research 1

Participatory Educational Research (PER)

Vol. 1(2), pp. 21-35, December, 2014

Available online at http://www.partedres.com

ISSN: 2148-6123

http://dx.doi.org/(coming soon)

Meeting the Needs of Older Students in Higher Education

Gail D. Caruth *

Ed.D. Department of Educational Leadership Texas A&M University-Commerce Article history

Received:

11.07.2014

Received in revised form: 21.07.2014

Accepted:

03.08.2014

The number of students 25 years of age and older enrolled in higher

education has been escalating over the past 50 years. What is

higher education is doing to prepare for this growth? With adults

constituting almost half of today’s student body, it is important to

consider whether the academy is prepared to serve this society of

adult learners. The purpose of this paper was to examine the

literature on andragogy in higher education to determine if higher

education is serving this segment of nontraditional students.

Findings show that there has been a substantial increase of adult

students enrolled in college and university classes, higher education

is not doing the job needed to teach adult learners effectively,

adults should be taught andragogically, andragogy is not being used

in the higher education classrooms, and colleges and universities

need to prepare to teach adult students andragogically. Insufficient

empirical research has been conducted on andragogy despite its 40-

year history of being considered the principal model of adult

learning. However, with validated and reliable instruments

available to measure the constructs of andragogy, clearer validation

of andragogy in higher education is promising. Predictive research

can be completed to study the effect of andragogical practices on

learning and student satisfaction outcomes. There is the need for

further research on andragogy in an attitude of mutuality and

reciprocity to develop further the field of adult education. This

attitude of mutuality and reciprocity is innovative.

Key words:

Andragogy, adult learners,

adult students, nontraditional

students

* Address for correspondence: P. O. Box 3022 Commerce, Texas 75429 USA, E-mail: [email protected]

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Introduction

The number of adults, those 25 years of age and older, enrolled in the academy is

escalating (Kasworm, 2012; Marschall & Davis, 2012). The numbers of adult students

attending colleges and universities have increased from 29% in 1970 to 43% in 2009

(National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], n.d.a). While almost half of today’s overall

college student body are adult learners (Altbach, Berdahl, & Gumport, 2005), many facets of

higher education are not designed with adult learners in mind (Tannehill, 2009). American

institutions of higher education were originally established with the purpose of educating the

privileged youth (Rudolph, 1990; Thelin, 2004). However, colleges and universities over

time have begun to educate more adult students (Kasworm, 2012). This need for continuous

adult education has created a profitable enterprise (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner,

2007) and merits a closer look.

Many could ask what higher education is doing to prepare for this growth. With adults

constituting almost half of today’s student body, it is important to consider whether the

academy is prepared to serve this society of adult learners. The purpose of this paper was to

examine the literature on andragogy in higher education to determine if higher education is

serving this segment of nontraditional students. Are colleges and universities adequately

meeting the needs of the adult learners in and outside of the classroom?

A review of the literature presents a compilation of research, peer-reviewed journals, non-peer

reviewed journals, and books on andragogy. The academic databases used were from the

online library of Texas A&M University-Commerce and included, but were not limited to,

Academic Search Premier, EBSCO, Education Research Complete, Eric, ProQuest, and Sage

Publications. The key descriptive terms used for this research were andragogy, adult learners,

adult students, and nontraditional learners.

Significance of the Study

In 1967, Malcolm Knowles, then professor of education at Boston University and a

general consultant in adult education, received the Delbert Clark Award from West Georgia

College for his contribution to adult education. This award was considered by many to be the

highest national honor in the field of adult education. Furthermore, Knowles was credited for

giving “new and special meanings to the term adult education” (p. 350).

The purpose of education is to enable people to develop skills to engage in continuous

learning maintained Knowles (1976). Knowles (1968) claimed in his address at the awards

banquet that the very survival of civilization requires continuous learning after the formative

years. Despite this lack focus on the growth in numbers of adult learners in higher education,

Brookfield (2006) suggested the notion that both students and teachers are in positions of

encouraging continuous learning.

Knowles (1968) maintained that adult education had undergone immense growth in

enrollment. Numerous institutions have recognized adult learning as a major aspect of higher

education. Knowles (1968) also acknowledged that adult education is a profitable enterprise.

This is demonstrated in the proliferation of for-profit institutions. Knowles claimed that a

great deal of money, from a number of sources (government, education, business, and

industry), was being invested in adult learning. He stated that not only were more adult

learners active in learning than ever before but that adult learning was exploding.

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Knowles stressed that higher education was not fulfilling its educational role of adult

education and regrettably others have since verified this position (Harper & Ross, 2011; Pew,

2007). Knowles also suggested that adult education in higher education had been

unsuccessful. He stated that “the biggest obstacle to the achievement of the full potential of

adult education has been that it has been tied to and it has been hamstrung by the concepts and

the methods of the traditional education of children” (pp. 350-351). According to Pew

(2007), administration rarely considers student fulfillment when establishing the curriculum

and that the likelihood of getting higher education to take responsibility for the teaching of

adult students would be difficult.

Brookfield questioned the lack coverage of adult education in the higher education literature

in The Skillful Teacher (2006). This lack of coverage puzzled him because of the growth in

the number of adult learners in higher education. He further claimed that textbooks on adult

education and learning are seldom recognized in colleges and universities.

Knowles claimed that education was, however, transforming and discovering that adults

learned differently than children learn, even though they were still being taught as children

were taught. Knowles claimed that the adult curriculum was distinct from the curriculum for

youth (Knowles, 1968). His address at the awards banquet was published as an article

“Androgogy, Not Pedagogy,” which appeared in Adult Leadership in April of 1968. It should

be noted that the spelling of androgogy, as it appeared in the article, was later corrected to

andragogy because of communications between Knowles and the publisher of Merriam-

Webster dictionaries (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2011). This article and his address at the

awards banquet at West Georgia College are often referred to as the introduction of the term

andragogy to the United States, giving Knowles a lasting link to andragogy (Merriam et al.,

2007).

Knowles introduced the term andragogy as the science of teaching adult learners with a focus

on the characteristics of adult learners. The term derives from the Greek word andros, which

means “man” or “grownups” (Knowles, 1968, p. 351) or agogus meaning “leader of”

(Knowles et al., 2011, pp. 59-60), which translates to “the art and science of helping adults

learn” (Knowles, 1984, p. 6). Interestingly, Knowles made an important distinction between a

pedagog and an andragog. A pedagog, according to Knowles, would want to keep the learner

dependent on the teacher, whereas an andragog would encourage the learner to become

autonomous in the desire for further inquiry (as cited in Levitt, 1979, p. 53).

Knowles asserted that administration was ultimately responsible for the implementation of

andragogy in higher education. He claimed that university administrators violated the

principles of andragogy in favor of the movement toward efficiency. In other words, focus

was on the highest production for the lowest cost. Sadly this was the focus for administration

in spite of the effect it had on students learning. In his opinion, university administration

lagged behind management in business and industry who were seeking a balance between the

need for human growth and organizational efficiency. Knowles (1976) attributed this gap

between higher education and business and industry to higher education’s overemphasis on

organizational efficiency that unfortunately leads to interference with quality education for

students and the society it serves. If higher education is in the business of teaching adult

learners, as Pew (2007) maintains, “then the model must be that of Andragogy” (p. 18).

Knowles (1976) claimed that andragogy required a transformation in the student-teacher

relationship. The role of the teacher should be analogous to that of a facilitator, something to

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which few teachers have been exposed (Brookfield, 2006; Knowles, 1976). This change in

the role of the teacher required administration to develop new resourceful staffing and

training practices to assure that the type of teacher needed was hired (Knowles, 1976).

The literature revealed that the number of nontraditional students is going to continue to

increase (Altbach et al., 2005; Kasworm, 2012; Merriam et al., 2007; National Center for

Education Statistics [NCES], n.b.b; USBC, 2010). The competition for adult learners,

therefore, is also going to continue to increase for colleges and universities (Tannehill, 2009).

As a result, institutions that "continue to focus on the traditional students," as opposed to

giving equitable consideration to nontraditional students, "may find themselves trying to

figure out how to keep their doors open as the number of traditional students continues to

decline" (p. 129) asserted Tannehill.

Research on Andragogy

Insufficient empirical research has been conducted on andragogy despite its 40-year

history of being considered the principal model of adult learning (Laird, Naquin, & Holton

2003; Merriam et al., 2007; Noe, 2010). The majority of the research completed is actually in

the practice of andragogy. Knowles’ book Andragogy in Action: Applying Modern Principles

of Adult Learning (1984), for example, provided examples of application of the andragogical

model in business and industry. In his book Knowles assembled studies based on the

assumptions of andragogy he had received from professionals in business and industry. These

studies were completed in the workplace. Knowles included 36 of over 100 studies and

categorized them according to institutional type. According to Knowles, the most beneficial

theme of his book was "the power of the notion that people learn best when treated as human

beings” (p. xvi).

Henschke (2011a) claimed that there are 330 published documents on andragogy by various

authors. He recognized six distinct themes in this research. Those distinct themes include the

evolution of the term andragogy; historical antecedents shaping the concept of andragogy;

comparisons of the American and European understandings of andragogy; promoting and

maintaining the American and worldwide views of andragogy; practical applications of

andragogy; and theory, research, and definition of andragogy.

Research on adult education has been descriptive for the most part. Furthermore, this

research has been in the practice of adult learning in business and industry rather than on

teaching adults. A number of publications have focused on learning experiences aimed at

sharing this information with others in the field. This research, sadly, has not added to the

scholarly body of knowledge. There has also been a shift in research from broad overviews

and application of findings to an understanding of observable facts. The tendency has been to

translate practice into research rather than translating research into practice. Research on

adult education, regrettably, has been fragmented and inconsistent. What research there is has

not been translated into practice in higher education. Alas, educators are not commonly

trained in adult education (Brookfield, 2006; Rose, 2000).

A Need for Andragogy

A different method of instruction is required for educating adult learners. The need

for a distinctive method is due to the more complex lives of today’s adults. The usual

pedagogical methods are not adequate to meet the needs of these nontraditional students and

their complicated lives. For example, the education of the youth is a teacher-centered

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approach calling for a transfer of information and requiring the student to memorize. On the

other hand, andragogical methods are required replacing teacher-centeredness, the transfer of

information, and student memorization with problem-solving skills (Loeng, 2013).

In the Interdisciplinary Studies Program at the University of Southern Mississippi, students

took the initiative to learn by designing their own degree plans within broad boundaries

established by the university. Students expressed enjoyment of education as a result of

having control over their learning. They also expressed the enjoyment of having the benefit of

a renewal of the "love of learning" (Harper & Ross, 2011, p. 166). Furthermore, the faculty

benefited from the experience as well. They were able to examine their own scholarship,

values, and practice. The faculty believed, according to the researchers, that efforts to

encourage adult learners to become autonomous learners were both beneficial and rewarding.

Law students from the Third and Fourth Districts of Idaho claimed that the andragogical

principles espoused by Knowles were the most helpful in their preparation for practicing law.

Students claimed they learned the most in classes that employed the assumptions of

andragogy. Students became more self-directed in these classes. They were more receptive to

the traditional customs of practicing law when educators applied course content to

experiences and stated that the classes “came alive” (Taylor, 2010, p. 185). Overall, students

were more willing to go through the learning process when they were informed about what

they would learn and the reasons for learning. When experienced attorneys discussed practical

experiences on the job, moreover, students tended to learn more. The Chinese proverb holds

true, “a single conversation with a wise man is better than ten years of study” (p. 53) asserted

Taylor and Kroth (2009).

Management education also fits well with the assumptions of andragogy. In fact,

management education in higher education could be called andragogy. This is because the

instructional strategies utilized in management courses are often effective for adult students

maintained Forrest and Peterson (2006). As a result, numerous management educators

unknowingly teach from an andragogical perspective. The American Management

Association’s master’s degree program in management was structured around andragogy and

competency-based education (Knowles, 1984).

Andragogy allows management educators to employ traditional teaching methods in unique

ways. If the educator asks students what they need to know and incorporate the responses

into the lectures, for example, lectures can be effective methods of instruction. Further,

students will be more interested in the lectures on creating a mission statement when they

understand the importance of mission statements to organizations. When lectures are based

on students’ desires to learn the information, the lecture method is effective. Unfortunately,

the pedagogical method of teaching remains prevalent in the typical university classroom

(Forrest & Peterson, 2006).

Tannehill (2009) surveyed college and university administrators on the use of andragogy in

the classroom. According to the researcher, staff members could benefit from formal

education on andragogy and college and university administrators should be well educated on

andragogy. Higher education is encouraged to consider including courses on andragogy as

part of the master’s and doctoral curricula for future administrators. Students, 25 years old

and older are the fastest growing segment of the student body in higher education.

Unfortunately, most administrators know little about educating these students. Colleges and

universities that provide the "whole package" (p. 128) to adult learners will be the ultimate

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survivors claimed Tannehill.

Educators are encouraged to invest time and effort in strengthening their knowledge of

andragogy (Chan, 2010; Kiener, 2010; Minter, 2011; Yow, 2010). Educators are also

encouraged to consider adult learning principles when designing curricula that focus on the

needs of adult learners (Knight, 1999; Yow, 2010). Educators, administrators, and policy

makers are advised to consider implementing effective efforts to ensure that the needs of adult

learners are met. Yow (2010) recommended that a good starting point is for educators to

consider Knowles’ six assumptions in daily teaching practices. The most effective learning

will ultimately transpire when adult learners can link skills with application suggested Yow.

Taylor and Kroth (2009) designed a teaching methodology instrument and tested it in a law

school classroom using the Socratic method of instruction. They believed that the Socratic

method of instruction encourages law students to “think like a lawyer” (p. 44). If this

instrument could predict whether pedagogical or andragogical methods were used, claimed

the researchers, it would encourage educators to consider their own teaching styles. This

would advance the integration of the six andragogical assumptions espoused by Knowles in

higher education. This integration into higher education teaching methodologies could

ultimately result in better educational experiences for adults claimed Taylor and Kroth.

Martell (2011) found similar results when students were taught bible lessons following some

of the principles of andragogy. Martell compared the effectiveness of a lecture-based,

pedagogical teaching philosophy to a discussion-based, andragogical teaching philosophy in

adult bible fellowships (ABFs) at The Chapel in Akron, Ohio. Findings suggested that

students learned more with andragogical principles, enjoyed the andragogical teaching

methods, believed the lessons were more memorable, and practiced the new knowledge in

their everyday lives. The students were more confident about their learning maintained

Martell.

The andragogical model has also had an impact on the teaching philosophy of educators

internationally asserted Chan (2010). Because of this international impact, educators and

educational institutions globally are encouraged to make opportunities available to all learners

to be involved in learner-centered educational experiences. Educators are also encouraged to

consider adopting and applying andragogical methods that create a more engaging learning

environment to prepare students to compete in the 21st century workplace. Adult learners

need a more active role in the planning and learning processes, they need to understand the

learning, and they need to apply the learning in their everyday lives.

Kiener (2010) recommended that faculty frequently examine their roles as educators. This

examination includes assessing their role of teaching, their own teaching philosophies, how

students learn, and their use of the assumptions of andragogy in the classroom. Regardless of

how many classes they teach per semester, members of the faculty have these ethical

responsibilities to the students they teach avowed Kiener.

Learning How to Learn

According to Hadley (1975), the purpose of learning is to allow adult learners to

execute personal growth according to what that growth specifically means to them. Hence,

learners are learning how to learn. This practice, in turn, enables learners to form their own

understanding of their realities. Learners grow to know themselves, to know their talents, and

to know their desires. This self-knowledge is of great importance to adult learners asserted

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Knowles (1984). Sadly, educators have historically viewed themselves as more andragogical

than their students have viewed them averred Hadley.

Andragogy requires learners to participate in all aspects of learning, from directing the

learning process to incorporating past experiences. Andragogy advances a mutual

relationship between the learner and educator in managing the learning process. According to

Hadley (1975), andragogy furthers a two-way, equally dependent interaction of mutuality and

reciprocity aimed at joint development. In order for learning to be effective, the focus of

learning must be on the adult learner gaining self-confidence. This self-confidence will

subsequently motivate the learner to continue learning and build on past knowledge and

experiences.

Institutions establish the overall criteria for learning. The educator is in charge of the design

of the learning process and uses his or her influence to assure the learner accomplishes the

objectives through mutuality and reciprocity. However, the learner's personal objective is

most important. The ongoing challenge for the educator is to encourage adult learners to

continue to select more complex objectives to test and enhance learning. Hence, the

relationship between educator and learner is one of expressing and sharing (Hadley, 1975).

Andragogy in Higher Education

Beder and Darkenwald (1982) were interested in ascertaining whether instructors

taught adult learners differently than they taught pre-adult learners. Data were collected from

173 public school and college teachers with a median age 41.8 years. These instructors taught

both adults and pre-adults. Teachers indicated that they taught andragogically to the adult

learners by accentuating responsive, learner-centered instruction that de-accentuates power

and rules. This andragogical practice in the classroom was confirmed in the findings of the

study results. The adult learners were seen as more motivated, pragmatic, self-directed, and

task-oriented than were pre-adult learners indicated the researchers.

Gorham (1985) analyzed reported and observed teaching practices of 115 university,

community college, and public school instructors who taught adult and pre-adult learners.

Even though the instructors reported teaching adult learners and pre-adult learners differently,

results yielded little evidence of student-centered approaches. Comparative analysis was used

to study aspects that emerged and affected interactions in adult education classrooms.

According to the researcher, the interaction investigation was supported by offering impartial

accounts of teaching behaviors, which might be developed for future training of adults.

According to Clerk (2012), educators are encouraged to understand that adult learners enroll

in education with different needs than pre-adult learners. Furthermore, adult learners have

pre-formed biases and ideas about education. These pre-formed biases and ideas developed

through life experiences could unfortunately represent barriers to education (Clerk, 2012;

Kasworm, 2012; Pew, 2007). It is important, therefore, that educators communicate to adult

learners the impact, method, and implementation of learning. It is also important that

educators understand that adult learners have different learning styles and preferences and

learners are ready to move on to the next learning experience once learning is internalized

claimed Clerk.

Hughes and Berry (2011) noted that instructors are encouraged to understand that adult

learners have been recognized as being intellectual and technological. Therefore, adult

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learners should be provided opportunities to be involved in making decisions for their own

learning methods. They should also be provided with opportunities for information collection

rather than being hand-fed information. If this collaboration is initiated early in the process,

adult students appreciate having control of their own learning and will demonstrate the value

of education. Educators are also encouraged to consider collaborating with students when

developing courses maintained the researchers.

Adult learners tend to behave dependently when they are in a more structured educational

setting claimed Knowles (1984). This dependence may be because learners do not know how

to learn, they only know how to be taught. However, the main purpose of education is to

acquire the ability to inquire and to go on acquiring new knowledge throughout life.

Therefore, society must not think of learning as only something that takes place in an

institution. Education is something that is a part of life. Education is a prerequisite in this

evolving world (Knowles, 1976).

Clemente (2010) discovered that Knowles’ model of andragogy is compatible with

experiences of adult students in multi-generational community college classrooms in a

number of ways. Clemente found that the self-concept of adult learners moves over time

from that of dependency to self-directing. Furthermore, over time adult learners overcame

anxiety. They became more at ease with being students and interacting with their colleagues.

Adult students also took responsibility for managing their coursework. Into the bargain,

previous experiences of adult learners provide rich resources for discussions and learning in

the classroom suggested Clemente.

In a study conducted on web-based distance education (WBDE) for adult learners, Zhang

(2009) claimed that most distance education students are adult learners. The researcher also

claimed that learning is more meaningful if both the educator and the learner shared the

responsibility for the design of learning goals and objectives, interacted with other members

of the class, promoted reflection on experiences, related new examples that made sense to the

learner, maintained self-directed learning, and evaluated learning. This shared responsibility

is both an opportunity and challenge for WBDE according to Zhang.

In consideration of computer learning, Knight (1999) found that learning and confidence

increase when adult learners are provided opportunities for hands-on computer learning.

Allowing students to maintain control of the mouse and the computer keyboard also increased

learning outcomes. Therefore, it is important that computer programs and manuals be easy to

work with and easy to understand. This ease provides opportunities for self-paced

independent learning. Learning is often impacted by the education level and occupation of

adult learners maintained Knight. Instructors are encouraged, as a result, to consider the

needs of the student when assessing the classes and designing the curriculum.

Research has suggested that Knowles’ assumptions of andragogy are compatible with blended

learning tenets (Korr, Derwin, Greene, & Sokoloff, 2012). Blended courses are defined as

“those that deliver course material in face-to-face and online formats and that allow students

to collaborate with instructors and peers in these different settings" (Caruth & Caruth, 2012,

para. 5). Korr et al. (2012) claimed that blended learning and andragogy correspond

according to the following: learners compare information to past experiences to establish new

information, learners consider busy work as offensive, learners separate new learning from

their everyday lives, learners anticipate individualized feedback from educators as opposed to

just receiving a grade, and learners are inspired by relevant problem-solving activities.

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Students have more time to compare new information and past experiences than they do in

traditional face-to-face classroom settings due to the flexibility of time constraints of blended

courses. Interactive online assignments tend to reduce the feelings of being assigned busy

work activities. Additionally, collaboration with peers from locations outside the classroom

minimizes the sense students often feel of separation in blended classes. It is important that

continuous feedback is provided students through electronic means asserted Korr et al.

(2012).

Instructors affect learning outcomes (Knight, 1999). Therefore, providing a supportive

environment is critical for learning success of adult learners. An environment that lacks

support or offers negative responses impedes learning. On the other hand, positive responses

encourage learning. Granting opportunities to ask questions and make mistakes free from

criticism and time-constraints encourages self-directed learning. Offering adult students the

time to work through problems also results in learning. Hence, instructors can enhance

learning by being available for questions and providing answers free of disapproval avowed

Knight.

Educators of adult learners are encouraged to support organizational learning in their

respective institutions. They are also encouraged to initiate communication with colleagues on

teaching and learning models by discussing pedagogical and andragogical tenets and sharing

teaching experiences. Unfortunately, instructors frequently use a mixture of learning theory

and practice and they may not even be conscious of what theory or model of learning they

implement in the classroom. Rather, their instructional efforts are based on their individual

internal concept of what is appropriate without knowing whether learning theory or research

supports their instructional methods practiced in the classroom suggested Minter (2011).

Adult educators are encouraged to work with adult learners to offer choices and opportunities.

Educators are advised to remember that the majority of students encounter at least one

educational barrier in their lifetimes. As a result, educators are also advised to consider all

potential complexities of adult learners (Finn, 2011; Ritt, 2008). Educators are forewarned to

bear in mind that many adult learners are more likely to leave educational institutions without

earning a college degree due to these additional barriers (Kasworm, 2012; Tannehill, 2009).

Individuals tend to form impressions of new experiences that may last a lifetime. These

impressions can include any form of adult learning or education indicated Finn (2011). The

main barrier for adult learners returning to school is often the coordination of responsibilities

(work, family, school, care receivers, volunteer organizations, community, etc.). However,

adults who return to school are internally motivated to succeed maintained the researcher.

They understand the need to comply with employer requirements or improve their job skills.

They often want opportunities to make positive impacts (Anderson, 2007). Therefore,

considering the importance of providing an inviting environment will help offset the

challenges of educational barriers. Inviting learning environments encourage adults to

continue learning opportunities. Inviting environments help to overcome barriers to further

education (Finn, 2011; Kasworm, 2012).

Nontraditional, adult learners frequently have needs that traditional students do not have;

consequently, they require different student services. University orientation programs

commonly are not designed with older adult students in mind maintained Tatum (2010).

These nontraditional students generally have more complex lives than do the traditional

students. For example, older students are often responsible to and for families, employers,

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care receivers, school, community, volunteer organizations, etc. (Kasworm, 2012; Tatum).

Adult learners also have experience with families, employment, and the military which can be

valuable to younger students when shared. What is more, these adult students can be a rich

resource for traditional younger students. Administrators should take advantage of the

knowledge and experiences of nontraditional students in the classrooms. Mentoring

relationships should be established to benefit traditional and nontraditional older students

mutually. Adult students can and should be encouraged to act as mentors or role models for

traditional younger students claimed Tatum.

University administrators are advised to design programs and services with nontraditional

older students in mind recommended Tatum (2010). Orientation programs, for example,

should be designed at convenient times and locations for older students. Adult learners

should also be assigned advisors who are familiar with the needs of older students.

Consideration of the time constraints of the older students is ultimately important. This

growing diverse student body has had an impact on the services and programs once provided

exclusively to traditional students. Therefore, these services and programs should consider

the needs of diverse students.

Cretchley and Castle (2001) suggested that andragogy has had an influence on the values and

teaching philosophies of adult educators in a number of countries. For example, South Africa

applied the andragogical method to adult higher education thereby offering a measure of

empowerment for adult learners. According to the researchers, the andragogical method

offered an antidote to the domination of education in an undemocratic society. In other

words, adult learners need to direct the learning process because society does not have the

right to either socialize or re-socialize society according to Cretchley and Castle.

In a study that compared higher education in Germany, the United Kingdom, and Japan

(Yoshimoto, Inenaga, & Yamada, 2007), andragogy was considered learner-focused and was

aligned with the concept of teaching when compared to pedagogy, which is teacher-focused

and in-line with the idea of learning support. Often the andragogical method of teaching is

compared to "off-campus open learning" (p. 80). Historically, a traditional university

education was viewed as being for young and elite students. However, universal access

meant the inclusion of nontraditional students in the study body.

Andragogy should be empirically researched in higher education as it relates to evaluations of

educational outcomes averred Yoshimoto et al. (2007). This evaluation is gathering interest

in Japan where universities need to offer opportunities for older students. In Germany,

pedagogies should be developed because of university reforms maintained the researchers. In

the United Kingdom, adult learners are enrolling in classes on a part-time basis in new (non-

traditional) universities, as opposed to young full-time students who enroll in traditional

universities. The application of higher education in working life may be different in these two

universities. Germany, the United Kingdom, and Japan implemented a two-tiered approach

that considered that andragogical methods could also be more suitable for younger students

on occasion than just for adult learners, suggested Yoshimoto et al.

A Need for Further Research

Andragogy is not without its critics. Hartree (1984) critiqued Knowles’ assumptions

of andragogy based on a lack of clarity and a general ambiguity. Hartree stated that the

relationship between adult and child learners is unclear. Knowles assumptions are vague

maintained the researcher. She also claimed that andragogy is based on man’s “existence” (p.

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208), which explains the confusion over whether andragogy is about adult learning or about

teaching adults.

Knowles (1976) recognized the need for further research on andragogy. He suggested that an

attitude of “mutual inquiry” (p. 15) was needed to develop further the field of adult education

and this attitude of mutual inquiry is “pioneering” (p. 16). This pursuit of research on

andragogy requires a joint effort of patience and collaboration. Individuals who require “pat

answers, neat categories, and proved theories will be uncomfortable in the climate” (p. 16) of

andragogy and adult education in its current state maintained Knowles. Clearly, andragogy

requires honest empirical research before some of the issues presented in Hartree’s critique

can be resolved.

Assessment of adult learners has posed an additional challenge for educators who attempt to

practice andragogy by becoming more of a “guide on the side” rather than a “sage on the

stage” in the classroom. This role of facilitator is hindered when it comes to grading and

evaluating adult students. Final evaluations are often determined by the educator’s criteria

claimed Beaman (1998). These grading criteria include multiple choice exams, short answer

exams, and projects graded by the instructor. Grading undermines previous efforts for student

empowerment.

Adult learners expect and need assessments for feedback, motivation, and evaluation

purposes. Evaluations and grading are complex and an important part of the communication

process between educators and learners. Effective assessments can lead to learning

experiences that are more meaningful maintained Beaman (1998). Alternative options to

traditional evaluation approaches include peer evaluations, self-assessments, praiseworthy

grading (pointing out successes rather than failures), and checklists for quality (measurements

of the quality of an idea). Praiseworthy grading and checklists for quality provide instructor

input in a more facilitative manner than with traditional grading approaches. It is important to

consider who does the grading and how the grading is accomplished. According to the

literature, adult learners need to be involved in these assessments; therefore, traditional

grading methods need to change. Regardless, educators should consider self-diagnosis with

input from the educator and peers in the evaluation process asserted Hadley (1975).

Knowles et al. (2011) suggested that the main reason strong empirical research on andragogy

does not exist is that there has not been a psychometrically valid instrument available to

measure the constructs of andragogy (Holton, Wilson, & Bates, 2009). While a number of

attempts to develop such an instrument do exist, most attempts have not succeeded for an

assortment of reasons. Knowles developed one such instrument, for example, that had not

been validated.

The development of the Andragogical Practices Inventory (API) by Suanmali (1981) that

successfully measured andragogical assumptions is very significant. The API design and

accessibility for empirical research in the future is an important development for the

discipline of andragogy and adult education. Holton et al. (2009) proposed that further

research involving instruments to test the principles of andragogy is needed to ascertain

whether combining the modification and orientation to learning assumptions is justified and

presents opportunities for future research. Henschke developed and validated the Instructor

Perspective Inventory (IPI). Of note, the IPI has been validated in four other studies. The IPI

was modified from a 4-point to a 5-point Likert Scale, which resulted in the Modified

Instructor Perspective Inventory (MIPI). The MIPI has been used as a research instrument in

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a number of doctoral dissertations and continues to be used (J. Henschke, personal

communication, May 31, 2012).

In summary, the purposes and methods of adult learning will continue to be debated and, as

this occurs, advances are likely to take place in the future research and practice in andragogy

(Knowles et al., 2011). A review of the literature revealed the following major points:

 There has been a substantial increase of adult students enrolled in college and university classes (Altbach et al., 2005; Caruth, 2013; Finn, 2011; Harper & Ross,

2011; Knowles, 1984; Marschall & Davis, 2012; Merriam et al., 2007; NCES, n.d.a).

 Andragogy is not being used in the higher education classrooms (Beder & Darkenwald, 1982; Brookfield, 2006; Caruth, 2013; Gorham, 1985; Hadley, 1975;

Harper & Ross, 2011; J. Henschke, February 2, 2012; Knowles, 1968; Knowles, 1976;

Pew, 2007; Rose, 2000).

 Adults should be taught andragogically (Beaman, 1998; Caruth, 2013; Chan, 2010; Clemente, 2010; Clerk, 2012; Forrest & Peterson, 2006; Hadley, 1975; Hughes &

Berry, 2011; Kiener, 2010; Knight, 1999; Knowles et al., 2011; Loeng, 2013; Martell,

2011; Tatum, 2010; Taylor, 2010; Yow, 2010; Zhang, 2009).

 Colleges and universities need to prepare to teach adult students andragogically (Anderson, 2007; Beaman, 1998; Caruth, 2013; Chan, 2010; Clerk, 2012; Finn, 2011;

Hadley, 1975; Hughes & Berry, 2011; Minter, 2011: Kiener, 2010; Knight, 1999; Ritt,

2008; Tannehill, 2009; Tatum, 2010; Taylor & Kroth, 2009; Yow, 2010).

 Higher education is not doing the job needed to teach adult learners effectively (Brookfield, 2006; Caruth, 2013; Harper & Ross, 2011; Knowles, 1968; Rose, 2000).

Implications

The availability of instruments to measure the constructs of andragogy in empirical

research will strengthen the foundation of andragogy. Predictive research can be completed

to study the effect of andragogical practices on learning and student satisfaction outcomes. In

the past, andragogy has experienced a lack of empirical tests. However, with validated and

reliable instruments available to measure the constructs of andragogy, clearer validation of

andragogy in higher education is promising (Holton et al., 2009).

Recommendations

It is recommended that further research on andragogy be completed to measure the constructs

of andragogy. Further research is needed involving instruments to test the principles of

andragogy to ascertain whether combining the modification and orientation to learning

assumptions is justified and presents opportunities for future research.

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