FOR EXPERT RESEARCHER ONLY ! annotated bibliography

The state of the science of emotional intelligence related to nursing leadership: an integrative review

KRISTIN AKERJORDET R N , I C N , M N S c , P h D 1 and ELISABETH SEVERINSSON R P N , R N T , M C S c , D r P H 2,3

1Associate Professor, Department of Health Studies, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Stavanger, Stavanger, Norway, 2Professor/Director at the Centre for Women’s, Family & Child Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, Vestfold University College, P.O. Box 2243, N-3101 Tønsberg, Norway and 3Professor at the Research Department, Stavanger University Hospital, P.O. Box 8100, N-4068 Stavanger, Norway

Introduction

The phenomenon of emotional intelligence (EI) has

emerged as a vibrant paradigm and a potential new

construct for nursing leadership as well as successful

performance in health care settings that adhere to the

positive movement, which is an outgrowth of humanistic

psychology (Cummings et al. 2005, Lucas et al. 2008,

Morrison 2008). EI is emphasized as an important

ability, representing a stage in the evolution of one’s

thinking about the relation between emotion and reason,

which is considered a form of intelligence (Grewal &

Salovey 2005). In this regard, neurobiological research

has created a paradigm shift in organizational behaviour

literature, explaining how emotions are a valuable

source of information that facilitates thinking as well as

the management of emotions in oneself and others

(Damasio 1999, George 2000, Mayer et al. 2008).

Correspondence

Kristin Akerjordet

Department of Health Studies

Faculty of Social Sciences

University of Stavanger

N-4036 Stavanger

Norway

E-mail: [email protected]

A K E R J O R D E T K . & S E V E R I N S S O N E . (2010) Journal of Nursing Management 18, 363–382

The state of the science of emotional intelligence related to nursing leadership: an integrative review

Aim To explore the state of the science of emotional intelligence (EI) related to nursing leadership and its critiques.

Background The phenomenon of EI has emerged as a potential new construct of

importance for nursing leadership that enhances educational, organizational, staff

and patient outcomes. Nevertheless, important questions and critical reflections

related to exaggerated claims, conceptualizations and measurements exist.

Method A literature search was conducted using international databases covering

the period January 1999 to December 2009. A manual search of relevant journals

and significant references increased the data.

Results Critical reflection seems to be associated with the unsubstantiated predictive

validity of EI in the area of nursing leadership. In addition, important moral issues

are called into question.

Conclusions It is important to possess in-depth knowledge of EI and its scientific

critique when integrating the concept into nursing research, education and practical

settings. More attention to the nature of emotion in EI is necessary.

Implications for nursing leadership The dynamics of EI should be explored in the

context of both the surrounding environment and individual differences, as the

latter can be adaptive in some settings but harmful in others.

Keywords: critique, emotional intelligence, nursing leadership, review

Accepted for publication: 7 February 2010

Journal of Nursing Management, 2010, 18, 363–382

DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2834.2010.01087.x ª 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd 363

Caring competency is increasingly important in

nursing leadership, as a result of the fact that it creates

an environment that promotes the highest level of

quality nursing care and patient safety (O’Connor

2008). Today, the role of a leader is evolving from a

top-down to a more collaborative humanistic approach,

challenging the employees’ ability to facilitate con-

structive work relationships and positive teamwork,

which require open communication and mutual

understanding (McCallin & Bamford 2007, Akerjordet

2009). From a nursing leadership perspective, EI seems

to promote effectiveness and may be an underlying

expression of transformational leadership behaviour,

resulting in a major improvement in the functioning of

the organization as well as job satisfaction and

encouraging employees to increase their level of self-

efficacy (Herbert & Edgar 2004, Akerjordet & Seve-

rinsson 2008, Akerjordet 2009). EI leaders behave in

ways that stimulate the creativity of their team such as

using self-control to cope with criticism, feeling less

threatened by changes inspired by creative ideas on the

part of team members (Rego et al. 2007), nurturing

expansive and divergent thinking, personal responsi-

bility and initiative as well as showing respect for the

experiences and wisdom of others (Sosik & Megerian

1999, Goleman 2006a, Akerjordet 2009).

Nurse leaders who possess EI appear to be fully

aware of how important other people are for their

personal and professional well-being, show a genuine

appreciation of their contributions and foster a healthy

climate that supports information sharing, decision-

making and the expression of EI (McCallin & Bamford

2007). As role models over a long period, EI leaders

motivate both themselves and their followers to engage

in self-reflection in relation to awareness and learning,

thus fostering self-leadership skills and providing an

opportunity to discover strengths and weaknesses

through introspective investigation (Akerjordet &

Severinsson 2004, Watson 2004, Hurley 2008). They

are thus able to promote knowledge and innovation as

well as create therapeutic work relationships, which are

critical for facilitating knowledge utilization that leads

to more evidence-based nursing practice (Edgar et al.

2006).

Nursing leaders who exhibit ethical integrity and a

consistent leadership style increase their credibility and

worth, which demonstrates the significance of their self-

awareness, self-management and supervisory skills in

creating a favourable work climate in health care set-

tings (Cummings et al. 2005, McCallin & Bamford

2007, Akerjordet 2009). By being attuned to how oth-

ers feel, a leader can say and do what is appropriate,

thus handling relationships wisely, understanding that

recognition and sincere appreciation relieve stressful

situations, which in turn facilitates a healthy dialogue

and well-being and reflects a resonant leadership style

(Cummings et al. 2005, Akerjordet 2009).

EI to some extent maps professionalism, and self-

awareness, self-management, social awareness and

relationship management are essential when recruiting

nursing leaders and followers (Snow 2001, Goleman

et al. 2002). EI is considered a capacity, which can be

acquired through learning from experience. It has been

described as a new resource for leadership in educa-

tional, organizational training and developmental pro-

grammes, creating a more reflective and nurturing

learning environment (Akerjordet & Severinsson 2004,

Freshwater & Stickley 2004, Bar-On et al. 2007, Mor-

rison 2008). Whether this growth of and interest in EI is

a good thing is a matter of considerable controversy

(Murphy & Sideman 2006, Bulmer Smith et al. 2009).

Careful consideration of criticism related to EI is

needed in nursing leadership (Herbert & Edgar 2004,

Bulmer Smith et al. 2009). Despite the fact that

researchers and practitioners have been fairly optimistic

about the importance of EI, major questions about and

critical reflections on the possible viability of the con-

struct remain (Fineman 2004, Matthews et al. 2004,

Conte 2005, Landy 2005). EI is considered a new field

of research, still at an early stage of theory development

and hypothesis testing, revealing an elusive but exciting

phenomenon for viewing and understanding behaviour,

attitudes, interpersonal skills and potential (Akerjordet

& Severinsson 2007, Morrison 2008). Thus, greater

awareness and understanding of EI as a complex phe-

nomenon in nursing leadership is essential for both the

science and practice of nursing leadership, especially if

it is considered to make a significant contribution to

facilitating personal and professional development,

well-being and improved quality of care (Cummings

et al. 2005, Akerjordet & Severinsson 2008, Akerjordet

2009).

Aim

The aim of the present study was to establish a synthesis

of the literature on the theoretical and empirical basis of

EI related to nursing leadership with emphasis on crit-

ical aspects guided by the following questions:

• What is the state of knowledge development of EI related to nursing leadership; and

• What are the criticisms of EI in the area of nursing leadership?

K. Akerjordet and E. Severinsson

364 ª 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Nursing Management, 18, 363–382

Methods

A systematic approach to searching and reviewing the

state of the science of EI in the area of nursing leader-

ship mainly involves the use of primary sources found in

refereed journals. Secondary sources, including sys-

tematic reviews, may be utilized in order to expand the

knowledge and provide different ways of looking at an

issue (Elliot 2007).

Search history

In order to focus the search strategy, the Cinahl, Eric,

MEDLINE, PsychINFO and Academic Search Elite

international databases were employed in the literature

search. The integrative review included all published

articles from January 1999 to December 2009. The key

words used were: EI, nursing leadership, critique and

review. In addition to articles retrieved from the data-

bases, other sources were acquired by a manual search

of current journals and follow-up of references listed in

the papers reviewed.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria and analytical framework

The following criteria were applied:

• articles and abstracts published during the past 10 years (1999–2009);

• in English; • focus on theoretical and empirical perspectives; • focus on EI linked to nursing leadership; • focus on EI and nursing leadership linked to critique;

and

• focus on EI linked to critique.

The objective of this literature review is to determine

gaps by means of previous knowledge, common sense

and critical thinking skills (Whittemore 2005). The

methodology employed was inspired by the framework

developed by Whittemore and Knafl (2005) as well as

the studies of Akerjordet and Severinsson (2008) and

Bulmer Smith et al. (2009). The result is primarily a

qualitative synthesis built on peer-reviewed publications

in order to ensure methodological rigour (Whittemore

2005). The analytical framework was based on Burns

and Grove’s (2001) standards for critique of qualitative

studies and focuses on four aspects necessary for

methodological congruence in empirical articles,

namely rigour in documentation, procedural rigour,

ethical rigour and auditability.

In order to expand understanding it was decided to

limit the sample to theoretical and empirical articles

that focused specifically on EI related to nursing lead-

ership as well as theoretical articles pertaining to

critique of EI in other disciplines. The theoretical

articles (Table 1 and Appendix 1) were analysed with

reference to aim, theoretical framework, work special-

ity and findings. The analysis of the empirical articles

was based on the following aspects: aim, sample, data

collection, theories, work speciality and findings

(Appendix 2).

The selection of articles was based on the search

history (the title of the abstract). Editorial and book

reviews were excluded, thus the screening and the

reading process mainly focused on published papers.

Theoretical and empirical articles on EI in the area of

nursing leadership were also excluded if there was no

mention of EI theory or theorists, with the exception of

one that was inspired by quantum leadership in relation

to emotional competence (Horton-Deutsch & Sher-

wood 2008). As a result of the lack of empirical

research on EI in the area of nursing leadership, some

articles were considered relevant despite having a wider

scope (Morrison 2008, Wessel et al. 2008).

The qualitative analytical process

The search of the combined databases revealed 53

abstracts related to EI linked to nursing leadership. EI

and nursing leadership combined with critique resulted

in zero abstracts. The number of abstracts referring to

EI and EI critique related to other disciplines revealed

22 abstracts, giving a total of 75 abstracts. When 17

duplications were excluded, the number of abstracts

was reduced to 38 on the subject of EI and nursing

leadership and to 20 that focused on critique of EI

related to other disciplines, thus a total of 58 abstracts.

When reading the titles and abstracts for inclusion or

exclusion, 28 abstracts were eliminated. The remaining

30 articles were then printed and read. Eight of the

articles were excluded. In addition, a manual search

revealed 12 articles, which were retrieved, printed and

read. After thorough examination, only two of these

were included in the data. The final analysis comprised

a total of 24 articles (seven empirical and 17 theoretical)

(Figure 1).

The findings from the qualitative analytical process

are the result of reducing data and establishing patterns

in a comprehensive and systematic manner by focusing

on critical aspects (cf. Gadamer 2004a, Bulmer Smith

et al. 2009).

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Findings

The findings of this integrative review revealed that all of

the empirical articles were anchored in Goleman’s con-

ception of EI, with one exception (Wessel et al. 2008). It

was evident that nursing research within this field was

limited (cf. Herbert & Edgar 2004, Bulmer Smith et al.

2009). Quantitative methodology related to EI linked to

nursing leadership was dominated. Thus, the majority of

published articles theoretically confirmed previous find-

ings (cf. Akerjordet & Severinsson 2008). In addition,

few critical investigations of EI as a complex phenom-

enon and its implications for nursing leadership were

found (Vitello-Cicciu 2002, Herbert & Edgar 2004).

However, since 2007 there seems to be an increasing

interest in both EI research related to nursing leadership

and the application of different methods and method-

ologies, such as interviews and observations using e.g.

Grounded Theory (McCallin & Bamford 2007).

When considering the rigour of documentation in the

seven empirical studies related to nursing leadership,

both implications for practice and suggestions for

further research were found (Cummings et al. 2005,

Lucas et al. 2008, Morrison 2008, Wessel et al. 2008,

Vesterinen et al. 2009, Young-Ritchie et al. 2009). All

of the empirical studies contributed to a deeper under-

standing of the theory or to theory development

(Cummings et al. 2005, McCallin & Bamford 2007,

Lucas et al. 2008, Morrison 2008, Wessel et al. 2008,

Vesterinen et al. 2009, Young-Ritchie et al. 2009). The

researchers’ credentials and roles were also clearly

specified in all of the studies (Cummings et al. 2005,

McCallin & Bamford 2007, Lucas et al. 2008, Morri-

son 2008, Wessel et al. 2008, Vesterinen et al. 2009,

Young-Ritchie et al. 2009). The philosophical under-

pinning was only stated in one study (McCallin &

Bamford 2007), which some scholars may consider a

lack of rigour.

When procedural rigour was reflected upon, the

presented data appeared to be representative and ade-

quately recorded in line with the aims of the studies. In

addition, all of the studies explicitly stated their limi-

tations, with the exception of one (McCallin & Bam-

ford 2007). McCallin and Bamford’s (2007) reflections

appeared to be implicit in the text.

In this integrative review, ethical rigour involved a

description of confidentiality (Høye & Severinsson

2007). Three articles demonstrated the value of confi-

dentiality (Lucas et al. 2008, Morrison 2008, Vesteri-

nen et al. 2009), whereas one only highlighted ethical

EI and critique related to other disciplines

Online search 22 hits

Titles & abstracts screened for inclusion/exclusion N = 75 abstracts

Manual search for articles 17 duplicates excluded

Yield : N = 59 abstracts

Titles and abstracts read for inclusion/exclusion

N = 58 abstracts

n = 30 articles printed and read 2 Articles added

Final sample: n = 24 articles

n = 7 empirical articles

n = 17 theoretical articles

n = 12 articles retrieved, printed and read

28 abstracts excluded Yield : N = 59 abstracts

EI and nursing leadership Online search

53 hits

8 abstracts excluded Yield : N = 59 abstracts

Figure 1 Search strategy.

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Table 1 Theoretical articles on the subject of emotional intelligence and nursing leadership

Author(s) Aim Theoretical framework Work speciality Findings

Horton-Deutsch and Sherwood (2008)

To examine reflection as a learning strategy for the development of emotionally competent nurse leaders and scrutinize reflection theories and methods that can be applied to nursing

Reflection Leadership development EI thinking influenced by

Quantum Leadership

Nurse educator Reflection is a key strategy for preparing transformational nurse leaders to work in interdisciplinary settings and direct patient care management. This results in the global spread of reflection in nursing education, practice and research, with emphasis on the development of self-awareness as a leadership strategy for improving individual and organizational performance.

O'Connor (2008) To illustrate nurse leaders' embodiment of caring competencies by means of dimensions of leadership.

Caring Competency Nursing Leadership Goleman's conceptions of

EI

Nurse leader Caring competency is becoming increasingly important in nursing leadership. The demands of the healthcare environment require attention to its most precious asset, human resources. Nurses need the care and nurturing that is only possible by creating and cultivating open, trusting and caring relationships. Nine dimensions of leadership including EI provide a framework for reflection on the skills and competencies required to be a caring nurse leader.

Triola (2007) To focus on the sixth standard, authentic leadership.

Authentic Leadership Goleman's conceptions of

EI

Nurse leader Authentic nurse leaders must fully embrace the imperative of a healthy work environment, live up to and inspire others to achieve this goal Authentic leadership begins with EI, and the challenge is to understand ourselves well enough to discover where and how we can use our leadership gifts to serve others.

Stichler (2006) To discuss EI and why it is important for successful leadership.

EI leaders' behaviour and work

Goleman's conceptions of EI

Nurse executives

EI is an important quality that can be enhanced by means of training and counselling, self- and keeping a mood diary. EI can be learned through motivation, practice and feedback and requires self-awareness. It provides a framework for understanding ways in which a leader's behaviours can contribute to a healthy organization, personal well-being and professional success.

Herbert and Edgar (2004)

To explore the theoretical and empirical basis of EI and discuss the implications of EI for leadership that directly influences `leadership' nursing practice.

EI inspired by Goleman, Salovey & Mayer, Bar-On Leadership

Emotions in the work context

Nursing Leadership

Goleman's conceptualization of EI has been criticized for being speculative, lacking in measurement precision and incongruent with the performance-based model presented by Salovey and Mayer. Critics have also identified a lack of evidence regarding claims that EI is largely responsible for a person's success in life and at work. The limited amount of research indicates that EI is a vital aspect of effective leadership, as it involves many of the characteristics and outcomes attributed to effective nurse leaders, such as communication, relationship building, optimism, working through people and motivating them. Although EI is highly congruent with transformational leadership theory, it is not explicitly articulated theoretically how EI aspects of transformational theory, such as idealized influence and inspirational motivation, are operationalized and conveyed. Further research is needed to increase understanding of the theoretical meaning of EI, how to measure it and its connection with nursing leadership. EI nurse leadership will have a significant impact, as it addresses issues that will drive the profession forward.

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ª 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Nursing Management, 18, 363–382 367

approval (Young-Ritchie et al. 2009). Another study

mentioned informed consent (Wessel et al. 2008), while

two had no ethical rigour whatsoever (Cummings et al.

2005, McCallin & Bamford 2007). Two of the seven

articles (Morrison 2008, Vesterinen et al. 2009) dem-

onstrated a high degree of ethical rigour comprising:

confidentiality, written consent and obtaining permis-

sion, whereas the last articles (Morrison 2008) also

referred to the voluntary nature of the study and how

the data were stored.

Table 1 (Continued)

Author(s) Aim Theoretical framework Work speciality Findings

Vitello-Cicciu (2003)

To explore the concepts of emotional labour and EI and review leadership strategies that draw from these elements.

Emotional labour EI and leadership

strategies Goleman, Salovey and

Mayer's conceptions of EI

Nurse leader Choosing how to respond to a significant event offers the most powerful freedom for emotionally intelligent nurse leaders, who consciously employ emotions in thought and developmental processes. Successful nurse leaders are empathetic, enhance individual and group relationships, recognize individual contributions and assist staff with the emotional impact of work-related issues. This implies being able to foster an environment characterized by quality nursing care and desired outcomes.

Vitello-Cicciu (2002)

To compare two models of EI and the measurements employed as well as to investigate the ability of EI to predict success and discuss implications for the workplace.

EI models and measurements (Salovey & Mayer, Goleman, and Bar-On)

Organizational behavior Nursing

Nurse leader Two models of EI have been proposed (the ability model of Salovey & Mayer and the mixed model of Goleman & Bar-On). The *MSCEIT mental ability test appears to be the most valid and reliable measurement tool for assessing EI. Goleman is criticized for departing from the scholarly meaning of EI and entering into the realm of values and social policy and for broadening the definition of EI to such an extent that it no longer has any scientific meaning.Goleman is also criticized for his exaggerated claims about the significance of EI, (i.e. that it is more important than IQ for predicting success in one's life and at work), which remain unsubstantiated. Bar-On's self- report of EI (#EQ-I) and the self-evaluative test presented by Goleman (***ECI) have both been criticized due to biased judgment and the fact that the measurement instruments appear to relate to a well-known personality factor. Thus, caution must be exercised regarding the value of EI and how it is defined. Nevertheless, nurse leaders who address the emotional side of their staff may develop the highly energized and synergized teams necessary for survival in today's ever-changing health care environment.

Cadman and Brewer (2001)

To explore Goleman's (1996)conceptions of EI in relation to recruitment for preregistration nurse education programs.

Goleman's conceptions of EI

Recruitment in nursing

Nurse educator There is a strong evidence base for the role of EI in improving patient outcomes and clinical leadership. Awareness of feelings is of importance in the process of shaping decisions and actions. Effective leadership skills demand the ability to motivate others, communicate effectively and manage conflict resolution, all of which reflect aspects of the EI individual. Thus, EI nurses can promote clinical efficiency and professional readiness. The importance of EI as a criterion for the selection of students and in achieving quality nursing outcomes is also emphasized.

*Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (Mayer et al. 2008), #Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (1997), ***Emotional Competency Inventory (Hay Groupe 2002).

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368 ª 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Nursing Management, 18, 363–382

Auditability [i.e. the degree to which a person not

directly involved can follow the researcher’s methods,

decisions and conclusions (Polit & Beck 2006)]

appeared to be adequate in the reviewed studies (cf.

Akerjordet & Severinsson 2008). Overall, nursing

research was found to have relatively high methodo-

logical congruence (cf. Burns & Grove 2001).

Although there is an increasing interest in EI as a

potential phenomenon for explaining behaviour vari-

ance in nursing leadership (Table 1), a great deal of

confusion about the exact meaning of EI exists and at

times the multitude of qualities covered by the concept

appears overwhelming (Vitello-Cicciu 2002, Herbert &

Edgar 2004, Matthews et al. 2004, Conte 2005, Lewis

et al. 2005, Lock 2005, Kristjánsson 2006).

The definitions are so varied, and the field is growing

so rapidly, that concerns have been expressed that

‘entrepreneurs’ have taken a product to the market

before it was ready to move beyond the scientific do-

main, fuelled by exaggerated claims about its impor-

tance for organizational performance and touting EI as

a panacea for modern business, nursing, medicine and

education (Vitello-Cicciu 2002, Conte 2005, Lock

2005, Kristjánsson 2006, Lindebaum 2009). From this

perspective, there is a problem in terms of unresolved

definitional, psychometric and measurement issues

associated with EI (Matthews et al. 2004, Conte 2005,

Lewis et al. 2005, Kristjánsson 2006, Lindebaum

2009). Thus, there is no clear linkage between EI and

leadership effectiveness, transformational leadership

and individual differences in behaviour skills (Herbert

& Edgar 2004, Matthews et al. 2004, Fambrough &

Hart 2008).

Currently, there is no agreement on how best to assess

EI as a measure of change in terms of the content, where

the assessment method is a function of theoretical con-

ceptualization (Vitello-Cicciu 2002, Herbert & Edgar

2004, Matthews et al. 2004, Conte 2005). Whether EI

meets the standards set for something termed intelli-

gence has also been questioned (Matthews et al. 2004,

Conte 2005, Lock 2005). The low relationship between

different EI measures raises serious concerns about

whether they actually measure the same construct,

indicating a lack of content validity (Herbert & Edgar

2004, Conte 2005, Lewis et al. 2005, Lock 2005, Fin-

eman 2006, Kristjánsson 2006, Fambrough & Hart

2008, Lindebaum 2009). The ability-based measure, the

Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test

(MSCEIT), is expected to demonstrate discriminant

validity for personality measures, but not incremental

validity in predicting work performance (Conte 2005,

Lewis et al. 2005). It has also been reported to suffer

from a number of problems related to internal consis-

tency reliability, in contrast to EI self-report measures

(Matthews et al. 2004, Conte 2005). In addition, the

MSCEIT seems to be susceptible to conformity and

faulty expert scoring and therefore does not necessarily

demonstrate validity (Matthews et al. 2004, Conte

2005). Both expert and consensus beliefs could reflect

conformity and goodness of fit rather than ability per se

(predictive validity), thus reflecting normative western

culture values, which cannot be considered intelligence

(Matthews et al. 2004, Lindebaum 2009).

The most common criticism of EI, especially in rela-

tion to self-report measures such as the Emotional

Competence Inventory (ECI) and the Emotional Quo-

tient Inventory (EQ-i) (Goleman et al. 2002, Sala 2002,

Bar-On 2006), is that it simply draws from different

facets of well-established personality and ability con-

structs that have long been studied. EI can therefore be

viewed as an ‘old wine dressed up in new bottles’

(convergent validity) or a catchphrase for anything that

involves positive motivation, emotion or good character

(Matthews et al. 2004, Conte 2005, Lock 2005, Kris-

tjánsson 2006, Lindebaum 2009). This means that it is

difficult to know what one is measuring and what EI

measures (the unique aspects of the construct) that

other related constructs do not (particularly discrimi-

nant validity based on the Big Five personality dimen-

sions) (Vitello-Cicciu 2002, Matthews et al. 2004,

Conte 2005, Lindebaum 2009).

EI self-report measures generally a sample diversity of

constructs termed mixed models. The validity of self-

reports as an index of EI has been strongly criticized for

merely representing the person’s self-image and ability

to adjust rather than ‘intelligence’ per se (Vitello-Cicciu

2002, Matthews et al. 2004, Lewis et al. 2005). EI self-

report measures show satisfactory internal consistency

reliability across a variety of cultures (Matthews et al.

2004). Nevertheless, reliability and validity data appear

to be limited. A significant amount of data on EI

appeared to be held in proprietary databases that are

inaccessible to independent scrutiny by peer-reviewed

journals, which has been criticized as commercialism,

something that is not expected within the research

community (Matthews et al. 2004, Conte 2005, Lewis

et al. 2005, Fambrough & Hart 2008). Thus, several

scholars consider the EI tradition suspect and insuffi-

ciently documented (Matthews et al. 2004, Conte

2005).

In addition, the models do not clearly specify the

nature of the emotion being perceived, used, under-

stood and regulated, assuming that standards for

emotional success are relatively independent of an

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individual’s motivational background, innate con-

straint and organizational culture (Matthews et al.

2004, Fambrough & Hart 2008, Lindebaum 2009).

The models fail to take into account the complexity of

emotions per se (skewed towards positive ones), the

relational and contextual aspects, which can signifi-

cantly promote or inhibit EI behaviour in organiza-

tional settings (Matthews et al. 2004, Lewis et al.

2005, Fineman 2006, Kristjánsson 2006, Lindebaum

2009). The generality of EI across emotions has not

been tested and the models of EI assume that it can be

assessed via declarative knowledge, which may con-

tradict the fact that emotional experiences can be im-

plicit rather than explicit (Matthews et al. 2004). The

models also tend to make an artificial division between

emotion and cognition in EI theory (Matthews et al.

2004, Lock 2005).

In addition, there appears to be a political agenda

behind EI that emphasizes egalitarianism and confor-

mity, thus redefining the meaning of intelligence (Lewis

et al. 2005, Lock 2005, Fambrough & Hart 2008). The

new cultural trend towards giving primacy to emotional

expression can have undesirable political and social

effects. Workplace learning and training programmes

linked to pre-specified virtues such as EI can be instru-

mental management techniques for ensuring that

employees internalize and express positive mental atti-

tudes and conform to social norms but at the risk of

suppressing individual uniqueness and autonomy (Fin-

eman 2006, Thomas 2006, Fambrough & Hart 2008,

Lindebaum 2009). EI promotes a particular executive/

managerial notion of emotional proficiency, which may

be an exercise of power that stigmatizes those who fail

to fit the template and pathologizes those with low self-

esteem and negative emotional responses (Fineman

2006). In this regard, the individualism of western

culture tends to locate the ‘problem’ in the person ra-

ther than in the wider social and political sphere. The EI

tradition leads to the construction of a ‘fragile self’ in

need of expert help, thus diminishing the model of

humanity (Fineman 2006, Kristjánsson 2006, Thomas

2006).

The value of implementing EI training programmes in

educational and social settings has been questioned as a

result of their short-term perspective and lack of

methodological rigour, as well as inadequate control,

threats to internal validity and poor measures (Mat-

thews et al. 2004, Lindebaum 2009). Trainability has

also been called into question because of different

learning styles and the fact that tutor EI is ignored.

Another issue is how increased self-awareness can

positively or negatively affect qualitative understanding

of social exchange. Thus, EI may encompass an inher-

ent vulnerability factor for emotionally perceptive

people (Matthews et al. 2004, Lewis et al. 2005,

Lindebaum 2009). There is also a convincing case that

by only emphasizing positive emotions, one may close

important doors to valuable experiences, thus learning

and change as an integrated whole are in danger of

becoming superficial (Fineman 2006, Kristjánsson

2006).

Finally, the ethical aspects of EI have been ques-

tioned, e.g. that EI can enable inauthentic transfor-

mational leaders to abuse power more skilfully as a

result of their tendency to prioritize technique

(manipulation) over relationships in order to realize

personal and organizational goals (Lewis et al. 2005,

Fineman 2006, Kristjánsson 2006, Thomas 2006,

Fambrough & Hart 2008). From an Aristotelian per-

spective, EI lacks moral depth and does not exclude the

possibility that a calculating Machiavellian personality

can be deemed to possess EI. Many specific claims

about EI also fail to relate to moral issues and highlight

cleverness rather than practical moral wisdom and

compassion, which are critical within an educational

context (Kristjánsson 2006). Thus, Goleman’s (2006a)

conception of EI does not make any substantive

demands on the content of intelligent emotions (Kris-

tjánsson 2006).

Critique of the state of the science of EI related to nursing leadership

Although the claims regarding EI are exaggerated in

relation to predictive validity, they nevertheless help to

explain both the popularity of the concept and the

academic critiques (cf. Conte 2005, Grewal & Salovey

2005). The ability based and mixed models seem to

co-exist and tap into two different constructs of EI (Van

Rooy et al. 2005). The essence of the critique is that

scientific inquiry within the EI tradition must be based

on valid and consistent construct utilization, thus call-

ing into question the distinctiveness of EI (construct

validity) in terms of improved theory, practice and

nursing leadership research (cf. Brody 2004, Conte

2005). Despite promising results related to EI and

effective nursing leadership in various health care

settings, critical reflection seems to highlight the

unsubstantiated predictive validity of the concept

(Ashkanasy & Daus 2005, Cherniss et al. 2006, Mur-

phy 2006). In a wider cultural context one should be

careful about the qualities deemed desirable and not

blindly believe in exaggerated figures and measures (cf.

Gadamer 2004a, Matthews et al. 2004, Hawkey 2006).

K. Akerjordet and E. Severinsson

370 ª 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Nursing Management, 18, 363–382

Whether EI can be considered as intelligence, a well-

established personality construct or goodness of fit re-

mains to be established, implying that the phenomenon

is more complex than previously believed (cf. Matthews

et al. 2004, Lindebaum 2009).

The main research approaches to EI are grounded in

quantitative statistical facts (cf. Akerjordet & Seve-

rinsson 2008). A critical question is whether researchers

have become too concerned with psychometrics, which

challenges the conclusion that EI is what EI tests set out

to measure, thus reflecting important ontological and

epistemological aspects of nursing leadership (Fineman

2004, Oatley 2004, Akerjordet & Severinsson 2007).

Paradigmatic examples and careful assessment of an

individual’s EI and the context in which it was gener-

ated may be of equal importance in expanding the

understanding of the concept in educational and prac-

tical settings (cf. Matthews et al. 2004, Kristjánsson

2006). Evidence of idiosyncratic emotional experiences

and their relation to narratives of human agency seem

to provide an expanded insight and knowledge that may

take account of the complexity of EI (Nussbaum 2001,

Oatley 2004, Solomon 2007). It also provides increased

understanding of emotions in EI, adding substantive

demands to the content of intelligent emotions (cf.

Kristjánsson 2006, Solomon 2007).

The scientific work on EI and nursing leadership

should be anchored in existing research and theories or

models that demonstrate linkages to and improvements

on previous research (incremental contributions) (cf.

Murphy & Sideman 2006). Therefore, it is vital to be

open to and critical of all new evidence, acknowledging

the existence of other sources of EI that reflect different

perceptions of reality in relation to nursing leadership

(cf. Gadamer 2004a, Oatley 2004, Akerjordet 2009).

Ideally, a bridge should be built between the science-

driven and the practice-driven approach in order to

facilitate knowledge utilization aimed at a more

evidence-based nursing practice (Edgar et al. 2006,

Murphy & Sideman 2006). In this regard, robust

nursing science is supposed to be based on precision,

empirical confirmation and scientific caution, building

on the norms and values of a science-driven culture.

Thus, it is hoped that research articles on nursing lead-

ership will continue to be published in peer-reviewed

scientific journals that will stand the test of reviewer

scrutiny, thus ensuring scientific quality (‘getting it

right’), which has been one of several challenges related

to EI (Cherniss et al. 2006, Murphy & Sideman 2006).

Viewed in a wider context, the EI tradition is con-

sidered part of the positive psychology movement that

enhances human strengths and potentialities and

appears to be compatible with contemporary cultural

norms and priorities (Thomas 2006). The EI paradigm

emphasizes the need to positively evaluate emotions,

which could increase superficiality and conformity (cf.

Kristjánsson 2006, Thomas 2006). Contextually, this

means that high EI may lead to socially acceptable ways

of expressing emotions, which can be experienced as

suppressive in certain idiosyncratic environments

(Matthews et al. 2004). Interpersonal relationships may

be especially important in relation to nursing leader-

ship, as they influence the followers’ identification and

self-concept (Kets de Vries 2006). A high level of

interpersonal sensitivity may affect individuals in dif-

ferent ways, indicating an inherent vulnerability factor

that sometimes leads to a downward spiral in organi-

zational settings (cf. Kets de Vries 2006, Akerjordet

2009).

From this perspective, the EI tradition may impov-

erish rather than enrich the understanding of the com-

plexity of emotions in nursing leadership, obstructing

the kind of learning that is crucial for organizational

effectiveness and innovative processes (cf. Argyris 1994,

Akerjordet 2009). Negative emotions are considered

just as important as positive ones, as the former provide

leaders with an opportunity to approach their situation

more realistically as an integrated whole, facilitating

genuine empowerment processes in the organization (cf.

Lucas et al. 2008, Young-Ritchie et al. 2009), coun-

teracting the suppression of individual uniqueness and

creativity, opening up for double-loop learning and

taking responsibility for one’s behaviour by dealing

constructively with emotional or threatening issues (cf.

Argyris 1994, Horton-Deutsch & Sherwood 2008).

In addition, the individualistic thinking related to EI,

which may reflect a materialistic view of human life,

seems to be a relatively self-centered paradigm, which

tends to locate ‘problems’ in the person rather than in

the wider social and political context. In this regard,

one is expected to be the master of one’s own fate (cf.

Kristjánsson 2006, Thomas 2006). Thus, one can easily

lose sight of important values in nursing leadership such

as solidarity and moral responsibility that reach beyond

one’s own self-interest (Von Dietze & Orb 2000,

Goleman 2006b). In other words, self-centred leaders or

those with a Machiavellian personality are capable of

abusing their EI, treating followers as vehicles for their

own good, as well as exhibiting a lack of concern and

the moral dimension of empathy (cf. Kristjánsson 2006,

Akerjordet 2009). This underscores the importance of

emotionally mature leaders capable of inspiring trust

and nurturing human potential by means of a caring

attitude (cf. Triola 2007, Akerjordet 2009).

Emotional intelligence

ª 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Nursing Management, 18, 363–382 371

Empathy involves a capacity for various emotions and

is merely a precondition for moral concern. This means

that EI can be used for either pro- or antisocial pur-

poses, implying that it does not necessarily make one an

ethical person (cf. Grewal & Salovey 2005, Kristjánsson

2006). This calls into question the ontological essence of

EI related to nursing leadership and self-transcendent

values and the need to address the contextual and

motivational factors that influence the use of these skills

(cf. Von Dietze & Orb 2000, Gadamer 2004b). The

moral ballast in the EI paradigm seems to be relatively

vague and tends to diminish humanity by promoting

efficiency (cleverness and productivity) and success

rather than practical moral wisdom, courage and

compassion (Kristjánsson 2006).

From this perspective, it is just as important to

develop EI in nursing leadership as to wish to change

the conditions needed to create positive communion,

where knowing who one is and what one’s contribu-

tions might be form a central part of one’s under-

standing and ethos (cf. Gadamer 2004b, Akerjordet

2009). It is, therefore, necessary to challenge an indi-

vidual to be morally aware of his/her emotions in

effective nursing leadership, as a means of building on

existing strengths for the common good (Akerjordet

2009). In addition, greater focus should be placed on

the need for increased engagement with moral issues

related to EI and nursing leadership, which should

foster caring-centred attitudes and solidarity, thus

reflecting a more Aristotelian thinking (cf. Nussbaum

1995, Kristjánsson 2006).

Study limitations

Although attention was paid to quality at all stages, this

integrative review is limited by the search words

employed, the databases accessed, the frame and method

of searching for literature and the limited empirical

research on EI related to nursing leadership.

Conclusions

Given the lack of consensus on the phenomenon, it is

essential for nurse leaders to have in-depth knowledge

of EI and its scientific critique when integrating the

concept into nursing research, education and practical

settings. Currently there are no ‘quick fixes’, indicating

the importance of being aware of the qualities that one

wants to impart and develop, thus highlighting the need

for true rational inquiry. Accordingly, more attention to

the nature of emotion in EI is needed because of moral

issues in order to increase awareness of the philosophy

employed. The fact that various abilities, skills and

personality dispositions can be loosely described as

‘emotionally intelligent’ indicates the complexity of EI

and that it is influenced both by relational and con-

textual factors.

Despite controversy, there are grounds for a cautious

optimism about the future of EI. The EI paradigm has

the potential to contribute to the development of a

professional identity in nursing leadership, leading to

improved integration and conscious use of theories in

practice, thus promoting more evidence-based nursing.

The tension created by possible controversy seems to be

a powerful force for further critical reflection in the

search for an increased understanding of EI, both aca-

demically and professionally. The dynamics of EI in

nursing leadership should be explored by means of

various methodologies in the context of the surrounding

environment and individual differences that can be

adaptive in some settings but harmful in others.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank Gullvi Nilsson and Monique Federsel for reviewing the language. The Faculty of Social Sciences at the University of Stavanger provided support in the form of a grant for the development of this study.

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an ag

em en

t st

ra te

gi es

de riv

ed fr

om ac

kn ow

le dg

em en

tf ro

m or

re je

ct io

n on

th e

pa rt

of ot

he rs

,l ea

di ng

to an

en ha

nc ed

or w

ea ke

ne d

se lf-

co nc

ep t

an d

se lf-

es te

em .

T hi

s m

ea ns

th at

E I

m ay

no t

al w

ay s

be an

ad va

nt ag

e as

a re

su lt

of pe

rs on

al an

d co

nt ex

tu al

fa ct

or s.

In cr

ea se

d E

I ca

n al

so m

iti ga

te ag

ai ns

tt he

so ci

al -c

on tr

ol m

ec ha

ni sm

,s in

ce co

nf or

m in

g to

or ga

ni za

tio na

lr ul

es an

d no

rm s

m ay

no t

be in

an in

di vi

du al

's be

st in

te re

st F

am br

ou gh

an d

H ar

t (2

00 8)

U lti

m at

el y

to an

sw er

th e

qu es

tio n:

w ha

t sh

ou ld

hu m

an re

so ur

ce de

ve lo

pm en

t pr

of es

si on

al s

kn ow

an d

re fle

ct on

w he

n co

ns id

er in

g th

e us

e of

E I

in st

ru m

en ts

an d

in te

rv en

tio ns

fo r

le ad

er sh

ip de

ve lo

pm en

t?

E m

ot io

ns in

le ad

er sh

ip E

I H

um an

re so

ur ce

de ve

lo pm

en t

pr of

es si

on al

s

S el

f- co

nt ro

la nd

a po

si tiv

e at

tit ud

e re

m ai

ns a

de si

ra bl

e qu

al ity

in or

ga ni

za tio

ns an

d ar

e lin

ke d

to pr

e- sp

ec ifi

ed vi

rt ue

s. E

I is

a hi

gh ly

co nt

ro ve

rs ia

lc on

st ru

ct th

at in

co rp

or at

es va

rio us

m od

el s

an d

m ea

su re

m en

ts th

at ca

n be

di vi

de d

in to

tw o

gr ou

ps ;

ab ili

ty -b

as ed

an d

m ix

ed or

tr ai

t m

od el

s. T

he va

rio us

st ra

nd s

of in

te re

st in

E I

ra ng

e fr

om co

m m

itt ed

sc ho

la rly

co nc

er n

fo r

cr ea

tin g

an d

ex te

nd in

g kn

ow le

dg e

th ro

ug h

rig or

ou s

re se

ar ch

to a

le ss

st ru

ct ur

ed ap

pl ic

at io

n of

co m

bi ne

d kn

ow le

dg e

fr om

th e

pa st

an d

pr es

en t.

T hu

s, th

e th

in ki

ng am

on g

le ad

er s

in th

e E

If ie

ld is

no ta

lig ne

d an

d th

er e

is no

cl ea

r lin

ka ge

be tw

ee n

E Ia

nd le

ad er

sh ip

ef fe

ct iv

en es

s. T

he et

hi ca

la sp

ec ts

of E

I ar

e al

so qu

es tio

ne d

in re

la tio

n to

tr ai

ni ng

, as

it en

ab le

s in

au th

en tic

tr an

sf or

m at

io na

ll ea

de rs

to ab

us e

po w

er m

or e

sk ilf

ul ly

in or

de r

to ac

hi ev

e pe

rs on

al an

d or

ga ni

za tio

na lg

oa ls

. T

he po

te nt

ia lh

id de

n po

lit ic

al ag

en da

un de

r pi

nn in

g E

I is

al so

re fle

ct ed

up on

in re

la tio

n to

eg al

ita ria

ni sm

an d

ex ag

ge ra

te d

cl ai

m s.

In ad

di tio

n, th

e la

ck of

cr os

s- cu

ltu ra

la nd

m ul

tic ul

tu ra

ls en

si tiv

ity of

in st

ru m

en ts

fo r

m ea

su rin

g E

I is

em ph

as iz

ed T

ho m

as (2

00 6)

T o

ex pl

or e

so m

e of

th e

im pl

ic at

io ns

of re

ce nt

cr iti

qu e

of th

er ap

eu tic

la ng

ua ge

fo r

co un

se lli

ng an

d pa

st or

al ca

re

C ou

ns el

lin g

E du

ca tio

n of

C ou

ns el

lo rs

E I

P as

to ra

lc ar

e T

he ne

w cu

ltu ra

lt re

nd to

w ar

ds gi

vi ng

pr im

ac y

to em

ot io

na le

xp re

ss io

n ca

n ha

ve ha

rm fu

l po

lit ic

al an

d so

ci al

ef fe

ct s.

P eo

pl e

m ay

co nf

or m

to an

ap pr

ov ed

st an

da rd

of be

ha vi

ou r,

th us

su pp

re ss

in g

in di

vi du

al un

iq ue

ne ss

an d

au to

no m

y. T

he in

di vi

du al

is m

of w

es te

rn cu

ltu re

te nd

s to

lo ca

te th

e `p

ro bl

em 'i

n th

e pe

rs on

ra th

er th

an in

th e

w id

er so

ci al

an d

po lit

ic al

sp he

re .

T he

co ns

tr uc

tio n

of a

`f ra

gi le

se lf'

in ne

ed of

ex pe

rt he

lp ,

w he

re th

e m

od el

of hu

m an

ity se

em s

to be

di m

in is

he d

in re

la tio

n to

em ot

io na

li nt

el lig

en ce

, te

nd s

to pr

io rit

iz e

te ch

ni qu

e ov

er re

la tio

ns hi

p, th

us ca

lli ng

et hi

ca li

ss ue

s in

to qu

es tio

n. In

or de

r to

ch al

le ng

e th

e sl

id e

in to

th er

ap is

m ,

co un

se llo

rs ne

ed to

ad op

t a

cr iti

ca la

tti tu

de to

th ei

r pr

of es

si on

an d

its as

su m

pt io

ns ,

us e

re se

ar ch

ca re

fu lly

an d

no t

ju st

ify an

al re

ad y

he ld

po si

tio n,

bu t

in st

ea d

en ha

nc e

tr ue

ra tio

na le

nq ui

ry w

ith in

an ed

uc at

io na

lc on

te xt

Emotional intelligence

ª 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Nursing Management, 18, 363–382 375

A p

p en

d ix

1

(C on

tin ue

d)

A ut

ho r(

s) A

im T

he or

et ic

al fr

am ew

or k

W or

k sp

ec ia

lit y

F in

di ng

s

K ris

tj� ns

so n

(2 00

6) T

o ex

pl or

e an

d hi

gh lig

ht th

e di

ffe re

nc es

be tw

ee n

E I

an d

A ris

to te

lia n

em ot

io na

lv irt

ue s

G ol

em an

's w

or k

on E

I S

oc ia

la nd

em ot

io na

ll ea

rn in

g (S

E L)

A ris

to tle

E du

ca tio

n T

he E

I lit

er at

ur e

is cr

iti ci

ze d

fo r

to ut

in g

E I

as a

pa na

ce a

fo r

m od

er n

bu si

ne ss

, nu

rs in

g, m

ed ic

in e,

an d

ed uc

at io

n. T

he co

nc ep

t of

E I

la ck

s a

cl ea

r, co

he re

nt re

fe re

nc e

to an

id en

tif ia

bl e

ps yc

ho lo

gi ca

ls ta

te or

pr oc

es s

an d

m ay

be co

ns id

er ed

as ol

d w

in e

in a

ne w

bo ttl

es or

a ca

tc hp

hr as

e fo

r an

yt hi

ng th

at in

vo lv

es po

si tiv

e m

ot iv

at io

n, em

ot io

n or

go od

ch ar

ac te

r. A

cr iti

ca lq

ue st

io n

is ho

w it

ca n

be em

pi ric

al ly

te st

ed w

he n

E I

(s el

f- re

po rt

) m

ea su

re m

en t

in st

ru m

en ts

ar e

no t

pr om

is in

g in

ps yc

ho m

et ric

te rm

s (r

el ia

bi lit

y an

d va

lid ity

). A

lth ou

gh G

ol em

an se

em s

to pr

im ar

ily th

in k

of E

I as

an at

te m

pt to

ex pa

nd up

on an

d op

er at

io na

liz e

A ris

to tle

's fu

nd am

en ta

lm es

sa ge

ab ou

te m

ot io

na lm

an ag

em en

t, K

ris tj�

ns so

n ar

gu es

th at

m an

y sp

ec ifi

c cl

ai m

s ab

ou t

E I

fa il

to re

la te

to m

or al

is su

es ,

w hi

ch is

cr iti

ca l

w ith

in an

ed uc

at io

na lc

on te

xt .

T he

th ou

gh t

th at

gu id

es E

I se

em s

to be

be tte

r de

sc rib

ed by

cl ev

er ne

ss (e

ffi ci

en cy

an d

pr od

uc tiv

ity )

ra th

er th

an pr

ac tic

al m

or al

w is

do m

(p hr

on es

is )

an d

co m

pa ss

io n,

w hi

ch ar

e ne

ce ss

ar y

fo r

w el

l-b ei

ng an

d ha

pp in

es s

(e ud

ai m

on ia

). T

he E

I tr

ad iti

on al

so di

m in

is he

s th

e va

lu e

of bo

th po

si tiv

e an

d ne

ga tiv

e ev

al ua

tiv e

em ot

io ns

in fa

vo ur

of po

si tiv

e on

es .

In co

nt ra

st to

E I,

A ris

to tle

's em

ot io

na ls

el f-

sc ie

nc e

w ou

ld be

on e

of se

lf- re

sp ec

t, tr

ut h-

se ek

in g

an d

em ot

io na

lv ig

ou r

ra th

er th

an se

lf- co

nt ro

l, co

nf lic

t re

so lu

tio n

an d

em ot

io na

lt ra

nq ui

lli ty

. F

ro m

an A

ris to

te lia

n pe

rs pe

ct iv

e, E

I la

ck s

m or

al de

pt h

an d

do es

no t

ex cl

ud e

th e

po ss

ib ili

ty th

at a

ca lc

ul at

in g

M ac

hi av

el lia

n pe

rs on

al ity

ca n

be de

em ed

to po

ss es

s E

I. T

hu s,

G ol

em an

's co

nc ep

tio n

of E

I fa

ils to

m ak

e an

y su

bs ta

nt iv

e de

m an

ds on

in te

lli ge

nt em

ot io

ns F

in em

an (2

00 6)

T o

(1 )

ex am

in e

th e

at tr

ac tio

ns an

d sh

or tc

om in

gs of

th e

`p os

iti ve

'n eo

hu m

an is

tic tr

en d

in or

ga ni

za tio

na l

th eo

riz in

g an

d ho

w po

si tiv

en es

s co

ul d

be de

ve lo

pe d;

(2 )

ev al

ua te

th e

m or

al an

d cu

ltu ra

l un

de rp

in ni

ng s

of po

si tiv

en es

s as

w el

la s

its cl

ai m

to se

pa ra

te po

si tiv

e fr

om ne

ga tiv

e em

ot io

ns ,

an d

(3 )

ex pl

or e

th e

de pl

oy m

en t

of po

si tiv

en es

s in

H um

an R

es ou

rc e

M an

ag em

en t

pr og

ra m

s ai

m ed

at em

po w

er m

en t,

E I

an d

fu n

at w

or k

P os

iti ve

or ga

ni za

tio na

l sc

ho la

rs hi

p E

m ot

io ns

C ul

tu ra

ld is

pl ay

ru le

s H

um an

re so

ur ce

M an

ag em

en t

E I

H um

an R

es ou

rc e

M an

ag em

en t

T he

re is

a co

nv in

ci ng

ca se

th at

po si

tiv en

es s

cl os

es im

po rt

an t

do or

s an

d ex

cl ud

es op

po rt

un iti

es th

at co

ul d

w el

ls er

ve its

ow n

ai m

s. P

os iti

ve ex

pe rie

nc es

,l ea

rn in

g an

d ch

an ge

ar e

lin ke

d to

ne ga

tiv e

oc cu

rr en

ce s

an d

ev en

ts as

w el

la s

to po

si tiv

e on

es ,

th us

co un

te r

ac tin

g su

pp re

ss io

n an

d su

pe rf

ic ia

lit y.

P os

iti ve

em po

w er

m en

t is

se lf-

lim iti

ng be

ca us

e it

is co

ns tr

ai ne

d by

th e

st ru

ct ur

al in

eq ua

lit ie

s of

po w

er :t

he pa

ra do

xi ca

lp ro

ce ss

of m

an ag

em en

t ta

ki ng

ac tio

n to

em po

w er

ot he

rs ,

w hi

ch in

its el

f is

an ex

er ci

se of

po w

er .

A m

aj or

de ba

te co

nc er

ns w

he th

er E

Ii s

be st

co ns

tr ue

d as

a pr

od uc

t of

sp ec

ifi c

ab ili

tie s

or as

a br

oa de

r m

ix of

di ffe

re nt

m ot

iv at

io na

la nd

di sp

os iti

on al

ch ar

ac te

ris tic

s th

at ca

n be

ap pl

ie d

in in

te rp

er so

na l

an d

in tr

ap er

so na

ls et

tin gs

. A

pr eo

cc up

at io

n am

on g

E I

re se

ar ch

er s

w ith

de fin

iti on

al an

d m

ea su

re m

en t

is su

es ha

s ob

sc ur

ed qu

es tio

ns ab

ou t

th e

E I

va lu

e su

bs tr

uc tu

re an

d po

w er

de pl

oy m

en t.

E Ip

ro m

ot es

a pa

rt ic

ul ar

ex ec

ut iv

e/ m

an ag

er ia

ln ot

io n

of em

ot io

na lp

ro fic

ie nc

y. E

I tr

ai ni

ng ai

m s

to pr

ep ar

e th

e in

di vi

du al

fo r

em ot

io na

lc om

pe te

nc e

in ac

co rd

an ce

w ith

th e

or ga

ni za

tio na

lr em

it. F

ur th

er m

or e,

th er

e is

a la

ck of

cl ar

ifi ca

tio n

on ho

w th

e pu

rp or

te d

en ha

nc ed

se lf-

es te

em of

hi gh

E I

in di

vi du

al s

is lik

el y

to re

la te

to po

si tiv

e pr

o- so

ci al

be ha

vi ou

r. A

br oa

de r

sp ec

tr um

of m

et ho

do lo

gi es

is ne

ed ed

, in

pa rt

ic ul

ar in

te ns

iv e,

qu al

ita tiv

e fo

rm s

of re

se ar

ch .

P os

iti ve

ne ss

, as

cu rr

en tly

de sc

rib ed

, is

cu ltu

ra lly

re st

ric tiv

e, as

it is

lin ke

d to

N or

th A

m er

ic an

cu ltu

ra ln

or m

s, w

he re

in di

vi du

al is

m ,

op tim

is m

an d

se lf-

co nf

id en

ce ar

e ap

pl au

de d.

T he

re is

al so

an un

ar tic

ul at

ed da

rk si

de of

po si

tiv en

es s

th at

fo cu

se s

on de

si ra

bl e

st at

es an

d tr

ai ts

(e .g

.E I)

,w hi

ch ca

n st

ig m

at iz

e th

os e

w ho

fa il

to fit

th e

te m

pl at

e an

d pa

th ol

og iz

e th

os e

w ith

lo w

se lf-

es te

em an

d ne

ga tiv

e em

ot io

na lr

es po

ns es

K. Akerjordet and E. Severinsson

376 ª 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Nursing Management, 18, 363–382

A p

p en

d ix

1

(C on

tin ue

d)

A ut

ho r(

s) A

im T

he or

et ic

al fr

am ew

or k

W or

k sp

ec ia

lit y

F in

di ng

s

C on

te (2

00 5)

T he

m ea

su re

m en

t an

d ps

yc ho

m et

ric pr

op er

tie s

of fo

ur of

th e

m aj

or E

I m

ea su

re s

ar e

re vi

ew ed

, th

ei r

co m

pa ra

bi lit

y ex

am in

ed an

d so

m e

co nc

lu si

on s

an d

su gg

es tio

ns fo

r fu

tu re

re se

ar ch

on E

I m

ea su

re s

ar e

pr ov

id ed

E I

m ea

su re

s S

ci en

tif ic

re se

ar ch

T he

E C

I* is

de si

gn ed

to as

se ss

em ot

io na

lc om

pe te

nc ie

s an

d po

si tiv

e so

ci al

be ha

vi ou

r or

ga ni

ze d

in to

fo ur

cl us

te rs

: (1

) S

el f-

A w

ar en

es s,

(2 )

S oc

ia l

A w

ar en

es s,

(3 )

S el

f- m

an ag

em en

t, an

d (4

) S

oc ia

ls ki

lls .

F or

pr op

rie ta

ry re

as on

s, th

e de

ve lo

pe r

of th

e E

C I

al lo

w ed

ve ry

fe w

ite m

s to

be ev

al ua

te d

fo r

qu al

ity (v

al id

ity an

d re

lia bi

lit y)

an d

in de

pe nd

en t

re pl

ic at

io n

by ot

he r

re se

ar ch

er s

in pe

er -r

ev ie

w ed

jo ur

na ls

,w hi

ch is

st ro

ng ly

cr iti

ci ze

d. T

he co

nt en

t of

th e

E C

I co

m pe

te nc

ie s

al so

ov er

la ps

w ith

fo ur

of th

e B

ig F

iv e

pe rs

on al

ity di

m en

si on

s (C

on sc

ie nt

io us

ne ss

, E

m ot

io na

lS ta

bi lit

y, E

xt ra

ve rs

io n,

an d

O pe

nn es

s) .

T hu

s, ev

id en

ce of

th e

di sc

rim in

an t

an d

pr ed

ic tiv

e va

lid ity

of th

e E

C I

ha s

no t

be en

pr ov

id ed

. E

Q -i*

* is

a 13

3- ite

m se

lf- re

po rt

m ea

su re

th at

cl us

te re

d in

to fiv

e co

m po

si te

sc al

es :

(1 )

in tr

ap er

so na

l, (2

) in

te rp

er so

na l,

(3 )

ad ap

ta bi

lit y,

(4 )

ge ne

ra lm

oo d,

an d

(5 )

st re

ss m

an ag

em en

t, in

te nd

ed to

m ea

su re

no n-

co gn

iti ve

as pe

ct s

of pe

rs on

al fu

nc tio

ni ng

su ch

as th

e ab

ili ty

to co

pe w

ith en

vi ro

nm en

ta lp

re ss

ur es

an d

de m

an ds

. A

lth ou

gh th

e E

Q -i

de m

on st

ra te

s ad

eq ua

te re

lia bi

lit y

an d

so m

e va

lid ity

, it

is la

ck in

g in

di sc

rim in

an t

va lid

ity ,

an d

fe w

st ud

ie s

ha ve

ex am

in ed

w he

th er

it pr

ov id

es in

cr em

en ta

lv al

id ity

ab ov

e th

e co

nt rib

ut io

n of

es ta

bl is

he d

pr ed

ic to

rs su

ch as

ab ili

ty an

d th

e B

ig F

iv e

pe rs

on al

ity di

m en

si on

s. B

ot h

th e

M E

IS **

* an

d th

e M

S C

E IT

V .2

** **

ar e

pe rf

or m

an ce

-b as

ed te

st s

th at

in vo

lv e

th e

ca pa

ci ty

or ab

ili ty

to re

as on

w ith

an d

ab ou

t em

ot io

ns .C

on ce

rn s

ar e

ex pr

es se

d ab

ou t

th e

ab se

nc e

of a

sc ie

nt ifi

c st

an da

rd fo

r de

te rm

in in

g th

e ac

cu ra

cy of

co ns

en su

s an

d ex

pe rt

sc or

in g

fo r

th e

M E

IS **

* an

d th

e M

S C

E IT

V .2

.** **

.I n

ad di

tio n,

gi ve

n th

at co

ns en

su s

sc or

in g

us es

th e

m os

t co

m m

on re

sp on

se in

de te

rm in

in g

co rr

ec t

an sw

er s

to te

st ite

m s,

th es

e ab

ili ty

-b as

ed te

st s

m ay

no t

pr ov

id e

m ea

ni ng

fu ls

co re

s at

th e

hi gh

en d

of th

e E

I co

nt in

uu m

, w

he n

co ns

en su

s sc

or in

g is

us ed

. In

th e

ex pe

rt sc

or in

g ap

pr oa

ch ,

qu es

tio ns

ar e

ra is

ed ab

ou t

ho w

th e

ex pe

rt s

w er

e ch

os en

fo r

de te

rm in

in g

th e

co rr

ec t

an sw

er s

to E

I qu

es tio

ns an

d ta

sk s.

It is

lik el

y th

at th

e M

S C

E IT

V .2

** **

w ill

de m

on st

ra te

di s

cr im

in an

t va

lid ity

fo r

pe rs

on al

ity m

ea su

re s,

bu t

no t

in cr

em en

ta lv

al id

ity in

pr ed

ic tin

g w

or k

pe rf

or m

an ce

. In

br ie

f: T

he re

ar e

va rio

us de

fin iti

on s

an d

m ea

su re

m en

ts of

th e

E I

co ns

tr uc

t w

ith di

ffe re

nt re

sp on

se fo

rm at

s in

cl ud

in g

se lf-

re po

rt ,

ab ili

ty an

d in

fo rm

an t

ap pr

oa ch

es .

T he

w ea

k re

la tio

ns hi

p be

tw ee

n di

ffe re

nt E

I m

ea su

re s

ra is

es se

rio us

do ub

ts ab

ou t

w he

th er

th ey

m ea

su re

th e

sa m

e co

ns tr

uc t

(c on

te nt

va lid

ity ).

In ad

di tio

n, th

er e

is a

la ck

of co

nv er

ge nt

va lid

ity ac

ro ss

E I

m ea

su re

s, an

d w

hi le

th ey

ha ve

de m

on st

ra te

d ad

eq ua

te in

te rn

al co

ns is

te nc

y re

lia bi

lit y,

ev id

en ce

of th

ei r

va lid

ity ha

s la

gg ed

be hi

nd .

S el

f- re

po rt

E I

m ea

su re

s ap

pe ar

to as

se ss

ex is

tin g

pe rs

on al

ity di

m en

si on

s or

pe rh

ap s

em ot

io na

lc om

pe te

nc ie

s, bu

t do

no t

se em

to as

se ss

in te

lli ge

nc e.

C rit

ic al

re fle

ct io

ns on

th e

po te

nt ia

lf or

bi as

in se

lf- re

po rt

ed E

I, cu

ltu ra

l re

fle ct

io ns

on si

m ila

rit ie

s an

d di

ffe re

nc es

an d

th e

tr ai

na bi

lit y

of E

I ar

e al

so ne

ed ed

Emotional intelligence

ª 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Nursing Management, 18, 363–382 377

A p

p en

d ix

1

(C on

tin ue

d)

A ut

ho r(

s) A

im T

he or

et ic

al fr

am ew

or k

W or

k sp

ec ia

lit y

F in

di ng

s

Le w

is et

al .

(2 00

5) T

o st

im ul

at e

cr iti

ca l

th ou

gh t

ab ou

t E

I an

d to

po se

th e

qu es

tio n;

A re

w e

tr yi

ng to

m ea

su re

th e

un m

ea su

ra bl

e?

E I

E du

ca tio

n M

ed ic

al ed

uc at

io n

T he

m ed

ic al

ed uc

at io

n lit

er at

ur e

em ph

as iz

es th

e be

ne fit

s of

E I

an d

co nt

ai ns

fe w

cr iti

ca la

na ly

se s.

T he

re is

a la

ck of

co nc

ep tu

al cl

ar ity

su rr

ou nd

in g

th e

w ho

le no

tio n

of E

I, w

ith di

ffe re

nt m

od el

s an

d m

ea su

re s,

as w

el la

s co

nt ra

di ct

or y

re lia

bi lit

y an

d va

lid ity

st ud

ie s

of th

e m

ea su

re m

en t

to ol

s. T

he va

rio us

m ea

su re

s se

em to

as se

ss di

ffe re

nt co

ns tr

uc ts

, m

ak in

g co

m pa

ris on

di ffi

cu lt.

T he

un iq

ue ne

ss of

E I

an d

th e

de gr

ee to

w hi

ch it

ov er

la ps

w ith

co ns

tr uc

ts of

pe rs

on al

ity an

d ge

ne ra

lm en

ta la

bi lit

y is

al so

an is

su e.

T he

re is

no su

pp or

t fo

r th

e us

e of

E I

m ea

su re

s fo

r ca

re er

an d

oc cu

pa tio

na l

as se

ss m

en t.

R el

ia bi

lit y

an d

va lid

ity da

ta on

th e

E C

I* ar

e lim

ite d

an d

on e

ca nn

ot be

ce rt

ai n

th at

th e

sc al

e ac

tu al

ly m

ea su

re s

th at

w hi

ch it

pu rp

or ts

to m

ea su

re ,

i.e .

E I.

A no

th er

w ea

kn es

s is

th at

se lf-

re po

rt ed

E I

is su

sc ep

tib le

to se

lf- pr

es en

ta tio

n bi

as an

d so

ci al

de si

ra bi

lit y.

In ad

di tio

n, su

ch m

ea su

re s

ar e

hi gh

ly co

rr el

at ed

w ith

po si

tiv e

m oo

d an

d th

us af

fe ct

ed by

th e

m oo

d of

th e

te st

ta ke

r. T

he ab

ili ty

m ea

su re

of E

I, th

e M

S C

E IT

** **

, fa

ils to

ta ke

ac co

un t

of hu

m an

co m

pl ex

ity an

d as

su m

es th

at th

er e

is a

co rr

ec t

an sw

er to

th is

ite m

ba se

d on

th e

m os

t fr

eq ue

nt re

sp on

se s.

T he

ab ili

ty m

ea su

re is

no t

co nt

ex t-

bo un

d an

d th

er ef

or e

do es

no t

in di

ca te

w ha

t a

pe rs

on w

ou ld

ac tu

al ly

do in

a re

al si

tu at

io n.

U se

of co

ns en

su s

sc or

in g

m ay

al so

re du

ce th

e m

ea su

re to

on e

of co

nf or

m ity

. T

he tr

ai na

bi lit

y an

d eq

ua lit

y of

th e

co ns

tr uc

t ar

e qu

es tio

ne d,

su gg

es tin

g th

at pe

rs on

al ity

is di

ffi cu

lt to

ch an

ge an

d th

at st

ud en

ts ha

ve di

ffe re

nt le

ar ni

ng st

yl es

. A

fo cu

s on

de ve

lo pi

ng th

e st

ud en

ts 'E

I ig

no re

s th

e le

ve lo

ft ut

or E

Ia nd

its im

pl ic

at io

ns .T

he cu

rr en

tm od

el s

of E

Ia ls

o la

ck a

m or

al di

m en

si on

in th

at th

os e

w ho

re co

gn iz

e, un

de rs

ta nd

an d

m an

ag e

em ot

io ns

m ay

w el

le m

pl oy

th os

e sk

ill s

in or

de r

to m

an ip

ul at

e ot

he rs

. In

ad di

tio n,

th e

m od

el s

fa il

to ta

ke in

to ac

co un

t th

e co

m pl

ex ity

of em

ot io

ns pe

r se

as w

el la

s th

e re

la tio

na la

nd co

nt ex

tu al

as pe

ct s

Lo ck

(2 00

5) T

o (1

) ar

gu e

th at

th e

co nc

ep t

of E

I is

in va

lid ,

(2 )

di st

in gu

is h

E I

fr om

ac tu

al in

te lli

ge nc

e an

d ra

tio na

lit y,

(3 )

id en

tif y

th e

ac tu

al re

la tio

n be

tw ee

n re

as on

an d

em ot

io n,

(4 )

re ve

al th

e fu

nd am

en ta

l in

ad eq

ua cy

of th

e co

nc ep

t of

E I

w he

n ap

pl ie

d to

le ad

er sh

ip ,

an d

(5 )

su gg

es t

so m

e al

te rn

at iv

es to

E I

E I

Le ad

er sh

ip E

du ca

tio n

D ef

in iti

on s

of E

Ia re

co ns

ta nt

ly ch

an gi

ng .T

he ab

ili ty

to m

on ito

r on

e' s

em ot

io ns

do es

no t

re qu

ire an

y sp

ec ifi

c de

gr ee

or ty

pe of

in te

lli ge

nc e

bu t

is a

m at

te r

of w

he re

on e

ch oo

se s

to fo

cu s

on e'

s at

te nt

io n.

D is

cr im

in at

io n

be tw

ee n

em ot

io ns

is an

ac qu

ire d

sk ill

an d

a m

at te

r of

fo cu

si ng

in w

ar ds

so as

to de

ve lo

p on

e' s

in tr

os pe

ct iv

e ab

ili tie

s. T

he de

fin iti

on of

E I

in di

ca te

s th

at it

is a

co m

bi na

tio n

of as

so rt

ed ha

bi ts

, sk

ill s

an d/

or ch

oi ce

s ra

th er

th an

an is

su e

of in

te lli

ge nc

e. T

he re

is a

po lit

ic al

ag en

da un

de rly

in g

E I,

em ph

as iz

in g

eg al

ita ria

ni sm

an d

re de

fin in

g w

ha t

it m

ea ns

to be

in te

lli ge

nt so

th at

ev er

yo ne

w ill

, in

so m

e fo

rm ,

be eq

ua li

n in

te lli

ge nc

e to

ev er

yo ne

el se

. T

he co

nc ep

t of

E Ih

as no

w be

co m

e so

al l-i

nc lu

si ve

th at

it is

no lo

ng er

in te

lli gi

bl e.

M os

to ft

he ac

tio ns

in vo

lv ed

in E

I ac

tu al

ly re

qu ire

th e

us e

of re

as on

,w hi

ch m

ak es

it a

di ffe

re nt

co gn

iti ve

pr oc

es s

th an

th at

of em

ot io

ns gu

id ed

by th

e co

ns ci

ou s

m in

d. G

ol em

an et

al .'s

E I

m od

el se

em s

to be

to o

co m

pr eh

en si

ve an

d la

ck s

th e

in te

lle ct

ua la

sp ec

t of

ef fe

ct iv

e le

ad er

sh ip

. T

he fu

nc tio

n of

or ga

ni za

tio na

ll ea

de rs

hi p

is to

at ta

in go

al s,

w hi

ch re

qu ire

co ns

is te

nt ra

tio na

lt hi

nk in

g, an

d no

t to

cr ea

te go

od fe

el in

gs as

cl ai

m ed

by G

ol em

an et

al .

(2 00

2)

K. Akerjordet and E. Severinsson

378 ª 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Nursing Management, 18, 363–382

A p

p en

d ix

1

(C on

tin ue

d)

A ut

ho r(

s) A

im T

he or

et ic

al fr

am ew

or k

W or

k sp

ec ia

lit y

F in

di ng

s

M at

th ew

s et

al .

(2 00

4) T

o ex

am in

e w

he re

th e

fir st

w av

e of

re se

ar ch

on th

e co

ns tr

uc t

m ee

ts ba

rr ie

rs to

pr og

re ss

an d

w he

th er

su ch

ba rr

ie rs

ca n

be ov

er co

m e

E I M

ea su

re m

en ts

P sy

ch om

et ric

s S

el f-

re po

rt E

I A

bi lit

y te

st fo

r E

I E

m ot

io n

& C

og ni

tio n

A da

pt iv

e co

pi ng

E I

an d

re al

w or

ld su

cc es

s E

I in

th e

w or

kp la

ce E

I in

ed uc

at io

na la

nd so

ci al

se tti

ng s

P sy

ch ol

og y

E du

ca tio

na l

T es

tin g

S er

vi ce

In te

rd is

ci pl

in ar

y re

se ar

ch on

em ot

io ns

M an

y of

th e

cu rr

en t

pr op

os iti

on s

pr es

en te

d in

bo th

th e

po pu

lis t

an d

th e

sp ec

ia lis

t lit

er at

ur e

ha ve

lit tle

em pi

ric al

su bs

ta nc

e. T

hi s

m ea

ns th

at th

e ca

us al

st at

us of

E I

as an

in flu

en ce

on be

ha vi

ou r

is of

te n

un cl

ea r

an d

in co

nt ra

st to

w ha

t is

ex pe

ct ed

of an

E I

m ea

su re

, w

hi ch

, in

or de

rt o

be of

us e,

sh ou

ld pr

ed ic

ti m

po rt

an tp

ra ct

ic al

ou tc

om es

of em

ot io

na ll

ife .T

he m

ul tit

ud e

of qu

al iti

es co

ve re

d by

th e

co nc

ep ta

pp ea

rs at

tim es

ov er

w he

lm in

g. T

he re

is lit

tle ag

re em

en t

ab ou

t w

he th

er E

Ir ep

re se

nt s

a co

gn iti

ve ap

tit ud

e fo

r pr

oc es

si ng

em ot

io na

ls tim

ul i(

S al

ov ey

& M

ay er

19 97

), at

tr ib

ut es

of pe

rs on

al ity

su ch

as in

te gr

ity an

d ch

ar ac

te r

(G ol

em an

19 95

) or

so m

e fa

ci lit

y fo

r ad

ap tin

g to

ch al

le ng

in g

si tu

at io

ns (B

ar -O

n 19

97 ).

T he

ge ne

ra lit

y of

E Ia

cr os

s em

ot io

ns ha

s no

t be

en te

st ed

em pi

ric al

ly ,

an d

th e

m od

el s

of E

I as

su m

e th

at it

ca n

be as

se ss

ed vi

a de

cl ar

at iv

e kn

ow le

dg e,

w hi

ch m

ay co

nt ra

di ct

th e

fa ct

th at

em ot

io na

le xp

er tis

e co

ul d

be im

pl ic

it ra

th er

th an

ex pl

ic it.

T he

pe rf

or m

an ce

-b as

ed te

st m

ay no

t be

pr ed

ic tiv

e of

in di

vi du

al di

ffe re

nc es

in be

ha vi

ou ra

ls ki

lls .

E I

m ay

al so

re pr

es en

t a

vu ln

er ab

ili ty

fa ct

or .

E m

ot io

na lly

pe rc

ep tiv

e pe

op le

ap pe

ar to

be m

or e

st ro

ng ly

af fe

ct ed

by st

re ss

, im

pl yi

ng th

at em

ot io

na lly

un in

te lli

ge nt

in di

vi du

al s

m ay

be pr

ot ec

te d

ag ai

ns t

st re

ss .

A nu

m be

r of

pr ob

le m

s ha

m pe

r re

se ar

ch on

E I

th at

em pl

oy s

se lf-

re po

rt m

et ho

do lo

gy ,

su gg

es tin

g a

po ss

ib le

bi as

in se

lf- re

po rt

s of

ad ju

st m

en ti

n e.

g. su

pp re

ss io

n of

ne ga

tiv e

em ot

io ns

,d ec

ep tio

n an

d im

pr es

si on

m an

ag em

en t

by hi

gh E

I in

di vi

du al

s. T

he qu

es tio

nn ai

re s

te nd

to be

de fic

ie nt

in bo

th co

nv er

ge nt

an d

di ve

rg en

tv al

id ity

.T he

ir co

rr el

at io

ns w

ith ot

he r

in te

lli ge

nc e

fa ct

or s

ar e

to o

lo w

(f ai

lu re

of co

nv er

ge nt

va lid

ity )

an d

w ith

pe rs

on al

ity fa

ct or

s to

o hi

gh (f

ai lu

re of

di ve

rg en

t va

lid ity

). E

I se

lf- re

po rt

m ea

su re

s ex

hi bi

t sa

tis fa

ct or

y in

te rn

al co

ns is

te nc

y re

lia bi

lit y

ac ro

ss a

va rie

ty of

cu ltu

re s.

In co

nt ra

st ,

th e

sc or

in g

of pe

rf or

m an

ce -b

as ed

E I

m ea

su re

s ha

s be

en re

po rt

ed to

su ffe

r fr

om a

nu m

be r

of pr

ob le

m s

in re

la tio

n to

re lia

bi lit

y, w

hi ch

is cr

iti ca

lw he

n th

e m

ea su

re is

to be

us ed

in ap

pl ie

d se

tti ng

s fo

r se

le ct

io n,

in te

rv en

tio n

an d

tr ea

tm en

t pu

rp os

es .

P er

fo rm

an ce

-b as

ed or

se lf-

re po

rt ap

pr oa

ch es

to th

e as

se ss

m en

t of

E I

do no

t m

ee t

al lo

f th

e fo

ur ex

pe ct

ed va

lid ity

cr ite

ria fo

r a

m ea

su re

m en

t in

st ru

m en

t: co

nt en

t va

lid ity

, re

lia bi

lit y,

pr e-

di ct

iv e

va lid

ity an

d co

ns tr

uc t

va lid

ity (c

on ve

rg en

t an

d di

sc rim

in an

t va

lid ity

). P

er fo

rm an

ce -

ba se

d m

ea su

re s

do no

t ne

ce ss

ar ily

ex hi

bi t

va lid

ity du

e to

va rio

us in

te rp

re ta

tio ns

of ex

pe rt

- co

ns en

su s

co nv

er ge

nc e.

E xp

er ts

ca n

m ak

e th

ei r

ow n

ju dg

m en

to n

th e

ba si

s of

cu ltu

ra lb

el ie

fs ra

th er

th an

sp ec

ia lk

no w

le dg

e. B

ot h

ex pe

rt an

d co

ns en

su s

be lie

fs co

ul d

re fle

ct co

nf or

m ity

an d

go od

ne ss

of fit

ra th

er th

an ab

ili ty

pe r

se ,

re fle

ct in

g no

rm at

iv e

w es

te rn

cu ltu

ra lv

al ue

s, w

hi ch

sh ou

ld no

tb e

se en

as in

te lli

ge nc

e. T

he te

nd en

cy to

ar tif

ic ia

lly se

pa ra

te th

e em

ot io

n an

d co

gn iti

on in

E I

th eo

ry is

cr iti

ci ze

d. E

m ot

io ns

ar e

co ns

id er

ed in

tim at

el y

re la

te d

to ap

pr ai

sa lo

f pe

rc ep

tio ns

of co

nt ro

la nd

ab ili

ty to

co pe

.S ys

te m

at ic

ex am

in at

io n

of th

e pu

rp or

te d

ca us

al ro

le of

va rio

us m

ed ia

tin g

fa ct

or s

in th

e E

I- co

pi ng

re la

tio n,

su ch

as in

di vi

du al

di ffe

re nc

es ,

so ci

al su

pp or

t an

d va

rio us

en vi

ro nm

en ta

lc on

di tio

ns ,

is ne

ed ed

. T

he re

is no

ca us

al lin

k be

tw ee

n E

I an

d an

y of

its su

pp os

ed ly

po si

tiv e

ef fe

ct s

su ch

as pr

ed ic

tin g

su cc

es s

in te

rm s

of w

or k-

pl ac

e be

ha vi

ou r.

R ep

or ts

of E

I co

nt rib

ut in

g to

oc cu

pa tio

na ls

uc ce

ss ar

e an

ec do

ta l,

im pr

es si

on is

tic or

co lle

ct ed

by co

ns ul

tin g

co m

pa ni

es an

d no

t pu

bl is

he d

in pe

er -r

ev ie

w ed

lit er

at ur

e. P

ro -

pr ie

ta ry

da ta

co lle

ct ed

in or

ga ni

za tio

na ls

et tin

gs ar

e qu

es tio

ne d

du e

to un

ce rt

ai n

va lid

ity an

d la

ck of

in de

pe nd

en t

sc ru

tin y.

In ed

uc at

io na

la nd

so ci

al se

tti ng

s, th

er e

is no

co nv

in ci

ng ev

i de

nc e

of dr

am at

ic ch

an ge

s in

ad ap

ta tio

n w

he n

E I

in te

rv en

tio n

pr og

ra m

s an

d ed

uc at

io n

ar e

im pl

em en

te d.

M os

tp ro

gr am

s su

ffe r

fr om

m et

ho do

lo gi

ca lf

la w

s (in

ad eq

ua te

co nt

ro l,

th re

at s

to in

te rn

al va

lid ity

, po

or m

ea su

re s,

as se

ss m

en t

of sh

or t

te rm

im pa

ct on

ly )

E C

I* , E

m ot

io na

lC om

pe te

nc y

In ve

nt or

y (G

ol em

an et

al .

20 02

, S

al a

20 02

), E

Q -i*

* , E

m ot

io na

lQ uo

tie nt

In ve

nt or

y (B

ar -O

n 19

97 ,

20 06

), M

E IS

** * ,

M ul

tif ac

to r

E m

ot io

na lI

nt el

lig en

ce S

ca le

an d

M S

C E

IT **

** M

ay er

–S al

ov y–

C ar

us o

E m

ot io

na lI

nt el

lig en

ce T

es t

(M S

C E

IT )

(S al

ov ey

& M

ay er

19 97

, M

ay er

et al

. 20

08 ).

Emotional intelligence

ª 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Nursing Management, 18, 363–382 379

A p

p en

d ix

2

E m

pi ric

al ar

tic le

s on

th e

su bj

ec t

of em

ot io

na li

nt el

lig en

ce re

la te

d to

nu rs

in g

le ad

er sh

ip

A ut

ho r(

s) A

im S

am pl

e an

d da

ta co

lle ct

io n

T he

or ie

s an

d w

or k

sp ec

ia lit

y F

in di

ng s

V es

te rin

en et

al .

(2 00

9) T

o ex

pl or

e nu

rs e

m an

ag er

s' pe

rc ep

tio ns

of th

ei r

le ad

er sh

ip st

yl es

an d

th e

fa ct

or s

th at

in flu

en ce

th em

N ur

se m

an ag

er s

(n =

13 )

O pe

n- en

de d,

au di

o- ta

pe d

in te

rv ie

w

Le ad

er sh

ip st

yl es

G ol

em an

's co

nc ep

tio ns

of E

I

N ur

se m

an ag

er s

us ed

fo ur

re so

na nt

le ad

er sh

ip st

yl es

: vi

si on

ar y,

co ac

hi ng

, af

fil ia

te an

d de

m oc

ra tic

, w

hi ch

ha d

a po

si tiv

e im

pa ct

on em

pl oy

ee s'

jo b

sa tis

fa ct

io n

an d

pr of

es si

on al

de ve

lo pm

en t.

T he

m os

t fr

eq ue

nt ly

us ed

no n-

re so

na nt

le ad

er sh

ip st

yl e

w as

th at

of co

m m

an di

ng ,

w hi

ch w

as of

te n

us ed

in se

tti ng

s w

he re

pe op

le ha

d to

re ac

t qu

ic kl

y an

d ef

fe ct

iv el

y to

ch an

gi ng

si tu

at io

ns .

F ac

to rs

th at

in flu

en ce

d le

ad er

sh ip

st yl

es w

er e:

pr ev

io us

ex pe

rie nc

es of

`f or

m er

su pe

rio rs

, va

lu es

, in

fo rm

at io

n, co

op er

at io

n an

d ed

uc at

io n'

Y on

g- R

itc hi

e et

al .

(2 00

9) T

o te

st a

m od

el de

riv ed

fr om

K an

te r

(1 99

7, 19

93 )

th at

lin ke

d st

af f

nu rs

es '

pe rc

ep tio

ns of

th ei

r fr

on t-

lin e

m an

ag er

s' em

ot io

na lly

in te

lli ge

nt le

ad er

sh ip

be ha

vi ou

r to

st ru

ct ur

al em

po w

er m

en t

an d

or ga

ni za

tio na

l co

m m

itm en

t

S ta

ff nu

rs es

in th

e E

D ,

fu ll-

tim e/

pa rt

- tim

e (n

= 20

6) Q

ue st

io nn

ai re

s: D

em og

ra ph

ic s

E C

I 2.

0* C

W E

Q -I

I* **

R ev

is ed

th re

e- C

om po

ne nt

M od

el E

m pl

oy ee

C om

m itm

en t

S ur

ve y

#

K an

te r's

or ga

ni za

tio na

l em

po w

er m

en t

th eo

ry G

ol em

an 's

co nc

ep tio

ns of

E I

O rg

an iz

at io

na l

co m

m itm

en t

T he

ap pl

ic ab

ili ty

of K

an te

r's th

eo ry

of or

ga ni

za tio

na le

m po

w er

m en

t in

ho sp

ita l

se tti

ng s

w as

su pp

or te

d as

w as

, at

le as

t in

iti al

ly ,

th e

va lid

ity of

G ol

em an

's co

nc ep

tu al

iz at

io n

of E

I le

ad er

sh ip

be ha

vi ou

r in

he al

th ca

re .

A m

aj or

fin di

ng w

as th

e nu

rs es

'p er

ce pt

io ns

th at

th ei

r su

pe rv

is or

s' em

ot io

na lly

in te

lli ge

nt le

ad er

sh ip

be ha

vi ou

r ha

d a

st ro

ng im

pa ct

on th

ei r

fe el

in gs

of em

po w

er m

en t

an d

or ga

ni za

tio na

lc om

m itm

en t.

T he

fin di

ng s

al so

hi gh

lig ht

ed th

e im

po rt

an ce

of th

e le

ad er

s' in

ve st

m en

t in

ca rin

g re

la tio

ns hi

ps an

d se

lf- m

an ag

em en

t. A

cc es

s to

re so

ur ce

s ha

d th

e st

ro ng

es t

as so

ci at

io n

w ith

co m

m itm

en t

Lu ca

s et

al .

(2 00

8) T

o te

st K

an te

r's (1

99 3)

th eo

ry by

ex am

in in

g th

e re

la tio

ns hi

p be

tw ee

n nu

rs es

' pe

rc ep

tio ns

of th

ei r

m an

ag er

s' em

ot io

na lly

in te

lli ge

nt le

ad er

sh ip

st yl

e an

d th

ei r

ow n

st ru

ct ur

al em

po w

er m

en t

an d

to in

ve st

ig at

e th

e im

pa ct

of nu

rs e

m an

- ag

er s'

sp an

of co

nt ro

l ov

er th

is re

la tio

ns hi

p

A cu

te ca

re nu

rs es

(n =

20 3)

D em

og ra

ph ic

s C

W E

Q -I

I* **

E C

I 2.

0*

K an

te r's

th eo

ry of

S tr

uc tu

ra l

E m

po w

er m

en t

G ol

em an

's co

nc ep

tio ns

of E

I S

pa n

of co

nt ro

l

T he

st ud

y su

pp or

ts K

an te

r's (1

99 3)

th eo

re tic

al pr

op os

iti on

th at

w or

kp la

ce or

ga ni

za tio

na ls

tr uc

tu re

s ar

e si

gn ifi

ca nt

in fo

rm in

g an

d en

ha nc

in g

ex pe

rie nc

es an

d em

pl oy

ee s'

pr of

es si

on al

liv es

. N

ur se

s w

ho ha

d ac

ce ss

to em

po w

er in

g w

or k

st ru

ct ur

es w

er e

m or

e lik

el y

to re

po rt

th at

th ey

ha d

em ot

io na

lly in

te lli

ge nt

m an

ag er

s. W

he n

m an

ag er

s de

m on

st ra

te d

se lf-

m an

ag em

en t

an d

re la

tio ns

hi p

m an

ag em

en tb

eh av

io ur

, nu

rs es

fe lt

m or

e em

po w

er ed

,w hi

ch em

ph as

iz es

th e

va lu

e of

de ve

lo pi

ng m

an ag

er E

I as

an em

po w

er m

en t

st ra

te gy

. T

he fin

di ng

s al

so in

di ca

te d

th at

m an

ag er

s w

ith st

ro ng

E Im

ay no

tb e

ab le

to em

po w

er th

ei r

st af

f if

th ei

r sp

an of

co nt

ro li

s la

rg e

K. Akerjordet and E. Severinsson

380 ª 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Nursing Management, 18, 363–382

A p

p en

d ix

2

(C on

tin ue

d )

A ut

ho r(

s) A

im S

am pl

e an

d da

ta co

lle ct

io n

T he

or ie

s an

d w

or k

sp ec

ia lit

y F

in di

ng s

M or

ris on

(2 00

8) T

o de

te rm

in e

w he

th er

a re

la tio

ns hi

p ex

is ts

be tw

ee n

E I

an d

th e

pr ef

er re

d co

nf lic

t- m

an ag

em en

t st

yl es

of re

gi st

er ed

nu rs

es in

he al

th ca

re se

tti ng

s

E m

pl oy

ed re

gi st

er ed

nu rs

es (n

= 92

) E

C I

2. 0*

T K

Ip

G ol

em an

's co

nc ep

tio ns

of E

I T

he or

y of

co nf

lic t

T he

fin di

ng s

in di

ca te

d a

po si

tiv e

re la

tio ns

hi p

be tw

ee n

co lla

bo ra

tio n

an d

ea ch

of th

e fo

ur E

I cl

us te

rs :

se lf-

aw ar

en es

s, se

lf- m

an ag

em en

t, so

ci al

aw ar

en es

s an

d re

la tio

ns hi

p m

an ag

em en

t. C

ol la

bo ra

tiv e

co nf

lic t-

ha nd

lin g

st yl

e al

so ha

d a

si gn

ifi ca

nt po

si tiv

e re

la tio

ns hi

p w

ith 10

co m

pe te

nc ie

s of

th e

E C

I 2.

0. H

ig he

r le

ve ls

of E

I co

rr el

at ed

po si

tiv el

y w

ith co

lla bo

ra tin

g an

d ne

ga tiv

el y

w ith

ac co

m m

od at

in g,

w hi

ch is

im po

rt an

t fo

r ef

fe ct

iv e

le ad

er sh

ip m

an ag

em en

t

W es

se le

t al

. (2

00 8)

T o

(1 )

de sc

rib e

an d

co m

pa re

em ot

io na

l- so

ci al

in te

lli ge

nc e

(E S

I) of

nu rs

in g,

ph ys

ic al

th er

ap y

an d

ba ch

el or

of he

al th

sc ie

nc e

st ud

en ts

, an

d (2

) de

te rm

in e

w he

th er

E S

I w

as as

so ci

at ed

w ith

ef fe

ct iv

e le

ad er

sh ip

st yl

es ,

ca rin

g an

d m

or al

ju dg

em en

t in

th es

e st

ud en

ts

T ot

al nu

m be

r of

st ud

en ts

(n =

15 4)

E Q

-I :S

� S

A LI

� C

A I

C D

I- 35

$ D

IT -2

––

B ar

-O n'

s co

nc ep

tio n

of E

I Le

ad er

sh ip

ch ar

ac te

ris tic

s C

ar in

g ab

ili ty

D ev

el op

m en

t of

m or

al ju

dg em

en t

T he

fin di

ng s

de m

on st

ra te

d a

re la

tio ns

hi p

be tw

ee n

E S

I an

d le

ad er

sh ip

an d

E S

I an

d ge

ne ra

lc ar

in g,

bu t

no re

la tio

ns hi

p w

as fo

un d

be tw

ee n

E S

I an

d m

or al

ju dg

em en

t. E

S I

w as

co ns

id er

ed an

im po

rt an

t ca

rin g

co ns

tr uc

t

M cC

al lin

an d

B am

fo rd

(2 00

7) T

o an

al yz

e th

e em

ot io

na lc

om po

ne nt

in in

te rd

is ci

pl in

ar y

te am

w or

k th

at no

t on

ly im

pa ct

s on

te am

ef fe

ct iv

en es

s, qu

al ity

of he

al th

an d

so ci

al ou

tc om

es ,

bu t

al so

in flu

en ce

s jo

b sa

tis fa

ct io

n an

d re

du ce

s nu

rs e

tu rn

ov er

H ea

lth pr

of es

si on

al s

fr om

se ve

n di

sc ip

lin es

(n =

44 )

D at

a in

cl ud

ed 80

ho ur

s of

in te

rv ie

w s

an d

80 ho

ur s

of pa

rt ic

ip an

t ob

se rv

at io

n us

in g

G ro

un de

d T

he or

y

In te

rd is

ci pl

in ar

y te

am w

or k

G ol

em an

's co

nc ep

tio ns

of E

I

In or

de r

to m

ax im

iz e

in te

rd is

ci pl

in ar

y w

or k,

nu rs

e m

an ag

er s

m ig

ht co

ns id

er th

e ro

le of

E I

in in

flu en

ci ng

te am

ef fe

ct iv

en es

s, th

e qu

al ity

of pa

tie nt

ca re

, st

af f

tu rn

ov er

an d

jo b

sa tis

fa ct

io n

Emotional intelligence

ª 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Nursing Management, 18, 363–382 381

A p

p en

d ix

2

(C on

tin ue

d )

A ut

ho r(

s) A

im S

am pl

e an

d da

ta co

lle ct

io n

T he

or ie

s an

d w

or k

sp ec

ia lit

y F

in di

ng s

C um

m in

gs et

al .

(2 00

5) T

o de

ve lo

p a

th eo

re tic

al m

od el

of th

e im

pa ct

of ho

sp ita

lr es

tr uc

tu rin

g on

nu rs

es an

d de

te r

m in

e th

e ex

te nt

to w

hi ch

em ot

io na

lly in

te lli

ge nt

nu rs

e le

ad er

s m

od er

at ed

its im

pa ct

R eg

is te

re d

nu rs

es (n

= 65

26 )

S ur

ve y:

13 9

qu es

tio ns

co ve

rin g;

em pl

oy m

en t

ch ar

ac te

ris tic

s, th

e nu

rs in

g w

or k

in de

x, qu

al ity

, de

m og

ra ph

ic ch

ar ac

te ris

tic s

an d

qu es

tio ns

ab ou

t re

st ru

ct ur

in g,

vi ol

en ce

in th

e w

or k

pl ac

e an

d th

e us

e of

in fo

rm at

io n

re so

ur ce

s

G ol

em an

, B

oy at

zi s

& M

cK ee

's co

nc ep

tio ns

of E

I H

os pi

ta lr

es tr

uc tu

rin g

A cu

te ca

re ho

sp ita

l

R es

on an

t nu

rs in

g le

ad er

sh ip

w ou

ld en

su re

a be

tte r

qu al

ity of

ca re

, en

ha nc

ed te

am w

or k

an d

po si

tiv el

y af

fe ct

th e

he al

th an

d w

el l-b

ei ng

of nu

rs es

in ho

sp ita

l re

st ru

ct ur

in g

pr oc

es se

s

*T he

E m

ot io

na lC

om pe

te nc

y In

ve nt

or y

(H ay

G ro

up e

20 02

,2 00

6) ,*

** C

on di

tio ns

of W

or k

E ffe

ct iv

en es

s Q

ue st

io nn

ai re

-I I(

La sc

hi ng

er et

al .2

00 1)

,# R

ev is

ed T

hr ee

-C om

po ne

nt M

od el

E m

pl oy

ee C

om m

itm en

t S

ur ve

y (M

ey er

et al

. 19

93 ),

p T

ho m

as -K

ilm an

n C

on fli

ct M

od e

in st

ru m

en t

(T ho

m as

& K

ilm an

n 19

74 ),

� B

ar -O

n E

m ot

io na

lQ uo

tie nt

In ve

nt or

y: S

ho rt

ve rs

io n

(B ar

-O n

20 02

), �

T he

S el

f- A

ss es

sm en

tL ea

de rs

hi p

In st

ru m

en t(

Y ur

a 19

70 ),

T he

C ar

in g

A bi

lit y

In ve

nt or

y (M

ay er

of f1

97 1)

,$ T

he C

ar in

g D

im en

si on

s In

ve nt

or y

(W at

so n

et al

.1 99

9) ,–

–T he

D ef

in in

g Is

su es

T es

t (R

es t

et al

. 19

97 ).

K. Akerjordet and E. Severinsson

382 ª 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Nursing Management, 18, 363–382

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