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Reading Material for assessment 1

What are the Humanities and why do we need to teach it?

“Teachers of the humanities …introduce their students to new worlds of knowledge and new ways of thinking with which students can build their futures. They address personal, social, cultural, political, economic and environmental issues across time and place to enable students to participate in their world in informed, confident and creative ways…that will stay with them far beyond school.” (Gilbert, 2014, p.2)

In this unit we will explore how Humanities allows us to ask some of the ‘big questions’ about our world. We will investigate pedagogical approaches to teaching Humanities and question our own conceptions (or perhaps misconceptions) about Humanities understandings and skills. We will also be constantly examining the practical reality of teaching the Humanities, focusing on what you need to be able to teach across a range of disciplines within a primary classroom. 

What does a Humanities activity look like at a primary school level? As a snapshot, the humanities might involve young students discovering something about the past, finding their relative position on a map of the world, understanding how they are consumers, or taking part in a democratic process.

Our ultimate aim is to build your confidence as a humanities teacher, so we have attempted to keep much of the learning grounded in what you need to know.  

Over the course of this unit we will provide you with many opportunities to become more confident in navigating and using the Australian Curriculum website to access the Humanities discipline areas of History, Geography, Civics and Citizenship and Economics and Business (ACARA, 2014). A major focus of this unit will be preparing you with the ability to effectively source and select high quality resources that can be used to support your teaching practice.

An understandable concern that many of you may have is ‘how will I ever be able to teach across all of these discipline areas across the seven years of schooling?’

During this unit we will be demonstrating that:

· having a strong understanding of inquiry pedagogy

· having a strong understanding of curriculum documentation

· having the ability to utilise high quality teaching and learning resources and

· knowing how to supplement any gaps within your own humanities

will give you the confidence you need to be a great Humanities teacher.

Readings

This first reading is an overview of the AC: Humanities, Read:Chapter 1 Humanities and social sciences in the Australian Curriculum, (Gilbert, 2014 pp. 2-17).

Chapter 1

chris had just gained a teaching post at a middle school, and was allocated a Year 6 class in social studies and a Year 9 class in history.

In thinking about the year ahead and the program of lessons to be developed, Chris remembered the characteristics of ‘powerful and authentic social studies’ from the US National Council for the Social Studies (2008), which had been discussed in the History curriculum course at university, and wanted to ensure that these were achieved.

As Chris remembered it, powerful and authentic programs were:

• Meaningful, built on essential questions, ‘big ideas’ and key concepts, emphasising depth over

breadth.

• Focused on developing skills such as information gathering and analysis, critical thinking,

communication, data analysis and the use of twenty-first-century media and technology.

• Integrative, addressing the totality of human experience and drawing on a range of

disciplines, current events, global and local examples, and students’ own lives.

• Inquiry based, so that students would learn how to research, develop and display data,

synthesise findings and make decisions on issues.

• Value-based, embodying commitments to solving problems consistent with democratic

processes, justice, sustainability, equality and freedom of thought and speech.

• Critical, modelling decision-making processes in ways that recognise different points of view, assess competing arguments and values, are sensitive to cultural differences, and make

reasoned judgements.

• Challenging, upholding high standards of clarity, precision, depth and relevance in

researching and discussing questions and issues, and drawing conclusions.

• Active, where students process rich and varied resources to debate issues, make decisions and express their findings in various media and forums. Wherever possible, this would involve students participating in and contributing to their communities.

Convinced that such a program would be an excellent experience for students and a valuable contribution to their lives, Chris drew up a checklist that could be applied to the teaching units to be developed. This checklist became a guide to planning, but also to reflection, so that at the end of each unit Chris planned to make notes about which of the characteristics had been achieved and what more needed to be done, and to discuss these points with colleagues.

These characteristics of ‘powerful and authentic’ curriculum are based on extensive research and practice in the teaching of social and environmental studies in schools. However, not all school programs reflect these features, and, taken together, they pose significant challenges to teachers, schools and curriculum designers.

You might consider to what extent your own experience with this curriculum area demonstrated these features. It is the purpose of this book to prepare you to teach in ways that will realise these ideals.

This chapter describes recent developments in the Australian Curriculum relevant to the curriculum in the broad field of humanities and social sciences. It outlines the elements of the curriculum and how they connect with the purposes of education in Australia as well as overseas. The nature and aims of the humanities and social sciences subjects are discussed, and relevant aspects of students’ beliefs and interests are considered. The implications of these points for the competencies which teachers need to develop are also discussed.

The label ‘humanities and social sciences’ is used here to define the broad field of social and environmental studies in Australian schools. The term ‘humanities’ has traditionally referred to philosophy, history, literary studies, religion and sometimes law, focusing on the interpretive nature of these disciplines. This traditional usage has not normally included the more modern empirical social sciences or geography. However, recent national curriculum documents and some state education departments use the term humanities and social sciences to describe the subjects History, Geography, Economics and Business, Civics and Citizenship and sometimes others, and this is the term used in the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) document The Shape of the Australian Curriculum (2012). For this reason, in this chapter, the term humanities and social sciences is used.

HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES AND THE AUSTRALIAN CURRICULUM: AN EMERGING FIELD

Teachers of the humanities and social sciences face a fascinating prospect. They introduce their students to new worlds of knowledge and new ways of thinking with which students can build their futures. They address personal, social, cultural, political, economic and environmental issues across time and place to enable students to participate in their world in informed, confident and creative ways. They can engage students in wanting to learn in ways that will stay with them far beyond school. As the opening Snapshot well illustrates, preparing to teach in such a broad, complex and dynamic field is a great challenge, but one with great rewards for students and great satisfaction for teachers.

Until recently, the humanities and social sciences curriculum in most Australian states has been organised around a broad social and environmental studies key learning area, most commonly labelled Studies of Society and Environment (SOSE), which was developed during a national curriculum initiative of the 1990s (Australian Education Council, 1994a, 1994b).

This broad-based curriculum framework is being replaced by a new curriculum, developed by the state, territory and Commonwealth governments through ACARA. The new Australian Curriculum is developing a range of separate subjects in the humanities and social sciences to replace the single key learning area subject. These subjects are being phased in, with History and Geography already released at the time of writing, and with Economics and Business and Civics and Citizenship in the process of development. At the time of writing, schools were in transition to this new range of subjects, though some schools, especially at the primary level, will retain a broad approach to the curriculum area, perhaps using terms similar to SOSE or social education.

What ideas are driving this new Australian Curriculum? The curriculum development work of ACARA is guided by the Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians, which provides the fundamental rationale and goals for Australian education (see Case 1.1).

CASE 1.1 THE MELBOURNE DECLARATION Edited extracts from the Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians

Literacy and numeracy and knowledge of key disciplines remain the cornerstone of schooling for young Australians. Schooling should also support the development of skills in areas such as social interaction, cross-disciplinary thinking and the use of digital media ..., a school’s legacy to young people should include national values of democracy, equity and justice, and personal values and attributes such as honesty, resilience and respect for others.

Goal 1: Australian schooling promotes equity and excellence. This means that all Australian governments and all school sectors must:

• ensure that schools build on local cultural knowledge and experience of Indigenous students as a foundation for learning ...

• ensure that schooling contributes to a socially cohesive society that respects and appreciates cultural, social and religious diversity

Goal 2: All young Australians become successful learners, confident and creative individuals, and active and informed citizens.

Successful learners ... • are able to think deeply and logically, and obtain and

evaluate evidence in a disciplined way as the result of

studying fundamental disciplines • are creative, innovative and resourceful, and are able

to solve problems in ways that draw upon a range of

learning areas and disciplines • are able to plan activities independently, collaborate,

work in teams and communicate ideas • are able to make sense of their world and think about

how things have become the way they are Confident and creative individuals ...

• are enterprising, show initiative and use their creative abilities

• develop personal values and attributes such as honesty, resilience, empathy and respect for others

• relate well to others and form and maintain healthy relationships

• are well prepared for their potential life roles as family, community and workforce members

• embrace opportunities, make rational and informed decisions about their own lives and accept responsibility for their own actions.

Active and informed citizens ... • act with moral and ethical integrity • appreciate Australia’s social, cultural, linguistic and

religious diversity, and have an understanding of

Australia’s system of government, history and culture • understand and acknowledge the value of Indigenous

cultures and possess the knowledge, skills and understanding to contribute to, and benefit from, reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians

• are committed to national values of democracy, equity and justice, and participate in Australia’s civic life • are able to relate to and communicate across cultures,

especially the cultures and countries of Asia • work for the common good, in particular sustaining

and improving natural and social environments • are responsible global and local citizens.

The structure of the Australian Curriculum

Building on the Melbourne Declaration, the basic philosophy and framework for the Australian Curriculum are set out in the Shape of the Australian Curriculum document ACARA, 2012). The document states that the rationale is to promote equity, excellence, quality and transparency in Australian education. Its motivation is that all young Australians should become successful learners, confident and creative individuals and active and informed citizens. It aims to address the intellectual, personal, social and educational needs of young Australians for successful future learning and participation in society. The rationale canvasses a range of other personal, social and national imperatives which the curriculum is intended to address, including the important place of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students and cultures.

From this broad-ranging set of aspirations, the curriculum attempts to clarify what will be taught and what and how well students will learn. It gives important emphasis to Priorities of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories and cultures, Asia and Australia’s engagement with Asia, and Sustainability are dealt with in the chapters in Part 4 of this book. The General Capabilities are discussed further below, and at various points throughout the following chapters. deep learning: ‘The Australian Curriculum provides for rigorous, in-depth study, preferring depth to breadth wherever a choice needs to be made, with consideration also being given to the overall teaching and learning time available’ (ACARA, 2012, p. 10). These goals are translated into a three-dimensional design comprising: • subjects in discipline-based learning areas. In the humanities and social sciences field these are History, Geography, Civics and Citizenship, and Economics and Business. These subjects followed a common development and consultative process beginning with a discussion or Shape paper setting out the broad approach to the subject, followed by a draft curriculum for consultation and then the final published curriculum on the ACARA website

• a series of General Capabilities to be developed across the curriculum to develop the capacity of students to deal with the rapidly changing demands of social, economic, environmental and technological spheres of life in the twenty-first century

• Cross-curriculum Priorities to be embedded in all learning areas, to ensure that subjects are relevant to the lives of students and address contemporary issues. Figure 1.1 illustrates the relationship among these contributions to the

Australian Curriculum. The task of schools is to provide a comprehensive learning experience for students. In some schools, especially primary schools, an integrated approach to the humanities and social sciences curriculum will be taken, incorporating the subjects of the Australian Curriculum, the General Capabilities and Cross-curriculum Priorities (see Chapter 15). In other situations, students will be required to study some subjects and choose among others at different points in their schooling.

Each of the four learning areas of History, Geography, Civics and Citizenship, and Economics and Business is dealt with in relevant sections of this book, where the nature and aims of the subjects are discussed, as well as how they might be taught to achieve the greatest benefit for students. Given that each subject is in a different stage of development, it is difficult to know exactly how the overall curriculum will develop, and what variations might eventually occur across the states.

One of the biggest challenges will be to integrate the General Capabilities and Cross-curriculum Priorities into the curriculum. Priorities of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories and cultures, Asia and Australia’s engagement with Asia, and Sustainability are dealt with in the chapters in Part 4 of this book. The General Capabilities are discussed further below, and at various points throughout the following chapters

Learning areas in the Australian Curriculum

To clarify the expectations of the syllabuses, and to support teachers in achieving the intended learning outcomes, ACARA has developed an extensive set of elements for each subject, all available online at the ACARA website (http:// www.australiancurriculum.edu.au). The curriculum statements comprise:

• a statement of rationale and a set of aims • an overview of how the learning area is organised. For instance, the History

curriculum has two strands: Historical Knowledge and Understanding and

Historical Skills • year level descriptions for each year from Foundation to Year 10, including, in

the case of History, a set of inquiry questions for each year • content descriptions (knowledge, understanding and skills) specifying what

teachers are expected to teach • elaborations of content and skills to provide illustrative examples and links to General Capabilities

• achievement standards that describe the quality of learning expected of students for each year

• annotated student work samples that illustrate the achievement standard at each year level

• a glossary of terms

The challenge for teachers is to combine these elements into engaging, cohesive and challenging learning experiences for all students, bearing in mind the priority given to deep learning rather than knowledge of information. A key to teaching for deep learning is to explicitly identify and teach the concepts and theories which give the disciplines their explanatory power, and to engage students in the application of these concepts in solving problems through some form of inquiry, as discussed in Chapters 3 and 4.

School syllabuses of the past represented subjects as if their nature and purposes, their content and key ideas are settled and beyond dispute. This is actually a misrepresentation, since any healthy discipline is a dynamic, diverse and contested activity in which the emphases of scholarship are changing, and new perspectives, problems and theories are constantly being generated as the questions and contexts of inquiry change and develop. If this dynamic character of knowledge is overlooked, school subjects are likely to lose much of their vitality.

An example of this can be seen in the outcomes of a project by the Australian Learning and Teaching Council (2010), which sought to identify the nature and extent of the discipline of geography in terms of what a university graduate in geography might be expected to know and be able to do. The project concluded that geography graduates should, among other things, be able to (p. 11):

Knowing 1. Demonstrate a coherent geographical understanding of trends, processes

and impacts that shape Australian and other environments and/or societies

at different spatial and temporal scales. 2. Demonstrate an understanding of Geography as an academic discipline,

including awareness of its concepts, history and principal subfields, whilst acknowledging the contested, provisional and situated nature of geographical understanding.

While this list describes learning outcomes at university level, it is relevant here for two reasons. First, in its reference to understanding, concepts, application and evaluating arguments, it illustrates what deep learning in a discipline means, and thus serves as a model for school programs if developed at an appropriate level. Second, it shows that disciplines of knowledge are ‘contested, provisional and situated’, primarily because they are living knowledge practices. To learn them means participating in these practices and engaging with them in critical, creative and applied ways. Teaching for deep knowledge in the learning area subjects in the Australian Curriculum requires such an approach.

It is sometimes thought that deep learning is something that can only be done in the later years of schooling, but this is not so. Deep learning is an approach to knowledge rather than an advanced level of skills or understandings, and it can therefore be applied from the earliest year levels. The key requirements are that: • students, under the guidance of the teacher, are engaged in asking and answering

questions, which focus on why things happen, what should be done to solve

problems, which arguments or solutions are most persuasive • concepts and skills are made explicit as tools for understanding • learning is connected to real situations and events, to illustrate the complexity

involved in understanding, answering questions and solving problems • metacognition is a normal part of classroom discourse, that is, teachers and

students focus on the strategies used to address questions and conduct inquiry • various perspectives on questions, viewpoints and experiences are recognised,

evaluated and incorporated into inquiries and proposed solutions • answers and solutions are seen to be tentative, as there may be new information

or further perspectives not yet taken into account.

To realise the aims of the Australian Curriculum, the development of deep learning needs to be a high priority.

General Capabilities

The Melbourne Declaration sets out a wide and ambitious range of goals for Australian education, including many that relate to confident, creative, informed and active participation in society now and in the future. A significant vehicle for this kind of learning in the Australian Curriculum is through the development of General Capabilities. ‘The general capabilities encompass the knowledge, skills behaviours and dispositions that, together with curriculum content in each learning area and the cross-curriculum priorities, will assist students to live and work successfully in the twenty-first century’ (ACARA, 2013, p. 3).

These capabilities reflect concerns worldwide that a traditional approach to school subjects does not necessarily address a range of students’ needs in facing a rapidly changing world. These changes and their implications are discussed in Chapter 2. They have led many educational systems to develop frameworks of ‘twenty-first century skills’ (C21 skills). The term skills in some of these documents is a misnomer, since they go far beyond what are technically skills, to include such things as attitudes, creativity and cultural awareness. It is no doubt for this reason that ACARA has used the term ‘General Capabilities’ to describe them. Some more well-known statements are shown in Table 1.1, and a comparison of them gives some insight to what is being attempted here (see also Activity 1.3).

The Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2009) http://www.p21.org/

Assessment and Teaching of 21st Century Skills project (Binkley et al., 2012)

The Australian Curriculum General Capabilities (ACARA, 2013)

21st Century Themes

Global Awareness

Financial, Economic, Business and Entrepreneurial Literacy

Civic Literacy

Health Literacy

Environmental Literacy

Learning and Innovation Skills

Creativity and Innovation

Critical Thinking and Problem Solving

Communication and Collaboration

Information, Media and Technology Skills

Information Literacy Media Literacy

ICT (Information, Communications and Technology) Literacy

Life and Career Skills

Flexibility and Adaptability

Initiative and Self-Direction

Social and Cross-Cultural Skills

Productivity and Accountability

Leadership and Responsibility

Ways of Thinking

1. Creativity and innovation 2. Critical thinking, problem

solving, decision making

3. Learning to learn, Metacognition

Ways of Working

4. Communication

5. Collaboration (teamwork)

Tools for Working

6. Information literacy

7. ICT literacy

Living in the World

8. Citizenship – local and global

9. Life and career

10. Personal and social responsibility – including cultural awareness and competence

Cross-curriculum Priorities

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories and cultures

Asia and Australia’s engagement with Asia

Sustainability

General Capabilities

Literacy Numeracy

Information and communication technology (ICT) capability

Critical and creative thinking Personal and social capability Ethical understanding Intercultural understanding

An important point here is that General Capabilities, while taught through the subject-based curriculum, cannot simply be assumed to result from them. General Capabilities such as critical thinking need to be taught explicitly. In a meta-analysis of the teaching of critical thinking, Abrami et al. (2008) found that a mixed method, where critical thinking was taught as an independent strand within a specific content course, had the largest effect on learning, whereas an immersion method, where critical thinking is regarded as an automatic by-product of instruction in a subject, had the smallest effect.

The authors concluded (Abrami et al., 2008, p. 1121) that ‘These findings make it clear that improvements in students’ CT [critical thinking] skills and dispositions cannot be a matter of implicit expectation’. While the various General Capabilities are discussed throughout this book, it is important to remember that they need to be taught explicitly and independently within the particular subjects in which they are integrated.

APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM AND TEACHING

The history of curriculum in the humanities and social sciences field has seen a range of approaches whose assumptions and goals have led to different kinds of teaching. Many of these assumptions underlie debates about the curriculum to the present day, and it is useful therefore to be able to identify the different emphases and their characteristics.

Knowing information about the world

Early approaches in this curriculum area emphasised rote learning of information about people, places and events of the past and present. While information is clearly essential, it does not in itself help students to become independent thinkers or active citizens who can consider issues, interpret and evaluate evidence, and make and justify decisions.

APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM AND TEACHING

The history of curriculum in the humanities and social sciences field has seen a range of approaches whose assumptions and goals have led to different kinds of teaching. Many of these assumptions underlie debates about the curriculum to the present day, and it is useful therefore to be able to identify the different emphases and their characteristics.

Knowing information about the world

Early approaches in this curriculum area emphasised rote learning of information about people, places and events of the past and present. While information is clearly essential, it does not in itself help students to become independent thinkers or active citizens who can consider issues, interpret and evaluate evidence, and make and justify decisions.

Inculcating social and political allegiance

Governments and community groups sometimes see schools as having a responsibility to ingrain certain values and attitudes in students. For instance, history is often used to develop patriotism and national values. However, an uncritical indoctrination into views of any kind is not democratic, and betrays the principles of autonomous thought.

Mastering problem solving in the disciplines

An emphasis on explanation, understanding and problem solving using the concepts and inquiry skills of the disciplines. The problem is that this can become a self- absorbed activity devoid of social significance if studies are not connected to real-life issues. However, when these issues are addressed, the need for a broader interdisciplinary approach becomes apparent.

Participating effectively in society

Being a member of a democratic society implies an active role for citizens. Education therefore needs to go beyond understanding and problem solving to develop students’ ability to participate in decision-making processes where the understandings and solutions are used. If students are to be able to apply their knowledge in social situations, they will need to have the participatory understandings and skills to do so.

Critical social understanding and action

This approach aims to have students probe the processes underlying issues, their effects on people and the planet, and any related taken-for-granted assumptions. The goal is knowledge that can inform ‘emancipatory’ action. A critical approach to social action implies that we need to learn how to participate in the system, but also how to make it fairer and more democratic. This means promoting problem solving, participation and ways of acting on values such as democracy, justice and environmental sustainability.

These approaches are not necessarily mutually exclusive, but they will clearly lead to different kinds of learning with different implications for how students can apply their learning to life beyond the school. Given the focus in the Melbourne Declaration on values and active citizenship, the last three approaches in particular need to be given priority.

BECOMING A TEACHER OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

Teachers play a crucial role in creating a successful curriculum. In translating syllabuses into productive learning experiences, teachers make interpretations and judgements about what knowledge is important, what students are interested in and capable of, which teaching resources are available and likely to be useful, and a host of other considerations. Thus, the learning experiences of students are determined not only by curriculum documents, but crucially by how these are translated in the practices carried out in schools and classrooms.

Some of these practices may be based on taken-for-granted assumptions that need to be questioned. For instance, a school’s structuring of its unit or subject offerings may make sexist assumptions about girls’ interests, even though the curriculum is trying to combat sexism. Teaching materials may express untested opinions as if they were facts, even though teachers are trying to promote critical thinking. Discussion topics or assessment questions may assume particular cultural experiences that are not shared by all students, despite intentions that the curriculum should be fair and open to all.

As a result, teachers need to critically reflect on their practice, consider the evidence and views and perspectives of others, and constantly evaluate the basis of their judgements. These imperatives connect with the current emphasis in education on evidence-informed practice, socially critical approaches to curriculum and teaching, as discussed in Chapter 3, and to a critically reflective approach to teaching.

A critically reflective inclusive approach to teaching

The aim of a critically reflective approach to teaching is simply to improve one’s practice, and the approach is widespread in current professional development of teachers, including preservice teacher education. The key point here is that critically reflective teaching is particularly important in the humanities and social sciences field, since we are often trying to develop the very same critically reflective approach to life in our students. Just as we intend that students should reflect on their assumptions, beliefs and judgements about people and the world, so should teachers apply this perspective to their teaching.

One useful formulation of critical reflection (Brookfield 1995) recommends that we need to see our teaching through four lenses: • The autobiographical lens, reflecting on our own past experiences, upbringing and

background and how these may have led to certain beliefs and assumptions

about society, the interests and capacities of students, how people learn, etc. • The student lens, understanding how students view how we teach and relate to them, and more generally how they view their relations with subjects, teachers,

school and peers, and the implications this might have for our teaching.

The collegial lens, learning from others around us and gaining observations from colleagues on how we teach.

• The theoretical lens, using new ideas and findings in research and evaluation to scrutinise our practice and identify new ways of doing things. Useful techniques for developing a critically reflective approach to teaching include

self-reflection through personal diaries and journals, study groups, blogs or Facebook sites. Assessment of student learning and student feedback through surveys or focus groups provide information on students’ perspectives, and team teaching, peer observations and discussion can engage colleagues’ insights into how we teach. Finally, a rich literature in the scholarly and professional areas, including teacher associations, offers valuable advice with which we can interrogate our practice.

An important aspect of teaching requiring a critically reflective approach is to establish an inclusive learning environment so that all students can succeed. For instance, in relating to students who have special needs or students from diverse cultural or social backgrounds, we need to scrutinise our own assumptions and beliefs, since teacher expectations can be a very strong limiting factor on students’ learning experiences.

Consequently, it is important to reject assumptions, and to dissuade students from believing, that students’ capacity to learn is somehow fixed and predetermined. In teaching students from diverse cultural backgrounds it is important to see their diversity as a resource which can be used to enrich teaching and learning, rather than an obstacle to be excluded and overcome. In all cases, inclusive teaching requires a willingness to see students’ learning difficulties as challenges for teaching rather than deficiencies in students, and to be creative and flexible in making learning engaging and successful for all students.

The demands of teaching in this field are considerable, and professional organisations and policy makers have been trying to identify these demands in systematic ways to guide teacher education and development. For instance, the Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL) (2011) has worked with Commonwealth, state and territory governments to develop a series of Australian Professional Standards for Teaching which will guide teacher education and professional development. The Standards are: 1. Know students and how they learn

2. Know the content and how to teach it 3. Plan for and implement effective teaching and learning 4. Create and maintain supportive and safe learning environments 5. Assess, provide feedback and report on student learning 6. Engage in professional learning 7. Engage professionally with colleagues, parents/carers and the community.

Each of these is described further across four career stages, beginning with the graduate teacher. These Standards and descriptors are useful in identifying the range of capacities a teacher needs to develop, and are well worth considering in detail. However, such standards refer to the practice of teaching in general, and do not reflect the needs of particular teaching areas. An example of teaching standards more specific to this learning area can be seen in Table 1.2, which outlines standards for globally competent teachers. Successful teachers of humanities and social sciences will reflect these qualities.

Table 1.2 Profile of an Asia Society International Studies School

Globally competent teachers are:

Globally competent teachers have specific skills and dispositions such as:

Skilled and knowledgeable practitioners

Have deep understandings of subject content and engage students by connecting it with their lives.

Are intellectually curious; committed to lifelong learning about their craft, their students, and their subject.

Can integrate international content, issues and perspectives into a standards-based curriculum.

Use inquiry-based teaching that enables students to solve problems and develop their own understanding of content.

Ask students to analyse and reflect on their own learning.

Use multiple forms of assessment to evaluate ongoing student learning.

Proficient thinkers and problem solvers

Can understand and engage complex problems; synthesise information from a range of sources; tolerate ambiguity and uncertainty; and produce potentially viable solutions as they deal with student learning.

Ask reflective questions about their practice.

Culturally aware

Value and respect the range of ethnicities and cultures in the school community, and teach students to collaborate effectively with individuals from different backgrounds.

Use instructional strategies to draw upon the diverse cultural assets within their classrooms

Globally competent teachers are:

Globally competent teachers have specific skills and dispositions such as:

Aware of world events and global dynamics

Stay current on world events and issues, and help students gain understanding through daily interactions.

Connect their content area to authentic global issues and perspectives.

Present balanced viewpoints on issues and assist students in viewing issues from multiple perspectives.

Literate for the twenty- first century

Are proficient in, and model, literacy skills necessary for student learning in their content area.

Maintain a rich reading life for both work and pleasure.

Are familiar with elements of contemporary culture, and integrate these in relevant ways into the curriculum.

Responsible and ethical citizens

Are committed to behaving ethically towards students and other members of the school community.

Understand that decisions made locally and nationally have international impact and vice versa.

Accept responsibilities of global citizenship; make ethical decisions and responsible choices that contribute to developing a more just, peaceful and sustainable world.

CONSIDERING THE STUDENTS

Understanding what students bring to their learning is a key task for teachers. In planning for teaching, the challenge for teachers is to discover what students know and think about the topic or issue to be studied, including information, values, attitudes, interests and any misconceptions they might have about important concepts or principles. This then needs to be connected to the intended new learning, so that students can integrate new information and ideas with what they already know. This is very much dependent on the specific subject and topic context, as well as the age level, background and prior learning of students, but useful research has been done on learning in the various subjects as well as more general aspects of students’ knowledge and beliefs.

A recent survey of over 45 000 young Australians found that personal issues were most important to them. They value family relationships and friendships more than anything else (Mission Australia, 2011). Issues of personal concern were mainly body image, family conflict and coping with stress, though a quarter also mentioned concern about school or study. The most important public issues were the environment, alcohol and drugs, followed by crime, safety and violence, equity and discrimination and the economy and finance.

On the environment, priority was given to the need for Australians of all ages to take personal responsibility for their behaviour and lifestyle and how it impacts on the environment; and the importance of community and business awareness and action and government leadership.

A priority of the Australian Curriculum is active and informed citizenship, and much can be learned about students’ knowledge, beliefs and attitudes from their responses to the National Assessment Program in Civics and Citizenship (ACARA, 2010). Students were asked to rate the importance of different citizenship behaviours, and gave most importance to protecting the environment, promoting human rights, benefiting the local community and learning about Australia’s history. Fewer than half of Year 10 students viewed discussion of politics and involvement in peaceful protests as important for good citizenship. Large majorities of students expressed positive attitudes towards Australian Indigenous cultures and most were positive about Australia’s diversity and multiculturalism.

Of civic related issues, students were most interested in environmental issues, what is happening in other countries and global issues, but most were not at all or not very interested in Australian politics.

Research such as this is useful for identifying large-scale trends in students’ attitudes and beliefs. However, there is no substitute for being aware of the specific knowledge, attitudes and beliefs of the students in particular subjects, classrooms and schools. Establishing trusting and caring relationships with students is a first step for teachers wishing to understand their students.

KEY REFERENCES for chapter one

Abrami, P., Bernard, R., Borokhovski, E., Wade, A., Surkes, M., Tamim, R. and Zhang, D. 2008. ‘Instructional Interventions Affecting Critical Thinking Skills and Dispositions: A stage 1 meta-analysis.’ Review of Educational Research, 78, 4, 1102–34.

Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) 2010. National Assessment Program Civics and Citizenship Years 6 and 10 Report 2010. ACARA, Sydney.

Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) 2012. The Shape of the Australian Curriculum. Available at http://www.acara.edu.au/verve/_resources/The_Shape_of_the_Australian_Curriculum_V3.pdf.

Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) 2013. General Capabilities in the Australian Curriculum. ACARA, Sydney.

Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (2011) National Professional Standards for Teachers. Available at http://www.aitsl.edu.au/verve/_resources/AITSL_National_Professional_Standards_for_Teachers.pdf.

Australian Learning and Teaching Council 2010. Learning and Teaching Academic Standards Project: Arts, Social Sciences and Humanities. GEOGRAPHY Learning and Teaching Academic Standards Statement. ALTC, Strawberry Hills, NSW.

Bell-Rose, S. and Desai, V. 2005. Educating Leaders for a Global Society. Goldman Sachs Foundation, New York. Binkley, M., Erstad, O., Herman, J., Senta Raizen, S., Ripley, M., Miller-Ricci, M. and Rumble, M. 2012. ‘Defining

Twenty-First Century Skills.’ In P. Griffin, B. McGaw and E. Care (eds) Assessment and Teaching of 21st Century

Skills. Springer, New York, pp. 17–66. Brookfield, S. 1995. Becoming a Critically Reflective Teacher. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. History Teachers Association of Australia and the Australian Historical Association 2006. National Professional

Standards for Teachers of History. Monash University, Melbourne. Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA) 2008. Melbourne Declaration

on Educational Goals for Young Australians. MCEETYA, Carlton South. Mission Australia 2011. National Survey of Young Australians 2011: key and emerging issues. Mission Australia, Sydney. National Council for the Social Studies 2008. A Vision of Powerful Teaching and Learning in the Social Studies:

Building social understanding and civic efficacy. A position statement of National Council for the Social Studies. Accessed 21 January 2010 at http://www.socialstudies.org/positions/powerful.

What is Health and PE and why do we need to teach it?

All young people should benefit from a positive experience of physical education. From an early age they need to experience enjoyment and success through physical activity. This will help them to have confidence in their capabilities and to choose activities which match their needs and interests. It will also encourage them to continue to take part in a wide range of physical activities in childhood and beyond. Experience in the primary school years is of critical importance, therefore, to children’s development of attitudes and skills.  (HM Inspectorate of Education, 2002, p. 6)

One thing most people will readily agree on is the importance of health and physical education within the primary years as it can impact upon students’ self-esteem, well-being as well as physical health. However, the ways it has been taught have changed very little in the last 100 years. Let's begin our introduction to health and physical education by reviewing a brief slideshow copy from EDU30014 from the early 20th century.

McKenzie and Lounsbery (2013, p. 419):

"… emphasize that the future of PE in our nation's schools will depend on the ability of schools to provide programs that are perceived to be of importance to the public; moreover, we believe that the future of PE rests on the effectiveness of PE teachers to operate within a public health context."

Too often, physical education lessons tend to be all about coaches shouting commands, or students spending most of their time waiting in line to participate. What sort of effect do you think this will have on student engagement?

In the PE section of this unit, we will look at ways you can make a difference as an educator in health and PE, and how you can find creative ways to engage your students. We will investigate ways to ensure children experience health and PE in positive ways, and help them to understand that:

· A healthy diet doesn't have to mean denying the enjoyment of eating;

· We don't all have to have the ideal body shape;

· We can all be healthy and enjoy sport.

Throughout the unit, you will be provided with readings, video and other web resources, and practical guides for lesson development. You are also advised to get out and put these ideas into practice. Go to the park to practice different movement skills. Get together with some friends to try out some of the games and group activities.

Readings

Chapter 1: Examining literacy in the twenty-first century, pp. 2-26, of your eText provides a useful discussion of literacy practices, with particular attention given to the contemporary context.

Chapter one

Sam is a Grade 4 primary school student in a metropolitan government

school. He enjoys being physically active and is always excited when the weekly health and physical education (HPE) lesson comes around but, at the same time, is disappointed at how infrequently they are taken outside. In fact, Sam would probably say that HPE was his favourite time at school except for the fact that he becomes easily frustrated at having to wait his turn in line to play kickball, and the general lack of variety in HPE. Sam is active during the breaks in the school day, enjoying whatever is ‘in season’ at the time. Sometimes he and his friends organise an en masse game of tiggy; at other times they get together to play soccer if someone has remembered to bring a ball from home. Occasionally when Sam plays with his friends from another class, they play downball. The rules are always negotiated and the friends generally play very well together. After school, Sam walks home with his older sister and they let themselves into the house as Sam’s parents both work full-time. This is Sam’s opportunity to watch some television—his Mum calls it ‘chill out time’. By the time Sam’s Mum is home from work, Sam has watched more than 3 hours of television and played some electronic games but has essentially not moved from the couch. The remainder of the evening is spent reading, having dinner and a bath, and going to bed. This is the pattern for the week.

Key terms in health and physical education

Health

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines health: ‘as a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living; it is a positive concept emphasising social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities’ (WHO, 1986).

Physical activity

‘... movements in everyday life, including work, recreation, exercise and sporting activities’ (WHO, 2002).

Physical education

‘Physical Education is an all-encompassing term, including fitness, skills, movement, dance, recreation, health, games and sport, plus the appropriate values and knowledge in each.’ (SSCERA, 1992, p. 3).

Sport

‘Sport is the physical involvement in organised games or activities within an accepted set of rules.’ (SSCERA, 1992, p. 4).

Physical activity is an important component of a growing child’s life and, given that they spend 40% of their day at school (Fox, 2004), this setting provides an opportunity for them to engage with it during the day and to transfer what they may have experienced at school to their home life. You will have noticed in the opening scenario that although Sam is active during the school day, when he comes home he is generally inactive. The lack of physical activity that people, including children, do nowadays compared with what they used to do has been partially blamed for the rise in obesity and diabetes rates.

So what is the health of Australia’s children like? The Australian government spent 9.1% of the gross domestic product on health in the 2007–2008 financial year. That means that $4874 were spent per person or $103 billion in total (AIHW, 2010). At the time (June 2009), the domestic health budget was spent on 21.9 million people living in Australia. Approximately 2.5% of the population (550 000) was Indigenous at that time (AIHW, 2010).

The health of Australia’s people varies according to socioeconomic factors and where they live. The following facts are presented as a snapshot of general observa- tions of the health of Australians in 2010 (AIHW, 2010): Indigenous people are not as healthy as other Australians, die earlier and have a

poorer quality of life with more disability. Rural and remote populations have a higher incidence of disease risk factors and

illness than their metropolitan counterparts. Socioeconomically disadvantaged people are more likely to have a shorter

lifespan than those who have fewer disadvantages. Poor physical and mental health is more likely in populations with disabilities.

A snapshot of Australian children’s health status

The Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW), when reporting on Australia’s health, differentiates between children (0–14 years) and young people (15–24 years).

Children (0–14 years)

In 2008, 4.1 million children were aged 0–14 years, which is approximately 19% of the total population (AIHW, 2010). Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander (ATSI) children make up 36% of the total Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population. Most Australian children experience good health, with declining rates of infant and childhood deaths and lower rates of communicable disease, asthma and injuries. There are also better survival rates from some cancers. On the downside, children are experiencing greater rates of dental decay, are more overweight or obese, are experiencing higher rates of diabetes and are spending too much time being sedentary (AIHW, 2010).

Young people (15–24 years)

Young people aged 15–24 years represent 14% of the total Australian population (approximately 3 million). Four per cent identify themselves as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. The AIHW 2010 report found that most young Australians in this age group are healthy and well. This is due to a decline in death rates from traffic accidents, disease (asthma and cancer) and vaccine-preventable diseases. However, rising rates of obesity, sexually transmitted infections, such as Chlamydia and gonococcal infections, insufficient physical activity, illicit drug and alcohol use, as well as involvement in traffic accidents and mental health issues, are of concern for this age group (AIHW, 2010).

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY

REFLECT AND DISCUSS

 What sort of effect can you, as a health and physical educator, have on the health statistics of Australian children and young people? Only part of the picture What additional information can

has been presented here. Significant surveys(MissionAustralia)andreports (AIHW) are published yearly and biannually, respectively. It is helpful

Short history of teaching HPE in Australia

you get from these reports? What are children and young people most concerned about? How can you use this information in your teaching?

The history of physical education (PE), in particular, as a university-based subject, is strong and a variety of publications are available in relation to it. In fact, if you are a PE specialist, you may have already studied the history of PE.

PE, in general, has a rich history dating back to ancient times (Phillips & Roper, 2006). In Australia, the history of PE as a curriculum area has, initially at least, closely followed that of the British educational tradition, with the adoption of the Swedish gymnastic model. Military engagements strongly shaped what PE ‘looked like’ in schools during and between the wars (Phillips & Roper, 2006). Independent boys schools adopted the same games model that encouraged the development of teamwork, leadership, courage, comradeship and self-reliance (Crawford, cited in Kirk, 1998). For girls at equivalent schools, games challenged gendered stereotypes (Phillips & Roper, 2006). For the working class girls and boys in the 1930s and 1940s, games were advocated for the ‘development of self-confidence, [to] foster enjoyment and promote play’. (Phillips & Roper, 2006, p. 133).

The publication of the ‘Grey’ book in 1946 heralded Australia’s shift away from the British system to the development of a curriculum that was distinctly Australian and influenced by local social, cultural and political issues (Kirk, 1998). Since that time, states and territories have developed their own PE curriculum and, compara- tively latterly, HPE curriculum depending on their circumstances.

Even though health statistics drive a lot of the discussion around physical activity in the community, it is also important to remember that HPE has a lot of educational benefits for children, which are about more than just being healthy. These benefits include (Bailey et al., 2009)

physical—acquisition and development of children’s movement skills

affective—psychological and emotional development social—leadership, decision making, social relationships and focus on learning processes

cognitive—improve concentration and arousal, which might benefit academic performance.

So, with these benefits in mind, let us have a look at how much physical activity school-aged children are doing.

physical—acquisition and development of children’s movement skills affective—psychological and emotional development social—leadership, decision making, social relationships and focus on learning

processes cognitive—improve concentration and arousal, which might benefit academic

performance.

So, with these benefits in mind, let us have a look at how much physical activity school-aged children are doing.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY

What is the HPE history of your state become (personal development) HPE? or territory? Quiz your lecturer or Does your state still have a stand-alone investigate the archives of the library for learning area? Why or why not? old curriculum documents. When did PE

What and how much physical activity is the Australian child doing?

Before planning for PE in the school curriculum, it is important to understand what the children that we will work with are doing for physical activity both inside and outside school. Currently, there is no published Australian information specifically relating to how much physical activity goes on during the school day, although there are studies investigating how much physical activity goes on during a whole day.

The first Australian National Children’s Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey (Commonwealth of Australia, 2008) was conducted in 2007 and compiled eating and physical activity information for children aged between 2 and 16 years.

Access the survey report at <www.health. gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/C ontent/66596E8FC68FD1A3CA2574 D50027DB86/$File/childrens-nut-phys- survey.pdf> and review section five of the publication on physical and sedentary activities.

 What are the main findings in relation to the age group of students that you will work with in schools?

What do you notice about the differences in boys and girls?

 Are there differences in ‘screen time’ between the genders? Why? When does it become apparent?

More detailed adolescent information (Years 8 and 10) has been gathered using self-report questionnaires of summer and winter sports and physical activities (Hardy et al., 2008). This study looked at the changes in physical activity levels in adolescents from 1997 to 2004 and yielded some important information about what these age groups are doing. Table 1.1 details these findings.

The information presented in Table 1.1 shows that there has been an increase in self-reported physical activity in Year 8 and 10 boys and girls from 1997 to 2004.

Although the amount of physical activity that is being done by the girls has increased, they still do less than the boys at both year levels and in both terms. Interestingly, the number of boys achieving moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) from unorganised sports was much bigger in the summer terms in 2004 when compared with 1997. Also in 2004, Year 10 girls doubled their MVPA in organised sports during the winter, but halved their participation in non-organised sports in the same season, suggesting that winter has an impact on girls’ physical activity levels. The final thing to recognise about this study is that self-reporting physical activity levels is not the most accurate way of getting this type of information but it is useful for doing large population surveys such as this.

As an HPE teacher it might be possible for you to affect the amount of total physical activity that goes on during a school day with specific programs that vigorously promote activity. In order to inform the sorts of decisions that might go on at the school level, let’s take the opportunity to look at what some researchers have found. A variety of studies from all over the world have looked at how much physical activity goes on during the school day and immediately after school has finished. Most studies used either a pedometer or an accelerometer to measure physical activity in movement counts. Pedometers and accelerometers are attached to the body, usually at the hip, by a belt. Accelerometers are judged to be more accurate than pedometers as they give information about movement in all planes (horizontal, vertical and inclined), whereas pedometers just measure vertical movement. Table 1.2 details the findings of a recent large UK accelerometer study providing information about physical activity during the school day. We have used this study as an example because there are no comparable studies with large numbers of children in different age groups.

You can see from Table 1.2 that physical activity decreases considerably during school hours as a child progresses through their schooling and that girls do about 100 counts per day less than boys. Gidlow and colleagues (2008) confirmed that less activity goes on during the school day than outside it. Specific opportunities, such as PE and sport classes, as well as break times, can make important contributions to the total physical activity that a child does during the day.

Sports played by Australian children

It is also important that physical educators are informed about what sports are being played by school-aged children outside school and what are the trends in partici- pation. In this section we use data collected from the 2006 Children’s Participation in Cultural and Leisure Activities Study conducted in Australia (ABS, 2006). This study contains information about what school-aged children were doing in sport and physical activity outside school hours. For example, during the 12 months ending April 2006, 1.7 million children aged 5–14 years (63.5%) participated in organised sport outside school hours. The most popular organised sport for boys was soccer (outdoor), which had 268 500 participants (19.6%), whereas for girls it was swimming, with 236 800 participants (18.2%) (ABS, 2006). Table 1.3 details the participation rates for children aged 5–17 years.

Again, the trend in data is for girls to participate in less physical activity than boys. It is interesting to note that the participation rates decrease in children aged 12–14 years but then increase again between the ages of 15 and 17 years.

Table 1.4 shows the trends in popularity of mainstream Australian sports from 2000 to 2006. Although boys had a higher participation rate in organised sport, girls had a much higher participation rate than boys in another form of organised physical activity—dancing. During the 12 months ending April 2006, 300100 girls participated in organised dancing outside school hours—a participation rate of 23.1%—in contrast to the number of boys dancing (32 500)—a participation rate of only 2.4%. The other non-organised physical recreation activities that were high on the list were bike riding and skateboarding or rollerblading. Boys participate in both

activities at a higher rate than girls (ABS, 2006).

Primary schools

After you have finished reading it, consider the following questions:  What do you think about the issues

raised in this newspaper article?  Does it reflect what you have seen in

schools?  How can we make PE an important

part of our curriculum?

In Australian primary schools, one teacher is generally in charge of the delivery of all key learning areas. This includes areas that might be considered specialist, such as the arts, music and languages other than English. This principle is based on the holistic approach to education favoured by primary schools that supports the notion that one teacher is better able to support the psychological and individual learning needs of the students (Youngman, 1979). Some people consider that PE is a specialist area as well. Some schools employ specialist teachers to deliver learning activities in one or two or the entire range of specialist areas named above (Queensland, in particular, has specialist primary PE teachers). It really depends on the allocation in their budget.

The amount and quality of learning provided by a specialist teacher will be different from what a generalist teacher can provide. This is usually because the specialist teacher has had significantly more training in the area compared with a generalist teacher. The poor state of primary PE was highlighted in a 1992 Senate Inquiry into Physical and Sport Education (SSCERA, 1992). The Senate Inquiry found that the number of PE classes being conducted in primary schools was being reduced and that there was a lack of political commitment to the provision of PE. Things haven’t changed much since then, so let us investigate why there are issues with the provision of PE in primary schools.

Barriers to the provision of PE in primary schools

One of the key factors that prevents PE from being taught regularly in primary schools is the notion of the crowded curriculum. In response to the Senate Inquiry, a lot of Australian research has been done by a NSW team led by Associate Professor Phillip Morgan. Many of the primary generalist teachers in this study indicated that, because of the focus on numeracy and literacy, there isn’t sufficient time to plan or implement PE classes (Morgan & Hansen, 2007). Other barriers to teaching PE include the following (Morgan & Hansen, 2007): Teachers who don’t like physical activity won’t teach it. PE is not an academic area.

Teachers don’t have enough confidence to teach it. The school’s facilities/equipment are poor. Teachers find PE a difficult area to assess. No formal school policy and/or curriculum time is allocated for PE. No support is provided to teach PE.

The teachers involved in Morgan and Hansen’s (2007) research indicated that a number of strategies would assist them to deliver a comprehensive PE program. These strategies included working alongside specialist physical educators so that they could develop their skills and knowledge in a supported environment. Many teachers also indicated that the school leadership team needed to have a strong commitment to PE and, unless that was evident, improving PE outcomes would be difficult. Other strategies that teachers thought were appropriate were employing a specialist teacher and outsourcing physical activity classes to companies that are specially set up to deliver particular programs. Outsourcing also provided swimming, gymnastics and specific sporting opportunities.

Finally, all the issues with the provision of PE in primary school would be ameliorated if teachers felt that they were given an adequate opportunity to learn about and practice teaching PE during their undergraduate degrees. Most teachers felt that they had inadequate preparation and needed additional post-graduate learning in assessment, programming and pedagogical approaches to teaching PE. However, it appears as though this is not a high priority for schools.

Secondary schools

In stark contrast to what is happening in the primary schools, secondary schools generally provide a structured PE program delivered by specialist physical educators. Most teachers at secondary schools are specialists in two or more key learning areas, although this requirement varies between states and territories. Secondary school students move from classroom to classroom and are not taught by the same teacher for every class. As with the primary school experience, secondary schools also rely on a strong commitment from the school leadership team to provide adequate resources (equipment/facilities) to deliver a quality program.

There are, however, differences in the provision of PE at independent schools. All schools that are funded by the Australian government are required to deliver a minimum of 2 hours of physical activity per week to primary and junior secondary school children (WA DET, 2008). Some independent schools are electing to deliver no PE classes at all, preferring to give their students the opportunity to play sport only. Others, however, have a strong school-wide commitment to PE and sport, before- and after-school practice and weekend games.

Now that we have an understanding about what is actually happening in schools in PE, let us look at why PE is comparatively marginalised.

The place of HPE in the Australian curriculum

The Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians (MCEETYA, 2008) clearly indicates that ‘Schools play a vital role in promoting the intellectual, physical, social, emotional, moral, spiritual and aesthetic development of young Australians ...’ (p. 4). However, HPE continues to be marginalised. In the development of the Australian Curriculum, HPE is still to make an appearance (see Chapter 8). Despite HPE’s importance in the development of the child, it ‘continues to be pushed to the periphery when educational priorities are being considered by governments’ (Penney, 2008, p. 34). With a political focus on literacy and numeracy standards, the curriculum position of HPE seems far from secure. Despite the Australian government lagging behind in the implementation of a strong HPE policy position, the states and territories, who are presently responsible for curriculum decisions, are, in the main, delivering positive messages to the community about the importance of HPE in children’s lives. Table 1.5 details the position of HPE in the respective state and territory government school curriculums.

In order to promote active transport to school, the Walking School Bus is being promoted as a safe means of getting primary-aged children to school. Before and after school care programs are another means of encouraging physical activity. Structured programs that deliver age-appropriate physical activities have been shown to provide children with the opportunity to be active rather than sedentary (Norton et al., 2003). Sport-specific Active After Schools Community (AASC) programs provide free access to sports for primary-aged children. Although these programs are currently under review as a result of the Independent Sport Panel’s report (2009), the programs’ aim is to provide a positive and fun experience of sport that may encourage children to join a local sports club. During school hours, strategies such as obstacle/walking trails, activity-based line markings (hopscotch, four-square), dividing the playground into active and passive sections, as well as providing students with sporting equipment during break times, can help students make active choices.

As children age they are less likely to engage in active play during school break times. It is common to see groups of boys playing their state brand of football in the winter and basketball or cricket in the summer. Girls, however, tend to be more sedentary and usually sit down during their break times. This is where structured activities delivered by enthusiastic teachers are necessary to increase physical activity levels in secondary schools.

Consider this scenario

Federal Government Memorandum The Australian government has introduced a new Physical Activity for Life policy. The policy requires schools to deliver an extra 30 minutes of sport four days per week (in addition to that already mandated). The target group is Years 4–10.

Start-up funding is available for schools. Schools with a population of less than 600 students can access up to $3000 funding. Schools with a student population over 600 students can access up to $5000 funding.

Your school principal has asked a team of teachers to investigate the policy and prepare a written submission to the school community. The submission needs to be presented to the whole school community about the implications of implementing this program. As would be expected, some members are resistant, and hence the submission needs to present a balanced argument supported with evidence where appropriate.

Review what you have learnt in this chapter about children’s physical activity habits (sport and active play), the barriers to the provision of PE in schools (teacher training, resourcing) and the types of initiatives that have been successful in the past.

Present your submission in written or oral form to your class.

Reference list

Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) (2006), Children’s Participation in Cultural and Leisure Activities Study, ABS, Canberra.

Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) (2010), Australia’s Health 2010, AIHW, Canberra. Bailey, R., Armour, K., Kirk, D., Jess, M., Pickup, I., Sandford, R. (2009), ‘The educational benefits claimed for physical education and school sport: an academic review’, Research Papers in Education, 24(1),

1–27. Commonwealth of Australia (2008), 2007 Australian National Children’s Nutrition and Physical Activity

Survey: Main Findings, <www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/66596E8FC68F

D1A3CA2574D50027DB86/$File/childrens-nut-phys-survey.pdf>, accessed 20 November 2010. Fox, K. R. (2004), ‘Childhood obesity and the role of physical activity’, Journal of the Royal Society for

the Promotion of Health, 124(1), 34–9. Gidlow, C. J., Cochrane, T., Davey, R., Smith, H. (2008), ‘In-school and out-of-school physical activity in

primary and secondary school children’, Journal of Sports Sciences, 26(13), 1411–19. Hardy, L. L., Okely, A. D., Dobbins, T. A., Booth, M. L. (2008), ‘Physical activity among adolescents in New South Wales (Australia): 1997 and 2004’, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 40(5),

835–41. Independent Sport Panel (2009), The Future of Sport in Australia (Crawford Report), <www.sportpanel.org.

au/internet/sportpanel/publishing.nsf/Content/crawford-report>, accessed 20 November 2010. Kirk, D. (1998), Schooling Bodies: School Practice and Public Discourse 1880–1950, Leicester University

Press, London. Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA) (2008), Melbourne

Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians, MCEETYA, Canberra. Morgan, P. & Hansen, V. (2007), ‘Recommendations to improve primary school physical education:

classroom teachers’ perspective’, The Journal of Educational Research, 101(2), 99–111. Norton, K., Dollman, J., Smith, M. (2003), Promoting Physical Activity in Out-of-School-Hours Care

Settings, South Australian Department of Human Services, Adelaide. Penney, D. (2008), ‘Playing a political game and playing for position: policy and curriculum development

in health and physical education’, European Physical Education Review, 14, 33–49. Phillips, M. G. & Roper, A. P. (2006), ‘History of physical education’, in D. Kirk, D. Macdonald,

M. O’Sullivan (eds), The Handbook of Physical Education, Sage, London, pp. 123–40. Senate Standing Committee on Environment, Recreation and the Arts (SSCERA) (1992), Physical and Sport Education, <www.aph.gov.au/senate/Committee/ecita_ctte/completed_inquiries/pre1996/

phy_sport_edu/report.pdf>, accessed 22 November 2010.

Teaching for inclusivity, diversity and equity

At first glance there may not seem to be obvious synergies between what may seem like very disparate disciplines. Our goal this week is to demonstrate the key role Humanities, Health and PE have in supporting inclusivity, diversity and equity within our classrooms.

Humanities’ role in supporting a diverse, inclusive and equitable classroom

Explore, Difference Differently (Together for Humanity Foundation, n.d.) an excellent resource developed by the Australian Government to reflect upon Diversity, equity and inclusion from a Humanities perspective:  In particular, look through some of these sections:

· About Difference Differently

· Diversity Q & A

· Student Modules

· Mapping diversity

Health and Physical Education’s role in supporting a diverse, inclusive and equitable classroom

Explore, Chapter 4 Ability and inclusion, pp.78-99 (Meldrum & Peters, 2012). This chapter is a useful resource for students when planning H&PE lessons as it discusses culturally sensitive practice, working with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, inclusive practice (gender) and working with students with disability. This information extends Government information presented within the Australian Curriculum and is useful for Assessment 1.

Chapter 4

Riley was frustrated because he missed a soccer goal; he stood with crossed

arms while the other students ignored him and played on. Leslie, his teacher, motioned for him to get back in the game and he slowly lumbered back on defence. At the beginning of the year Riley had been a handful. He was stubborn and disruptive, but with his teacher’s consistent approach and unswerving support, he was now participating and enjoying PE.

When Riley arrived in Grade 4, Leslie was aware that he had Down syndrome, so she did some research on teaching students with a disability to inform her planning. She didn’t know what to expect at first and didn’t want to do the wrong thing, so Leslie treated Riley differently from the other students. She had so many questions: What are the safety issues to consider? What skills does he have? What will he be able to do and not do? How will the students interact with Riley? What areas of PE might interest him? She felt underprepared and stressed about meeting Riley’s needs. Leslie decided to speak with Riley’s Grade 4 teacher to find out what learning strategies she used and to the principal about state and school policies for inclusion in her school.

Her first port of call after speaking to the principal was to talk to Riley and his parents about his learning abilities and interests. Riley’s parents were concerned for his social wellbeing as he was moving towards puberty and secondary school. Through PE, they felt he had an opportunity to develop his soccer and social skills. They were very clear about him taking responsibility for his actions and building relationships with others. Riley made it clear that he wanted to participate in the school soccer team as he had participated in the State Special Olympics team and was passionate about the game. Within the year, Leslie saw the whole class accept, include and embrace Riley. Her challenge now was to educate other students, teachers and the community about the value of inclusion.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

To examine the meaning of the terms inclusion, access, equity and disability in health and PE (HPE) in relation to all students

To discuss barriers and enablers for students with and without a disability when participating in PE and physical activity

To consider the diversity of students we teach in all classes and how we might teach in a more inclusive manner

To investigate planning and resources for working with students with a disability and the rationale for inclusion in HPE

What is inclusion?

In an era when social justice is at the forefront of our minds and informing our practice as teachers, it is important to consider what part health and physical educators can play in ensuring all students have an equal opportunity to participate in our learning area. In any class we teach, we will be confronted with students who learn and think differently from each other; who are drawn from a range of cultures, ethnicities, family backgrounds and socioeconomic groups; who bring to the classroom a range of differing experiences—some negative and some positive; who have varying states of health and wellbeing and means of supporting same; some of whom are boys and some are girls; some of whom are same-sex attracted; and all of whom have varying abilities. Our role as a teacher is to challenge a one- size-fits-all approach to teaching and ensure that our practice is inclusive and in keeping with the principles of social justice.

Inclusion is an oft-used term in HPE. We speak of inclusion in relation to our practice when we think about not leaving anyone out of a game or ensuring that everyone gets a partner in a classroom activity. However, inclusion is more than simply good practice. Tripp and colleagues (2007) describe it as a value or an attitude. Inclusive practice needs to be firmly entrenched in everything we do as a means of ensuring social justice for all. Inclusive practice is naturally ensuring that all students are included but, more importantly, that they are included meaningfully (Kunc, 1992). Riley’s inclusion in the soccer game is not as a token player strategically positioned where the ball doesn’t go very often. He has been included meaningfully in a role that allows him an equal opportunity to participate. Depending on Riley’s level of ability, the teacher may allow some modification to the game to assist his full participation. This should be no different from his able-bodied classmate who has poor soccer skills and also needs modification so as to get more out of the game.

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO, 2005, p. 13) describes inclusion as ‘a process of addressing and responding to the diversity of needs of all learners through increasing participation in learning, cultures and communities ... It involves changes and modifications in content, approaches, structures and strategies’, with a common vision of educating all children. This definition reinforces the purpose of this chapter, which is not simply to recognise inclusive practices for children with a disability, but equally to bear in mind how teachers of HPE can respond to the needs of every child they teach through consid- eration of content, teaching approaches and strategies that target and address specific learner needs in a manner that allows all students equal participation and opportunities for success.

For teachers in the contemporary classroom, inclusive practice must be more than words in a policy; it must be embedded in their practice every day. It is essential for teachers to be aware of what inclusive practice means in relation to the many individual differences within a classroom. This includes being attentive to opportuni- ties for inclusion and to understand the benefits to the child, their family, the school and the community. Inclusion in HPE means that students feel a sense of belonging; they feel they have equal opportunity to access learning opportunities; that team selection and groupings consider the broad range of abilities; that students are able to access all learning areas for participation on and off the field; and that their peers have a sense of their capabilities and can work productively and cooperatively together in supporting each other’s needs. It might be said

There are many ways that inclusion and exclusion occur in the school setting. PE, in particular, is an arena in which poor practices become very obvious. Providing equal opportunities for all students to participate is essential in ensuring access and equity and the engagement of students of all abilities.

Racially and culturally sensitive inclusive practice

As the population in Australia becomes more diverse, our schools and classrooms become rich melting pots of culture. This creates some wonderful opportunities for sharing stories and recognising other cultures but, in some cases, sets the scene for exclusive practices. Integrating the diverse cultural experiences of students within studies of celebrations, foods, family, dance, religious practices and gender roles (UTAS, 2008) is essential to acknowledging the rich tapestry that is interwoven in our classrooms. State and territory curriculum framework documents recognise this rich tapestry and incorporate many of the above-mentioned issues as essential learning for students in HPE. Education Queensland (EQ) (2010) notes that migrant children experience stressors that can act as barriers to their full participation in Australian classrooms. Some of these stressors are around pressures to perform at school, racial discrimination and noticeable gaps in education, as well as language barriers (EQ, 2010). It is important that the variety of cultures in any classroom is recognised and celebrated, students’ previous experiences are acknowledged and teachers work to break down the barriers that exist for these students. As a teacher, your role in this process is to develop a broad, engaging curriculum that caters for and teaches about the range of specific cultures in your classroom. In order to do this you will need adequate preparation in terms of your own understanding of the various cultures and how to be sensitive to their needs and, of course, inclusive practice in consideration of those needs.

Sometimes students from different ethnic backgrounds, cultures or religions can be disadvantaged in Australian schools based on a set of expectations or beliefs that are held, in particular, in PE. Garrett and Wrench (2006) remind us that, culturally, a variety of meanings are connected with physical activity and different physical activities are popular with different ethnic groups. For example, in an Australian PE class, teachers may expect that every child participates in all PE activities; however, this may overlook rules that exist for a Muslim girl, who, under the laws of Islam, might need to avoid contact with males in the PE setting, wear a modest uniform, perhaps a hijab, and even avoid activity during fasting periods (Nakamura, 2002). Cultural differences in dress and the impact of religious festivals need to be carefully considered when teaching PE in general. Rather than excluding in such a situation, it is imperative that students are offered alternatives for participation. In the case of the Muslim girl, single-sex PE classes may be required to allow full participation and, while students are in periods of fasting, activities requiring lower energy output can be organised. In a swimming program, students can be accommodated in wetsuit-style bathers with hoods that serve to cover the head, arms and legs. Manufacturers are even producing burqua- style bikinis—burqinis!

It is important that we do not stereotype different ethnic groups based on our own preconceived ideas about different cultures. Kahan (2003) outlined the cultural and religious needs of Muslim students in his article on Islam and physical activity, while Johnson (2000) considered barriers to physical activity in the Asian community. The details for both of these articles can be found in the references section at the end of the chapter. We suggest that you read these articles.

In the true sense of understanding the students that we work with in HPE, Garrett and Wrench (2006) encourage us to: talk to our students understand ethnic communities and the potential dilemmas that PE presents question stereotyping

respect diversity by including multicultural content eradicate harassment and racism (i.e. provide a safe environment for all).

Asking questions, promoting discussions and knowing the students you teach are of utmost importance. This will assist you in planning your programs more thought- fully to promote inclusion and allow equal access to all students.

Working with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples cannot be considered as a homogeneous group (Garrett & Wrench, 2006, p. 206). For example, Aboriginal people from Victoria have different language and cultural experiences from Aboriginal people in the Northern Territory. So, just as with people from ethnic cultures different from our own, we should not treat them all the same way. The key issue for Indigenous students in schools is the development of their identity. Where HPE programs fail to include Indigenous movement culture, dance and language, students are not provided with opportunities to develop a positive self- identity (Garrett & Wrench, 2006). In some cases, the identity that Indigenous people construct through their schooling may be contradictory to the identity that they develop within their family and community, so teachers need to be specifically aware of this and support appropriate identity development.

Aside from supporting identity development, and recognising that Indigenous people are not a homogeneous group, you need to be aware of the following points when teaching Indigenous people in general (Garrett & Wrench, 2006). Some Indigenous people will not engage with direct eye contact as this is seen as

disrespectful in their cultural context. Do not misinterpret this as a lack of respect

for you or disinterest in what you have to say. Exposing upper and/or lower limbs may be viewed as shameful by some

Indigenous people. Please take this into consideration when engaging in aquatic

activities, for example. Shyness is a common characteristic of many Indigenous people. Be careful not to

single them out of the group, even if it is to give them positive individual feedback. Racism is a continuing issue. Be mindful of creating a positive and supportive

learning environment for your Indigenous students.

Garrett and Wrench (2006) also suggest some strategies for inclusive practice with Indigenous people that are similar to the strategies for inclusive practice with different cultural groups generally. Some additional points that you may want to consider when teaching Indigenous students are outlined below: Appreciate the peculiarities, knowledge and strengths of students and their

families. Learn about cultural mores, expectations and practices. Establish community partnerships. Include Indigenous games, dance and movement forms in the curriculum.

Finally, as noted by Garrett and Wrench (2006), it is important to support the right for Indigenous people to be culturally different and self-determining, because their history supports their identity.

TEACHER TALK: PRIMARY

I find that health education in my Grade 6 class is quite problematic. The students come from all sorts of ethnic cultures and finding a common ground to teach about any topic is hard because I need to be sensitive to all of the cultures within the classroom. I’m not really

sure how to move forward on this one and, as a graduate, I don’t feel I have enough experience to know what to say and what not to say, or what might offend one student but not another.

What suggestions do you have for this teacher in relation to the students? And to the method of teaching? How would you move forward on this issue if it were you in this classroom? Consider these questions in light of the ‘topic’ being road safety and then as a unit around sexuality. Would your approach differ?

Inclusive practice and gender

In considering inclusive practice, the issue of gender requires some specific attention, especially in relation to the teaching of PE, but it also has applicability in the health classroom. The impact of gender in PE has a rich research history and, unfortu- nately, there is insufficient space to address all of the research in this chapter. We would encourage you to engage with further reading in the subject to gain a really good understanding of this issue. Gender is an important area for you to consider as beginning teachers, because some research indicates (Dewar, 1990; Flintoff, 1993) that we are responsible for reinforcing our own gendered notions of what is possible for girls and boys when we teach PE.

PE, because of its traditional physical performance base, is seen as one of the most sex-differentiated areas of the school curriculum (Flintoff & Scraton, 2006). The traditional notions of girls in the PE class have been that they need to be seen to be feminine. Being feminine means that they must look good, be well presented and in control of themselves. In contrast, traditional notions of boys in the PE class have been related to overt displays of masculinity: aggressive, dominant, physically strong and assertive (Flintoff & Scraton, 2006).

If you review the statistics presented in Chapter 1 about the participation rates of girls, you will see that they decrease over time. How do we, as teachers, contribute to the decrease in engagement with PE and physical activity in young women? Chapter 1 deals with the history of the development of PE as a curriculum area, but we’ll review it quickly here in relation to gender and PE. Initially, PE was delivered separately to boys and girls, largely because single-sex schools were ‘the norm’. Early PE classes for girls focused on movement activities, such as Swedish gymnastics, and activities suitable for women, such as swimming, that developed poise and grace. Later, games and sports, such as netball, hockey, tennis and lacrosse, widened the recreational opportunities for girls (Flintoff & Scraton, 2006).

Title Nine legislation enacted in the United States in 1972 decreed that girls and women should have greater access to physical activity. This had consequential effects on PE teaching in the rest of the Western world. Coeducational PE classes were adopted, with the rationale being that girls would have better access to a range of different sporting activities and, therefore, equal opportunities, by having classes with the boys. While there was no educational rationale for the move to coeduca- tional classes, resourcing and timetabling restraints were alleviated by it (Flintoff & Scraton, 2006). However, as a result of their experience of coeducational PE classes, some girls (and boys) tend to withdraw from school PE because they cannot live up to the dominant notions of how they should represent themselves in class and still engage with its content. Girls, in particular, have problems with perceptions of their own competence in PE. Their ability to engage properly in competitive sport-based games without the skill level to do so is very limiting. The need to look good and be presentable while engaging with PE is also difficult. However, Scraton (1993) suggests that single-sex classes may not be the answer for PE. She poses the question: How can PE challenge the gender inequalities? This is where a clear understanding of the social practice of youth (McCaughtry, 2007) may help beginning teachers (see Chapter 6).

TEACHER TALK: SECONDARY

I’ve had enormous issues with my Year 10 PE class. The boys are incredibly dominant and I’ve had girls frustrated and upset at my office door over a range of related issues. I’m not sure what to do as I really want them to learn how to work together effectively and be

more aware of each other; however, I’m keenly aware that the boys are holding the girls back in many ways. My heart says separate them; my head says stick with it and keep working at the boys being more inclusive of the girls.

Picture this scenario. What is likely to be happening in this PE classroom? Why? Do you believe the teacher should follow their heart or head (see Chapter 6)? What are some inclusive strategies you think might work for this class if the teacher decides to maintain a mixed gender class?

Students with a disability

We have established that every student has a right to participate in learning and to experience success. Students with a disability or with special needs are no exception. According to the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (2009), of over three million students attending government and non-government Australian schools, 4.6% have a disability. In 2008, the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare reported that it had become more common for students with disabilities that were profound or severe to attend a mainstream school rather than a special school. Schools vary in their ability to provide an inclusive environment that caters for students with special needs. Often, schools are under-resourced and teachers under-prepared for teaching students with disabilities. As well as supporting inclusive practice for children with a range of abilities, the aim of this chapter is to assist teachers of HPE to understand how we can be more inclusive of students with disabilities.

Let’s begin with the terminology relevant to this chapter, as special education terminology varies greatly between states and territories. For the purposes of this chapter, the following terminology will be used: Special needs students or students with a disability—refers to children and

adolescents aged 5–18 years who have a behavioural disorder, visual or hearing impairment, physical or intellectual disability, or autism spectrum disorder that requires special services or support to achieve their learning potential.

Special school—refers to schools that provide a variety of learning pathways in education for students with a disability.

 Individual Education Plan (IEP)—a tool used in these locales to facilitate learning.

Special education caters for the education of children with particular needs and includes students who have special requirements in the areas of behaviour and learning disorders and physical, hearing or vision impairment (Aussie Educator, 2010).

Inclusion as a term in education has its origins in special education. Special education evolved as a field of education to enhance and establish quality education for children with disabilities and special learning needs (Foreman, 2008).

As you read the chapter and the relevant documents and articles, you will need to contextualise it to your particular state or territory and school.

The relationship between inclusion, access and equity

Full participation by students in the education system is conditional on inclusion, access and equity. These are children’s basic rights. These rights are clearly spelt out in the Melbourne Declaration, state and territory websites and through school policy documents. In simple terms, an inclusive education program includes everyone equally and allows for provision of access to learning and resources within the school and community. Examples in HPE planning include ensuring that the curriculum and unit/lesson plans align with inclusive policies. Practical applications include modifying the space, equipment or rules to include everyone in a game or activity. Inclusion can be simple and/or very complex depending on the issue, context and the students’ needs. In developing an inclusive HPE curriculum, understanding the principles that underpin inclusion, access and equity will assist you to consider ways of thinking about the school and community that are inclusive and create a quality learning environment that enhances HPE programs.

Teaching and learning in an inclusive environment

The need to use a variety of pedagogies and teaching tools to successfully engage with and meet individual needs is something that is discussed throughout this chapter. An inclusive environment cannot simply occur at a classroom level. A whole-school approach to inclusivity is required. In their position statement on including students with a disability in PE, Tripp and colleagues (2004) discuss several key areas of commitment to inclusion and quality PE for all. These include the ideas that:

all students can learn and succeed diversity enriches lives creating learning spaces that encourage students to

work together develops social inclusion students learn better in a thoughtful and caring

community effective learning evolves from collaborative efforts.

A school’s commitment to inclusion in schools will influence the teachers working within that school and their subsequent practice. In turn, your practice, your actions and your discourse around inclusion with staff, students and parents will have a major influence on the way students view inclusion in your school. Hodge and colleagues (2009) researched physical educators from around the world and found that they were intrinsically committed to helping students with a disability succeed; however, issues like a lack of resources, school and community support and adequate training were barriers for success. Professional development and accountability for teachers and teachers’ aides are recommendations made by Akuffo and Hodge (2008) to improve key teaching skills in preparation for working with students with a disability.

TEACHER TALK

As a classroom teacher, Julie was frustrated with the PE teachers in her school. Their attitudes to the diverse population of students were incredulous. Comments such as: ‘He has no skills and is hopeless!’ or ‘How can we accommodate students with a disability ... it’s impossible!

I don’t have time for that!?’ were challenging her inclusion principles. She pondered endlessly over why these teachers had such negative attitudes. Maybe they had no experience of working with students with a disability so their confidence to teach in a more inclusive way was lacking? Reflecting on her experience teaching in a special school as part of her university course, she had learned about collaboration, student-centred pedagogies, pooling resources, developing Individual Education Plans (IEPs) and sharing behaviour strategies. It seemed so simple to her.

Julie met with the head of PE to consider ways to address teachers’ attitudes, lack of inclusive teaching skills and behaviour. After brainstorming, they came up with some practical ideas to include not only the teachers but also the school and community. Within the local community they asked the Wheelchair Basketball team (from the YMCA) to come into the school for a demonstration game. Following this, a professional development workshop was organised to specifically discuss student- centred pedagogies for inclusion of all students in PE and sport. The head of PE then spoke to the vice principal about organising a speaker to present information about adherence to the Disability Standards for Education at the next staff meeting. Julie was glad that she had brought up the value and importance of inclusion in the school and was looking forward to supporting changes in line with good teaching principles. She felt strongly that everyone had a right to be educated and included socially and academically in the school and community. Julie also believed that the changes she had initiated would be valuable to every child in every class and would not be restricted to the handful of children at the school with disabilities.

Use the Health Promoting Schools model in Chapter 9 (Fig. 9.1) to stimulate your thinking about the roles of curriculum, school practices and policies, and community in promoting inclusive practice. Discuss as a group and make some additional suggestions that might aid Julie’s school in creating a more inclusive environment.

Disability and discrimination

From a national perspective, the Disability Discrimination Act 1992 clearly states that people with a disability must have the same rights as everyone else in society. To apply the ideals in the Disability Discrimination Act to education, the Disability Standards for Education (Commonwealth of Australia, 2006) were formulated and came into effect in 2005. The standards reiterate and clarify the obligations to provide access and equity to students with disabilities to ensure they are not subject to discrimination. The standards also require educational providers to develop and implement strategies and programs to prevent harassment and victimisation.

Defining and classifying disability

Defining disability is important in providing a common language around disability and its classifications. It also forms an important part of gaining access to school, classroom and family support. It is only once a student’s disability is assessed and defined that schools can officially access resources to support their learning. Examples of resources and support include a teacher’s aide, or physical equipment or facilities to enhance the student’s school experience. Assessment of disability is often outsourced and usually provided by specialists trained in the relevant area (e.g. occupational therapists, speech therapists). Applications for such occur through your relevant state or territory education department, where the formal processes are very clearly defined. The assessment that occurs is done purely to understand the student’s abilities/disabilities and what level of support is required, if at all. Recommendations are made to schools and families as to learning programs, support required (or not required) and further referrals. Disability classification is only a tool used to inform the process—getting to know each child and their family, and understanding their strengths and weaknesses is the key to successful teaching and learning. It is important to view the child first—not the disability.

Every state and territory will have slightly different language, definitions and policies for teaching students with a disability. It is important to investigate policies at the school and state/territory level, as well as regional and community resources, to assist you in developing a plan for teaching students with a disability. From a professional perspective, pre-service teachers must also be aware of privacy policies in relation to students’ disabilities and sharing of information.

Teaching students with a disability in physical education

Every teacher can expect to work with students who have some form of disability. For some teachers, this is daunting because they feel unprepared or have little or no experience. Hutzlera and colleagues (2005) explored the attitudes of teachers working with students with a disability and found that previous contact and experiences working with students with a disability were potential predictors for developing positive attitudes towards teaching students with a disability. Considering this study, it would seem self-evident that, as pre-service teachers, gaining experience in special schools or sporting and community organisations that cater for people with a disability would instil confidence in individuals working with students with a disability.

Teachers’ lack of training and experience teaching HPE to students with a disability may lead to inadvertently excluding students. The two types of exclusion are complete and functional exclusion (Tripp et al., 2007). Complete exclusion occurs when the student is isolated from the group. Functional exclusion occurs when students are given other tasks, such as keeping score, or helping with a task. Assisting the teacher can be a valid activity but should not occur in every lesson. Student-centred pedagogies, such as Teaching Games for Understanding, which is explored in Chapter 12, allow for modifications and provide opportunities to explore social and cognitive development along with physical skills.

In order to modify games successfully, the teacher can consider a range of approaches. A useful way of remembering the types of modifications that are appropriate, whether you are teaching students with disabilities or simply a diversely skilled class of able students, is the acronym TREE (ASC, 2010). The TREE approach to teaching students includes modifications to teaching style, rules, environment and equipment to fully engage students in activities and is depicted in Box 4.3. You will have the opportunity to explore the TREE approach to teaching more fully in the ‘Taking it to the oval’ activity below.

TAKING IT TO THE OVAL

Inclusion game. In a large group, play tiggy or relay games using a range of props to limit participants’ mobility and simulate a disability. Some of the following would be appropriate:

• blindfolds or covering one eye • a wheelchair if you have access • ropes to tie an arm to the body • socks for gloves • a blindfold and a ball with a bell inside it.

Explore safety issues and use the TREE approach to modify and challenge students to participate fully. Stop and reflect as a class on how you felt when participating.

In pairs, following the games activity, use the TREE approach and choose a physical activity or sport that you would like to teach. Create a lesson plan with specific ways to incorporate modifications and challenges for a physically disabled and intellectually disabled student. Use the following website for more games and activities for inclusion: <www.teach-nology.com/teachers/lesson_plans/physical_ed/ games/>.

Other practical applications for working with students with a disability There are many practical considerations for teachers working with students with a disability. These must take into account the context. Here are a few examples: 1 Safety considerations that take into account the student, environment and

equipment. For example, choosing safe surfaces for a student with cerebral palsy who may have low mobility, or using hand signals for someone who has a hearing impairment.

2 The need to modify games or activities to suit special needs (where required). 3 Utilisation of student-centred pedagogies to increase participation and social

inclusion (see Chapter 12). 4 Planning for a caring and considerate learning environment that develops

personal and social responsibility (see Chapter 7).

When considering students’ needs, communication with other staff and profes- sionals is required to create a safe and productive learning environment. An IEP is recommended. The development of the IEP is based on students’ strengths, needs and interests and is developed in conjunction with parents and relevant staff and professionals in the school and community.

Education pathways

It is important in cases such as Rebecca’s in the ‘Teacher talk’ on the following page that consideration be given to an appropriate pathway through the schooling system.

TEACHER TALK

Rebecca was one of my students in Year 7 at Longfield State Secondary School. Rebecca was an excellent swimmer, and a determined and lively personality who also had an intellectual disability. She previously attended the local primary school which was in close

proximity to both her home and Longfield. Her parents initially wanted her to attend a special school, which meant 4 hours of commuting a day. They chose the local primary school, where she was sucessfully integrated academically and socially into the school.

In Year 7, her parents were concerned for her social development in the transition to secondary school. My role was to set up the IEP as required by state/territory guidelines. In Rebecca’s case, she had a low IQ and behaviour issues, tantrums and acting out. Rebecca’s parents discussed the school equity policy with the principal and were happy that it included curriculum access, emphasis on participation and retainment, student support, alternative programs and up-to-date reporting to students and parents.

The IEP involved all parties (intellectual disability services, her mother and the school), an evaluation of Rebecca’s current skills, strengths and interests and additional support if required. As part of the plan, goals were established and timelines for review were put in place. The successful learning and behaviour strategies implemented in Grade 6 were evaluated and put into the plan. The group prioritised Rebecca’s participation in PE as her confidence had improved and behaviour issues diminished following the development of her skills in swimming and volleyball in Grade 6.

The year progressed and Rebecca shone! Her volleyball and swimming skills developed and she made the school team. Students got to know her through sport and commented that Rebecca had taught them to be accepting and inclusive. The transition from primary to secondary school was a success.

What are your state or territory requirements in regards to an IEP? What information needs to be included in an IEP? How do you think working with a student’s strengths impacts on their progress?

Pathways for individuals will vary from person to person and should be based on their strengths and interests academically, socially and physically. The best way to meet access, equity and individual needs of students are to address them through consultation with the relevant parties, as was done in Rebecca’s case.

Approaches to creating learning pathways for students with a disability vary between states and territories. In some cases, special education is provided as a supplement to general education in a state school and, in other cases, the family chooses a special school or other education facility. For example, children with a disability may attend a state school one day a week with a focus on socialisation or be wholly integrated (or mainstreamed) into a mainstream school. There are many options; the decision depends on what the family feels is right for the child in consul- tation with the school and usually on advice from specialists. Table 4.1 demonstrates some important components of inclusive education in relation to planning individu- alised experiences for students.

Key components of inclusive education

Inclusive education means ...

Educating all children who have a disability

Providing an appropriate individualised education program

Teaching children to accept and embrace diversity and difference

Providing professional development in disability education for teachers

Encouraging friendships between students of all abilities

Allowing students with a disability to participate in school sport

Working with teachers, faculty and administrators to improve inclusion in schools

Inclusive education does not mean ...

Placing students into mainstream programs with no preparation or support

Ignoring individual needs

Not addressing safety issues out of ignorance

Ignoring parents’ concerns

Isolating students who have a disability (not giving them physical/sport education opportunities)

Placing students with a disability in classes that are not age appropriate

Placing unreasonable demands on educators and administration

Initially people with a disability were kept out of mainstream education and put in special schools or institutions. However, as society evolved and social justice ideals were established, children were streamed into state or independent schools; ‘mainstreaming’ or ‘integration’ and inclusion of students in regular classes began in the 1970s (Foreman, 2008). Schools now integrate students into regular classrooms and provide support through additional human resources, smaller class sizes and modified curriculums. Some state and independent schools cater for students with special needs and proudly put time, money and resources into creating an inclusive learning environment. This may mean the development of IEPs and new technology, building modifications and transportation to support learning needs.

Addressing behavioural issues

In an ideal PE class, the students all listen attentively to instruction and work together as a group to achieve goals. Students whose behaviours are disruptive or unsafe in a PE class require strategies in place to empower them to work coop- eratively and safely. Understanding the characteristics of the disability and getting to know the student will enable you to respond to students’ needs. For example, children with autism respond to a well-structured environment. Simply having a routine, such as taking roll, discussing lesson objectives, warm-up games and core activities, warm-down and discussion will support the autistic child’s need for structure. Making changes on the spur of the moment may illicit chronic or intense behavioural issues.

When students have chronic and/or intense behaviour issues, a Behaviour Intervention Plan (BIP) (Lavay et al., 2006) can be implemented. Students who demonstrate verbal abuse, unsocial behaviour or act out physically are candidates for a BIP. Behaviour issues can be multi-layered, requiring planning that incorpo- rates all teachers at a school, the student and other professionals that support the student to be involved. The basis of a modified BIP (Lavay et al., 2007) involves four steps:

1 Identify the chronic behaviour and consider when and why the behaviour occurs.

2 Develop a plan to observe, analyse and record the behaviour. 3 Analyse the data from your observations and develop and implement an inter-

vention to change the behaviour. 4 Be consistent with the implementation of the plan and evaluate it over a period

of time.

Throughout the year, the BIP must be consistently evaluated to examine what is working and what needs reviewing in order to improve the student’s behaviour. The intervention and support required to change the behaviour will continue to be modified as the student progresses. Many factors may affect the student’s progress. Always consider factors such as low self-esteem and the student’s living situation as barriers and/or possible support in changing behaviour.

The BIP is only one example of developing a positive learning environment. Use the following activity to explore further initiatives and ideas for creating a positive learning environment.

REFLECT AND DISCUSS

Read the article on BIP by Lavay, French and Henderson (2007) titled ‘A practical plan for managing the behaviour of students with disabilities in general physical education’. Imagine a school context in which you have observed or taught. Create

a scenario that describes a disability or behaviour issue. Describe the steps you would take to work with a student using the BIP format. Reflect on both the ideal and the worst outcome. What happens when things don’t go to plan?

TEACHER TALK

Up until last year I had never taught a student with a disability. Last year I taught Ricky. He was a 12 year old who had been identified with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and was emotionally disturbed. He was also slightly intellectually disabled. I knew that I needed

some help as I had many questions in my mind that I needed resolved. What behaviours do I want Ricky or the class to exhibit? What behaviours will support success

for Ricky and the class? What behaviours have prevented this from happening in the past? What is inappropriate behaviour?

I met with all of Ricky’s teachers and discussed some strategies for him to be empowered to change, as I understood from his last teacher that he could be disruptive and demonstrate socially unacceptable and often unsafe behaviour. It was identified by all who had worked with him that Ricky had a short attention span (15 minutes) and would lash out at others (gently hit, poke, disrupt) when waiting for any period of time. In order to work effectively with Ricky, I needed to identify when he was off task and encourage him to either sit down for a moment or use a breathing technique to quiet himself. He became very good at identifying his triggers and with all of his teachers’ help he began to manage his behaviour. A point system each day was used and an extra privilege was agreed upon for his reward. It was also agreed that, if he was disruptive, he would report to the vice principal’s office and, under supervision, use his breathing techniques to settle down before returning to class. Within 10 weeks of meeting and first teaching Ricky, his behaviour had changed markedly; other students were not harassing or avoiding him and he was managing his disruptive behaviour. The plan was evaluated at significant points along the way, positive behaviours were rewarded and disruptive behaviours were targeted as Ricky progressed.

Why was it important to put a BIP in place for Ricky? Of the teacher’s actions, which were useful in helping Ricky with his behaviour? Why was this important for the other students in the class? Why was it important for the teacher?

Creating community links to physical activity and sporting opportunities

As students develop sporting skills in PE, they are often naturally encouraged to participate in extracurricular physical activities, sports clubs and active groups, such as Scouts, in order to develop a fit and healthy lifestyle. This should be no different for students with a disability. Riley (from the chapter opening scenario) is a prime example of seeking and maximising opportunities in relation to club and repre- sentative sport. Frey and colleagues (2008) found that although studies on physical activity for youth with an intellectual disability were limited, anecdotal evidence suggests parent support, access to clubs and motivation are factors that may enable students with a disability to participate in physical activity and develop positive health and wellbeing.

Sports CONNECT is a national framework that develops pathways for people with a disability to get involved in sport by developing relationships between sports, disability organisations and people. Through Sports CONNECT more people with a disability can gain an opportunity for social and health benefits from being involved in sport. Sporting organisations can also involve people with a disability as partici- pants, administrators, volunteers, coaches or officials, giving alternative outlets for social contacts.

On a global scale, people with an intellectual disability form the largest disability group in the world. Over 500 000 Australian children and adults have an intellectual disability, with varying degrees of disability, from mild through to severe (Special Olympics Australia, 2010). Special Olympics Australia is part of a global community that promotes sport as a means of acceptance and inclusion for people with an intellectual disability. Their slogan is ‘Our measure of excellence is not in breaking records but in helping each of our athletes to achieve their personal best’ (Special Olympics Australia, 2010).

As a teacher it will be your role to provide options and encourage students with a disability to participate in community sport and enhance their levels of physical activity. You will also reap the benefits of their extracurricular participation when they come to your class.

Teaching students with a disability in health

As previously discussed, in mainstreaming students with a disability into HPE programs in schools, consideration of access to the environment, resources to support special needs and IEPs to promote successful integration in the school are required. Socialisation and integration of students with a disability into mainstream education is essential in facilitating positive learning experiences. Health education is an excellent platform for discussing identity, bullying, acceptance, barriers to inclusion and individual differences. Increasing a disabled student’s peers’ understanding of their disability begins to break down the barriers that often exist in a classroom. Sometimes it is what students don’t know that scares them the most and what can lead to discrimination of those who are different. If we can reduce the social barriers to participation in mainstream education for these students, we are, as Tomko (1996) described, getting the class ready for the student rather than having to prepare the student for the class. Even with a conservative understanding of inclusion, the participation of children with special needs in regular classes is expected to be of benefit for all groups involved, as demonstrated in Table 4.2.

The benefits of inclusion of students with special needs

Benefit of inclusion

Children with disabilities: Inclusion or mainstreaming in a school gives the child the ability to participate in a social environment that replicates a mainstream environment.

Peers without disabilities

Inclusion exposes children without a disability to peers with disabilities, and enables them to develop empathy, cooperation and support strategies towards those with different abilities.

Teachers

Inclusion provides a challenge in teaching diverse student populations requiring innovative teaching pedagogies and methods to engage students of all abilities.

Parents of children with disabilities

Parents can be overprotective of their children with disabilities. With the development of an IEP, goals are set with feedback from all parties to enable progress and participation.

PULLING IT ALL TOGETHER

Excursion/Incursion. Research suggests that teachers will enhance their skills and attitudes through professional development that provides tools for working with students with a disability. This task incorporates some options for engaging with professional development

to give you hands-on experience of working with students with a disability. Possibilities for completing this task include: • inviting a leader in the field of disability education to give a workshop or lecture • organising with a teacher at a special school to volunteer for a day at the school

• contacting a local organisation that works with disability sports and volunteer some time at an event or regular sporting fixture

• attending a professional development workshop. When completing your task, write an essay, report or short story about your experience. Access the

article by Hodge and colleagues (2009) (see references) to explore the beliefs and attitudes of teachers when teaching students with a disability

In this chapter we have explored the principles of inclusion, access and equity, and the value in = relation to all students that we teach. Understanding that inclusive practice means considering a range of factors that differentiate our students and not simply their abilities highlights the importance of knowing the students you teach. When embedded in our teaching of HPE,

inclusive practice becomes the gateway for increasing students’ activity levels, physical skills, learning capabilities, empathy for others, understanding and sense of belonging. Examples of student-centred approaches, such as TREE, were discussed to assist you with strategies for including students of all abilities. Understanding that professional development for pre-service and in-service teachers working with children with a disability enhances and improves teaching skills and confidence serves to remind us that the more experience we gain, the better equipped we will be once we begin teaching. This is important as we appreciate the diversity of students we will teach once we enter the profession.

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Week 1

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