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Religion |
Origin of All Things |
Nature of God |
View of Human Nature |
View of Good and Evil |
View of “Salvation” |
View of After Life |
Practices and Rituals |
Celebrations and Festivals |
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Week 2 Hinduism and Jainism |
Hindu derives from the Sanskrit word for river, sindhu, from which the Indus River received its name. Sometime in the first millennium B.C., the Persians, who were then South Asia’s closest neighbors, mispronounced sindhu, and designated the land around the Indus River as hindu. Over a thousand years later, in A.D. 712, the Muslims invaded the Indus Valley. To distinguish themselves, they called all non-Muslims hindus; the name of the land became, by default, the name of the people and their religion https://www.apologeticspress.org/apcontent.aspx?category=8&article=1408
Jainism is somewhat similar to Buddhism, of which it was an important rival in India. It was founded by Vardhamana Jnatiputra or Nataputta Mahavira (599-527 BC), called Jina (Spiritual Conqueror), a contemporary of Buddha. http://www.qcc.cuny.edu/SocialSciences/ppecorino/PHIL_of_RELIGION_TEXT/CHAPTER_2_RELIGIONS/Jainism.htm |
Many Hindus describe God as sat-cid-ananda, full of eternity, knowledge and bliss. These correspond to three main features of the Supreme: Brahman – residing everywhere Antaryami – residing within Bhagavan – residing outside, beyond http://hinduism.iskcon.org/concepts/107.htm
Jainism believes that universe and all its substances or entities are eternal. Jainism does not believe in God as a creator, survivor, and destroyer of the universe. http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~pluralsm/affiliates/jainism/jainedu/jaingod.htm
God in the sense of an extra cosmic personal Creator has no place in the Jain philosophy. But there is a subtle essence underlying all substances, conscious and unconscious, which becomes the cause of all modifications. This is termed God. http://www.dlshq.org/religions/jainism.htm
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To the Hindu, the Christian concept of God creating human beings is an illusion. The human being, like all other animate and inanimate things, is an emanation—an extension—of the Brahma, the supreme being. https://www.ministrymagazine.org/archive/2010/10/understanding-hinduism
Human beings have an eternal soul that moves up or down the levels of existence depending on how much karma matter the soul carries. Human beings have free will and can achieve enlightenment and self-salvation through their own efforts
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When a person does something, it has an effect: good actions have good effects, bad actions have bad effects http://www.patheos.com/Library/Hinduism/Beliefs/Suffering-and-the-Problem-of-Evil.html#ixzz3Xi9Md6c8
Karma is the link which ties the soul to the body, and the cause of bondage and sorrow. Jains believe that every action that a person performs, be it good or evil, opens up channels of the senses (sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell), through which an invisible material substance, karma, filters in and adheres to the jiva within, weighing it down and determining the conditions of the next reincarnation. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Jainism
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Within Hinduism, a person aims to be relieved of the endless cycle of reincarnations and be released into the great One, Brahman, to become synonymous with this ultimate being. The body reincarnates from body to body until it achieves this final release which “is achieved when it is believed that no self exists in the body apart from the one universal self”
From the basic principles of Jaina philosophy, it is evident that the inherent powers of the soul are crippled by its association with karmic matter and that is why every person is found in an imperfect state. The Jaina philosophy, therefore, asserts that real and everlasting happiness will be obtained by a person only when the karmas are completely removed from the soul http://www.jainworld.com/book/aspects_of_jaina_religion/ch9.asp
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Hinduism believes in the rebirth and reincarnation of souls. http://www.hinduwebsite.com/hinduism/h_death.asp Jains believe: · the soul exists forever · each soul is always independent · the soul is responsible for what it does · the soul experiences the consequences of its actions · the soul can become liberated from the cycle of birth and death · not all souls can be liberated - some souls are inherently incapable of achieving this http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/jainism/beliefs/soul.shtml
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The vast majority of Hindu adherents—Vaishnavas, Shaivas, or Shaktas—worship their deities by using devotional practices, known as bhakti. http://www.faithology.com/practices/hinduism Rituals differ by sect, but generally include fasts, devotional worship, and meditation. Initiation into renunciant orders is effected by the elaborate Diksha ritual. The ritual of Sallekhana entails fasting until death when one's body begins to interfere with spiritual progress. http://www.patheos.com/Library/Jainism/Ritual-Worship-Devotion-Symbolism
Vegetarianism is a way of life for a Jain, taking its origin in the concept of compassion for living beings, Jiva Daya. The practice of vegetarianism is seen as an instrument for the practice of nonviolence and peaceful, cooperative coexistence.
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Hinduism has 12 important festivals. http://hinduism.iskcon.org/practice/401.htm Most Jains fast during holy days and festivals; some Jains choose fasting at other times in order to purify or to assist in their spiritual development. http://www.diversiton.com/religion/main/jainism/holydays-festivals-rituals.asp
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Week 3 Buddhism
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Buddhism never claimed that the world, sun, moon, stars, wind, water, days and nights were created by a powerful god or by a Buddha. Buddhists believe that the world was not created once upon a time, but that the world has been created millions of times every second and will continue to do so by itself and will break away by itself. According to Buddhism, world systems always appear and disappear in the universe. http://www.budsas.org/ebud/whatbudbeliev/297.htm
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Buddhism is unique amongst the religions of the world because it does not have any place for God in its soteriology. Buddhism is not atheistic in the sense that modern secularism, rationalism, humanism, etc. could be regarded to be atheistic (although it has much in common with them). Buddhism is not concerned primarily with refuting the notion of God (as some atheistic writers have done). It is principally concerned with developing a method of escape from the worldly ills. http://www.budsas.org/ebud/ebdha068.htm
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1. Physical forms (rupa) 2. Feelings or sensations (vedana) 3. Ideations (sanna) 4. Mental formations or dispositions (sankhara) 5. Consciousness (vinnana) http://www.religionfacts.com/buddhism/beliefs/human-nature
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The Buddhist understanding is that good and evil are innate, inseparable aspects of life. http://www.sgi.org/buddhism/buddhist-concepts/good-and-evil.html
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Locates the human dilemma, not in a broken relationship with the living God, but in a grasping that leads to endless cycles of rebirth and suffering (samsara). To be liberated from these cycles is the work of the individual and no other. http://enrichmentjournal.ag.org/201203/201203_076_Salvationand_Buddhist.cfm |
Buddhist view is that there is no soul. There is no permanent substance or essence which endures after death following death there is an “intermediate state” which occurs after death but prior to reincarnation. In one version (the Abhidharmakosha tradition) the intermediate being has complete sensory faculties but is non-physical http://www.sptimmortalityproject.com/background/buddhist-views-of-the-afterlife/
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Meditation prayers chanting vegetarianism
http://buddhismbeliefs.org/buddhism-practices
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Magha Puja Day and Sangha Day Wesak Kathina
http://www.pamf.org/preteen/share/celebrations/buddhist.html
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Week 4 Daoism and Confucianism |
Daoism can be traced back to Shamanism, which spread into Mongolia and China at least ten thousand years ago. http://www.arcworld.org/faiths.asp?pageID=145
major system of thought in China, developed from the teachings of Confucius and his disciples, and concerned with the principles of good conduct, practical wisdom, and proper social relationships. http://www.qcc.cuny.edu/SocialSciences/ppecorino/PHIL_of_RELIGION_TEXT/CHAPTER_2_RELIGIONS/Confucianism.htm
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Taoism does not have a God in the way that the Abrahamic religions do. There is no omnipotent being beyond the cosmos, who created and controls the universe. In Taoism the universe springs from the Tao, and the Tao impersonally guides things on their way. http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/taoism/beliefs/gods.shtml Confucianism has no deities http://www.patheos.com/Library/Confucianism.html |
Daoism- Human beings do not have a soul but may become immortal in Religious Taoism. Human beings have a free will; they can learn to live in harmony with the Tao www.fmh.org/workfiles/taoism.doc Confucius' view on human nature was not clearly and distinctly supplied in the Analects. It is no surprise that one of his disciples complained that "one cannot get to hear his view on human nature" (A, 5:13).1 In two passages of the Analects, Confucius classified men as belonging to three groups: "upper, middle and lower," but as this classification was made according to man's "learning ability" it had nothing to do with the common nature of man. http://www.crvp.org/book/Series03/III-2/chapter_ii_human_nature_and_huma.htm
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As a concept, Taoist do not hold the position of good against evil; rather they see the interdependence of all dualities. So when one labels something as a good, one automatically creates evil. That is, all concepts necessarily are based on one aspect vs. another; if a concept were to have only one aspect, it would be nonsensical. http://history.cultural-china.com/en/166History5097.html According to some interpretations of Confucianism, suffering and evil are inevitable in human life, and can promote learning and growth. A mistake is not a "sin," but an opportunity to learn and do better next time. http://www.patheos.com/Library/Confucianism/Beliefs/Suffering-and-the-Problem-of-Evil.html
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Taoism is not a salvific practice. There is nothing that one needs to be saved from, and belief in salvation would lead to belief in damnation in the same manner as belief in good leads to belief in evil http://history.cultural-china.com/en/166History5097.html
Rather than any kind of personal salvation, Confucius emphasized the salvation of the social order by encouraging people to respect one another. The entire purpose of his teaching was to change society from one which was chaotic to one which was ordered. http://www.marketfaith.org/non-christian-worldviews/the-gospel-according-to-confucius-confucianism/
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Daoism- The founder of philosophical Taoism did not believe in immortality; when a person dies he or she passes into non-being and individuality is dissolved. Religious Taoists believe in immortality. Those who become immortal were thought to dwell on an island of paradise called “P’eng-lai.” www.fmh.org/workfiles/taoism.doc
The Confucian system does not specifically answer the question “What happens after death?” It does, however, assume that there is a hereafter based on an Animistic worldview. It assumes that the spirit of an individual lives on after death as an ancestor spirit and continues to relate to the family. http://www.marketfaith.org/non-christian-worldviews/the-gospel-according-to-confucius-confucianism/
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Daoism- There are two main types of ritual: 1) funeral rites or periodic rites on behalf of ancestors, which are performed only by some sects, sometimes in tandem with Buddhist priests; and 2) rites on behalf of local communities. Both types include rites to install the ritual space, rites of fasting, rites of communion or offering, and rites to disperse the ritual space. http://www.patheos.com/Library/Taoism/Ritual-Worship-Devotion-Symbolism/Rites-and-Ceremonies.html
Aside from its important ethical principles, Confucianism does not prescribe any specific rituals or practices. These are filled by the practices of Chinese religion, Taoism, Buddhism, or other religion which Confucians follow. http://www.religionfacts.com/confucianism
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Daoism- The Latern Festival, Chinese New Year, Dragon Boat Festival http://taoismfacts.weebly.com/holidays-and-festivals.html
Confucism-Chinese New Year, Ghost Festival, Autumn Moon Festival http://www.religionfacts.com/chinese-religion/holidays
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Week 5 Shinto and Zorastrianism
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The origin of the word "shinto" means "way of the kami." Therefore, Shinto beliefs focus on the existence and power of the kami, or gods, that exist in the world, in nature, and especially in and throughout Japan http://www.world-religions-professor.com/shintobeliefs.html
ZOROASTER WAS THE PERSIAN PROPHET on whose teachings the ancient religion of Zoroastrianism is based.The name by which he is commonly known in the West is from the Greek form of his original name,Zarathushtra, which means “Shining Light. https://www.theosophical.org/publications/1231 .
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Shinto is the "way of the gods" - and Shinto gods and goddesses are called kami. The term kami refers to anything that is above, high, special, unusual or auspicious in any way. It refers to the essence, or internal quality, of many phenomena that Shinto believers consider an aura of divinity. http://www.world-religions-professor.com/shintogods.html Zoroaster taught that Ahura Mazda (Who is also given many other names) was the one true God and the nature gods or daevas (devils) his people worshipped were false gods. http://www.urantiabook.org/archive/readers/zoroastrianism-introduction.htm
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human nature is seen as inherently good http://www.badgleyb.net/html_docs/religionjapan.htm
Human beings are constituted from both, the spiritual and material existences. Human beings also have two conscious selves (ahva): the thinking (manangho) and corporeal (physical, astavant) selves (Hymns, or Gatha, of Zarathushtra, 28.2).
http://www.heritageinstitute.com/zoroastrianism/overview/index.htm
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human nature is seen as inherently good, and evil is thought to stem from the individual's contact with external forces or agents that pollute our pure nature and cause us to act in ways disruptive of the primordial harmony. http://www.badgleyb.net/html_docs/religionjapan.htm
Good - Being virtuous, having desirable qualities, behavior that is altruistic, intentionally beneficial to others more than to oneself, respect and concern for the dignity of sentient beings; Evil - Morally bad or wrong, causing ruin, injury or pain, selfishness and lack of concern for others, debase or destroy innocent life for fun or personal gain. http://www.zoroastrian.org.uk/vohuman/Article/Good%20and%20Evil.htm
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Salvation of the whole nation instead of salvation of a few individuals. http://www.dlshq.org/religions/shintoism.htm
Personal salvation is attained through making the right choice. And the salvation of the world, called “Frashokereti,” is the restoration of the world to its perfect state, one that is in complete accord with Asha. As human beings make the right choices in their lives, they are furthering the realization of Frashokereti. https://www.theosophical.org/publications/1231
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all who died went to a vast hellish underworld from which there is no escape. http://www.patheos.com/Library/Shinto/Beliefs/Afterlife-and-Salvation.html
According to the Zoroastrian tradition, after the death of the body, the soul remains in this world for three days and nights, in the care of Sraosha, one of the Yazatas or angels. During this period, prayers are said and rituals performed to assure a safe passage of the soul into the spiritual realm. On the dawn of the fourth day, the spirit is believed to have crossed over to the other world, where it arrives at the allegorical Chinvat Bridge. https://www.theosophical.org/publications/1231
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Shinto ceremonies are designed to appeal to the kami for benevolent treatment and protection and consist of abstinence (imi), offerings, prayers and purification (harae) http://www.religionfacts.com/shinto
Humata, “Good Thoughts,” the intention or moral resolution to abide by Asha, the right order of things. Hukhata, “Good Words,” the communication of that intention. Havarashta, “Good Deeds,” the realization in action of that intention. https://www.theosophical.org/publications/1231
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Each Shinto shrine has several major festivals (matsuri) each year, including the Spring Festival (Haru Matsuri or Toshigoi-no-Matsuri), Autumn or Harvest Festival (Aki Matsuri, or Niiname-sai), an Annual Festival (Rei-sai), and the Divine Procession (Shinko-sai) http://www.religionfacts.com/shinto
The New Year festival, Noruz, is the most joyous and beautiful of Zoroastrian feasts, a spring festival in honour of Rapithwin, the personification of noonday and summer. The festival to Mithra, or Mehragan, was traditionally an autumn one, as honoured as the spring feast of Noruz http://www.religionfacts.com/zoroastrianism
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Week 6 Judaism
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Judaism is a religious tradition with origins dating back nearly four thousand years, rooted in the ancient near eastern region of Canaan (which is now Israel and Palestinian territories). Originating as the beliefs and practices of the people known as "Israel," classical, or rabbinic, Judaism did not emerge until the 1st century C.E. Judaism traces its heritage to the covenant God made with Abraham and his lineage — that God would make them a sacred people and give them a holy land. http://www.patheos.com/Library/Judaism.html
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The fact of God's existence is accepted almost without question. Proof is not needed, and is rarely offered. http://www.mechon-mamre.org/jewfaq/god.htm
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A fundamental to Jewish beliefs about human beings is that they are created in the image of God. This does not mean that people look like God, for God is incorporeal. The general rabbinical interpretation of this concept is that humans have the ability to reason. http://www.religionfacts.com/judaism/beliefs/human-nature
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Jews have addressed the relation between God, evil, and human suffering by demonstrating a spectrum between those who defend, justify, or accept God's relationship to evil and those who refuse to ascribe any positive meaning for the presence of evil in the world, even reaching the extreme of protesting against God on behalf of their respective communities http://www.patheos.com/Library/Judaism/Beliefs/Suffering-and-the-Problem-of-Evil.html
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In the Jewish Bible salvation comes from the Lord and is a favor bestowed upon the nation as a whole. http://www.chosenpeople.com/main/jewish-roots/248-salvation-as-interpreted-by-judaism
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http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/520007/salvation/33996/Judaism
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Passover is a national and collective celebration, it remembers how God saved the Israelites and formed them into a nation, and the same people later on, as a nation and collectively accepted the Mosaic Covenant thus becoming God's Chosen People. http://www.chosenpeople.com/main/jewish-roots/248-salvation-as-interpreted-by-judaism
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The most important Jewish holy days are the Sabbath, the three pilgrimage festivals (Passover, Shavuot, and Sukkot) and the two High Holy Days (Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur). For observant Jews, it is forbidden to work on any of these days. http://www.religionfacts.com/judaism/holidays
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Week 7 Christianity
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Christianity originated with Jesus of Nazareth, a Jewish prophet and teacher who probably came to believe he was the Son of God and certainly was regarded as such by his disciples. http://history-world.org/origins_of_christianity.htm
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Christians believe that God is comprised of three persons: (1) the Father, (2) the Son, Jesus Christ, and (3) the Holy Spirit. This doctrine is called the Trinity. http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/beliefs/god
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There are certain inherent understandings about human nature in the biblical view: (l) each person is a unique individual - (s)he has the power to act under his/her own initiative; (2) as a whole, mankind is a good creation of God, firmly tied to the finite world, but with the important qualifications of dominion and stewardship, a freedom to move within the limits of time and space, and to affect the course of history; (3) the real criteria for the exercise of that freedom is its correspondence to the will and intention of God - there are right and wrong modes of conduct http://www.philosophy-religion.org/thought/humannature-biblical-religion.htm
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Christians have faith in a good and loving Creator who has a plan for creation that is also good and loving. This tenet of faith has prompted Christians to seek explanations or justifications for suffering. Human suffering takes many forms: emotional, natural, and moral. Loneliness, anxiety, and grief are examples of emotional suffering. Fires, tornados, earthquakes, hurricanes, tsunami, and physical illnesses (e.g., cancer) are examples of natural suffering. Moral suffering is brought on by the deliberate acts of fellow human beings to cause suffering, something Christians call a moral evil. http://www.patheos.com/Library/Christianity/Beliefs/Suffering-and-the-Problem-of-Evil.html
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In Christianity, salvation is made possible by the sacrificial death of Jesus Christ by crucifixion 2,000 years ago. http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/beliefs/salvation
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Christian beliefs about the afterlife vary between denominations and individual Christians, but the vast majority of Christians believe in some kind of heaven, in which the deceased enjoy the presence of God and loved ones for eternity. http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/beliefs/afterlife
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Most Christians attend worship services at church on Sundays, which generally include singing, prayer and a sermon. Most churches have a special ritual for ordination, or designating a person fit for a leadership position in the church. At home, most practicing Christians pray regularly and many read the Bible. http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/practices
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· Advent · Easter · Epiphany · Lent · Sunday http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/holidays
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Week 8 Islam
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The origin of Islam can be traced back to 7th century Saudi Arabia. Islam is thus the youngest of the great world religions. The prophet Muhammad (circa 570-632 A.D.) introduced Islam in 610 A.D. after experiencing what he claimed to be an angelic visitation. Muhammad dictated the Qur'an, the holy book of Islam, which Muslims believe to be the preexistent, perfect words of Allah
http://www.allaboutreligion.org/Origin-Of-Islam.htm
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In the religion of Islam, belief in Allah is the single most important tenet. The Muslim name for God is "Allah," which is simply Arabic for "the (al) God (Ilah)." Muslims believe that Muhammad was Allah's chief servant and messenger. http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/beliefs/allah
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Humans are the greatest of all creatures, created with free will for the purpose of obeying and serving Allah. http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/beliefs/human-nature
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Everyone is born with a natural instinct to understand the difference between right and wrong (fitrah). They also have free will, and they must choose between right (the guidance of Allah) and wrong (following the temptations of Shaytan, the devil). http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/rs/god/isgoodandevilrev2.shtml
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The Muslim doctrine of salvation is that unbelievers (kuffar, literally "those who are ungrateful") and sinners will be condemned, but genuine repentance results in Allah's forgiveness and entrance into Paradise upon death. http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/beliefs/salvation
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Muslims believe in the continued existence of the soul and a transformed physical existence after death. Islam teaches that there will be a day of judgment when all humans will be divided between the eternal destinations of Paradise and Hell. http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/beliefs/afterlife
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Five Pillars of Islam Confession of Faith (Shahada) Ritual Prayer (Salat) Alms tax (Zakat) http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/practices
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'Idul-Fitr, which falls on the first day of Shawwal, the tenth month of the Islamic year, and 'Idul-Adha, which falls on the tenth day of Thul-Hijjah and coincides with the Yauman-Nahr, "Day of the Sacrifices" in the Hajj Pilgrimage as we have seen. http://answering-islam.org/Gilchrist/Vol1/8a.html
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Week 9 Sikhism
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The Sikh tradition was founded by Guru Nanak in the late 15th century C.E. in the Punjab region of what are today India and Pakistan. According to Sikh beliefs, the same revelatory spirit inhabited Guru Nanak and his nine successors. http://www.patheos.com/Library/Sikhism.html
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There is only one God. God is without form, or gender. Everyone has direct access to God. Everyone is equal before God. http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/sikhism/beliefs/beliefs.shtml
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Sikhs perceive human life as an opportunity to merge with the divine will. However, the core problem is that human judgment is occluded by a false sense of self. http://www.patheos.com/Library/Sikhism/Beliefs/Human-Nature-and-the-Purpose-of-Existence.html
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Evil is indistinct from extreme self-centeredness. Tyranny and oppression, far removed from all notions of compassion and empathy, are the most evil acts. http://www.patheos.com/Library/Sikhism/Beliefs/Suffering-and-the-Problem-of-Evil.html
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Sikhism retains the general Hindu conception of the universe and the doctrine of samsara, or rebirth, based on karma. Human birth is the only chance to escape samsara and attain salvation. http://www.religionfacts.com/sikhism/beliefs
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The Sikh tradition emphasizes a life free of worry about the afterlife, but focused on one's ethical actions and piety in this life. "Liberation" (mukti) is the metaphor for the best result possible in the afterlife, and Sikhs envision that as finding unification with the creator at his court. http://www.patheos.com/Library/Sikhism/Beliefs/Afterlife-and-Salvation.html
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The ceremony of initiation into the Sikh religion is called the Amrit ceremony. Sikhs undertake the Amrit ceremony when they are ready to do so and understand the commitment that they are making to the religion. The ceremony is held in the presence of the Guru Granth Sahib. The ceremony is conducted by five baptized Sikhs, called Panj Pyare, who wear the five Sikh symbols. http://sikhismguide.org/rites.aspx
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Nam Karan, Naming of a Child Amrit Sanskar, BaptismFuneral CeremonyAkhand PathGurpurbs |
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Week 10 Modern Religions |
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