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Rational theories

Overview of Rational Theories

Late 1970s – 1980s

  • Outgrowth of victimization data

  • More conservative criminology

  • Borrowed from economic models of behavior

Social Context

  • 1970s events
  • Conservative movement
  • Oil crisis & Iranian hostage incident
  • Individual responsibility

  • Political use of crime
  • Crime control & “lock ‘em up” CJS policies
  • Just deserts punishment philosophy
  • War on crime and drugs
  • Victim rights

Intellectual Context

  • New methodology and data – victimization statistics

  • Concept of “evil” or self-interested person
  • Effect of Travis Hirschi’s view of human nature
  • Need for punishment – return of deterrence
  • Rational nature of humans – offenders responsible for their own decisions
  • Incorrect thinking – cognitive & personality theory

  • More efficient CJS was needed

Major Rational Theories

Rational Choice Theory

Cornish & Clark

Lifestyle Theory

Hindelang, Garofalo, & Gottfredson

Routine Activities

Cohen & Felson

Precursors to Rational Theories

The beginnings of rational criminals/victims

Environmental Design (1969/1971)

C. Ray Jeffery creates a form of crime prevention based not on treating criminal motivation, but on making it more difficult to commit a crime by changing the physical crime environment.

Defensible Space (1972)

Architect Oscar Newman develops a theory of physical spaces designed to reduce crime, primarily based on territoriality and surveillance of people who live in them.

Routine Activities Theory

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Lawrence Cohen & Marcus Felson (1979)

  • Originally based on changes in routine social behaviors across time
  • Routine activities are normal daily patterns of social interaction
  • They involve things like the where & how often:

Going to work Work patterns

Time spent at home Recreational activities

Shopping behaviors Dropping off/picking up kids

  • Theory evolved from observations of changes in gender-based work/home patterns since WWII with increased burglary rates

Routine Activities Theory: Characteristics

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  • The theory is not particularly interested in offender motivation.
  • Focuses on the characteristics of crime rather than on the offender
  • Looks at range of options offenders select from when committing a crime

  • Has been used to explain:
  • Rates of victimization for specific crimes
  • Rates of urban homicide
  • Hot spots – areas that get a disproportionate number of crimes

Assumptions of Routine Activities

  • Offenders disproportionately find victims in certain settings.
  • Three elements of a crime:

  • Volume of criminal offenses is related to normal everyday patterns of interaction
  • Work, leisure, school, errands, socializing

Absence of a Capable Guardian

Suitable Target

Likely Offender

Crime Rates and Victimization

Not related to social and cultural conditions

  • Crime rates rise with:
  • An increase in the number of suitable victims
  • The absence of protectors

  • Individuals are more likely to be victimized:
  • The more they associate with, or come in contact with, members of demographic groups containing a greater number of offenders (young, males)

Patterns of Routine Activities

Now take place further from home (since WWII)

  • Routine patterns of work, play, leisure affect the convergence in TIME and PLACE of motivated offenders, suitable targets, & absence of guardians.
  • If one component of 3 is missing, crime is unlikely to be committed
  • If all 3 are present & one is strengthened, then crime risk is likely to increase
  • Theory does not look at offender motivation

Lifestyle Theory

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Michael Hindelang, James Garofalo, & Michael Gottfredson (1978 article)

  • Originated in an attempt to explain different victimization rates among groups of people
  • Those with patterns of activities (lifestyles) which bring them more frequently into contact with criminals and criminal environments are more likely to be victimized
  • Time of day, frequency of nighttime activities, physical location of activities

Lifestyle Elements

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  • Social roles
  • Based on expectations of others, individuals construct lifestyles more conducive to victimization
  • Position in social structure
  • Victimization rates are the inverse of social status, based on normal places frequented and activities
  • Rational decisions
  • Choices to engage in more or less risky behavior

Similarities of Victim & Offender

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Similar demographics & lifestyles

  • People who are disproportionately victimized by personal crimes have demographic traits similar to those who are offenders.
  • These demographics are NOT causal, but are indicators of:
  • Constraints (structural, economic, family, legal)
  • Expectations (roles, duties, schedules)

Lifestyle Characteristics

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  • Same people often alternate between offender & victim (in serious assaults) in both official (police) reports & self-reports
  • Lifestyle patterns are determined by adaptations (individual & subcultural) to structural constraints & role expectations
  • Intervening variables of associations & exposures determine whether or not victimization results from lifestyle

Rational Choice Theory

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Derek Cornish & Ronald Clarke (1986/7)

  • Crime is a way to meet basic needs
  • Usually monetary, usually property crime
  • Rationality is a decision-making process
  • What opportunities exist?
  • What are the potential costs of action?
  • What are the anticipated benefits?
  • Does not require full rationality, sophisticated thinking, or accurate information

Components of Rational Decision

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Two types of decisions

Details can vary by type of crime – part of the reason why offenders specialize

Involvement Decisions

Is it worthwhile?

Are risks reasonable?

Or pass up opportunity?

Event Decisions

Tactics (methods) are acceptable, easy enough – helps to justify involvement

Policy Implications of Rational Theories

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Crime prevention

Improve environment for feel of safety

  • Use adjacent businesses, parks, shops, nearness of suitable activities
  • Target hardening

Neighborhood Watch

Mapping of crime “hot spots”

Design greater costs and reduce benefits of offenses

Policy Implications: Environmental Design

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Typical approaches to indicators of refuge, prospect, & escape

Refuge for potential offender

  • Tall shrubs, alcoves, blind corners

Prospect for user

  • Long lines of sight, wide angle of view

Escape for user

  • Multiple exit points close at hand

The Ecology of Crime

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Routine Activities, Defensible Space, Crime Prevention

Guardians are not the only inhibitors of crime

  • Look at architecture, use of space, traffic patterns, lighting, vegetation

Combines traditional techniques with new technologies (electronic IDs, CCTV)

Target hardening