FOR EXPERT RESEARCHER ONLY ! annotated bibliography

Emotionai inteiiigence and ijeadership Deveiopment By Golnaz Sadri, PhD

This paper reviews ttie current iiterature on the concept of emotionai inteiiigence and makes recommendations for incorporating emotionai inteiiigence into ieadership deveiopment programs. The paper is divided into four sections: the first section identifies the two most cited modeis of emotionai inteiiigence. Section two reviews research on the reiationship between leadership and emotionai inteiiigence. The third section provides a synopsis of the arguments for and against emotionai inteiiigence. The fourth and finai section iiiuminates how the components of emotional inteiiigence integrate with contemporary ieadership deveiopment practices and suggests some methods for deveioping emotionai inteiiigence competencies among managers and ieaders.

I n an article on developing leadership capability. Conger states that the issue is not "whether leaders are born or made. They are born and made."' Many organizations are consciously focused on developing their leadership po-

tential and programs aimed at leadership development continue to gain popularity among researchers and practitioners. Bersin suggests that while man- agement represents a relatively small percentage of the workforce, about 21 percent of tbe training budget in corporate America is spent on leadership de- velopment and supervisory/management training.^

The concept of emotional intelligence has generated increasing interest during the past decade among those involved in leadersbip development and training. Proponents of emotional intelligence argue that it may be more im- portant than intellectual intelligence (IQ) in determining leadersbip success. Critics of emotional intelligence argue tbat mucb of tbe interest in and extrava- gant claims about El have been fueled by research published in books (e.g., Goleman's Emotional Intelligence published in 1995) as opposed to peer-re- viewed journals and therefore, bave not witbstood adequate scrutiny' Despite

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the considerable debate and criticism surrounding the topic, at the conclusion of a book critiquing emotional intelligence. Murphy suggests that there "are some reasons for optimism about the future of emotional intelligence, but there is still a long way to go before this concept will come close to living up to the hype.'"'

This paper suggests that leadership development programs may be en- hanced through a better understanding ofthe concept of emotional intelligence and the inclusion of practices that aim to develop participants' emotional intel- ligence. The purpose of this paper is to review the current literature on the concept of emotional intelligence and to make some recommendations about how to proceed in terms of incorporating emotional intelligence into leader- ship development programs. The paper is divided into four sections: first, I define and present the two most cited models of emotional intelligence. Sec- ond, I review research on the relationship between leadership and emotional intelligence. Third, I provide a synopsis of the arguments for and against emo- tional intelligence. Fourth, I look at how the components of emotional intelligence integrate with contemporary leadership development practices and suggest some methods for developing emotional intelligence competencies among managers and leaders.

Defining Emotional Intelligence (El) Mayer, Salovey and Caruso define emotional intelligence (El) as "the capacity to reason about emotions, and of emotions to enhance thinking. It includes the abilities to accurately perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to refiectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth."5 Their model, considered an ability model, has been more widely ac- cepted by the academic community and contains four levels of emotional abilities. The most basic level is the ability to perceive emotion and includes skills such as recognizing facial expressions in others and interpreting what those expressions mean. The second level is the ability to use emotion to facil- itate thought and includes skills such as weighing confiicting emotions against each other to determine how one should react. The third level, understanding emotion, involves labeling emotions and understanding the relationships asso- ciated with shifts in emotion. The fourth level is the ability to manage emotion, to effectively manage feelings within oneself and others, for example, calming down after being angry, or being able to alleviate the anxiety of another person.^ This model is measured through the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelli- gence Test (MSCEIT).̂ Many leadership development programs require

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participants to complete self-report and 360-degree assessments prior to attend- ing the program. The MSCEIT, a self-report measure, could be completed by program participants prior to their attendance at the program to assess baseline levels of El and identify developmental opportunities. In this way, during the leadership development program, participants can obtain feedback more di- rectly tailored to improving their particular El weaknesses.

Goleman defines emotional intelligence as "abilities such as being able to motivate oneself and persist in the face of frustrations; to control impulse and delay gratification; to regulate one's moods and keep distress from swamping the ability to think; to empathize and to hope."^ Goleman's model is consid- ered a mixed model and has been more widely embraced by the non-academic community. This model of El is comprised of five skill areas, three of which re- late to personal competence and two of which relate to social competence. The personal competencies include: 1) Self-Awareness ("knowing one's internal states, preferences, resources, and intuitions"); 2) Self-Regulation ("managing one's internal states, impulses, and resources"); 3) Motivation ("emotional ten- dencies that guide or facilitate reaching goals").' The social competencies include: (1) Empathy 'Awareness of others' feelings, needs, and concerns" (2) Social Skills 'Adeptness at inducing desirable responses in others". i° There are two measurement tools based on Goleman's model: the Emotional Competency Inventory (ECI) and the Emotional and Social Competency Inventory (ESCI)." As with the MSCEIT, leadership development programs will benefit from the in- clusion of either the ECI or the ESCI as one of the self-report measures completed by program participants prior to attendance. The specific measure of El that is likely to complement the other self-report and 360-degree instru- ments used will differ from one program to another. I suggest that program developers review the three El instruments mentioned here (MSCEIT, ECI and ESCI) as well as others that may appear to be a good fit, paying particular atten- tion to the psychometric properties of each instrument to ensure that the measure adopted has both reliability and validity and will truly strengthen their program.

Leadership and Emotional Inteiiigence A number of different authors argue that El is a key component of effective lead- ership. ̂ ^ George suggests that leaders high in El are able to recognize, appraise, predict and manage emotions in a way that enables them to work with and mo- tivate team members.^^ Prati, Douglas, Eerris, Ammeter and Buckley propose that El is "essential to effective team interaction and productivity" and that the "emotional intelligence of the team leader is important to the effective

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functioning of the team. The leader serves as a motivator toward collective ac- tion, and facilitates supportive relationships among team members. The emotionally intelligent team leader also provides a transformational influence over the team."'"*

Both primary and secondary research looking at the El of leaders is emerg- ing. Cooper identifies a number of high profile business leaders who demonstrate what he refers to as the "four cornerstones" of El: emotional liter- acy, emotional fitness, emotional depth and emotional alchemy ̂ ^ Harrison & Clough conducted secondary research on 15 "state of the art" leaders and found that they possessed a number of characteristics, one of which was high EI.̂ '̂ Bar- ling, Slater and Kelloway examined self-report ratings of managers' El and subordinate ratings of their transformational leadership. They found that El was associated with three aspects of transformational leadership (idealized influ- ence, inspirational motivation and individualized consideration).'^ Higgs and Aitken studied the El of 40 managers participating in a leadership development center. They found El to be related to a number of aspects of leadership and they suggest that El may prove a good predictor of leadership potential.'^ Man- dell and Pherwani examined the predictive relationship between El and transformational leadership style in 32 managers working for a medium to large organization in the U.S. They found a significant relationship between transfor- mational leadership style and El.''Jordan and "froth conducted a study with 330 university students participating in 108 teams. They found that teams consisting of members higher in El performed better than teams with members lower in El. They also found that El affected the type of conflict strategies adopted. Those higher in El were more likely to use collaboration at both the individual and team levels of analysis.̂ " In a study of 41 senior executives. Rósete and Ciarrochi investigated the relationship between El, personality, cognitive intelligence and leadership effectiveness. Their results showed that El was associated with higher levels of leadership effectiveness and that El explained variance explained by neither personality nor cognitive ability^' Dries and Pepermans matched 51 high potential managers with 51 regular managers. They found that the El subscales of assertiveness, independence, optimism, flexibility and social responsibility separated the high potential managers from managers performing at an average level.̂ ^ Rego, Sousa, Pina e Cunha, Correia, and Saur-Amaral investigated the ex- tent of co-variation between a leader's El and the creativity of his/her team. They found that employees were more creative when their team leaders possessed self-control against criticism and were more empathetic.^' The evidence pro- vided above indicates a link between El and leadership effectiveness. Therefore, assessment centers and other selection procedures targeted at selecting effec- tive leaders will benefit from the inclusion of El as one of the selection criteria.

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Again, self-report measures of El may be used bere but of greater value would be observation and measurement of participant El tbrougb the various inter- personal and group activities included in an assessment center. Research evidence to date implies that higher levels of El will lead to greater levels of ef- fectiveness in a leadership role.

There is also some evidence that El responds to training. For example, American Express financial advisors developed an emotional competence train- ing program in the early nineties. The study compared the performance of financial advisors working under managers who received emotional compe- tence training against managers wbo did not receive the training. Advisors who worked for a trained manager were able to grow their businesses at a rate of 18.1 percent over 15 months compared to 16.2 percent for those advisors who worked under a manager who did not receive the training.̂ ^ In a study of Bell Labs engineers, Kelley and Caplan identified nine non-cognitive strategies that differentiated star performers from average performers: taking initiative, net- working, self-management, teamwork effectiveness, leadership, followersbip, perspective, sbow-and-tell and organizational savvy. A program was developed at Bell Labs focused on teacbing these skills to engineering employees. Kelley and Caplan note tbat at the time their article was written, 600 engineers had participated in this program, which led to an increase in worker productivity (about 25% after one year) and an improved organizational climate.̂ 5 Groves, McEnrue and Sben found tbat a group of 135 employed business students who underwent an 11-week El training program showed significant gains in El while a control group showed no pre-test, post-test differences. While the research cited here appears promising, it is important to note tbat researcb on El is still evolving and has generated substantial debate. Tbe following section summa- rizes some of tbe major criticisms and counter-arguments directed at EI.̂ ^

Evaluating Emotional Intelligence (El) Tbere are criticisms over the definition of El. Locke argues tbat El is defined too broadly, that the definition of the concept is continuously changing and that tbe combination of reasoning witb emotion in tbe definition of El is contradic- tory He also feels that altbough intelligence can be applied to many aspects of life, including emotions. El itself is not truly a form of intelligence.̂ '̂ Hedlund and Sternberg find tbat conceptualizations of El "exceed the boundaries of a reasonable definition of intelligence."^^ Davies, Stankov and Roberts call El an "elusive concept. "29

There is also some concern about how much El adds to our understand- ing of behavior over and above existing constructs.^" In a meta-analysis of 69

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independent studies. Van Rooy and Viswesvaran reported that El showed a cor- relation of .22 with general mental ability. They also found that El was related to all of the Big Five dimensions of Personality. The highest correlate was found to be extraversion (.34), then emotional stability (.33), conscientiousness (.31) and finally agreeableness and openness to experience (.23 respectively).''

Criticisms have also been targeted at tbe psychometric properties of cur- rent El measures. For example, Davies, Stankov and Roberts investigated the relationship among El measures, traditional human cognitive abilities and per- sonality in a set of three studies. They found tbat self-report measures of El either had poor reliability or (if reliabilities were acceptable) tended to load on established personality factors. They also report that objective (versus self-re- port) measures showed poor reliability'^ Conte finds that while El measures generally demonstrate adequate reliability, there is a lack of validity evidence." Otber researcbers echo tbis concern over the reliability and validity of El meas- ures currently in existence.'"* Furthermore, Landy criticizes the cross-sectional study designs that have typically been used when investigating El, tbe lack of sta- bility of definitions and instruments, the unavailability of researcb findings (primarily from studies by Goleman) to tbe interested reader and the lack of concrete suggestions on how one might use EI.'5

However, there are also authors wbo argue in support of El. For example, Mayer, Salovey and Caruso find that El meets three criteria tbat establish it as a form of intelligence: first. El tests can provide correct answers; second. El cor- relates modestly with other intelligences; third. El develops with age.'^ In a study comparing intellectual, emotional and managerial intelligence, Dulewicz and Higgs report that the measure of El used (based on 16 El competencies) showed both reliability and validity. They also found that a combination of emotional and intellectual intelligence was a better predictor of success than either of them alone.'^ Daus and Ashkanasy find that the ability model of El shows sufficient convergent and discriminant validity to support its claims as a form of intelli- gence.'^ Similarly, Ashkanasy and Daus argue in support of El and suggest tbat El is an individual difference variable that develops over time and responds to training. They find tbat El is a type of intelligence which is related to but distinct from other types of intelligence." Law, Wong and Song collected data from three samples: university students, bigh school students and employees of a cigarette factory in the People's Republic of China. They showed that El was both related to and distinct from the Big Five personality dimensions. Further, peer ratings of El accounted for over 10% of the variance in work performance as rated by supervisors.''°

In summary, criticisms of El focus on tbe broadness and instability of tbe definitions used and question the predictive validity of tbe concept over and

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above personality and other types of intelligence that have an established place in the literature. There are also reliability and validity issues surrounding the measurement of El. In the conclusion to a book critiquing El, Murphy draws the following four conclusions about El research: first, there are issues sur- rounding the definition and measurement of El; second, how El is related to other concepts (e.g., personality, social skills and general intelligence) is not yet well established; third, there is not adequate research to support some of the claims about the relationship between El and success in different life arenas; fourth, despite these concerns, there is some optimism about the future of EI.''̂

Emotional Intelligence Training and Leadership Development In order to assist those who wish to determine how to incorporate El into their current leadership development programs, this section examines how the di- mensions of El fit into existing leadership development practices and what strategies might work best in developing El competencies. While both models of El identified above are important, I focus on Goleman's model in this section of the paper as this model and the literature surrounding it have been more practitioner-focused. As mentioned previously, Goleman's model has five com- petencies: self-awareness (knowledge of internal states, preferences, resources, intuitions); self-regulation (managing internal states, impulses, resources); mo- tivation (emotional tendencies that facilitate goal achievement); empathy (being aware of other people's feelings, needs, concerns) and social skills (ability to provoke desirable responses in others).''^ In order to provide a context for the concept of El in the domain of leadership training and development, this sec- tion compares Goleman's model of El with two important prior studies in this area.

The first study of leadership development to be introduced in this section is that of Conger who suggested that there are essentially four approaches to leadership development: personal development, conceptual understanding, feedback and skill building."*' Conger suggests that the personal growth ap- proaches to leadership development assume that the training participant has lost touch with his/her inner values, talents and passions. Activities aimed at personal growth help participants reconnect with these inner qualities. Con- ceptual approaches assume that leadership is complex and poorly understood. The goal of this category of training activities is to raise awareness of some key leadership ideas. Feedback approaches to leadership training assume that par- ticipants have already developed a leadership style, feedback assists in identifying the strengths and pitfalls of the individual's particular style. Finally,

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skill building approaches to leadership development employ step-by-step in- structions and demonstrations to help participants learn essential leadership skills and techniques.

It appears that a number of the competencies identified by Goleman are already the focus of current leadership development practices. Looking at the definitions provided and reviewing the activities identified by Conger, Conger's categories integrate with Goleman's competencies in the following ways: per- sonal growth integrates with Goleman's dimension of self-awareness (both focus on developing greater awareness of one's internal states); feedback taps into self-regulation (feedback on leader behaviors leads to a greater recognition of abilities, preferences and resources and identifies next steps in managing re- sources); skill building approaches help with the development of social skills. Thus, three of the four categories of leadership training and development cur- rently employed by practitioners overlap in some manner with three of the five competencies identified by Goleman in his model of EL

In a more recent study, Hartman, Conklin and Smith conducted a review of talks given to students of a leadership class by 12 business leaders and iden- tified six themes which constitute "practice-based definitions of effective leadership and leader development."'̂ '' Their six leadership themes are: full com- mitment (the leaders identified passion and 100% commitment as important to success); people orientation (appealing to and getting the most from their sur- rounding people); education (seeing everything as an opportunity to contribute to life-long learning); difficult challenges (taking on difficult assignments); com- munication (the importance of honest, face-to-face contact with employees); and ethics (staying with one's morals and acting with integrity). Again, Gole- man's competencies of El integrate with Hartman et al's themes in a number of ways: people orientation integrates with Goleman's category of social skills (both involve the ability to get the most from others); communication integrates with Goleman's category of empathy (there is abundant literature linking em- pathy to effective communication skills); ethical behavior integrates with Goleman's categories of self-awareness and self-regulation (self-awareness in- volves knowing those key values that are important to a leader while self-regulation is defined as the ability to manage one's impulses and resources so that the leader stays true to his/her values). Thus, three of Hartman et al's themes of effective leadership and leader development integrate with four of the five competencies identified by Goleman.''̂

"While the debate continues about the validity of El as a type of intelligence and the reliability and validity of El measures, this paper shows that four of the competencies of which it is composed integrate with prior research on leader- ship development. More specifically, the El competencies of self-awareness,

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self-regulation and social skills overlap with the personal growth, feedback and skill building approaches to leadership development identified by Conger.'̂ ^ The El competencies of social skills, empathy, self-awareness and self-regulation overlap with the themes of people orientation, communication and ethical be- havior identified by Hartman et al."*̂ Consequently, I suggest that practitioners interested and involved in developing leaders not attempt to improve all five El competencies in the same training program, but rather consider developing one or more of the competencies identified here as integrating with past re- search in the area of leadership development (self-awareness, self-regulation, empathy and social skills) as stand-alone competencies and provide training to participants who lack the requisite skills on an as-needed basis. For example, the top training priority for one leader might be developing self-awareness, for another it may be improving self-regulation, for a third, developing empathy, while for a fourth, the initial focus for training might be enhancing social skills. The level of priority will be determined through the measurement of each leader's El prior to attendance at the leadership development program.

Toward this end, Allen and Hartman reviewed 25 sources of learning for leaders and provide helpful information about each. Of the activities identified by Allen and Hartman, those most pertinent to developing self-awareness in- clude individual reflection, group reflection, executive coaching, instruments, simulations and personal development plans.'*^ Individual reflection focuses on a person's goals, past experiences and personal mission and is captured through activities like journaling. Group reflection typically occurs after a teambuilding activity. Participants discuss the pattern of events during the exercise and iden- tify strategies for improvement. Executive coaching is an individualized method of learning where a coach works with a client in a one-to-one relationship to as- sist in accomplishing behavioral improvements back at the workplace.'̂ ^ Instruments are a popular vehicle for raising self-awareness. A combination of self-report and 360-degree instruments is often used as part of leadership devel- opment programs. It was suggested earlier in this paper that measures of El be incorporated as one of the instruments used in such programs. There are a va- riety of simulations available for use in leadership development programs. These range from simple paper and pencil exercises (for example, where participants are asked to imagine that they are in a crisis type situation and, through discus- sion, they have to agree on a preferred coursed of action) to more elaborate outdoor activities. Such exercises are then paired with group reflection. Per- sonal development plans involve the individual in developing and taking responsibility for his/her own training and development plan.

Activities most likely to contribute to the enhancement of self-regulation include executive coaching, developmental assignments, simulations and

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personal development. Please refer to tbe previous paragrapb for definitions of executive coaching, simulations and personal development plans. Developmen- tal assignments are structured so that they are both challenging as well as providing an opportunity for tbe individual to learn.^" Service learning is likely to prove a very good vehicle for developing empathy Service learning involves engagement in activities tbat target individual and community needs.̂ ^

Social skills may be enhanced through the training methodologies of team- building, developmental relationsbips and networking with senior executives. Teambuilding involves members working cooperatively together to analyze tbe task aspect of their work as well as the interpersonal processes occurring within the group. Developmental relationships may be formal or informal and help provide the target individual witb information, support and cballenge. Network- ing witb senior executives gains tbe target individual exposure as well as the opportunity to learn about the organization from an informed and informal perspective.52

Finally, while motivation did not integrate with the prior studies reviewed here, I will nevertheless mention that of the training activities identified, those tbat seem most suited to tbe development of motivation as defined by Gole- man include classroom based trainining, self-paced learning, as well as personal development plans (defined above) to better understand and assess a leader's own motivation. Classroom-based training is formal education with a relatively short (usually lasting between three to five days) curriculum geared towards the particular needs of the executive audience. Self-paced learning typically in- volves participants reading a book, completing a workbook, viewing a videotape or listening to an audiotape.^^ Tbe reader is directed to Allen and Hartman for further information about each of these training activities.̂ "*

Summary and Conclusions This paper focused on emotional intelligence, an evolving area of theory, re- search and practice in the field of leadership development. My aim was to provide an overview of the literature that pertains to El and leadership. The paper defined and identified the two most cited models of El, reviewed research on the relationsbip between leadership and El, provided the major arguments for and against El, showed how the components of El integrate with current leadership development practices and identified key activities for developing El competencies among managers and leaders. As stated above, while the concept has generated considerable debate. El does sbow some important links to lead- ership and four of the five components of Goleman's model of El integrate with contemporary practice in the field of leadership development. Due to the

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criticisms targeted at the definition of El and the concerns with the reliability and validity of El measures, I suggest tbat organizations focus on eacb of the El competencies as discrete skills and assist leaders in developing eacb skill inde- pendently using one or more of tbe training activities identified above.

Notes ' Conger, J.A. (2004). Developing leadership capability: What's inside the black box?

Academy of Management Executive, 18, 136-139.

2 Bersin, J. (2008). 2008 U.S. corporate training budgets emphasizing management and leadership training. Available at: http://services.tekrati.com/research/9987/ (accessed 30 September 2008).

' Goleman, D (1995). Emotional Intelligence. New York: Bantam Books.

•* Murphy, K.R. (2006). A critique of emotional intelligence: What are the problems and how can they be fixed? New Jersey: Lawrence Eribaum Associates.

5 Mayer, J.D., Salovey, P, & Caruso, D.R. (2004), Emotional intelligence: theory, findings znà\vnp\\c2it:\ons. Psychological Inquiry, 15(5), 197-215.

* Mayer, J.D., Salovey, P, & Caruso, D.R. (2000). Models of emotional intelligence. In Stenberg, R. (Ed.), Handbook of intelligence, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 396-420; Mayer, J.D., Salovey, P, & Caruso, D.R. (2004), op cit.

' Mayer, J.D., Salovey, P, & Caruso, D.R. (2002). Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEU) User's Manual.Toronto, ON: MHS.

* Goleman, D. (1995), op cit.

' Goleman, D. (1998). Working with Emotional Intelligence. New York: Bantam Books.

'» Ibid.

" Emmerling, R. (2008). Emotional Competence Inventory 2.0 Emotional & Social Competency Inventory Available at: www.eiconsortium.org/measures/eci_360.html (accessed 11 May 2008).

'̂ Coetzee, C , & Schaap, P (2004). The relationship between leadership styles and emotional intelligence. Paper presented at the 6th Annual Conference for the Society of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Sandton, South Africa;Daus, C.S., & Harris, A. (2003). Emotional intelligence and transformational leadership in groups. Paper presentation of symposium Multilevel perspectives on emotions in organizations at the 18th Annual Meeting of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychologists, Orlando, FL; Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R., & McKee, A. (2002). Primal leadership: Realizing the power of emotional intelligence. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.

'5 George, J.M. (2000). Emotions and leadership: The role of emotional intelligence. Human Relations, 53(8), 1027-1044.

'"* Prati, L.M., Douglas, C , Eerris, G.R., Ammeter, A.P, & Buckley, M.R.(2003). Emotional intelligence, leadership effectiveness, and team outcomes. The Intemational Joumal of Organizational Analysis, 11(1), 21-40.

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'5 Cooper, R.K. (1997). Applying emotional intelligence in the workplace. Training & Development, (Decem,ber), 31-38.

'* Harrison, J.K., & Clough, M.W (2006). Characteristics of "state ofthe art" leaders: productive narcissism versus emotional intelligence and Level 5 capabilities. The Social Science Journal, 43, 287-292.

" Barling, J., Slater,J., & Kelloway, E.K. (2000). Transformational leadership and emotional intelligence: An exploratory study. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 21(^), 157-161.

'* Higgs, M., & Aitken, P (2003). An exploration ofthe relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership potential. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 18(8), 814- 823.

" Mandell, B., & Pherwani, S. (2003). Relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership style: A gender compadson./OMr/z«/ of Business and Psychology, 17(5), 387-404.

2° Jordan, PJ., & Troth, A.C. (2004). Managing emotions during team problem solving: emotional intelligence and conflict resolution. Human Performance, 17(2), 195-218.

2' Rósete, D., & Ciarrochi, J. (2005). Emotional intelligence and its relationship to workplace performance outcomes of leadership effectiveness. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 26(5), 388-399.

22 Dries, N., & Pepermans, R. (2007). Using emotional intelligence to identify high potential: A metacompetency perspective. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 28(8), 749-762.

23 Rego, A., Sousa, F, Pina e Cunha, M., Correia, A., & Saur-Amaral, I. (2007). Leader self reported emotional intelligence and perceived employee creativity: an exploratory study Creativity and Innovation Management, 16(5), 250-264.

2'' Smith, P (1994). Emotional competence training program -American Express. Available at www.eiconsortium.org, (accessed 2 March 2008).

25 Kelley, R., & Caplan, J (1993). How bell labs creates star performers. Harvard Business Review, 71(4), 128-139.

2« Groves, K.S., McEnrue, M.P & Shen, W (2008). Developing and measuring the emotional intelligence of leaders. The Journal of Management Development, 27(2), 225-238.

2' Locke, E.A. (2005). Why emotional intelligence is an invalid concept. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26(4), 425-431.

28 Hedlund, J. & Sternberg, R.J. (2000). Too many intelligences? Integrating social, emotional, and practical intelligence. In Bar-On, R. & Parker, J.D.A. (Eds.), The handbook of emotional intelligence: theory, development, assessment, and application at home, school, and in the workplace, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 136-167.

29 Davies, M., Stankov, L. & Roberts, R.D. (1998). Emotional intelligence: in search of an elusive construct./OMrw«/ of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(4), 989-1015.

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3" Landy, FJ. (2005). Some historical and scientific issues related to research on emotional intelligence. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26(4), 411-424.

3' Van Rooy, D.L. & Viswesvaran, C (2004). Emotional intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation of predictive validity and nomological net. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 65, 71-95.

32 Davies, M., Stankov, L. & Roberts, R.D. (1998), op cit.

33 Conte, J.M. (2005). A review and critique of emotional intelligence measures. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26(4), 433-440.

3'' Becker, T. (2003). Is emotional intelligence a viable concept? The Academy of Management Review, 28(2), 192-195; Murphy, K.R. (2006), op cit.

35Landy, FJ. (2005),opcit.

3* Mayer, J.D., Salovey, P, & Caruso, D.R. (2004), op cit.

3' Dulewicz, V, & Higgs, M. (2000). Emotional intelligence - a review and evaluation study. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 15(4), 341-353.

38 Daus, CS., & Ashkanasy, N.M. (2005). The case for the ability-based model of emotional intelligence in organizational behavior./owrw«/ of Organizational Behavior, 26(4), 453-466.

39 Ashkanasy, N.M., & Daus, CS. (2005). Rumors of the death of emotional intelligence in organizational behavior are vastly exaggerated./owrw«/ of Organizational Behavior, 26(4), 441-452.

^° Law, K.S., Wong, C , & Song, LJ. (2004). The construct and criterion validity of emotional intelligence and its potential utility for management studies./OMrw«/ of Applied Psychology, 89(5), 483-496.

'" Murphy, K.R. (2006), op cit.

''2 Goleman, D. (1998), op cit.

''3 Conger, J. (1992). Leaming to lead: The art of transforming managers into leaders. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

'*'* Hartman, N., Conklin, T., & Smith, J. (2007). What leaders say versus what academics write: The relevance of leadership theory. SAM Advanced Management Journal, (Autumn), 32-39.

''5 Goleman, D. (1998), op cit.

"«Conger,). (1992),opcit.

^'' Hartman, N., Conklin, T, & Smith, J. (2007), op cit.

^^ Allen, SJ., & Hartman, N.S. (2008). Leadership development: an exploration of sources of learning. SAM Advanced Management Journal (Winter), 10-19.

"" Ibid.

50 Ibid.

5' Ibid.

Pubiic Personnel Management Volume 41 No. 3 Faii 2012 547

52 Ibid.

53 Ibid.

54 Ibid.

Author Gohiaz Sadri, PhD Department of Management

Mihaylo College of Business and Economics

California State University, Fullerton 800 North State College Boulevard Fullerton, CA 92834 (657) 278-2162 gsadriC® fullerton.edu

Dr. Gohiaz Sadri received her doctorate in organizational psychology from the Victoria University of Manchester, U.K. She is professor of organizational hehavior at California State University, Fullerton. Sadri has published articles in various na- tional and international journals (for example, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Applied Psychology: An International Review, and Journal of Managerial Psy-

chology). She has also participated in various national and international conferences (for example. Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Western Academy of Management and National Academy of Management).

548 Public Personnel Management Volume 41 No. 3 Fall 2012

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