. This is important because the training is directed at 16- to 22-year-olds. The concept of Sports Knowledge Underground (SKU) was developed. The layout for SKU resembles a subway map, with different stations representing different training themes. For example, Apparel Union Station branches off into the apparel technologies line, the running products line, and the Nike Pro products line. The Cleated Footwear Station offers paths to football, whereas the Central Station offers such broad lines as customer skills. Each segment is three to seven minutes long and gives associates the basic knowledge they need about various products. The program is presently reaching approximately 20,000 associates. 57

Virtual reality is a unique extension of e-learning that permits trainees to view objects from a perspective otherwise impractical or impossible. For example, it is not feasible to turn a drill press on its side so a trainee can inspect it from the bottom. A computer easily permits this type of manipulation.

Simulators are T&D delivery system comprised of devices or programs that replicate actual job demands. The devices range from simple paper mock-ups of mechanical devices to computerized simulations of total environments. Training and development specialists may use simulated sales counters, automobiles, and airplanes. Although simulator training may be less valuable than on-the-job training for some purposes, it has certain advantages. A prime example is the training of airline pilots in a simulator; simulated crashes do not cost lives or deplete the firm’s fleet of jets.

Automobile mechanics are using the same type of simulation training that was developed to help U.S. Air Force technicians fix jet fighters. An auto technician can take the program wherever the technician has access to a personal computer with an Internet connection. General Motors recognized that a different approach would be needed to train service technicians following the explosion of technology in its vehicles. It felt that if Raytheon could help technicians fix B-2 Stealth bombers and F-15 jet fighters, it was qualified to help mechanics repair cars. “During each simulation, the technician receives a work order to complete. He or she must select the appropriate tools to diagnose the problem and make the repair. A virtual instructor appears at several points to inform, challenge and help technicians discover the concern, much like an instructor would in one of GM’s training centers.” 58

6 Objective

1. Describe management development, mentoring, and coaching.

Management development consists of all learning experiences provided by an organization resulting in upgrading skills and knowledge required in current and future managerial positions. Although leadership is often depicted as an exciting and glamorous endeavor, there is another side; failure can quickly result in losing one’s position. The risks are especially high due to today’s rapid changes. This situation magnifies the importance of providing development opportunities for a firm’s management group. Organizations in the United States focus training efforts on managers and professionals.

A firm’s future lies largely in the hands of its managers. This group performs certain functions essential to the organization’s survival and prosperity. Managers must make the right choices in most of their decisions; otherwise, the firm will not grow and may even fail. Therefore, it is imperative that managers keep up with the latest developments in their respective fields and, at the same time, manage an ever-changing workforce operating in a dynamic environment. Also note that as managers reach higher levels in the organization, it is not so much their technical skills that they need, but their interpersonal skills and their business knowledge.

First-line supervisors, middle managers, and executives may all participate in management development programs. These programs are available in-house, by professional organizations, and at colleges and universities. T&D specialists often plan and present in-house programs, at times utilizing line managers. Organizations such as the Society for Human Resource Management and the American Management Association conduct conferences and seminars in a number of specialties. Numerous colleges and universities also provide management T&D programs. Colleges and universities may possess expertise not available within business organizations. In these cases, academicians and management practitioners can advantageously present T&D programs jointly. Reasons for conducting management training outside and inside the company are presented in Table 7-1.

According to a recent study from global HR consulting firm DDI, nearly a third of global business leaders do not have the skills they need to help their organizations achieve business goals. That’s a problem, since researchers found that strong leadership can increase the successful implementation of business strategies by 22 percent. DDI’s senior vice president, Rich Wellins, says, “Companies that are worried about their future profitability should be just as worried about the future of their leadership.” Paul Bernthal, manager of DDI’s Center for Applied Behavioral, says many leaders know they lack necessary skills. “‘We’re not doing as well as we’d like,’ they say, ‘but nobody’s helping us.’” Only half the leaders surveyed are satisfied with their organization’s leadership development opportunities. Although the use of formal workshops is the most common leader development practice, only 42 percent of leaders found training workshops highly effective. Working on special projects or assignments and getting help from mentors or coaches were the most effective methods. 59

Mentoring and coaching have become important means of management development. Because the purposes of mentoring and coaching are similar in concept and the terms are often used interchangeably in the literature, they are discussed together. Coaching and mentoring activities, which may occur either formally or informally, are primarily development approaches emphasizing one-to-one learning. Mentoring is an approach to advising, coaching, and nurturing, for creating a practical relationship to enhance individual career, personal, and professional growth and development. It focuses on skills to develop protégés to perform to their highest potential, leading to career advancement. 60 Mentors may be anywhere in the organization or even in another firm. For years mentoring has repeatedly been shown to be the most important factor influencing careers of both men and women. 61 Coaching is often considered a responsibility of the immediate boss, who provides assistance, much like a mentor. The coach has greater experience or expertise than the protégé and is in the position to offer wise advice. Coaching has become an excellent way to develop managers and executives. 62 Although some companies have become too lean to provide inside coaches, individual managers have independently sought out their own.

How important is it for a manager to have a mentor? Some believe that having a mentor is essential to make it to the top, and the lack of one may explain why women and minorities have encountered the glass ceiling. 63 For various reasons, mentors tend to seek out their mirror images. Since women and minorities are not equally represented at the firm’s top levels, they are often left without a mentor. Studies show that women who are mentored, particularly by other women, are more likely to enhance and expand career skills, advance in their careers, receive higher salaries, and enjoy their work more. The main point is that women and minorities want and need to have advantages provided by mentors to effectively use their talents and realize their potential, not only for their personal benefit but to assist their firms. 64 Joan Gosier, a business executive, said, “Having a mentor is imperative. Some people think you can just work hard. But without a sponsor, you don’t know the unwritten rules that can take you to the next level.” 65 According to Katherine Giscombe, Catalyst senior director of research, “African-American women who have a mentor are more likely to get promoted. And those who have more than one mentor are most likely to get promoted.” 66

Although mentoring has many obvious advantages, there are reasons why the process is not foolproof. One reason is the mentor; the other is the protégé. Some managers do not have the temperament to become a mentor or coach. The role imposes additional work, and some literally have no time. Others just do not want to be bothered. On the other side, some new hires are argumentative or uninterested. Even if both parties are generally willing, there may be a personality conflict. Ultimately, the proper pairing of individuals in a mentoring/protégé relationship is critical to its success.

Reverse mentoring is a process where older employees learn from younger ones. 69 There are people in organizations approaching retirement who do not want to retire, and who have tremendous knowledge that should not go to waste. There are young people who know things others do not know and who are anxious to expand their horizons. The existence of these two diverse, but potentially mutually helpful, populations has led to reverse mentoring. At Procter & Gamble, the reverse mentoring program allows senior management to be mentored in an area such as biotechnology. It pairs scientists and top managers in order to explore the potential impact of biotechnology on P&G’s customers, suppliers, and overall business. 70 General Electric’s reverse mentoring program was so impressive that the program grew to include the top 3,000 managers in the company. GE even recruited a mentor for the board: Scott McNealy, CEO of Sun Microsystems. 71

According to one study, 41 percent of respondents use reverse mentoring to spread technical expertise and 26 percent rely on younger staff members to help executives gain a more youthful perspective. 72 Benefits can stem from either group. It seems reasonable that new economy managers and old economy managers can learn from each other. A classic example of this arrangement is Microsoft’s CEO Bill Gates, who regularly consults business guru Warren Buffett for advice. 73

7 Objective

1. Define orientation and describe the executive orientation concept of onboarding.

Orientation is the initial T&D effort for new employees that informs them about the company, the job, and the work group. First impressions are often the most lasting. This lesson may apply to new employees’ impressions of their employers, and orientation programs give organizations an opportunity to begin the relationship with a good start. After all, considerable time, money, and effort often have gone into the selection process. Dennis Liberson, executive vice president for human resources at Capital One Financial Corporation, says, “We have programs in place to immediately show people what the culture is all about and what it’s going to take to succeed.” 74

In a recent study, 44 percent of employees polled felt they were not given the tools and resources they needed to succeed in the first few weeks on the job. 75 Therefore, effective orientation plays a large part in reducing employee turnover. Orientation formats are unique to each firm. However, some basic purposes are listed below.

· The Employment Situation. At an early point in time, it is helpful for the new employee to know how his or her job fits into the firm’s organizational structure and goals.

· Company Policies and Rules. Every job within an organization must be performed within the guidelines and constraints provided by policies and rules. Employees must understand these to ensure a smooth transition to the workplace.

· Compensation. Employees have a special interest in obtaining information about the reward system. Management normally provides this information during the recruitment and selection process and often reviews it during orientation.

· Corporate Culture. The firm’s culture reflects, in effect, “How we do things around here.” 76 This relates to everything from the way employees dress to the way they talk. Remember our earlier discussion in Chapter 6 of the importance oforganizational fit to an employee’s success.

· Team Membership. A new employee’s ability and willingness to work in teams were likely determined before he or she was hired. In orientation, the program may again emphasize the importance of becoming a valued member of the company team.

· Employee Development. An individual’s employment security is increasingly becoming dependent upon his or her ability to acquire needed knowledge and skills that are constantly changing. Thus, firms should keep employees aware not only of company-sponsored developmental programs, but also those available externally.

· Socialization. To reduce the anxiety that new employees may experience, the firm should take steps to integrate them into the informal organization. Some organizations have found that employees subjected to socialization programs, including the topics of politics and career management, perform better than those who have not undergone such training.

Although orientation is often the joint responsibility of the training staff and the line supervisor, peers often serve as excellent information agents. There are several reasons for using peers in performing this function. For one thing, they are accessible to newcomers, often more so than the boss. Peers also tend to have a high degree of empathy for new people. In addition, they have the organizational experience and technical expertise to which new employees need access.

Orientation may occupy a new employee’s first few days on the job. However, some firms believe that learning is more effective if spread out over time. For example, a company may deliver a program in a system of 20 one-hour sessions over a period of several weeks. Some firms are sensitive to information overload and make information available to employees on an as-neededbasis. For example, a new supervisor may eventually have the responsibility for evaluating his or her subordinates. But, knowledge of how to do this may not be needed for six months. A training segment on performance evaluation may be placed on the Internet or a firm’s intranet and be available when the need arises. This approach is consistent with just-in-time training, mentioned earlier.

Monster.com dropped its old orientation process and replaced it with one designed primarily to convey the zing of the corporate culture. Monster employees attend orientation sessions in which the orientation content is mixed with fun, games, and prizes. Before new hires arrive they are assigned personal mentors who guide them through the first few weeks. The idea behind the new process is to demonstrate to new employees that they are valued, through a well-organized, well-considered, month-long program of activities. On a typical Monday, Monster welcomes 10 to 15 new employees to its group orientation sessions. New hires introduce themselves, discuss how they came to be at Monster, tell positive things about themselves, and discuss other topics intended to help new employees build a rapport. New employees get an overview of Monster’s business philosophy, its customer base, its products and services, its facilities, and other information helpful to new employees. 77

The second part of the orientation program is intended to ensure that a new employee gets off to a smooth start in his or her job. Before the new hire arrives, his or her manager receives a six-page checklist of to-dos. That list itemizes tasks that begin prior to the new employee’s arrival such as setting up an employee’s work area and creating a departmental organizational chart. In addition, all new employees are assigned mentors from their departments. “The idea is for the new hire to be paired with a veteran employee who is genuinely interested in being a mentor. The activity also can become part of the mentor’s performance review,” says Kristen Gleason, Monster’s professional development manager. 78

Onboarding is the process companies use to help new executives quickly learn an organization’s structure, culture, and politics so that they can start making contributions to the organization as soon as possible. 79 However, in one recent survey, only 30 percent of hiring executives were satisfied with their process. 80 For instance, when Bristol-Myers Squibb, the global pharmaceutical manufacturer, studied the retention rates of its recently hired executives it discovered that the company was losing promising new executives because it was not taking steps to ensure their success. It made new executives the object of keen focus during the first 30 to 60 days of their employment, providing guidelines, clarifying roles, setting up meetings with influential colleagues, and fostering each newcomer’s understanding of the company’s cultural norms. Follow-up meetings are held during the executive’s first year to check progress and resolve problems. 81

As another example, when a new program manager at Intel’s Mobile Platforms Group arrived for her first day on the job, Jessica Rocha, her boss, handed her a calendar filled with already-scheduled meetings. These meetings had nothing to do with the usual employee-orientation process, through which new hires learn about Intel’s values and HR procedures. Rather, Rocha had scheduled face-to-face interviews with people across Intel who had the technical expertise, cultural lowdown, and political knowledge the newly hired manager would need to accomplish her work. 82

8 Objective

1. Identify special training areas.

Many organizations also have extensive programs for supervisors and employees. These programs often emphasize specific tasks required to perform given jobs. Other programs may deal with critical areas that surround the job.

Diversity training attempts to develop sensitivity among employees about the unique challenges facing women and minorities and strives to create a more harmonious working environment. Many firms recognize the significance of a diverse workforce and consider diversity training to be essential. 83 A survey by SHRM indicates that about two-thirds of U.S. companies provide some diversity training for employees, mostly mandatory and aimed at executives and managers. 84

Training in ESL shows sensitivity to diversity issues and helps firms deal with employees in a way that optimizes personal work relationships. In this spirit, four unrelated Texas restaurants have worked together to create an ESL course that focuses on vocabulary crucial to restaurant settings. It also doubles as a Spanish-language course for English speakers. Restaurant operators have long known that teaching English to Spanish speakers can improve customer service and improve an employee’s skill and confidence. La Madeleine, Carlson Restaurants Worldwide, Dave & Buster’s (based in Dallas), and San Antonio–based Taco Cabana, each with large numbers of Spanish-speaking employees, wanted a uniform, self-taught program based on the vocabulary needed for restaurants. They also wanted something that would allow English-speaking employees to learn Spanish with the same tools. The group used the brainpower of all four companies to create a system that builds an extensive restaurant vocabulary by using flashcards and pictorials. The tools offer words spelled in English and Spanish and spelled phonetically in both languages. 85

In regulated environments, such as the pharmaceutical industry, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has placed severe regulatory burdens on companies. Companies that employ workers where English is their secondary language may encounter difficulty complying. If the records are in English and the company employees do not read English well, they will not be able to read and follow the directives. 86 Having an ESL training program is especially important in these industries.

In the wake of Enron and other corporate scandals, many firms are emphasizing ethics. By stressing fair play and a respect for law, they intend to develop a corporate culture that rewards ethical behavior. This emphasis has a practical side. Under federal guidelines, companies convicted of crimes are eligible for reduced sentences if they have previously established programs to prevent and detect fraud. Recall from Chapter 2 that the Sarbanes-Oxley Act also requires companies to adopt ethics programs.

Both telecommuters and their supervisors need telecommuter training. Telecommuter training should emphasize effective communication strategies that permit managers and employees to define job responsibilities and set goals and job expectations. The primary challenge for the telecommuter is to be able to work without direct supervision; the challenge for the supervisor is to make a shift from activity-based management to results-based management. This is a difficult transition for the many managers who feel that workers cannot be productive unless they are at their workplace.

Customer service training teaches employees the skills needed to meet and exceed customer expectations. Communication skills, including listening skills and the recognition of diverse customer needs and requirements receive special emphasis.

Conflict resolution training focuses on developing the communication skills needed to resolve gridlock in relationships. 87 Conflict within an organization can be valuable and often aids in growth and change. But, it is critical that the conflict be recognized, managed, and transformed into a positive force for advancing the firm’s goals.

Teamwork training strives to teach employees how to work in groups that often have been empowered with considerable authority in making decisions. This type of training is essential because our culture has historically nurtured individual accomplishments, yet organizations are increasingly using teams. Team building as an organizational development intervention is discussed later in this chapter.

Empowerment training teaches employees and teams how to make decisions and accept responsibility for results. It often accompanies teamwork training because some firms have delegated considerable authority to teams. For example, work teams may actually hire employees for their group, determine pay increases, and plan work schedules.

Remedial training focuses on foundation skills such as basic literacy and mathematics skills. A large percentage of individuals are entering the workforce without the requisite skills to handle the jobs that technology has produced. It is estimated that as many as one-third of new employees require remedial training after high school to become qualified for work. 88

Anger management training programs give employers a tool to help prevent domestic abuse and workplace violence. The programs are designed to help participants take control of their angry outbursts. The program helps participants identify and focus on the most crucial aspects of anger management. 89

A perfectly conceived training program will fail if management cannot convince the participants of its merits. Participants must believe that the program has value and will help them achieve their personal and professional goals. A long string of successful programs certainly enhances the credibility of T&D.

Implementing T&D programs is often difficult. One reason is that managers are typically action oriented and feel that they are too busy for T&D. According to one management development executive, “Most busy executives are too involved chopping down the proverbial tree to stop for the purpose of sharpening their axes.” Another difficulty in program implementation is that qualified trainers must be available. In addition to possessing communication skills, the trainers must know the company’s philosophy, its objectives, its formal and informal organization, and the goals of the training program. Training and development requires more creativity than perhaps any other human resource function.

Implementing training programs presents unique problems. Training implies change, which employees may vigorously resist. Participant feedback is vital at this stage because there are often problems in new programs. It may be difficult to schedule the training around present work requirements. Unless the employee is new to the firm, he or she undoubtedly has specific full-time duties to perform. Another difficulty in implementing T&D programs is record keeping. It is important to maintain training records including how well employees perform during training and on the job. This information is important in terms of measuring program effectiveness and charting the employees’ progress in the company. The problems mentioned have solutions; however, the more effectively and efficiently they are resolved, the better the chances for success.

9 Objective

1. Explain the metrics for evaluating training and development.

Managers should strive to develop and use T&D metrics because such information can smooth the way to budget approval and executive buy-in. 90 Most managers agree that training does not cost, it pays, and training is an investment, not an expense. Although corporate America spends billions of dollars a year on employee training, there is no clear consensus within the training community on how to determine its value. What may be missing in programs is a clearly stated business objective for the outcome. It is impossible to evaluate the effectiveness of the activity without clear objectives. And, if you do not collect accurate data and feedback on the effectiveness of your training programs, you just may be wasting money.

Obviously, T&D can enhance its integrity within a firm if it shows tangible benefits to the organization. The three purposes of evaluating include: deciding if a program should be continued, deciding if a program should be modified, and determining the value of training. 91 Thus, the T&D department must document its efforts and demonstrate that it provides a valuable service. Organizations have taken several approaches to evaluate the worth of specific programs. The Kirkpatrick model for training evaluation is widely used in learning environments. 92 The levels in this model are: (1) participants’ opinions, (2) extent of learning, (3) behavioral change (transfer of training to the job), and (4) accomplishment of T&D objectives (impact on performance).

HR Web Wisdom: Evaluating Training and Development

Evaluating a T&D program by asking the participants’ opinions of it is an approach that provides a response and suggestions for improvements, essentially a level of customer satisfaction. You cannot always rely on such responses, however. The training may have taken place in an exotic location with time for golfing and other fun activities, and the overall experience may bias some reports. Nevertheless, this approach is a good way to obtain feedback and to get it quickly and inexpensively.

Some organizations administer tests to determine what the participants in a T&D program have learned. The pretest–posttest control group design is one evaluation procedure that may be used. In this procedure, both groups receive the same test before and after training. The experimental group receives the training but the control group does not. Each group receives randomly assigned trainees. Differences in pretest and posttest results between the groups are attributed to the training provided. A potential problem with this approach is controlling for variables other than training that might affect the outcome.

Tests may accurately indicate what trainees learn, but they give little insight into whether the training leads participants to change their behavior. For example, it is one thing for a manager to learn about motivational techniques but quite another matter for this person to apply the new knowledge. A manager may sit in the front row of a training session dealing with empowerment of subordinates, absorb every bit of the message, understand it totally, and then return the next week to the workplace and continue behaving in the same old autocratic way. The best demonstration of value, however, occurs when learning translates into lasting behavioral change. 93 The 360-degree feedback appraisal method (discussed in the following chapter) is often used to measure behavioral changes. 94

Still another approach to evaluating T&D programs involves determining the extent to which programs have achieved stated objectives and have actually impacted performance. For instance, if the objective of an accident prevention program is to reduce the number and severity of accidents by 15 percent, comparing accident rates before and after training provides a useful metric of success. As another example, a firm might establish a return on investment metric. However, in some circumstances, the actual ROI number may be hard to establish because of the difficulty in isolating the effects of training. 95

Benchmarking is the process of monitoring and measuring a firm’s internal processes, such as operations, and then comparing the data with information from companies that excel in those areas. Because training programs for individual firms are unique, the training measures are necessarily broad. Common benchmarking questions focus on metrics such as training costs, the ratio of training staff to employees, and whether new or more traditional delivery systems are used. Information derived from these questions probably lacks the detail to permit specific improvements of the training curricula. However, a firm may recognize, for example, that another organization is able to deliver a lot of training for relatively little cost. This information could then trigger the firm to follow up with interviews or site visits to determine whether that phenomenon represents a best practice. As T&D becomes more crucial to organizational success, determining model training practices and learning from them will become increasingly important.

HR Web Wisdom: Benchmarking

10 Objective

1. Describe the Workforce Investment Act.

The Workforce Investment Act (WIA) replaced the problem-riddled Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA) and consolidated more than 70 federal job-training programs. It provides states with the flexibility to develop streamlined systems in partnership with local governments. A primary focus of WIA is to meet the needs of business for skilled workers and to satisfy the training, education, and employment needs of individuals.

One-stop service centers are at the heart of the system. These centers provide job seekers with a range of services including career counseling, skill assessments, training, job search assistance, and referrals to programs and services, depending on need.

11 Objective

1. Define organization development (OD) and describe various OD techniques.

Individuals and groups receive the bulk of T&D effort. However, some firms believe that to achieve needed change, they must move the entire organization in the desired direction. Efforts to achieve this are the focus of organization development.Organization development (OD) is the planned process of improving an organization by developing its structures, systems, and processes to enhance effectiveness and achieve desired goals. Organization development applies to an entire system, such as a company or a plant. Organization development is a major means of achieving change in the corporate culture. Remember fromChapter 1 that HR branding was discussed as a corporate culture means of affecting the image of a firm. Various factors in the firm’s corporate culture affect employees’ behavior on the job. To bring about desired changes in these factors and behavior, organizations must be transformed into market-driven, innovative, and adaptive systems if they are to survive and prosper in today’s highly competitive global environment. This type of development is increasingly important as both work and the workforce diversify and change.

Numerous OD interventions are available to the practitioner. Interventions covered in the following section include survey feedback, a technique often combined with other interventions; quality circles; team building; and sensitivity training.

Survey feedback is a process of collecting data from an organizational unit using questionnaires, interviews, and objective data from other sources such as records of productivity, turnover, and absenteeism. It enables management teams to help organizations create working environments that lead to better working relationships, greater productivity, and increased profitability. Survey feedback generally involves the following steps:

· Members of the organization, including top management, are involved in planning the survey.

· All members of the organizational unit participate in the survey.

· The OD consultant usually analyzes the data, tabulates results, suggests approaches to diagnosis, and trains participants in the feedback process.

· Data feedback usually begins at the top level of the organization and flows downward to groups reporting at successively lower levels.

· Feedback meetings provide an opportunity to discuss and interpret data, diagnose problem areas, and develop action plans.

America received the concept of quality circles from Japan several decades ago. This version of employee involvement is still in use today, improving quality, increasing motivation, boosting productivity, and adding to the bottom line. Quality circles are groups of employees who voluntarily meet regularly with their supervisors to discuss their problems, investigate causes, recommend solutions, and take corrective action when authorized to do so. The team’s recommendations are presented to higher-level management for review, and the approved actions are implemented with employee participation.

In order to implement a successful quality circle program, the firm must set clear goals for the program, gain top management’s support, and create a climate conducive to participative management. In addition, a qualified manager is essential for the program and the program’s goals must be communicated to all concerned. Individuals participating in the program must receive quality circle training. Most organizations that implement continuous improvement cultures, or team systems, teach their employees tools for reaching decisions and solving problems. The tools include four basic steps: problem definition, data collection to confirm the root cause of the problem, solution generation, and action planning. In addition, the firm designs a tracking system to determine results of the action taken.

The key to the success of quality circles is the sincerity of management in dealing with the teams where the participants view their role as an essential part of company decisions. Even those employees who are not part of the circle generally become enthusiastic. Although they have not personally taken part in the planning, they will accept the decisions because their peers, not just the boss, have helped form them. The work becomes more interesting and the employees more motivated when they recognize that successful task completion requires a mutual effort of management and employees.

One thing seems certain: if a firm is to sustain employee interest and enthusiasm for quality circle activities, the employees must share in the economic gain. Nonfinancial rewards are important, as will be discussed in a later chapter. However, if, over the long run, employees are excluded from monetary rewards, they will wonder who really benefits from the programs.

Team building is a conscious effort to develop effective work groups and cooperative skills throughout the organization. It helps members diagnose group processes and devise solutions to problems. Effective team building can be the most efficient way to boost morale, employee retention, and company profitability. Whether it’s a lieutenant leading troops into battle or executives working with their managers, the same principles apply. An important by-product of team building is that it is one of the most effective interventions for improving employee satisfaction and work-related attitudes. Individualism has deep roots in American culture. This trait has been a virtue and will continue to be an asset in our society. Now, however, there are work situations that make it imperative to subordinate individual autonomy in favor of cooperation with a group. It seems apparent that teams are clearly superior in performing many of the tasks required by organizations. The building of effective teams, therefore, has become a business necessity. 96

Organizations must provide much training effort prior to efficient and effective functioning of work teams. Fortunately, most managers know this. Team building utilizes self-directed teams, each composed of a small group of employees responsible for an entire work process or segment. 97 Team members work together to improve their operation or product, to plan and control their work, and to handle day-to-day problems. They may even become involved in broader, company-wide issues, such as vendor quality, safety, and business planning.

Team building may begin as soon as an applicant is hired. At Southwest Airlines, the firm divides new employees into teams and gives them a raw egg in the shell, a handful of straws, and some masking tape. Their task is, in a limited amount of time, to protect that delicate cargo from an eight-foot drop. The exercise prepares teams of employees for creative problem solving in a fast-paced environment. 98

The Lake Forest Graduate School of Management has developed an approach it calls Team Banquets. An internationally recognized executive chef helped develop this program, which brought together people with different knowledge, skills, and experience to accomplish a single goal: create a banquet. The exercise is based on the discovery that some of the most effective, efficient teams in the world are in the kitchens of fine restaurants. These settings serve as models of organization, communication, and results-oriented processes. The Team Banquet brings together 25 to 30 employees and challenges them to prepare a gourmet banquet within two hours. Only the raw ingredients and equipment are provided. The assigned roles may put a mail clerk in charge while a group manager serves as an assistant. Each team is assigned a specific portion of the banquet preparation, from entrée to decorations and food presentation. Participants receive safety instructions but not recipes. Teams must rely on their own knowledge and creativity in devising the dishes they serve. The initial response to this approach was skepticism. However, management and participants soon discovered that the exercise provided an excellent analogy to the workplace and provided an outstanding means for developing teamwork. 99

Nick Conner, vice president for program development at Tampa-based TeamBuilders, describes the following team-building exercise that he uses with his clients. “The group of managers participated in a ‘blind mission,’ whereby half the team must guide their peers in carrying a five-gallon bucket with a ball onto a platform of squares that is smaller in diameter than the bucket. The exercise appears simple, but half the team is blindfolded. Participants, especially the individuals who serve as leaders, quickly realize that they are prone to give conflicting orders or to speak in a manner as if it was obvious what needed to be done. The communication gaps that arise in a simple game are a metaphor for the same types of lapses that occur in the workplace. “People start to realize, ‘How many times do we speak to others as if we know the same thing,’” Conner says. 100

Sensitivity training, or T-group training, is a procedure designed to help individuals learn how others perceive their behavior. It is based on the assumption that a number of individuals meeting in an unstructured situation will develop working relations with each other. From this experience, they will learn much about themselves as perceived by the other group members. It differs from many traditional forms of training, which stress the learning of a predetermined set of concepts. When sensitivity training begins, there is no agenda, no leaders, no authority, and no power positions. Essentially, a vacuum exists until participants begin to talk. Through dialogue, people begin to learn about themselves and others. The trainer’s purpose is to serve as a facilitator in this unstructured environment. Participants are encouraged to learn about themselves and others in the group. Some objectives of sensitivity training are to increase the participants’ self-awareness and sensitivity to the behavior of others. The training also strives to develop an awareness of the processes that facilitate or inhibit group and intergroup functioning, and to increase the participants’ ability to achieve effective interpersonal relationships. T-group training was once a prominent OD intervention. A central problem with sensitivity training, according to some, is that its purpose is to change individuals, not necessarily the environment in which they work. When participants attempt to use what they have learned, they often find their co-workers unwilling to accept it, or worse, what they have learned may not be appropriate for their own work situation.

A Global Perspective: Learning the Culture of China

A school that started three years ago to help children of Chinese descent learn about China’s history and culture has found another niche for its services. The Chinese Language School of Connecticut Inc., a nonprofit organization, has branched out to help companies wishing to initiate trade with China or learn more about the country’s culture and traditions. Susan Serven, the school’s president, started the language school initially as a way to incorporate the Chinese culture into the lives of the two children she adopted from China. She and her friends began classes in New Canaan designed for children three years old and up. “We expected 50 children to show up the first day but we had 130 children,” Severn said. Since then classes have met in libraries and churches across the county. 101

Last year, Severn began receiving requests from companies that were interested in having their employees learn the Mandarin language, one of two major languages spoken in China. “It’s critical that companies planning to maintain a presence or just do frequent business with China know some Chinese and about the Chinese culture.” So the school set out this year to target corporate clients. Classes are held at clients’ facilities and are customized. CD-ROM, audio, and video learning technologies are offered so employees can learn practical communication skills. 102 Peter Gioia, an economist with the Connecticut Business Industry Association, the state’s largest business group, said China is a huge factor that is likely to loom larger as the years go by. “China is officially an economic superpower. Besides the enormous amount of exports, it imports an awful lot. It seems that the Europeans have been more adept at catching their market than us,” Gioia said. Berlitz Languages Inc., Princeton, New Jersey, a language school with classes in Stamford and Westport, also offers classes teaching Mandarin. “Over the last two years we have experienced a noticeable increase in the number of inquiries we receive concerning Mandarin,” said John Weckerling, director for the Stamford and Westport schools. 103

1. Define training and development.

Training is designed to permit learners to acquire knowledge and skills needed for their present jobs. Development involves learning that goes beyond today’s job.

2. Explain factors influencing T&D.

Increasingly rapid changes in technology, products, systems, and methods have had a significant impact on job requirements, making T&D a must. T&D programs must have top management’s full support; all managers should be committed to and involved in the T&D process. They must be convinced that there will be a tangible payoff if resources are committed to this effort.

3. Describe the T&D process.

First, an organization must determine their specific training needs. Then specific objectives need to be established. After setting the T&D objectives, management can determine the appropriate methods and the delivery system to be used. Naturally, management must continuously evaluate T&D to ensure its value in achieving organizational objectives.

4. Describe the various training and development methods.

Training and development methods include instructor-led, case study, behavior modeling, role-playing, business games, in-basket training, on-the-job training, job rotation, internships, and apprenticeship training.

5. Describe training and development delivery systems.

Delivery systems include corporate universities, colleges and universities, community colleges, online higher education, videoconferencing, vestibule system, video media, e-learning, and simulators.

6. Describe management development, mentoring, and coaching.

Management development consists of all learning experiences provided by an organization for the purpose of providing and upgrading skills and knowledge required in current and future managerial positions. Mentoring is an approach to advising, coaching, and nurturing, for creating a practical relationship to enhance individual career, personal, and professional growth and development. Coaching, often considered a responsibility of the immediate boss, provides assistance much like a mentor.

7. Define orientation and describe the executive orientation concept of onboarding.

Orientation is the guided adjustment of new employees to the company, the job, and the work group. Onboarding is the process companies use to help new executives quickly learn an organization’s structure, culture, and politics, as well as the ways they can start making discernible contributions to the organization as soon as possible.

8. Identify special training areas.

Special training needs include training involving diversity, English as a second language (ESL), ethics, telecommuting, customer service, conflict resolution, teamwork, empowerment, remedial, and anger management.

9. Explain the metrics for evaluating training and development.

The metrics by which T&D programs are evaluated include participants’ opinions, extent of learning, behavioral change, accomplishment of T&D objectives, and benchmarking.

10. Describe the Workforce Investment Act.

The Workforce Investment Act (WIA) replaced the problem-riddled Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA) and consolidated more than 70 federal job-training programs. It provides states with the flexibility to develop streamlined systems in partnership with local governments.

11. Define organization development (OD) and describe various OD techniques.

Organization development is the planned process of improving an organization by developing its structures, systems, and processes to improve effectiveness, and achieving desired goals. OD techniques include survey feedback, a technique often combined with other interventions, quality circles, team building, and sensitivity training.

· Job security

· Career security

· Employability doctrine

· Training and development (T&D)

· Training

· Development

· Learning organization

· Just-in-time training

· Case study

· Behavior modeling

· Role-playing

· Business games

· In-basket training

· On-the-job training (OJT)

· Job rotation

· Apprenticeship training

· Corporate university

· Online higher education

· Vestibule system

· E-learning

· Virtual reality

· Simulators

· Management development

· Mentoring

· Coaching

· Reverse mentoring

· Orientation

· Onboarding

· Benchmarking

· Organization development (OD)

· Survey feedback

· Quality circles

· Team building

· Sensitivity training

HRM Incident 1: Training at Keller-Globe

Lou McGowen was worried as she approached the training director’s office. She supervises six punch press operators at Keller-Globe, a maker of sheet metal parts for the industrial refrigeration industry. She had just learned that her punch presses would soon be replaced with a continuous-feed system that would double the speed of operations. She was thinking about how the workers might feel about the new system when the training director, Bill Taylor, opened the door and said, “Come on in, Lou. I’ve been looking forward to seeing you.”

After a few pleasantries, Lou told Bill of her concerns. “The operators really know their jobs now. But this continuous-feed system is a whole new ball game. I’m concerned, too, about how the workers will feel about it. The new presses are going to run faster. They may think that their job is going to be harder.”

Bill replied, “After talking with the plant engineer and the production manager, I made a tentative training schedule that might make you feel a little better. I think we first have to let the workers know why this change is necessary. You know that both of our competitors changed to this new system last year. After that, we will teach your people to operate the new presses.”

“Who’s going to do the teaching?” Lou asked. “I haven’t even seen the new system.”

“Well, Lou,” said Bill, “the manufacturer has arranged for you to visit a plant with a similar system. They’ll also ship one of the punch presses in early so you and your workers can learn to operate it.”

“Will the factory give us any other training help?” Lou asked.

“Yes, I have asked them to send a trainer down as soon as the first press is set up. He will conduct some classroom sessions and then work with your people on the new machine.”

After further discussion about details, Lou thanked Bill and headed back to the production department. She was confident that the new presses would be a real benefit to her section and that her workers could easily learn the skills required.

Question

HRM Incident 2: Career versus Job Security?

J. D. Wallace, a 30-year-old employee with Bechtel Engineering, headquartered in Houston, Texas, describes his assessment of career development. “My present job is to work with an engineering software design program, Plant Design System (PDS), that is used to create a 3-dimensional model of a petro-chem refinery. PDS is the fastest-growing and most demanded skill in the industry. The system has grown into a major design system that clients prefer. It has become very difficult for designers to find new jobs or keep their current jobs if they do not have the ability to run this system. Unfortunately, a lot of the designers have been caught with their pants down. They didn’t see the need to get new skills. They believe, ‘I’ve done it this way for 20 years and I have not needed computer skills. Computers will never replace board drafting. This company needs me and they will not be able to replace me because of my many years of experience.’ On the other hand, some designers realize the importance of learning new technology. These designers can, for the most part, write their own ticket. They have become the highest-paid and most sought-after employees. I believe that it is very important to constantly increase your value to the company. For example, my college degree opened the door for me. Once the door opened, it was up to me to keep learning. I had to continue to train, retrain, and learn new systems. Some of the systems that I have invested time in learning have quickly become obsolete. However, I have not lost anything in the process. Improving skills is never a waste of time. It is amazing how fast the industry can change. Skills that you obtain and thought you would never use, can be the only reason you have a job tomorrow.

“Workers today must do whatever it takes to get the training needed to keep their jobs. Some of the things you could do include going back to school, or changing companies to get the necessary training. Very few companies spend the time and money needed to give workers all the training they need. Everybody must realize that they must stay current or they will be left behind.

“In the last year alone the market for designers with PDS training has grown so fast that companies can no longer be assured of having an adequate work pool to draw from. The pay scale has expanded rapidly and is still growing. A good friend of mine has recently quit his present job for a 35 percent pay increase. Another company has lost many of its 10-year-plus employees to huge salary offers. Workers with the needed skills now have a lot of options. They can (for the most part) pick the company they want, by location, benefits, permanent staff, or contract. They currently have a lot of leverage. Workers without those skills have very limited choices because they do not add value to their companies.”

Questions

1Julie Rawe, “What Will Be the 10 Hottest Jobs?. . . and What Jobs Will Disappear? Time 155 (May 22, 2000): 73.

2“The Myth of Job Security,” InfoWorld 27 (September 12, 2005): 64.

3Rick Merritt, “Working Harder in Tough Times,” Electronic Engineering Times (August 22, 2005): 37–52.

4Daniel Schoonmaker, “Soper’s Focus: Career Security,” Grand Rapids Business Journal 23 (April 11, 2005): 5–10.

5Margaret A. White and Suzanne M. Behr, “The New Employees,” Leadership Excellence (April 2005): 9–10.

6Scott Leibs, “Building a Better Workforce,” CFO 21 (Fall 2005): 20–25.

7Brent M. Longnecker and Nicole Shanklin, “Total Rewards: A Three-Legged Platform Toward Improved Productivity,” Employee Benefit Plan Review 59 (July 2004): 8–10.

8Nichole L. Torres, “Perking Up,” Entrepreneur 34 (April 2006): 30.

9Merritt, “Working Harder in Tough Times.”

10“How to Develop the Best Training Initiatives,” HR Focus 82 (August 2005): 11–13.

11Tammy Galvin, “Industry Report 2002,” Training 39 (October 2002): 27.

12“Spending on Learning & Training Is Increasing: ASTD Report,” HR Focus 83 (March 2006): 9.

13“What to Do Now That Training Is Becoming a Major HR Force,” HR Focus 82 (February 2005): 5–6.

14Josh Bersin, “Learning Management: The Enterprise Approach,” Chief Learning Officer 4 (November 2005): 48–53.

15Steve Arneson, “Continuous Learning and Workforce Engagement,” Chief Learning Officer 5 (January 2006): 24–27.

16Warren Wilhelm, “Learning Organizations,” Leadership Excellence 23 (March 2006): 17–18.

17Jason Averbook, “Connecting CLOs with the Recruiting Process,” Chief Learning Officer 4 (June 2005): 24–27.

18“How to Use Training to Accelerate Growth,” HR Focus 82 (April 2005): 3–4.

19Averbook, “Connecting CLOs with the Recruiting Process.”

20“Making Change Work—For Real,” HR Focus 80 (January 2003): S1.

21David James Clarke IV, “The Nexus of Learning: The Intersection of Formal and Informal Education,” Chief Learning Officer 5 (February 2006): 22–25.

22Steven R. Covey, “Teaching Organizations,” Executive Excellence (March 2000): 20.

23Holly Ann Suzik, “Built from Scratch,” Quality 38 (October 1999): 32–34.

24“Why a Business Approach to Training Is Best,” HR Focus 82 (July 2005): 5.

25“Blended Learning Works Best, a New ASTD Survey Reports,” HR Focus 82 (January 2005): 9.