Sonnet Analyze

T H

E

D E

F E

N S E

O

F

P O

E SY

/

9 5 3

T h

e D

e fe

n se

o

f P

o e

sy

In

1 5

79 S

id n

ey f

o u

nd h

im se

lf th

e u

n w

ill in

g d

e d

i- c a

te e

of a

s m

a ll

b o

ok e

n ti tl ed

T h

e S

c h

o o

l o f A

b u

s e

. I ts

a u

th o

r, th

e p

la y w

ri g

h t-

tu rn

e d-

m o

ra lis

t S

te p

h en

G

o s s o

n, a

tt a

c k ed

p

o e

ts a

nd

a c to

rs fr

om

a n

a rr

o w

ly

P u

ri ta

n

p e

rs p

e c ti ve t

h at

c a

lle d

in to

q u

e s ti on

t he

m o

ra lit

y of

a ny

f ic

tio n

-m a

ki n

g . S

id n

ey m

ay

h a

ve s

h a

re d

in t

he a

u th

o r's

m ili

ta nt

P ro

te s ta

n ti s m,

b ut

h e

to ok

a v

e ry

d if fe

re n

t, m

o re

s y m

p a

th e

tic a

nd m

o re

c o

m p

lex v

ie w

o f

th e

p o

e t's

a rt .

H e

d id

n ot

s p e ci

fic a lly

a n

s w

er G

o s s o

n 's

p o

le m

ic ,

b ut

h e

m u

st h

a ve

h ad

i t

in m

in d

w h

en h

e c o

m p

o s e

d, p

e rh

a ps i

n

th e

s a

m e

ye a

r, a

m a jo

r p

ie ce

of

c ri

ti c al

p

ro se

th

at w

as p

u b

lis h

ed

a ft er

h

is

d e

a th

u n

d er

t w

o ti tl e

s, T

h e

D e

fe n

s e o

f P

o e

s y a

nd A

n A

p o

lo g

y f o

r P

o e

tr y . P

ro b

a b

ly w

ri tt

en i

n

1 5

79 t

h o

u gh

n ot

p u

b lis

h ed

u n

til 1

5 9

5, T

h e

D e

fe n

s e o

f P o

e s y i

s an

e lo

q u

e nt

a rg

u m

e nt

2.

B ro

a c h

e d.

4 .

E v a

s io

n, s tr

a ta

g e

m.

3.

O f

th e

th in

g I

d e

s ir

e.

fo r

th e

d ig

n ity

, so

ci al e

ff ic

a cy

, a

nd m

o ra

l va

lu e

of i

m a

g in

a ti ve

l it e

ra tu

re i

n ve

rs e

or

p ro

s e.

S id

n ey

r e

s p

o n

ds to

a n

c ie

nt c h

a rg

es a

g a

in st

p o

e tic

fic

tio n

s— ch

a rg

e s of

i rr

e- s p

o n

s ib

ili ty

a nd

u n

re a

lit y —

th at

h ad

b e

en r

e vi

ve d

in h

is o

w n

ti m

e m

o st s

tr e

n u

o u

s ly

by P

u ri

ta n

m o

ra lis

ts. I

n a

g ra

ce fu

l, if s

tr ik

in g

ly p

a ra

d o

x ic

a l, rh

e to

ri c al

p e

rf o

rm a

n c e,

th e

D e

fe n

se a

rg u

es b

o th

th

at

th e

p o

e t,

lib e

ra te d

fr o m

th

e w

o rl

d, is

f re

e to

ra

n ge

"w

it h

in t

he z

o d

ia c

of h

is o

w n

w it "

a nd

t h

at p

o e

try a

ct iv

e ly i

n te

rv e

n es i

n th

e w

o rl d

a

nd t

ra n

s fo

rm s

it f

o r

th e

b e

tt e

r. A

ft e r

a sl

yl y

s e

lf -d

e p

re c a

ti ng

in tr

o d

u c ti o

n, S

id n

ey

p o

in ts

o ut

t he

a n

ti q

u ity

o f

p o

e tr

y, i

ts p

re s ti ge

i n

th e

b ib

lic al

a nd

c la

s s ic

al w

o rl

d s,

a nd

it

s u

n iv

e rs

a lit

y; a

ls o,

h e

c it es

t he

n a

m es

g iv

en t

o p

o e

ts —

v a

te s,

or "

p ro

p h

e t,"

b y

th e

R

o m

a ns

a nd

p o

ie te

s, or

" m

a k e

r," b

y th

e G

re e

k s —

as e

v id

e n

ce o

f th

e ir

a n

c ie

nt d

ig n

ity .

B ut

h e

b a

s es h

is d

e fe

n se e

s s e

n ti a

lly on

t he

s p

e c ial

s ta

tu s

of t

he p

o e

tic i

m a

g in

a ti o

n. W

h il e

a ll

a rt

s, f

ro m

a s tr

o n

o my

t o

m u

s ic

to m

e d

ic in

e, d

e p

e nd

u lt im

a te

ly o

n n

a tu

re a

s th

e ir

o b

je c t,

p o

e tr

y, h

e c la

im s, i

s u

n iq

u e

ly fr

e e:

" O

n ly

t he

p o

e t,

d is

d a

in ing

t o

be t

ie d

to

a ny

s u

ch s

u b

je c ti o

n, lif

te d

up w

it h

th e

vi g or

o f

h is

o w

n in

v e

n ti o

n, d

o th

g ro

w i

n

e ff e ct

a n

o th

er n

a tu

re ."

T h

is f

re e

d o

m,

S id

n ey

a rg

u e

s, e

n a

b les

t he

p o

et to

p re

s e

nt v ir

tu es

a nd

v ic

es i

n a

liv

e lie

r a

nd m

o re

a ff

e ct

in g

w ay

t h

an n

a tu

re d

o e

s, te

a c h

in g,

d e

lig h

ti n

g, a

nd m

o vi

ng

th e

re a

d er

at t

he s

a m e

ti m

e. T

he p

o et

i s

s u

p e

ri or t

o b

o th

t h e

p h

ilo s o

p h

er a

nd th

e

h is

to ri

a n, b

e c a

u se

he i

s m

o re

c o

n c re

te th

an th

e o

ne a

nd m

o re

u n

iv e

rs al

th an

th

e

o th

e r.

T h e

D e

fe n

se a

ls o

re fu

te s

P la

to 's

c h

a rg

e th

at p

o e

ts a

re l

ia rs

b y

a rg

u in g

th at

th

e p

o et

" n

o th

in g

a ff ir m

s, a

nd t

h e

re fo

re n

e ve

r lie

th ,"

a nd

i t

d e

n ie s

as w

e ll

th e

P la

to n

ic cl

a im

t h

at p

o e

try a

ro u

s es

b a

se d

e s ir

e s.

T ra

g e

d y,

fo r

e x a

m p

le, "

o p

e n

e th

th e

g re

a te

st w

o u

n d

s ,"

in S

id n

e y's

a c c o

u n

t, "a

nd s

h o

w e

th fo

rt h

th e

u lc

e rs t

h at

a re

c o

ve re d

w it h

ti s s u

e ,"

th e

re by

m a

k in

g "k

in g s

fe ar

t o

be t

y ra

n ts

." S

u rv

e yi

ng t

h e

E n

g lis

h lit

e ra

ry s

c e

ne

of h

is o

w n

c e

n tu

ry ,

S id

n ey

f in

d s

lit tl

e to

p ra

ise e

xc e

pt fo

r S

u rr

e y 's

ly ri

cs ,

th e

m o

ra l-

iz in

g n

a rr

a ti v es

of

A M

ir ro

r fo

r M

a g

is tr

a te

s, a

nd

S p

e n

s e

r's S

h e

p h

e a

rd e

s C

a le

n d

e r;

th

e d

ra m

a he

f a

u lts

f o r

"m in

g lin

g ki

n gs

a nd

c lo

w n

s" a

nd f

o r

u n

re a

lis tic

d

is to

rt io

ns

of t

im e

a nd

s p

a c e.

(T he

g re

a t,

sp ra

w lin

g p la

ys o

f M

a rl

o w

e a

nd S

h a

k e

s p

e a

re, p la

ys

th at

tr

iu m

p h

a n

tly vi

o la

te d

m a

ny o

f S

id n

e y's

c h

e ri

s h

ed p

ri n

c ip

le s,

la y

ju st

a

h e

a d

.) T

h e

D e

fe n

se e

n ds

w

it h

a m

o ck

c o

n ju

ra ti on

a

nd a

p la

yf ul

c u

rs e,

re m

in d

e rs

of th

e

m a

g ic

al p

o w

er o

f p

o e

tr y, a

p o

w er

t h

at l

u rk

s b

e n

e a

th b

o th

S id

n e

y's i

d e

a lis

m a

nd h

is

d id

a c ti c is

m .

F ro

m T

h e

D e

fe n

se of

P

o e

sy

[T H

E

L E

S S

O NS

O

F

H O

R S

E M

A N

S H

IP ]

W h

en th

e ri

g h t

v ir

tu o

us E

d w

a rd

W o

tt on

a nd

I w

e re

a t

th e

E m

p e

ro r's

c

o u

rt to

g e

th e

r,1 w

e g

a ve

o u

rs e

lv es

to

l e

a rn

h

o rs

e m

a n

s h

ip of

J o

hn

P ie

tr o

P u

g li

a n

o,

o n e

th at

w it

h g

re at

c o

m m

e n

d a

ti on

h ad

t h e

p la

ce o

f an

e

s q

u ir

e2 i

n h

is s ta

b le .

A n

d h

e, a

c c

o rd

in g

to t

h e

fe rt

il e

n e

ss

of t

h e

It a

li a n

w it

, d

id n

ot o

n ly

a ff

o rd

u s

th e

d e

m o

n s

tr a

ti on

of h

is p

ra c

ti ce

b

ut

s o

u g

ht

to e

n ri

ch

o ur

m

in ds

w

it h

th e

c

o n

te m

p la

ti o

ns th

e re

in

w h

ic h

h e

th o

u g

ht

m o

st

p re

c io

u s.

B u t

w it

h n

o ne

I

re m

e m

b er

m in

e e

a rs w

e re

a t

a ny

t im

e m

o re

l o

a d

e n,

th an

w h

en (

e it

h er

a n

g e

re d

w

it h

s lo

w p

a y

m e

n t,

o r

m o

v ed

w

it h

o ur

le

a rn

e r-

li ke

a

d m

ir a

ti o

n)

h e

e x e

rc is

ed

h is

s p

e e

ch i

n th

e p

ra is

e of

h is

f a

c u

lt y .3

H e

s a

id s

o ld

ie rs w

e re

t h e

n o

b le

st e

s ta

te

of

m a

n k

in d,

a

nd

h o

rs e

m en

th

e n

o b

le st

of

s o

ld ie

rs .

H e

s a

id

th ey

w

e re

th

e

m a

s te

rs of

w ar

a nd

o rn

a m

e n

ts of

p e

a c

e, s p

e e

dy g

o e

rs a

nd s

tr o

ng a

b id

e rs ,

tr i-

u m

p h

e rs

b o

th

in

c a

m ps

a

nd

c o

u rt

s.

N a

y,

to

so u

n b

e li e

v ed

a

p o

in t

h e

p ro

-

1.

S id

n ey

a nd

E

d w

a rd

W o

tt on

( 1

5 4

8 -1

6 2

6 ),

an

E n

g lis

h c o

u rt

ie r

a nd

d

ip lo

m a

t, b

e c

a me

g

o od

fr

ie n

ds

at

th e

c o

u rt

of

M a

x im

ili a

n II

(t

h e

H o

ly

R o

m an

E m

p e

ro r)

in V

ie n

na i

n 1

5 7

4 —

7 5.

2.

E q

u e

rr y,

an o

ff ic

er i

n c h

a rg

e of

t h e

h o

rs es

a nd

s ta

b les

o f

a n

o b

le h

o u

s e.

3.

F ie

ld o

f le

a rn

in g.

c e

e d

e d,

as t

h at

n o

e a

rt h

ly t

h in

g b

re d

s u

ch w

o n

d er

t o

a p

ri n

ce a

s to

b e

a g

o od

h

o rs

e m

a n.

S k ill

of

g

o v

e rn

m e

nt w

as b

ut

a p

e d

a n

te ri

a4 in

c

o m

p a

ri s

o n.

T h

en

w o

u ld

h e

a dd

c e

rt a

in p

ra is

e s,

by t

e ll in

g w

h at

a

p e

e rl

e ss

b e

a st

th e

h o

rs e

w a

s,

th e

o n

ly s

e rv

ic e

a b

le c

o u

rt ie

r w

it h

o ut

fla

tt e

ry ,

th e

b e

a st

of m

o st

b e

a u

ty ,

fa it

h -

fu ln

e s s,

c o

u ra

g e,

a nd

s u

ch m

o re

, th

at i

f I

h ad

n ot

b e

en a

p ie

ce o

f a

lo g

ic ia

n5

b e

fo re

I

c a

m e

to

h im

I

th in

k h e

w o

u ld

h

a ve

p

e rs

u a

d ed

m e

to h

a ve

w

is h

ed

m y s e

lf a

h o

rs e

.6 B

u t

th us

m

u ch

at

l e

a st w

it h

h is

n o

fe w

w o

rd s

h e

d ra

ve

in to

m

e,

th at

s e

lf -l

o ve

is

b

e tt

er

th an

a

ny

g il d

in g7

to

m

a ke

th

at

s e

em

g o

rg e

o us

w

h e

re in

o u

rs e

lv es

b e

p a

rt ie

s. W

h e

re in

, if

P u

g li a

n o

's s tr

o ng

a ff

e c ti

on a

nd w

e ak

a

rg u

m e

n ts

w il

l n

ot s

a ti s fy y

o u,

I w

il l

g iv

e y o u

a n

e a

re r

e x a

m p

le of

m y s e

lf, w

h o

(I

k n

ow n

ot by

w h

at

m is

c h

a n

c e)

in th

e se

m

y n

ot

o ld

y e

a rs a

nd

id le

st

ti m

es

h a

v in

g s li p

p ed

i n

to t

h e

ti tl

e of

a p

o e

t, am

p ro

v o

k ed

t o

s ay

s o

m e

th ing

u n

to y

o u

in

th

e d

e fe

n se

of

th

at

m y

u n

e le

c ted

v o

c a

ti o

n,

w h

ic h

if I

h a

n d

le w

it h

m o

re

g o

od w

il l

th an

g o

od r

e a

s o

n s,

b e

ar w

it h

m e,

s in

ce t

h e

s c h

o la r

is t

o b e

p a

rd o

n ed

th

at f

o ll o

w e

th th

e s te

ps o

f h

is m

a s

te r.8

A n

d y et

I m

u st

s ay

t h

a t,

as I

h a

ve j

u st

c

a u

se t

o m

a ke

a p

it if

u l

d e

fe n

se of

p o

or p

o e

tr y, w

h ic

h fr

o m

a

lm o

st t

h e

h ig

h e

st e

s ti

m a

ti on

of

l e

a rn

in g

is f

a ll en

to

b e

th e

la u

g h

in g

s to

ck o

f c

h il

d re

n, so

h a

ve I

n

e ed

to

b

ri n g

s o

m e

m o

re

a v a

il a

b le9

p

ro o

fs ;

s in

ce

th e

fo rm

er

is by

n o

m an

b

a rr

ed

of

h is

d

e s e

rv ed

c re

d it,

th

e s ill

y 1

la tt

er

h a

th

h ad

e

v en

th

e n

a m

es

of

p h

il o

s o

p h

e rs

u s

ed

to t

h e

d e

fa c in

g of

i t,

w it

h g

re at

d a

n g

er of

c iv

il w

ar

a m

o ng

th

e M

u s

e s.

* *

*

[T H

E

P O

E T,

P

O E

T R

Y]

* *

* S

in ce

th

e a

u th

o rs

of

m o

st

of

o ur

s

c ie

n c

e s2

w e

re

th e

R o

m a

n s,

a nd

b

e fo

re

th em

th

e G

re e

k s,

le t

u s

a li tt

le s

ta nd

u

p on

th

e ir

a u

th o

ri ti

e s,

b ut

e

v en

so

f ar

a s

to s

ee w

h at

n a

m es

t h

ey h

a ve

g iv

en u

n to

t h

is n

ow s

c o

rn ed

s k ill

.3

A m

o ng

t h e

R o

m a

ns a

p o

et w

as c

a ll ed

v a

te s , w

h ic

h is

a s

m u

ch as

a d

iv in

e r,

fo re

s e

e r,

or p

ro p

h e

t, as

b y

h is

c o

n jo

in ed

w

o rd

s v a

ti c in

iu m

a

nd v

a ti c in

a ri4

is

m

a n

if e

s t:

so h

e a

v e

n ly

a ti

tl e

d id

t h

at e

x c e

ll e

nt p

e o

p le

b e

s to

w u

p on

t h

is h

e a

rt- ra

v is

h in

g k

n o

w le

d g

e. A

n d

so f

ar w

e re

t h

ey c

a rr

ie d

in to

t h e

a d

m ir

a ti

on th

e re

o f,

th at

th

ey t

h o

u g

ht in

t h e

c h

a n

c e

a b

le h

it ti

n g

u p

on a

ny s

u ch

v e

rs es

g re

at

fo re

- to

k e

ns of

t h

e ir

fo ll o

w in

g fo

rt u

n es

w

e re

p la

c e

d. W

h e

re u

p on

g

re w

t h e

w o

rd o

f S

o rt

e s

V ir g

ili a

n a

e ,5

w h

en by

s u

d d

en

o p

e n

in g

V ir

g il'

s b

o ok

th

ey l

ig h

te d

u p

on

a ny

v e

rs e

of h

is m

a k

in g,

w h

e re

of th

e h

is to

ri es

of

t h e

e m

p e

ro rs'

l iv

e s

a re

fu

ll :

as o

f A

lb in

u s

,6 th

e g

o v e

rn or

o f

o ur

i s la

n d,

w h o

in h

is c

h il

d h

o od

m et

w it

h th

is

v e

rs e

A rm

a a

m e

ns c

a p

io n

e c

s at

r a

ti o

n is i

n a

rr n

is 7

a nd

i n

h is

a ge

p e

rf o

rm ed

it

. W

h ic

h, a

lt h

o u

gh it w

e re

a v

e ry

v a

in a

nd

g o

d le

ss

s u

p e

rs ti

ti o

n, as

a ls

o it w

as t

o th

in k

s p

ir its

w e

re c

o m

m a

n d

ed b

y s

u ch

v e

rs e

s—

w h

e re

u p

on th

is w

o rd

c h

a rm

s, d

e ri

v ed

o f

c a

rm in

a ,8

c o

m e

th —

so y

et s

e rv

e th

it

4 .

P e

d a

n tr

y, n

a rr

ow a

nd

o v e

rly d

e ta

il ed

k n

o w

l- e

d g

e, of

u se

o n

ly t

o s c h

o o

lm a

s te

rs. "P

ri n

c e

": ru

le r.

5.

I. e

., if I

h ad

n ot

h ad

s o

m e

sk ill

i n

lo g

ic .

6 .

W it

h an

a

ll u

s io

n to

t h e

ro ot

m e

a n

in g

of S

id -

n e

y 's

g iv

en

n a

m e,

fr o m

G

re ek

p

h il

+

h ip

p o

s,

"h o

rs e

-l o

v e

r."

7 .

W it

h a

p un

o n

g e

ld in

g .

8 .

I. e

., P

u g

li a

n o.

9 .

E ff

e ct

iv e.

" P

it if u

l" :

c o

m p

a s s io

n a

te. 1.

W

e a

k, p

o o

r. 2.

B

ra n

c h

es o

f k n

o w

le d

g e.

3.

I. e

., p

o e

tr y.

4 .

T o

p ro

p h

e s y.

"V a

te s"

: p

o e

t- p

ro p

h e

t. "V

a tic

in -

iu m

":

a p

ro p

h e

c y.

5.

C a

s ti

ng o

f lo

ts o

ut o

f V

ir g

il ;

i. e

., a

c c e

p ti

ng a

s p

ro p

h e

cy a

l in

e of

V ir

g il

c h

o s en

b y

ra n

d om

o p

e n-

in g

of t

h e

A e

n e

id .

6 .

R o

m an

g o

v e

rn or o

f B

ri ta

in ,

d e

c la

re d

e m

p e

ro r

by h

is t

ro o

ps i

n 1

93 c

.E .

b ut

d e

fe a

ted f

o ur

y e

a rs

la

te r.

7 .

F ra

n ti

c, I

t a

ke u

p a

rm s,

y et

t h

e re

i s

li tt

le p

u r-

p o

se i

n a

rm s

(A e

n e

id 2

.3 1

4 ).

8 .

S o

n g

s, p

o e

m s.

9 5 4

/ S

IR

P H

IL IP

S

ID N

E Y

T

H E

D

E F

E N

S E

O

F

P O

E SY

/

9 5 5

9 5 6

/ S

IR

P H

IL IP

S

ID N

E Y

T

H E

D

E F

E N

S E

O

F

P O

E SY

/

9 5 7

to

s h

ow

th e

g re

at

re v

e re

n ce

th o

se

w it

s w

e re

h

e ld

in

; a

nd

a lt

o g

e th

er n

ot w

it h

o ut

g

ro u

n d,

s in

ce b

o th

th

e o

ra c le

s of

D e

lp h

os a

nd

S ib

y lla

's p

ro p

h e-

c ie

s9 w

e re

w

h o

lly

d e

li v e

re d

in v e

rs e

s. F

or

th at

s

a m

e e

x q

u is

ite

o b

s e

rv in g

of

n u

m b

er

a nd

m

e a

s u

re in

th

e w

o rd

s,

a nd

th

at

h ig

h fly

in g

li b

e rt

y of

c o

n c e

it1

p ro

p er

t o

th e

p o

e t,

d id

s e

em t

o h

a ve

s o

m e

d iv

in e

fo rc

e in

it

. A

n d

m ay

n ot

I

p re

s u

me a

li tt

le f

u rt

h e

r, to

s h

ow t

h e

re a

s o

n a

b le

n e

ss of

th

is

w o

rd v

a te

s, a

nd s

ay t

h at

t h e

h o

ly D

a v id

's2 P

s a

lm s

a re

a d

iv in

e p

o e

m ?

If I

d o,

I

s h

a ll

n ot

d o

it w

it h

o ut

th

e te

s ti

m o

ny o

f g

re at

l e

a rn

ed m

e n,

b o

th a

n c

ie nt

a nd

m

o d

e rn

. B

u t

e v en

th

e n

a m

e of

P s

a lm

s w

il l

s p

e ak

f o r

m e,

w h

ic h

b e

in g

in te

r- p

re te

d, i

s n

o th

in g

b ut

s o

n g

s; th

en t

h at

i t

is f

u ll y

w ri

tt e n

in m

e te

r, as

a ll

le a

rn ed

h

e b

ri c

ia ns

a

g re

e, a

lt h

o u

gh

th e

ru le

s b e

n ot

y et

f u

ll y

fo u

n d

;3 la

s tly

a nd

p

ri n -

c ip

a lly

, h

is h

a n

d li

ng h

is p

ro p

h e

c y,

w h

ic h

is m

e re

ly 4

p o

e ti

c a

l: fo

r w

h at

e

ls e

is

th e

a w

a k in

g h

is m

u s

ic al i

n s

tr u

m e

n ts,

t h e

o ft

en a

nd f

re e

c h

a n

g in g

of p

e rs

o n

s, h

is n

o ta

b le

p ro

so p

o p

o e

ia s,5

w h

en h e

m a

k e

th y

o u,

a s

it w

e re

, s ee

G od

c

o m

in g

in

H

is

m a

je s ty,

h

is

te ll in

g of

th

e b

e a

s ts'

j o

y fu

ln e

ss

a nd

h

il ls

le

a p

in g, b

ut

a

h e

a v e

n ly

p o

e s y,

w h

e re

in a

lm o

s t6

h e

s h

o w

e th

h im

s e

lf a

p a

s s

io n

a te

lo v er

o f

th at

u

n s

p e

a k

a b

le a

nd e

v e

rl a

s ti

ng b

e a

u ty

to b

e s

e en

by

t h e

e y es

o f

th e

m in

d,

o n

ly

c le

a re

d by

f a

it h?

B u t

tr u

ly n

ow h

a v in

g n

a m

ed h

im ,

I fe

ar m

e I

s e

em t

o p

ro fa

ne

th at

h

o ly

n a

m e, a

p p

ly in

g it

t o

p o

e tr

y, w

h ic

h is

a m

o ng

u s

th ro

w n

d o

w n

to so

ri

d ic

u lo

us a

n e

s ti

m a

ti o

n. B

u t

th ey

t h

at w

it h

q u

ie t

ju d

g m

e n

ts w

il l

lo o k

a li tt

le

d e

e p

er in

to

it ,

s h

a ll

fin d

th e

e nd

a

nd

w o

rk in

g of

it

s u

ch

a s,

b e

in g

ri g

h tl y

a p

p li e

d, d

e s e

rv e

th n

ot t

o b e

s c o

u rg

ed o

ut o

f th

e C

h u

rc h

of G

o d.

B u t

n ow

le

t u s

s ee

h ow

t h e

G re

e ks

n

a m

ed it

, a

nd h

ow th

ey d

e e

m ed

of

it

. T

h e

G re

e ks

c a

ll ed

h im

a "

p o

e t,"

w h

ic h

n a

m e

h a

th ,

as t

h e

m o

st e

x c e

ll e

n t,

g o

ne

th ro

u gh

o

th er

la

n g

u a

g e

s. It

c

o m

e th

of th

is w

o rd

p

o ie

in ,

w h

ic h

is ,

to

m a

k e:

w

h e

re in

, I

k n

ow n

ot

w h

e th

er

by l

u ck

or

w is

d o

m ,

w e

E n

g li

s h

m en

h

a ve

m

et

w it

h th

e G

re e

ks i

n c a

ll in

g h

im a

m a

k e

r:7 w

h ic

h n

a m

e, h

ow h

ig h

a nd

in

c o

m -

p a

ra b

le a

ti tl

e it i

s, I

h ad

ra

th er

w

e re

k n

o w

n by

m a

rk in

g th

e s c o

pe of

o

th er

s c ie

n c es th

an b

y a

ny p

a rt

ia l8

a ll e

g a

ti o

n.

T h

e re

is

n o

a rt d

e li v e

re d

to m

a n

k in

d th

at h

a th

n ot

t h e

w o

rk s

of n

a tu

re

fo r

h is

p ri

n c

ip al

o b

je c t,

w it

h o

ut w

h ic

h th

e y9

c o

u ld

n ot

c o

n s is

t, a

nd o

n w

h ic

h th

ey

so d

e p

e n

d, as

t h

ey b

e c

o m e

a c

to rs a

nd p

la y e

rs ,

as i

t w

e re

, of

w h

at n

a tu

re w

il l

h a

ve s et

fo

rt h .

S o

d o

th

th e

a s

tr o

n o

m er

lo ok

u p

on

th e

s ta

rs ,

a n

d, by

t h

at

h e

s

e e

th ,

s et

d o

w n

w h

at o

rd er

n a

tu re

h

a th

ta

k en

th

e re

in .

S o

d o

th t

h e

g e

o m

e tr

i- c ia

n a

nd a

ri th

m e

ti c

ia n

in t

h e

ir d

iv e

rs e

s o

rts o

f q

u a

n ti

ti e

s. S

o d

o th

t h e

m u

s i-

c ia

ns

in

ti m

e te

ll y ou

w

h ic

h by

n

a tu

re

a g

re e

,1 w

h ic

h n

o t.

T h e

n a

tu ra

l p

h il

o s

o p

h er

th e

re on

h a

th h

is n

a m

e, a

nd t

h e

m o

ra l

p h

il o

s o

p h

er s

ta n

d e

th u

p o

n2

th e

n a

tu ra

l v ir

tu e

s, v ic

e s, o r

p a

s s io

ns

of m

a n;

a

nd

fo llo

w

n a

tu re

(s

a ith

h

e)

th e

re in

, a

nd t

h ou

s h

a lt

n ot

e rr

. T

h e

la w

y er

s a

ith w

h at

m en

h

a ve

d

e te

rm in

e d;

th e

h is

to ri

an w

h at

m en

h a

ve d

o n

e. T

h e

g ra

m m

a ri

an s

p e

a k

e th

o n

ly o

f th

e ru

le s

of s

p e

e c

h; a

nd th

e rh

e to

ri c

ia n

a nd

lo

g ic

ia n,

c

o n

s id

e ri

ng w

h at

in

n

a tu

re

w il l

9 .

T h e

P y th

ia (p

ri e

s te

s s e

s) at

D

e lp

hi i

n G

re e

ce

p ro

c la

im ed

A

p o

llo 's

o

ra c le

s. T

h e

S ib

y ls

w e

re

th o

u g

ht

to

b e

p ro

p h

e te

s s es

fr o m

th

e e

a s t.

T h e

C

u m

a e

an S

ib yl

d ir

e c te

d A

e n

e as

t o

th e

u n

d e

rw o

rld

a nd

b ro

u g

ht t

h e

fa m

o us

S ib

y lli

n e

B o

o ks

t o

R o

m e.

1.

Im

a g

in a

ti ve

c o

n c e

p ti

o n.

2 .

T h e

b ib

li c al

K in

g D

a v id

, c o

m m

o n

ly id

e n

ti fi ed

in

t h e

R e

n a

is s a

n ce as

a u

th or

o f

th e

B o

ok o

f P

s a

lm s

in i

ts e

n ti

re ty

. 3.

M

a ny

R

e n

a is

s a

n ce

s c h

o la

rs w

h o

k n

ew s o

m e

H

e b

re w

("

h e

b ri

c ia

n s ")

th o

u g

ht

th e

p s a

lm s

w e

re

w ri

tt e n

in

v e

rs e

fo rm

s a

p p

ro x im

a ti

ng c la

s s ic

al G

re ek

a nd

L a

ti n

m e

te rs .

4.

E n

ti re

ly .

5.

P e

rs o

n if

ic a

ti o

n s. "C

h a

n g

in g

of p

e rs

o n

s ":

s h

if ts

in

n a

rr a

ti ve

p e

rs p

e c ti

v e,

b e

tw e

en f

ir st

- a

nd t

h ir

d -

p e

rs on

e x p

re s s io

n s.

6 .

In d

e e

d.

7.

A

c o

m m

on

w o

rd

fo r

p o

e t

in

1 6

th -c

e n

tu ry

E n

g la

n d.

"M e

t w

it h

": a

g re

ed w

it h

. 8 .

B ia

s e

d. "M

a rk

in g

": n

o ti

n g.

9 .

T h e

s e

v e

ral a

rt s.

1.

W

h ic

h rh

y th

m s

a re

n a

tu ra

lly c

o n

s o

n a

n t.

2.

T a

k es

a s

s u

b je

ct m

a tt

e r.

"N a

tu ra

l p

h il o

s o

p h

e r":

s c ie

n ti

s t.

"T h

e re

o n

": i.

e .,

fr o m

n a

tu re

.

s o

o n

e st

p ro

ve a

nd p

e rs

u a

d e,

th e

re on

g

iv e

a rt

if ic

ia l

ru le

s, w

h ic

h s ti ll

a re

c o

m -

p a

s s ed

w it

h in

t h e

c ir

c le

o f

a q

u e

s ti

on a

c c

o rd

in g

to t

h e

p ro

p o

s ed

m a

tt e

r.3 T

h e

p

h y s ic

ia n

w e

ig h

e th

4 th

e n

a tu

re o

f m

a n

's b

o d

y, a

nd t

h e

n a

tu re

o f

th in

gs h

e lp

fu l

o r

h u

rt fu

l u

n to

i t.

A n

d th

e m

e ta

p h

y s

ic, t

h o

u gh

i t

b e

in t

h e

s e

c o

nd a

nd a

b s

tr a

ct n

o ti

o n

s, a

nd t

h e

re fo

re b

e c

o u

n te

d s

u p

e rn

a tu

ra l, y et

d o

th h

e in

d e

ed b

u il d

u p

on

th e

d e

p th

o f

n a

tu re

. O

n ly

t h e

p o

e t,

d is

d a

in in

g to

b e

ti e d

to a

ny s

u ch

s

u b

je c

ti o

n, lif

te d

u p

w it

h th

e v ig

or

of

h is

o

w n

in v

e n

ti o

n,

d o

th

g ro

w in

e

ff e

ct

a n

o th

er

n a

tu re

, in

m

a k

in g

th in

gs

e it

h er

b

e tt

er

th an

n

a tu

re

b ri

n g

e th

fo

rt h ,

o r,

q u

it e

a

n e

w, f

o rm

s s

u ch

a s

n e

v er

w e

re i

n n

a tu

re ,

as t

h e

H e

ro e

s, D

e m

ig o

d s,

C y c lo

p s,

C h

im e

ra s,

F u

ri e

s ,5

a nd

s

u ch

li k e

: so

a s

h e

g o

e th

h

a nd

in

h a

nd w

it h

n a

tu re

, n

ot e

n c

lo s

ed w

it h

in

th e

n a

rr ow

w a

rr a

nt

of h

er g

if ts

, b

ut

fr e

e ly

ra

n g

in g

o n

ly

w it

h in

th

e z o

d ia

c of

h is

o w

n w

it .6

N

a tu

re n

e v

er s

et f

o rt

h th

e e

a rth

in

s o

ri c h

ta

p e

s try

as

d

iv e

rs

p o

e ts

h a

ve

d o

n e;

n

e it

h er

w

it h

so p

le a

s a

nt ri

v e

rs ,

fr u

it fu

l tr

e e

s, s w

e e

t- s m

e ll ing

flo

w e

rs ,

n or

w

h a

ts o

e v

er e

ls e

m ay

m

a ke

th

e to

o m

u ch

lo

v ed

e a

rth m

o re

l o

v e

ly .

H er

w o

rl d

is b

ra z

e n,

th e

p o

e ts

o n

ly d

e li v er

a g

o ld

e n

.7

B u

t le

t th

o se

th

in gs

a

lo n

e, a

nd go

t o

m a

n —

fo r

w h

om as

th

e o

th er

th

in gs

a

re ,

so

it

s e

e m

e th

in

h im

h

er

u tt

e rm

o st

c u

n n

in g

is

e m

p lo

y e

d —

a nd

k n

ow

w h

e th

er

s he

h

a ve

b ro

u g

ht

fo rt

h so

t ru

e a

lo v er

a s

T h

e a

g e

n e

s, so

c o

n s

ta nt

a

fr ie

n d

as P

y la

d e

s, so

v a

li a

nt a

m an

a s

O rl

a n

d o,

s o

ri g

h t

a p

ri n

ce a

s X

e n

o p

h o

n 's

C y

ru s

,8 so

e

x c e

ll e

nt

a m

an

e v e

ry w

ay a

s V

ir g

il' s

A e

n e

a s.

N e

it h

er

le t

th is

b e

je

s ti

n g

ly c o

n c e

iv e

d, b

e c

a u

se th

e w

o rk

s of

th

e o

ne b e

e s s e

n ti

a l, th

e o

th er

in

im

it a

ti o

n o r

fic tio

n ,9

fo r

a ny

u n

d e

rs ta

n d

ing k

n o

w e

th t

h e

s k ill

o f

e a

ch

a rt

if ic

er

s ta

n d

e th

in t

h at

i d

e a

or f

o re

-c o

n c e

it1 of

t h e

w o

rk ,

a nd

n ot

i n

th e

w o

rk i

ts e

lf.

A n

d th

at t

h e

p o

et h

a th

t h

at i

d e

a is

m a

n if

e s t,

by d

e li v e

ri ng

t h

em f

o rt

h in

s

u ch

e

x c e

ll e

n cy

a s

h e

h ad

i m

a g

in ed

t h

e m

. W

h ic

h d

e li v e

ri ng

f o

rt h

a ls

o is

n ot

w h

o lly

im

a g

in a

ti v e, as

w e

a re

w o

n t2 to

s ay

b y

th em

th

at b

u il d

c a

s tl

es i

n th

e a

ir ;

b ut

so

f ar

s u

b s ta

n ti

a lly

i t

w o

rk e

th ,

n ot

o n

ly t

o m

a ke

a C

y ru

s, w

h ic

h h

ad b

e en

b

ut

a p

a rt

ic u

la r

e x c e

ll e

n cy

a s

n a

tu re

m ig

ht h

a ve

d o

n e,

b ut

t o

b e

s to

w a

C y ru

s u

p on

th

e w

o rl

d to

m a

ke m

a ny

C y

ru s

e s,

if t

h ey

w il

l le

a rn

a

ri g

ht w

h y

a nd

h

ow

th at

m

a k

er m

a de

h

im .

N e

it h

er

le t

it b e

d e

e m

ed

to o

s a

u cy

a

c o

m p

a ri

s on

to

b

a la

n ce

th

e h

ig h

e st

p o

in t

of m

a n

's w

it w

it h

th e

e ff

ic a

cy

of n

a tu

re ;

b ut

ra

th er

g

iv e

ri g

h t

h o

n or

to

th

e h

e a

v e

n ly

M a

k er

o f

th at

m a

k e

r, w

h o

h a

v in

g m

a de

m an

t o

H is

o w

n li k e

n e

s s,

s et

h im

b e

y o

nd a

nd o

v er

a ll

th e

w o

rk s

of t

h at

s e

c o

nd n

a tu

re :3

w h

ic h

in n

o th

in g

h

e s

h o

w e

th so

m u

ch

as i

n p

o e

tr y, w

h en

w it

h th

e fo

rc e

of a

d iv

in e

b re

a th

h e

b

ri n

g e

th th

in gs

f o

rt h

s u

rp a

s s ing

h er

d o

in g

s —

w ith

n o

s m

a ll

a rg

u m

e n

ts to

th

e

c re

d u

lo us

o f

th at

fir

st a

c c

u rs

ed f

a ll

of A

d a

m ,

s in

ce o

ur e

re c

te d

w it

m a

k e

th u s

k n

ow w

h at

p e

rf e

c ti

on

is ,

a nd

y et

o ur

i n

fe c te

d w

ill 4

k e

e p

e th

u s

fr o

m

re a

c h

in g

u

n to

i t.

B u t

th e

se a

rg u

m e

n ts

w il

l by

f ew

b e

u n

d e

rs to

o d,

a nd

b y

fe w

er g

ra n

te d.

3.

T h e

ru le

s of

th

o se

a

rt s

(" a

rt if ic

ia l

ru le

s ") a

re

a lw

a ys

l im

it e

d in

t h

e ir

a p

p li c a

ti on

t o

q u

e s ti

o ns

p e

r- ta

in in

g to

t h e

s u

b je

ct at

h a

n d.

4.

C

o n

s id

e rs.

5.

A

v e

n g

in g

d e

it ie

s w

h o

p u

n is

h c ri

m es

b o

th i n

th is

w

o rl

d a

nd

a ft

er

d e

a th

. "H

e ro

e s ":

in

th e

G re

ek

s e

n s e,

p a

rt h

u m

a n, p

a rt

d iv

in e.

" C

y c lo

p s ":

o n

e- e

ye d

g ia

n ts

(t h e

c o

rr e

ct p

lu ra

l is

"C

y c lo

p e

s ")

in

H o

m e

r's O

d ys

se y. "

C h

im e

ra s ":

fi re

-b re

a th

ing m

o n-

s te

rs w

it h

lio n

's h

e a

d, g

o a

t's b

o d

y, a

nd s

e rp

e n

t's

ta il.

6.

In

te ll e

c t.

7.

A r

e fe

re n

ce to

th

e c la

s s ic

al tr

a d

it io

n of

" T

h e

F

o ur

A

g es

o f

M a

n ,"

t h e

id ea

th

at th

e w

o rl

d h

as

d e

c li n

ed

fr o m

th

e fir

st

a nd

p

e rf

e ct G

o ld

en A

g e,

th

ro u

gh t

h e

S ilv

e r,

B ro

n z e, a

nd I

ro n

a g

e s.

"H e

r" :

N a

tu re

's.

8 .

C y ru

s th

e G

re at

o f

P e

rs ia,

e x e

m p

la ry

h e

ro o

f X

e n

o p

h o

n 's

p ro

se ro

m a

n c

e, th

e C

yr o

ya e

d ia

(4 th

c

e n

tu ry

B

.C .E

.); T

h e

a g

e n

e s, h

e ro

o f

H e

li o

d o

ru s 's

G re

ek

ro m

a n

c e,

A e

th io

p ic

a (3

rd

c e

n tu

ry C

.E .);

P

y la

d e

s, fr

ie nd

of

th

e G

re ek

h

e ro

O

re s te

s; O

rl a

n d

o, h

e ro

o f

A ri

o s to

's O

rl a

n d

o fu

ri o

so

(1 5

1 6

). 9 .

T h e

w o

rk s

of n

a tu

re a

re r

e al

( "e

s s e

n ti

a l"

); th

o se

of

t h e

p o

et a

re

fic tio

n .

1.

Im a

g in

a ti

ve p

la n,

c o

n c e

p ti

o n.

2 .

A c c u

s to

m e

d. "I

m a

g in

a ti

v e

": fa

n c if u

l. 3.

P

h y s ic

al n

a tu

re .

4 .

W il

l c o

rr u

p te

d in

t h e

F a

ll by

O ri

g in

al S

in . "

T h

e

c re

d u

lo u

s ":

th o

se

d is

p o

s ed

to

b

e lie

ve

(S id

n e

y 's

a rg

u m

e n

ts ).

9 5 8

/ S

IR

P H

IL IP

S

ID N

E Y

T

H E

D

E F

E N

S E

O

F

P O

E SY

/

9 5 9

T h

is m

u ch

(I

h o

p e)

w

il l

b e

g iv

en m

e, t

h at

th

e G

re e

ks w

it h

s o

m e

p ro

b a

b il ity

of

r e

a s

on g

a ve

h im

t h e

n a

m e

a b

o ve

a ll

n a

m es

o f

le a

rn in

g.

N o

w le

t u s

go t

o a

m o

re o

rd in

a ry

o p

e n

in g5

of

h

im ,

th at

th

e tr

u th

m

ay b e

th

e m

o re

p

a lp

a b

le: a

nd so

I h

o p

e, t

h o

u gh

w

e g

et n

ot so

u n

m a

tc h

ed

a p

ra is

e

as th

e e

ty m

o lo

gy of

h is

n

a m

es w

il l

g ra

n t,

y et

h is

v e

ry d

e s

c ri

p ti

o n,

w h

ic h

n o

m

an w

il l

d e

n y, s

h a

ll n

ot j

u s

tl y

b e

b a

rr ed

f ro

m a

p ri

n c

ip al

c

o m

m e

n d

a ti

o n.

P o

e sy

t h

e re

fo re is

a n

a rt o

f im

it a

ti o

n, f

o r

so A

ri s to

tl e

te rm

e th i

t in

t h e

w o

rd

m im

e si

s6 — th

a t

is t

o s a

y, a

r e

p re

s e

n ti

n g,

c o

u n

te rf

e it

in g,

o r

fig u

ri n

g fo

rt h

— to

s p

e ak

m e

ta p

h o

ri c

a ll

y, a

s p

e a

k ing

p ic

tu re

— w

ith t

h is

e n

d, t

o te

a ch

a nd

d e

li g

h t.7

[T H

R E

E

K IN

D S

O

F

P O

E T

S]

O f

th is

h

a ve

b

e en

th

re e

g e

n e

ra l

k in

d s.

T

h e

c h

ie f,

b o

th

in

a n

ti q

u ity

a

nd

e x c e

ll e

n c y,

w e

re t

h ey

t h

at d

id i

m it

a te

t h e

u n

c o

n c

e iv

a b

le e

x c e

ll e

n c ies

o f

G o

d.

S u

ch w

e re

D

a v id

i n

h is

P s

a lm

s; S

o lo

m on

i n

h is

S o

ng o

f S

o n

g s,

in h

is E

c c

le -

s ia

s te

s, a

nd P

ro v e

rb s;

M o

s es

a nd

D

e b

o ra

h in

t h

e ir

H y

m n

s; a

nd th

e w

ri te

r of

Jo

b:

w h

ic h,

b

e s id

e o

th e

r, th

e le

a rn

ed

E m

a n

u el

T re

m e

ll iu

s a

nd

F ra

n c

is c

us

J u

n iu

s8 d

o e

n ti

tl e

th e

p o

e ti

c al p

a rt

of t

h e

S c

ri p

tu re

. A

g a

in st

th

e se

n

o ne

w

il l

s p

e ak

t h

at h

a th

th

e H

o ly

G h

o st in

d ue

h

o ly

r e

v e

re n

c e.

(I n

th is

k in

d ,

th o

u gh

in

a f

u ll w

ro ng

d iv

in it

y ,

w e

re O

rp h

e u

s, A

m p

h io

n,

H o

m er

in

h is

H y

m n

s, a

nd

m a

ny o

th e

r, b

o th

G

re e

ks a

nd R

o m

a n

s .)

A n

d th

is p

o e

sy m

u st

b e

u s

ed b

y w

h o-

s o

e v er w

il l

fo llo

w S

t. J

a m

e s

's c

o u

n s

el in

s in

g in

g p

s a

lm s

w h

en t

h ey

a re

m e

rr y ,9

a nd

I k

n ow

i s

u s

ed w

it h

th e

fr u

it o

f c o

m fo

rt by

s o

m e,

w h

e n,

i n

s o

rr o

w fu

l p

a n

gs

of

th e

ir d

e a

th -b

ri n

g ing

s in

s,

th ey

fin

d

th e

c o

n s

o la

ti on

of

th

e n

e v e

r- le

a v ing

g

o o

d n

e s

s.

T h

e s e

c o

nd

k in

d is

of

th

em

th at

d

e al

w

it h

m a

tt e

rs p

h il

o s

o p

h ic

a l,

e it

h er

m

o ra

l, as

T

y rt

a e

u s,

P h

o c y li d

e s,

C a

to ,1

or

n a

tu ra

l, as

L

u c

re ti

us

a nd

V

ir g

il' s

G e

o rg

ic s;

or a

s tr

o n

o m

ic a

l, as

M a

n il

iu s

a nd

P o

n ta

n u

s; or

h is

to ri

c a

l, as

L u

c a

n :2

w h

ic h

w h o

m is

li k e,

t h e

fa u

lt is

i n

th e

ir ju

d g

m e

nt

q u

it e

o ut

of

t a

s te

, a

nd

n ot

in

t h e

s w

e et f

o od

of

s w

e e

tly u

tt e

re d

k n

o w

le d

g e.

B u t

b e

c a

u se

th is

s

e c

o nd

s o

rt is

w ra

p p

ed

w it

h in

th

e fo

ld

of th

e p

ro p

o s

ed

s u

b je

c t,

a nd

t a

k es

n ot

t h e

c o

u rs

e of

h is

o w

n in

v e

n ti

o n,

w h

e th

er t

h ey

p ro

p e

rly

b e

p o

e ts

o r

n o

le t

g ra

m m

a ri

a ns

d is

p u

te ,

a nd

go

to

th

e th

ir d ,

in d

e ed

ri

g h

t3

p o

e ts

, of

w h

om c

h ie

fly t

h is

q u

e s

ti on

a

ri s e

th :

b e

tw ix

t w

h om

a

nd t

h e

se

s e

c o

nd

is s

u ch

a k

in d

of d

if fe

re n

ce

as b

e tw

ix t

th e

m e

a n

e r4

s o

rt of

p a

in te

rs ,

w h o

c o

u n-

te rf

e it

o n

ly s

u ch

fa

c es

as

a

re

s et

b

e fo

re

th e

m ,

a nd

th

e m

o re

e

x c e

ll e

n t,

w h o

h

a v in

g n o

la w

b ut

w it

, b

e s

to w

t h

at i

n c o

lo rs

u p

on y

o u

w h

ic h

is

fit te

st

fo r

th e

e

ye t

o s e

e: a

s th

e c

o n

s ta

nt th

o u

gh l

a m

e n

ti ng

l o

o k

of L

u c

re ti

a, w

h en

s he

p u

n- is

h ed

in

h

e rs

e lf

a n

o th

e r's

fa

u lt

,5 w

h e

re in

h e

p a

in te

th

n ot

L

u c

re tia

w

h om

h e

n

e v er

s a

w, b

ut p

a in

te th th

e o

u tw

a rd

b e

a u

ty of

s u

ch a

v ir

tu e.

F or

t h

e se

th

ir d

6

5.

A n

a ly

s is

o r

e x p

la n

a ti

o n.

6.

P o

e ti c s

1 .2

. 7.

T

h e

p ri

m a

ry a

u th

o ri

ti es

f o r

th e

c o

m m

o n

p la

ce

n o

ti o

ns th

at a

p o

em is

a "

s p

e a

k ing

p ic

tu re

" a

nd

th at

t h e

e nd

o f

p o

e try

i s

"t o

te a

ch a

nd d

e li g

h t" a

re ,

re s p

e c ti

v e

ly, P

lu ta

rc h

(c a.

4 6

-c a.

1

20 C

.E .),

H

O W

to

S

tu d

y P

o e

tr y,

1 7

-1 8,

a nd

H o

ra ce

( 6

5 -8

B .C

.E .),

A

rt o

f P

o e

tr y,

3 4

3.

8.

T w

o s c h

o la

rs w

ho p

u b

li s h

ed a

P ro

te s

ta nt

L a

ti n

tr

a n

s la

ti on

o f

th e

B ib

le i

n 1

5 7

9. "

M o

s es

a nd

D e

b- o

ra h

in t

h e

ir H

y m

n s ":

s ee

E x o

d us

1 5

.1 -1

8, D

e u-

te ro

n o

m y

3 2

.1 -4

3; J

u d

g es

5 .1

-3 1.

9.

"I

s a

ny m

e rr

y? L

et

h im

s in

g p

s a

lm s" (J

a m

es

5 .1

3 ).

1.

T h e

R o

m an

M a

rc us

C a

to w

as t

h e

a u

th or

o f

D is

-

tic h

a d

e m

o ri b

u s,

an i

m m

e n

s e

ly p

o p

u la

r c o

ll e

c ti

o n,

in

v e

rs e

a nd

p ro

s e,

of m

o ra

l m

a x im

s. T

y rt

a e

us a

nd

P h

o c y lid

es w

e re

G re

ek p

o e

ts.

2.

L u

c an

w ro

te D

e h

e llo

c iv

ili (

P h

a rs

a lia

), an

e p

ic

p o

em o

n th

e s tr

u g

g le

b e

tw e

en C

a e

s ar

a nd

P o

m p

e y.

L u

c re

ti us

w

ro te

a p

h il o

s o

p h

ic al

p o

em D

e re

ru m

n

a tu

ra

(O n

th e

N a

tu re

o f

T h

in g

s ).

V ir

g il'

s G

e o

rg ic

s e

xa lts

t h e

lif e

a nd

w o

rk o

f th

e fa

rm e

r. 3.

J u

s tly

e n

ti tl

ed t

o th

e n

a m

e.

4.

L o

w e

r. 5.

A

n o

ta b

le e

x e

m p

lar o

f c h

a s ti

ty a

nd h

o n

o r,

th e

R

o m

an

m a

tr on

L u

c re

tia c

o m

m it

te d

s u

ic id

e a

ft er

b

e in

g ra

p ed

b y

th e

s on

o f

K in

g T

a rq

u in

iu s

S u

p e

r- bu

s. "W

it " :

c re

a ti

ve i m

a g

in a

ti o

n.

6.

I. e

., th

e ri

g ht

p o

e ts.

b e

th ey

w h

ic h

m o

st p

ro p

e rly

d o

im it

a te

to

te

a ch

a

nd d

e li g

h t,

a nd

to

im

it a

te

b o

rr ow

n o

th in

g of

w h

at i

s, h

a th

b e

e n, o

r s h

a ll

b e;

b ut

r a

n g

e, o

n ly

r e

in ed

w it

h

le a

rn ed

d

is c

re ti

o n,

in to

th

e d

iv in

e c

o n

s id

e ra

ti on

of

w h

at m

ay b

e a

nd

s h

o u

ld

be .

T h

e se

b e

th ey

t h

a t,

as t

h e

fir st

a

nd m

o st

n o

b le

s o

rt m

ay j

u s tl y

b e

te rm

ed

vo te

s, so

t h

e se

a re

w a

it ed

o n

in t

h e

e x c e

ll e

n te

st la

n g

u a

g es

a nd

b e

st u

n d

e rs

ta n

d- in

g s

w it

h th

e fo

re -d

e s c ri

b ed

n a

m e

of p

o e

ts .

F or

t h

e se

i n

d e

ed d

o m

e re

ly 7

m a

ke

to i

m it

a te

, a

nd i

m it

a te

b o

th t

o d

e li g

ht a

nd t

e a

c h; a

nd d

e li g

h t,

to m

o ve

m en

to

ta

ke th

at g

o o

d n

e ss

in h

a n

d, w

h ic

h w

it h

o ut

d

e li g

ht th

ey w

o u

ld f

ly a

s fr

o m

a

s tr

a n

g e

r; a

nd

te a

c h,

to m

a ke

th

em

k n

ow th

at

g o

o d

n e

ss w

h e

re u

n to

th ey

a

re

m o

v e

d —

w h

ic h

b e

in g

th e

n o

b le

st s c o

pe

to

w h

ic h

e v er

a

ny

le a

rn in

g w

as

d ir

e c

te d, y

et w

a nt

th

e re

n ot

i d

le t

o n

g u

es t

o b

a rk

a t

th e

m .

T h

e se

b e

s u

b d

iv id

ed

in to

s

u n

d ry

m

o re

s p

e c ial

d

e n

o m

in a

ti o

n s.

T h e

m o

st

n o

ta b

le b e

th e

h e

ro ic

,8 ly

ri c ,

tr a

g ic

, c

o m

ic ,

s a

ti ri

c, i

a m

b ic

, e

le g

ia c,

p a

s to

ra l,

a nd

c

e rt

a in o

th e

rs ,

s o

m e

of t

h e

se b

e in

g te

rm ed

a

c c

o rd

in g

to t

h e

m a

tt er

th

ey

d e

al w

it h

, s

o m

e by

t h e

s o

rts of

v e

rs es

th

ey l

ik e

d b

e st to

w ri

te i

n ;

fo r

in d

e ed

th

e g

re a

te st

p a

rt of

p o

e ts

h a

ve a

p p

a re

led t

h e

ir p

o e

ti c al i

n v e

n ti

o ns

i n

th at

n u

m -

b ro

u s9

k in

d of

w ri

ti n

g w

h ic

h is

c a

ll ed

v e

rs e

— in

d e

ed b

ut a

p p

a re

le d,

v e

rs e

b e

in g

b

u t

an o

rn a

m e

nt a

nd

n o

c a

u se

to

p o

e tr

y,

s in

ce th

e re

h

a ve

b

e en

m

a ny

m

o st

e

x c e

ll e

nt p

o e

ts th

at n

e v er

v e

rs if ie

d, a

nd n

ow s

w a

rm m

a ny

v e

rs if

ie rs t

h at

n

e ed

n

e v er

a n

s w

er t

o th

e n

a m

e of

p o

e ts .

F or

X e

n o

p h

o n,

w h o

d id

i m

it a

te so

e x c e

l- le

n tl y

as t

o g

iv e

u s

e ff ig

ie m

iu s ti

im p

e ri i,

th e

p o

rt ra

it u

re o

f a

ju st

e m

p ir

e, u

n d

er

th e

n a

m e

of C

y ru

s (a

s C

ic e

ro s

a ith

o f

h im

), m

a de

t h

e re

in a

n a

b s

o lu

te h

e ro

ic al

p o

e m

. S

o d

id

H e

li o

d o

ru s

in h

is

s u

g a

re d

in v

e n

ti on

of

th

at p

ic tu

re

of l

o ve

in

T

h e

a g

e n

es a

nd C

h a

ri c

le a;

a nd

y et

b o

th t

h e

se w

ro te

i n

p ro

s e: w

h ic

h I

s p

e ak

t o

s

h ow

t h

at i

t is

n ot

r h

y m

in g

a nd

v e

rs in

g th

at m

a k

e th a

p o

e t—

no m

o re

t h

an a

lo

n g

g o

w n

m a

k e

th an

a

d v o

c a

te ,1

w h o

th o

u gh

h e

p le

a d

ed in

a rm

or s

h o

u ld

b e

an

a

d v o

c a

te a

nd n o

s o

ld ie

r. B

u t

it i

s th

at fe

ig n

in g

n o

ta b

le im

a g

es o

f v

ir tu

e s,

v ic

e s,

or

w

h at

e

ls e, w

it h

th at

d

e li g

h tf

ul

te a

c h

in g,

w h

ic h

m u

st

b e

th e

ri g

h t

d e

s c

ri b

in g

n o

te to

k n

ow a

p o

et b

y; a

lt h

o u

gh in

d e

ed th

e s

e n

a te

of p

o e

ts h

a th

c

h o

s en

v e

rs e

as t

h e

ir fit

te st

ra

im e

n t,

m e

a n

in g,

as i

n m

a tt

er t

h ey

p a

s s

ed a

ll in

a

ll ,2

s o

in m

a n

n er

to

g o

b e

y o

nd t

h e

m :

n ot

s p

e a

k ing

( ta

b le

-t a

lk fa

s h

io n

o r

lik e

m

en in

a d

re a

m )

w o

rd s

as t

h ey

c h

a n

c e

a b

ly fa

ll fr

o m

th

e m

o u

th ,

b ut

p

e is

in g3

e a

ch s y ll a

b le

o f

e a

ch w

o rd

b y

ju st

p

ro p

o rt

io n

a c

c o

rd in g

to t

h e

d ig

n ity

o f

th e

s u

b je

c t.

[P O

E T

R Y

, P

H IL

O S

O P

H Y

, H

IS T

O R

Y ]

N o

w t

h e

re fo

re

it s h

a ll

n ot

b e

a m

is s

fir st

to

w e

ig h

th is

l a

tt er

s o

rt of

p

o e

try

b y

h is

w o

rk s,

a nd

t h

en b

y h

is p

a rt

s; a

nd i

f in

n e

it h

er o

f th

e se

a n

a to

m ies

h e

b e

c

o n

d e

m n

a b

le, I

h o

pe w

e s h

a ll

o b

ta in

a m

o re

f a

v o

ra b

le s

e n

te n

c e

.4

T h

is p

u ri

fy in

g of

w it

— th

is e

n ri

c h

in g

of m

e m

o ry

, e

n a

b li

ng o

f ju

d g

m e

n t,

a nd

e

n la

rg in

g of

c o

n c

e it5

— w

h ic

h c

o m

m o

n ly

w e

c a

ll le

a rn

in g, u

n d

er w

h at

n

a m

e

s o

e v er i

t c

o m

e fo

rt h ,

or t

o w

h at

i m

m e

d ia

te e

nd s

o e

v er

it b

e d

ir e

c te

d, th

e fin

a l

e nd

is

to

le

ad

a nd

d

ra w

u s

to as

h

ig h

a p

e rf

e c ti

on

as o

ur

d e

g e

n e

ra te

s o

u ls ,

m a

de w

o rs

e by

t h

e ir

c la

y ey

l o

d g

in g

s, c

an b

e c a

p a

b le

o f.

T h

is ,

a c

c o

rd in g

to t

h e

in c

li n

a ti

on of

t h e

m a

n, b

re d

m a

n y -f

o rm

e d6

im p

re s-

s io

n s. F

or s

o m

e th

at t

h o

u g

ht t

h is

f e

lic it

y p

ri n

c ip

a lly

t o

b e

g o

tt en

b y

k n

o w

le d

g e,

7.

O n

ly .

8.

E p

ic .

9.

I. e

., in

n u

m b

e rs,

p o

e tic

m e

te rs.

1.

L

a w

y e

r. 2.

A

ll o

th e

rs ,

in a

ll re

s p

e c ts.

3.

W e

ig h

in g.

4.

J

u d

g m

e n

t. "W

o rk

s ":

e ff

e ct

s. "A

n a

to m

ie s ":

a n

a l-

y s e

s. 5.

C

o n

c e

p tu

al p

o w

e r.

"W it " :

in te

ll e

c t.

6.

M a

n if

o ld

.

9 6 0

/ S

IR

P H

IL IP

S

ID N

E Y

T

H E

D

E F

E N

S E

O

F

P O

E SY

/

9 61

a nd

n o

k n

o w

le d

ge to

b e

so h

ig h

o r

h e

a v e

n ly

as a

c q

u a

in ta

n ce

w it

h th

e s

ta rs

, g

a ve

t h

e m

s e

lv es

to a

s tr

o n

o m

y; o

th e

rs ,

p e

rs u

a d

ing t

h e

m s

e lv

es to

b e

d e

m ig

o ds

if

t h

ey k

n ew

t h e

c a

u s

es of

t h

in g

s, b

e c

a me

n

a tu

ra l

a nd

s

u p

e rn

a tu

ral

p h

il o

s o-

p h

e rs

; s

o m

e an

a

d m

ir a

b le

d e

li g

ht d

re w

to

m

u s

ic ;

a nd

s

o m

e th

e c

e rt

a in

ty of

d

e m

o n

s tr

a ti

on to

t h e

m a

th e

m a

ti c

s. B

u t

a ll,

o ne

a nd

o th

e r,

h a

v in

g th

is s

c o

p e

:7

to k

n o

w ,

a nd

b y

k n

o w

le d

ge t

o lif

t u p

th e

m in

d fr

o m

th

e d

u n

g e

on o

f th

e b

o dy

to

t h e

e n

jo y in

g h

is o

w n

d iv

in e

e s

s e

n c

e. B

u t

w h

en b y

th e

b a

la n

ce of

e x p

e ri

e n

ce it

w as

f o

u nd

th

at th

e a

s tr

o n

o m

e r,

lo o

k in

g to

t h e

s ta

rs ,

m ig

ht f

a ll

in a

d it

c h,

t h

at t

h e

in q

u ir

in g

p h

il o

s o

p h

er m

ig ht

b e

b li n

d in

h

im s e

lf, a

nd th

e m

a th

e m

a ti

c ian

m

ig ht

d

ra w

f o

rt h

a s tr

a ig

ht

li n

e

w it

h a

c ro

o k ed

h e

a rt,

t h

en l

o ,

d id

p ro

o f,

th e

o v e

rr u

le r

of o

p in

io n

s, m

a ke

m a

n- if e

st t

h at

a ll

th e

se a

re b

ut s

e rv

in g

s c

ie n

c e

s, w

h ic

h, a

s th

ey h

a ve

e a

ch a

p ri

v a

te

e nd

in

th

e m

s e

lv e

s, so

y et

a

re

th ey

a

ll d

ir e

c te

d to

th

e h

ig h

e st

e nd

of

th

e

m is

tr e

s s -k

n o

w le

d g

e, b y

th e

G re

e ks

c a

ll ed

a rc

h ite

ct o

n ik

e ,8

w h

ic h

s ta

n ds

(a

s I

th in

k) i

n th

e k n

o w

le d

ge o

f a

m a

n 's

s e lf,

i n

th e

e th

ic a

nd p

o li ti

c c

o n

s id

e ra

ti o

n, w

it h

th e

e nd

o f

w e

ll -d

o in

g a

nd n

ot o

f w

e ll -k

n o

w in

g o

n ly

— e

v en

a s

th e

s a

d d

le r's

n

e x t9

e nd

i s

to m

a ke

a g

o od

s a

d d

le, b

ut h

is f

u rt

h er

e nd

t o

s e

rv e

a n

o b

le r

fa c u

lt y,

w

h ic

h is

h o

rs e

m a

n s

h ip,

so t

h e

h o

rs e

m a

n 's to

s o

ld ie

ry ,

a nd

t h e

s o

ld ie

r n

ot o

n ly

to

h a

ve t

h e

s k ill

, b

ut t

o p

e rf

o rm

th

e p

ra c

ti ce

o f

a s o

ld ie

r. S

o th

a t,

th e

e n

d in

g

e nd

of

a ll

e a

rt h

ly l

e a

rn in

g b

e in

g v ir

tu o

us a

c ti

o n,

th

o se

s k ill

s th

at m

o st

s e

rv e

to

b ri

n g

fo rt

h th

at h

a ve

a m

o st

j u

st t

it le

t o

b e

p ri

n c

es o

v er

a ll

th e

re s t.

W h

e re

in ,

if w

e c

a n,

s h

ow w

e th

e p

o e

t's n

o b

le n

e s

s, by

s e

tt in

g h

im b

e fo

re h

is

o th

er c

o m

p e

ti to

rs. A

m o

ng w

h om

a s

p ri

n c

ip al

c h

a ll

e n

g e

rs s

te p

fo rt

h th

e m

o ra

l p

h il

o s

o p

h e

rs, w

h o

m ,

m e

th in

k e

th ,

I s ee

c o

m in

g to

w a

rd s

m e

w it

h a

s u

ll en

g ra

v- it y

, as

th

o u

gh

th ey

c

o u

ld

n ot

a

b id

e v ic

e by

d

a y li g

h t,

ru d

e ly

c

lo th

ed

fo r

to

w it

n e

ss o

u tw

a rd

ly t

h e

ir c

o n

te m

pt of

o u

tw a

rd t

h in

g s,

w it

h b

o o

ks i

n th

e ir

h a

n ds

a

g a

in st

g lo

ry ,

w h

e re

to

th ey

s et

th

e ir

n a

m e

s, s o

p h

is ti

c a

ll y1

s p

e a

k ing

a

g a

in st

s u

b tl

e ty

, a

nd a

n g

ry w

it h

a ny

m an

in

w h

om

th ey

s ee

th

e fo

ul fa

u lt

of

a n

g e

r. T

h e

se

m en

c

a s

ti ng

la

rg e

ss

as th

ey g

o, of

d

e fi

n it

io n

s,

d iv

is io

n s, a

nd

d is

ti n

c- ti

o n

s ,2

w it

h a

s c o

rn fu

l in

te rr

o g

a ti

ve d o

s o

b e

rly a

sk w

h e

th er

it

b e

p o

s s ib

le to

fin

d

a ny

p a

th

so r

e a

dy t

o le

ad a

m an

to

v ir

tu e

as th

at w

h ic

h te

a c

h e

th w

h at

v ir

tu e

is ;

a nd

te

a ch

it

n ot

o

n ly

b y

d e

li v e

ri ng

f o

rt h

h is

v e

ry b

e in

g, h

is

c a

u s

es

a nd

e

ff e

c ts ,

b ut

a

ls o

by

m a

k in

g k n

o w

n h

is

e n

e m

y, v ic

e,

w h

ic h

m u

st

b e

d

e s tr

o y e

d, a

nd h

is c

u m

b e

rs o

me s

e rv

a n

t, p

a s s io

n, w

h ic

h m

u st

b e

m a

s te

re d;

b y

s h

o w

in g

th e

g e

n e

ra li ti

es t

h at

c o

n ta

in e

th it

, a

nd t

h e

s p

e c ia

li ti

es t

h at

a re

d e

ri v ed

fr

o m

it

; la

s tl y,

b y

p la

in s

e tt

in g

d o

w n

h ow

i t

e x

te n

d e

th it

s e

lf o

ut o

f th

e li m

it s

of a

m a

n 's

o w

n li tt

le w

o rl

d to

t h e

g o

v e

rn m

e nt

of f

a m

il ie

s a

nd m

a in

ta in

in g

of

p u

b lic

s o

c ie

ti e

s.

T h

e h

is to

ri an

s c a

rc e

ly g

iv e

th l

e is

u re

t o

th e

m o

ra li st

t o

s ay

s o

m u

c h,

b ut

th

at

he ,

la d

en

w it

h o

ld

m o

u s

e -e

a ten

re

c o

rd s,

a u

th o

ri z

in g

h im

s e

lf3

(f o r

th e

m o

st

p a

rt )

u p

on o

th er

h is

to ri

e s,

w h

o se

g re

a te

st a

u th

o ri

ti es

a re

b u

il t

u p

on t

h e

n o

ta -

b le

f o

u n

d a

ti on

of

h e

a rs

a y;

h a

v in

g m

u ch

a do

t o

a c

c o

rd d

if fe

ri n

g w

ri te

rs a

nd t

o

p ic

k tr

u th

o ut

o f

th e

ir p

a rt

ia li ty

;4 b

e tt

er a

c q

u a

in ted

w it

h a

th o

u s

a nd

y e

a rs a

go

th an

w it

h th

e p

re s

e nt

a g

e, a

nd y

et b

e tt

er k

n o

w in

g h

ow t

h is

w o

rl d

g o

e th

th

an

h ow

h is

o w

n w

it r

u n

n e

th ;

c u

ri o

us f

o r

a n

ti q

u it

ie s

a nd

i n

q u

is it

iv e

of n

o v e

lt ie

s; a

w o

n d

er to

y o

u ng

f o

lk s

a nd

a t

y ra

nt i

n ta

b le

t a

lk ,

d e

n ie

th ,

in a

g re

at

c h

a fe

,5

th at

a

ny m

an

fo r

te a

c h

in g

of v

ir tu

e, a

nd

v ir

tu o

us

a c

ti o

n s,

is c

o m

p a

ra b

le to

h

im .

"I a

m t

e st

is te

m p

o ru

m ,

lu x

v e

ri ta

ti s ,

v it a

m e

m o

ri a

e ,

m a

g is

tr a

v it a

e ,

n u

n ti a

ve

tu st

a ti s.6

"T

h e

p h

il o

s o

p h

e r,"

s a

ith h

e, "

te a

c h

e th

a d

is p

u ta

ti ve

v ir

tu e,

b ut

I d

o

an a

c ti

v e.

H is

v ir

tu e

is e

x c e

ll e

nt i

n th

e d

a n

g e

rl e

ss A

c a

d e

m y

of P

la to

, b

ut m

in e

s

h o

w e

th fo

rt h

h er

h

o n

o ra

b le

fa ce

in

t h e

b a

tt le

s of

M a

ra th

o n, P

h a

rs a

li a,

P o

i- ti

e rs

, a

nd A

g in

c o

u rt

.7 H

e te

a c

h e

th v ir

tu e

by c

e rt

a in a

b s

tr a

ct c

o n

s id

e ra

ti o

n s,

b u t

I o

n ly

b id

y o u

fo llo

w t

h e

fo o

ti n g

of t

h em

th

at h

a ve

g o

ne b

e fo

re y

o u.

O

ld -

a g

ed e

x p

e ri

e n

ce g

o e

th b

e y o

nd t

h e

fin e

-w itt

e d

p h

il o

s o

p h

e r,

b ut

I g

iv e

th e

e x p

e- ri

e n

ce o

f m

a ny

a g

e s.

L a

s tl

y, i

f h e

m a

ke t

h e

s o

n g

b o

o k,

I p

ut t

h e

le a

rn e

r's h

a nd

to

t h e

lu te

; a

nd i

f h e

b e

th e

g u

id e,

I a

m t

h e

li g

h t.

" T

h en

w o

u ld

h e

a ll e

ge y

o u

in

n u

m e

ra b

le e

x a

m p

le s,

c o

n fi

rm in

g s to

ry b

y s to

ri e

s, h

ow m

u ch

t h e

w is

e st s

e n-

a to

rs

a nd

p

ri n

c es

h

a ve

b

e en

d

ir e

c te

d b y

th e

c re

d it

of

h is

to ry

, as

B

ru tu

s,

A lp

h o

n s

us o

f A

ra g

o n

,8 a

nd w

h o

n o

t, if

n e

ed b

e? A

t le

n g

th t

h e

lo n g

li n

e of

t h

e ir

d is

p u

ta ti

on

m a

k e

th

a p

o in

t in

th

is ,

th at

th

e o

ne g

iv e

th th

e p

re c

e p

t, a

nd

th e

o

th e

r9 th

e e

x a

m p

le.

N o

w ,

to t

h at

w h

ic h

c o

m m

o n

ly is

a tt

ri b

u te

d to

t h e

p ra

is e

of h

is to

ry ,

in r

e s

p e

ct of

th

e n

o ta

b le

le a

rn in

g is

g ot

by

m a

rk in

g th

e s

u c

c e

s s

, 1

as th

o u

gh

th e

re in

a

m an

s

h o

u ld

s ee

v ir

tu e

e x a

lt ed

a

nd v

ic e

p u

n is

h e

d —

tr u

ly th

at

c o

m m

e n

d a

ti on

is

p a

rt ic

u la

r to

p o

e tr

y, a

nd

fa r

o ff

fr

o m

h

is to

ry .

F or

in

d e

ed p

o e

try e

v er

s e

ts

v ir

tu e

so o

ut in

h er

b

e st c o

lo rs

, m

a k in

g F

o rt

u ne

h

er w

e ll -w

a it

in g

h a

n d

m a

id,

th at

o ne

m u

st n

e e

ds b

e e

n a

m o

red o

f h

e r.

W e

ll m

ay y

o u

s ee

U ly

s s es

i n

a s to

rm ,2

a nd

i n

o th

er h

a rd

p

li g

h ts

; b

ut th

ey a

re b

ut e

x e

rc is

es o

f p

a ti

e n

ce a

nd

m a

g n

a- n

im it

y ,

to m

a ke

t h

em s

h in

e th

e m

o re

i n

th e

n e

a r-

fo ll o

w in

g p

ro s p

e ri

ty .

A n

d of

th

e c

o n

tr a

ry p

a rt ,

if e

vi l

m en

c o

m e

to t

h e

s ta

g e,

th ey

e v er

g o

o ut

( as

t h e

tr a

g e

dy

w ri

te r3

a n

s w

e red

t o

o ne

t h

at m

is li k ed

t h e

s h

ow o

f s

u ch

p e

rs o

n s)

so m

a n

a c

led

as t

h ey

l it

tl e

a n

im a

te fo

lk s

to f

o llo

w th

e m

. B

u t

th e

h is

to ry

, b

e in

g c a

p ti

v ed

to

th

e tr

u th

of

a f

o o

li sh

w

o rl

d ,

is m

a ny

ti

m es

a

te rr

or fr

o m

w

e ll -d

o in

g, a

nd

an

e n

c o

u ra

g e

m e

nt to

u n

b ri

d le

d w

ic k

e d

n e

s s.

F or

s ee

w e

n ot

v a

li a

nt M

il ti

a d

e s

ro t

in h

is f

e tt

e rs

? T

h e

ju st

P

h o

c io

n a

nd th

e a

c c

o m

p li

s h

ed

S o

c ra

tes p

ut t

o d

e a

th

lik e

tr a

it o

rs :'

T h e

c ru

el S

e v e

ru s

liv e

p ro

s p

e ro

u s ly?

T h e

e x c e

ll e

nt S

e v e

ru s

m is

- e

ra b

ly m

u rd

e re

d?

S u

lla a

nd M

a ri

u s

d y in

g in

t h

e ir

b e

d s?

P o

m p

ey a

nd C

ic e

ro 4

s la

in th

en w

h en

th

ey w

o u

ld h

a ve

t h

o u

g ht

e

x ile

a h

a p

p in

e s

s? S

ee w

e n

ot v ir

- tu

o us

C a

to d

ri v en

t o

k il l

h im

s e

lf ,5

a nd

r e

b el

C a

e s

ar so

a d

v a

n c

ed t

h at

h is

n a

m e

y e

t, a

ft er

1

6 00

y e

a rs

, la

s te

th i

n th

e h

ig h

e st

h o

n o

r? A

n d

m a

rk b

ut e

v en

C a

e s

a r's

o

w n

w o

rd s

of th

e a

fo re

n a

m ed

S u

lla

(w h o

in

th at

o

n ly

d

id

h o

n e

s tl

y, to

p

ut

d o

w n

h is

d is

h o

n e

st ty

ra n

n y ),

lit e

ra s

n e

s c iv

it ,

as i

f w

a nt

o f

le a

rn in

g c

a u

s ed

h

im

7.

A im

. 8.

T

h e

"c h

ie f

a rt

," t

o w

h ic

h a

ll o

th e

rs a

re s

u b

o r-

d in

a te

. "P

ri v a

te ":

p a

rt ic

u la

r. 9.

N

e a

re s t.

1.

S u

b tl

y.

2.

I. e

., b

o u

n ti

fu l

g if ts

of

s c h

o la

s tic

te

rm s

a nd

a

rg u

m e

n ts.

3.

B

a s in

g h

is a

u th

o ri

ty .

4.

B ia

s.

5.

T e

m p

e r.

6.

"I a

m t

h e

w it

n e

ss o

f ti

m e

s, t

h e

lig h t

of t

ru th

, th

e lif

e of

m e

m o

ry ,

th e

te a

c h

er of

l ife

, th

e m

e s s e

n- ge

r of

a n

ti q

u it

y" (

C ic

e ro

, D

e o

ra to

re 2

.9 .3

6 ).

7.

A t

P o

it ie

rs (

1 3

5 6)

a nd

A g

in c o

u rt

(1 4

1 5

), th

e

E n

g lis

h d

e fe

a ted

th

e F

re n

c h; at

M

a ra

th o

n, th

e

G re

e ks

d e

fe a

ted t

h e

P e

rs ia

ns (

4 90

B .C

.E .);

a t

P h

a r-

s a

lia ,

C a

e s ar

d e

fe a

ted P

o m

p ey

( 48

B .C

.E .)

8.

A lp

h o

n s us

V o

f A

ra g

on

(1 3

9 6

-1 4

5 8)

c a

rr ie

d

th e

h is

to ri

es o

f L iv

y a

nd C

a e

s ar

in to

b a

tt le

w it

h

hi m

. M

a rc

us B

ru tu

s w

as i

n s p

ir ed

t o

ri se

u p

a g

a in

st C

a e

s ar

by t

h e

h is

to ry

o f

h is

g re

at r

e p

u b

li c an

a n

c e

s- to

r, J

u n

iu s

B ru

tu s, w

h o

e x p

e lle

d th

e T

a rq

u in

k in

g s.

9.

H

is to

ry . "T

h e

o n

e ":

p h

il o

s o

p h

y. 1.

O

u tc

o m

e. 2.

In

O d

ys se

y 5

.2 9

1 ff.

3.

E

u ri

p id

es (

as r

e p

o rt

ed b

y P

lu ta

rc h

).

4.

G re

at

s ta

te s m

an a

nd

o ra

to r

k ill

e d

at

M a

rk

A n

to n

y 's

c o

m m

a n

d. M

il ti

a d

e s,

A th

e n

ia n

g e

n e

ral

an d

v ic

to r

at

M a

ra th

o n,

la te

r im

p ri

s o

n ed

b y

th e

A

th e

n ia

n s.

P h

o c io

n, A

th e

n ia

n g

e n

e ral

a nd

s ta

te s-

m an

e

x e

c u

ted f

o r

tr e

a s on

b e

c a

u se

h e

o p

p o

s ed

a n

u

n ju

st w

a r.

"C ru

el S

e v e

ru s ": E

m p

e ro

r L

u c iu

s S

e p-

ti m

iu s

S e

v e

ru s,

a p

lu n

d e

re r

of c it

ie s.

" E

x c e

lle nt

S

e v e

ru s ":

E m

p e

ro r

A le

x a

n d

er S

e v e

ru s, a

re fo

rm er

s la

in

by

h is

tr

o o

p s.

S u

lla

a nd

M

a ri

u s,

p o

li ti

c al

ri

v a

ls w

h o

b ro

u g

ht u

n re

st a

nd d

e s tr

u c ti

on t o

R o

m e

fo

r m

o re

t h

an t

w e

n ty

y e

a rs .

P o

m p

e y:

P o

m p

ey t

h e

G

re a

t, d

e fe

a ted

b y

C a

e s ar

at P

h a

rs a

lia a

nd s

la in

in

E g

y p

t. 5.

C

a to

t h e

Y o

u n

g er

c o

m m

it te

d s u

ic id

e a

ft er

h is

p

a rt y

fa ile

d to

d e

fe at

C a

e s a

r.