Leaders
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1 Leadership Effectiveness: Characteristics and Theories
What is leadership? Why do we need it? What does it mean to be a good leader? Are leaders made or born? These questions have been asked for decades, and the increasing numbers of research articles, training sessions, books, and required college courses on leadership show that we continue to ask such questions. They also attest to how much we value effective leadership.
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Leaders have the ability to influence others. Pop star Lady Gaga mobilized her fan base on behalf of social issues, including gay rights and Japan earthquake relief.
1.1 Leadership Defined The need for leadership is clear: Think of situations in your life—or even in the news—where the person in charge made all the difference, whether it was a corporate scandal, a tragic event, or just a group project. Or perhaps consider how simply setting a positive example—going to college, doing the right thing, championing a cause —can motivate others. Much of this text will examine leadership in an organizational setting, but leaders are everywhere.
However, defining leadership may not be as simple as it seems. Ralph Stogdill, a leading theorist in the field, stated, "There are almost as many definitions as there are persons who have attempted to define the concept" (1974, p. 259). Founder of modern management Peter Drucker, for example, described leadership as "doing the right things." Alan Keith of Genentech is often quoted as saying, "Leadership is ultimately about creating a way for people to contribute to making something extraordinary happen" (Kouzes and Posner, 2007, p. 3) Scholars do agree on certain common elements of leadership, which we can combine into a single definition here: Leadership is the ability to influence followers to achieve common goals through shared purposes (Rost, 1993; Rost & Barker, 2000).
The ability to influence others is an important part of the definition of leadership because leadership does not take place in a vacuum: Leadership occurs among people. Influence refers to a person's ability to affect or change the actions, behaviors, and opinions of others. Leaders motivate others to perform certain tasks and can even influence them to act ethically (Provitera, 2003). For example, pop sensation Lady Gaga has been able to use her popularity—and social‐media presence—to mobilize her fan base on behalf of various social issues, including rights for a number of groups—particularly gays and lesbians—and earthquake relief efforts in Japan. Influence can also refer to a two‐way process between leaders and those who follow them. These "followers" can also exert influence on leaders. For example, a leader might rely on a subordinate who has more expertise in a critical field.
Followers, as stated, are those who are under the influence of leadership; they are not necessarily subordinates. We will be using this term for the remainder of the book. Leaders need followers to achieve their goals; it is difficult, after all, to accomplish much on your own. Likewise, followers need leaders to provide direction. This critical relationship requires mutual trust, respect, and an understanding that the two groups need each other—it is not a mindless relationship: Just as there can be effective and ineffective leaders, the same is true of followers. Leaders should not assume they are "better" than followers, and followers should not simply be yes‐people (Bennis, 2004). In fact, the qualities of effective leaders are often the same as those of high‐performing followers. As you read through the text, think about the situations in which you have the opportunity to be a leader or a follower.
The phrases "common goals" and "shared purposes" reveal the need for unity in the leader–follower relationship. "Common goals" refers to the desired future or end states of the organization, and helps leaders and followers orient themselves in the same direction. "Shared purposes" is similar in meaning but speaks more to how leaders and followers arrive at these common goals. Imagine a rowboat with two oars, one for the leader and the other for the follower. The two need to row in the same direction, otherwise the rowboat will simply turn in circles. Thus, even though a leader may set the goal, followers must agree, and that common goal must supersede individual goals. In our rowboat example, if one rower's goal is to row as fast as possible while the other rower's goal is to row at a deliberate pace, the rowboat will struggle to reach its intended destination even if the two are rowing in the same direction. A group can have multiple common goals, and they can be as simple as completing a task before lunch or as complex as becoming an industry's market leader and increasing productivity and profitability.
So once again, leadership is defined as the ability to influence followers to achieve common goals through shared purposes. An effective leader is someone who does this successfully and is thus able to reach common goals—or better yet, achieve extraordinary results. Keep this working definition in mind as we confront the varied perspectives on leadership. As you will see, there is rarely a single correct answer in the search for good leadership, and the leadership‐studies field is fraught with tension and disagreement as to what theories and tools are the most useful and valid. This book is designed to equip you with the foundational knowledge to either be a leader or recognize good leadership—as well as the self‐knowledge as to what kind of leader you are or can be.
Assessment 1.1: Are You Ready to Be a Leader?
Instructions: Indicate the extent to which you agree with each of the following statements, using the following scale: 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neither agree or disagree, 4 = agree, and 5 = strongly agree.
Click here to download a copy of this assessment. (https://media.thuze.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/constellation/book/AUMGT380.11.2/{assessments}assessment_1.1.doc)
1. I am energized when people count on me for ideas. ____
2. As a practice, I ask people provocative questions when we are working on projects together. ____
3. I take delight in complimenting people that I work with when progress is made. ____
4. I find it easy to be the cheerleader for others, when times are good and when times are bad. ____
5. Team accomplishment is more important to me than my own personal accomplishments. ____
6. People often take my ideas and run with them. ____
7. When involved in group projects, building team cohesiveness is important to me. ____
8. When involved in group projects, coaching others is an activity that I gravitate toward. ____
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The Smith and Forti 1998 study found that dominance, intelligence, and confidence in oneself were relevant traits that characterized emergent leaders.
9. I find pleasure in recognizing and celebrating the accomplishments of others. ____
10. When involved in group projects, my team members' problems are my problems. ____
11. Resolving interpersonal conflict is an activity that I enjoy. ____
12. When involved in group projects, I frequently find myself to be an idea generator. ____
13. When involved in group projects, I am inclined to let my ideas be known. ____
14. I find pleasure in being a convincing person. ____
Scoring and Interpretation: Sum your responses to the 14 questions and then divide that number by 14. Your score should fall between a low of 1 and a high of 5. A tentative interpretation of your scoring is as follows:
4.25 and higher implies a high motivation for leadership. 3.0 implies uncertainty about your motivation for leadership. 1.75 and lower implies a low motivation for leadership.
My leadership motivation (readiness) score is: _________ .
Source: Patterned after Leadership: Research Findings, Practice, and Skills, 2nd ed. (pp. 10–11), by A. J. DuBrin, 1998, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. As appeared in Jon Pierce and John W. Newstrom, Leaders and the Leadership Process, 4th ed., McGraw‐Hill, p. 67. Reprinted by permission of The McGraw‐Hill Companies, Inc.
We will begin by laying the groundwork with the various major theories of leadership in the first two chapters. These will be accompanied by assessments and critical– thinking exercises that are designed to help you understand how you fit into the presented theories and apply the leadership skills you have in the real world. The subsequent chapters address "leadership in action": communication and conflict resolution, strategy and power, and leadership in groups.
Before we cover the first of the theories, though, we will examine who can be a leader and how leaders differ from managers.
Who Can Be a Leader
When describing leaders, sometimes the tendency is to think that they have somehow inherited leadership through no effort of their own: They were born with the qualities or traits that make them good leaders, or they simply stepped into the position by being in the right place at the right time. However, if leaders are everywhere, this suggests that there is more to leadership than winning the "leadership lottery."
To say that someone is born a leader implies that only a select pool of candidates is qualified to be leaders. (We will discuss this later in the section on trait theory.) While some scholars argue that some individuals possess a natural predisposition for leadership, others prefer to describe leadership as a process. In other words, leadership can be developed over time: Individuals can learn how to be leaders by honing the needed skills—such as communicating, planning, and negotiating, among other things— and working to better understand themselves and how they interact with others. Describing leadership as a process makes it available to everyone, rather than limiting it to a formally appointed leader. It is also not a destination that can be arrived at, but a continual learning experience.
There is also more than one path to becoming a leader. Leadership is assigned when people are named to positions of power and given formal authority, such as a company vice president or a police officer. However, leadership often extends beyond these assigned positions; some individuals exhibit leadership abilities and are recognized as leaders by their groups despite not having a formal title. These people are referred to as emergent leaders, and scholars have pointed to certain characteristics that these leaders share. Fisher (1971) observed specific communication behaviors: Emergent leaders engage others verbally, ask for other opinions, remain firm but flexible, and initiate compelling, new ideas. Smith and Foti (1998) suggested that emergent leaders exhibit common personality traits. In their study of 160 male college students, they found that dominance, intelligence, and confidence in one's ability to perform (also known as self‐efficacy) were relevant traits that characterized emergent leaders. Since the sample consisted of only male students, it is uncertain whether the results apply to women (Northouse, 2010).
Leadership and Managerial Roles
Now that we have covered a basic definition of leadership, we will examine the many roles leaders perform, to help us better understand the function and efficacy of leadership. Leadership roles are expected behaviors and activities related to leaders' jobs. Based on his now–classic but relevant study of the actual work habits and time management of chief executive officers (CEOs), Mintzberg (1973, 2009) identified 10 specific roles that could be categorized into three sets: interpersonal, informational, and decisional. Interpersonal roles involve meeting and working with other people both inside and outside the organization. Informational roles work with and transmit data and information. Decisional roles help make critical decisions that can affect how an organization works.
Interpersonal Role Set
1. Figurehead: Leaders, usually in high‐level roles, perform ceremonial and symbolic duties as heads of organizations. This role is not trivial. As the face, voice, and public image of an organization, a leader upholds the organization's reputation, personality, and presence to external stakeholders and stockholders. This role involves entertaining clients in an official capacity and presiding at meetings, dinners, and official functions.
2. Leader: This role influences how leaders excel in all the other roles. In this capacity and this particular role, they foster a proper work atmosphere, motivate and develop subordinates, evaluate performance, hire employees, and give instructions.
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3. Liaison: This role involves interacting with people both inside and outside the organization: gathering and sharing information, networking, and maintaining relationships. It also involves managing politics inside and outside the organization. Leaders have to serve on and lead committees, attend professional and trade‐ association meetings, and stay in touch with key stakeholders.
Take the Lead: Interpersonal Roles of a Leader
Being a leader can be a daunting task. The "Take the Lead" toolboxes throughout the text are designed to provide you with the opportunity to determine what you would do if you were the leader in a given scenario. In each toolbox, you'll be provided with a scenario that supports the text's learning concept. You will then be asked to consider several real–world business questions or issues to help you think through what you would do as the leader in that situation.
You are the owner of a small business that provides engineering services to the defense industry. Established 2 and a half years ago, this business flourished due in large part to an increasing defense budget: Business increased 300% and engineering contracts quadrupled, along with the corresponding quantity of contract engineers and support staff you employed.
However, you are now faced with a much different business climate. The defense budget has been all but frozen, and the once "wild–spending" organizations you contracted with are now freezing their initiatives as well. It's as if everything has come to a standstill, and you face the prospect of your business shrinking for the first time.
The interpersonal roles of a leader are ones that involve meeting and working with other people both inside and outside the organization (what some would consider the primary role of a leader). Consider the interpersonal roles of a leader in determining what you would do:
1. As the organization's figurehead, what could you do in order to increase visibility, so as to secure new contracts? Click here for more information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm#)
There are several ways in which you could increase visibility; one would be holding a series of meetings with current clients to check up on current projects underway. This "hands‐on" approach will reflect positively with your clients due to your engagement level. While there, you could also prospect for future business opportunities as well.
2. As the leader of the organization, what message would you want to relay to current employees? Click here for more information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm#)
As the leader, your constituents analyze every action you take. As such, one tactic that you may take consists of relaying a message of positivity regarding not only the current business climate, but the future as well. Your optimism should not be misconstrued as being Pollyannaish, or overly optimistic, but instead setting a realistic tone for the organization as you see it moving forward.
3. What actions would you task your employees with performing? Click here for more information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm#)
Tasking your employees with doing "A+" work with current assignments is paramount in reflecting to current clients that they have made the right decision by electing to do business with you. Establishing a series of metrics that can be implemented to measure progress would be another.
4. The liaison role allows you the opportunity to simultaneously "work" both internal and external issues. What would be the top three initiatives you'd have on your list to perform internally? Externally? (Note that these may be the same or different.) Click here for more information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm#)
Internally: Express your vision for the organization with members, establish parameters for getting to that vision, and monitor/measure progress and make modifications as necessary.
Externally: Meet with other business leaders to determine current/future needs, identify new potential services/products to complement offerings through competitive analysis, and increase visibility in public through performing presentations based on your company/company's core offerings and how they benefit client‐base.
Informational Role Set
4. Monitor: As part of their information–processing functions, leaders gather and analyze internal and external information relevant to the organization. They have to keep current on memos, reports, professional trade and association publications, news, and media. These days they have to keep current on competitive and competitors' products, prices, and business processes and practices.
5. Disseminator: In this role, leaders transmit factual and value‐based information to others in the organization. Currently this can be done through electronic as well as face‐to‐face contact. Leaders spend time in one‐to‐one discussions and group meetings.
6. Spokesperson: Leaders provide information to people outside the organization. They report to the board of directors, owners, managers, and team leaders. They also represent the organization to the media, community groups, and professional associations, regarding the organization's news, performance, and policies.
Take the Lead: Informational Roles of a Leader
You are a marketing VP at a Fortune 500 organization. Among the marketing department's many responsibilities, you have been tasked with identifying the marketing plan for a new product release. The initial product release was focused solely in the United States for distribution; however, with this upcoming release the organization's leadership believes there is a global marketplace that could likewise benefit from the products being offered. This new release represents the organization's first global‐reach initiative.
You pride yourself on thoroughness and intend to put in your typical due diligence in performing your analysis. However, you have limited experience and exposure to non‐U.S. markets.
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The informational roles of a leader involve working with and transmitting information. The volume of information that is available for each of us to digest daily is staggering. In 2008, Americans consumed information for about 1.3 trillion hours, an average of almost 12 hours per day (University of California, San Diego Global Information Industry Center, 2009). With this in mind, and considering the informational roles of a leader, take the lead! Consider the following in determining what you would do:
1. What information is crucial for you to identify as you plan the new product release? Click here for more information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm#)
As the leader "breaking ground" for the first time internationally, it is imperative that you identify the specifics within the new business climate you are approaching. Trade laws, customs, import/export rules, cultures, etc. should be considered regarding how to properly position your product/service.
2. Where will you mine information? Click here for more information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm#)
Starting with the Internet, perform a series of Google searches which target answers to questions regarding the business climate in the new country. You could also consult with professional trade associates which operate internationally, as well as business news database organizations (i.e., Hoovers).
3. What guidelines will you establish for information resources that will ensure credibility of sources and content? Click here for more information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm#)
You will want to ensure that information resources are from credible/newsworthy/trusted sites. Periodicals with worldly readership/distribution such as the Wall Street Journal would be preferred, for example.
4. What methods will you deploy to distribute information inside the organization? Outside it? Click here for more information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm#)
Inside: You could leverage your organizations public posting locations, with either newsletter content or virtually through wiki/blog posts. Externally: Press releases, while an older methodology for distributing company information, are still adequate in distributing information to the public. You could also attempt to leverage the power of social media in distributing new information (Facebook and Twitter for example).
5. Will there be full transparency of content? Click here for more information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm#)
While transparency of content is the goal, rarely do organizations reveal 100% of their content in public.
6. Who should be the spokesperson for the marketing information? Will this person be the same or different for the purposes of new product releases? Click here for more information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm#)
The spokesperson for the marketing information could be you as the leader, or a member of the organization's c–suite (CEO, CFO, CXO...) The spokesperson could be the same, or different depending upon the individuals capabilities, as well as the new business climate's ability to accept message delivery from them.
Decisional Role Set
7. Entrepreneur: Leaders participate in designing and initiating change and improvements in the organization. More leaders are taking on entrepreneurial roles in the current competitive business environment. Leaders are involved in collaborating with venture capitalists, developing new or improved products and services, and finding new ways to process services and products.
8. Disturbance handler: Leaders must deal with unexpected events, crises, and operational breakdowns. They have to be ready to represent and take action quickly, especially in these days when global media are ubiquitous. Leaders have to handle striking unions, equipment and operations breakdowns, and unforeseen mishaps.
9. Resource allocator: Leaders are in charge of ensuring that the organization's resources are operationally, legally, and ethically managed. They must also schedule, authorize, and oversee budgeting activities of people and equipment.
10. Negotiator: Leaders represent their organizations when they participate in negotiation activities inside and outside the organization with individuals and groups. They must be involved in both routine and nonroutine negotiations, such as pay and benefits packages for employees, union labor contracts, customer and supplier contracts, and prices for sales, service, and delivery of products and services.
Mintzberg's work depicted the range of responsibilities and behaviors required of leaders. However, leaders do not usually have to perform all roles at once, nor do they perform all the roles in the same way. Mintzberg observed:
Although individual capabilities influence the implementation of a role, it is the organization that determines the need for a particular role, addressing the common belief that it is predominantly a manager's skill set that determines success. Effective managers develop protocols for action given their job description and personal preference, and match these with the situation at hand (Mintzberg, 1973).
In today's business environment, changing technology, daily problems, and external factors can affect how leaders communicate and function in these different roles (House & Aditya, 1997). Mintzberg found that most CEOs are not reflective strategists who carefully plan their company's next move; leaders act and react constantly.
Take the Lead: Decisional Roles of a Leader
You are the CEO of a service organization that earns $250 million in revenue annually. The economic downturn forced you and your leadership team to lay off a significant portion of your workforce nearly 2 years ago. With the impending rebound in the economy and a possible increase in business, you see an opportunity to hire again—potentially rehiring some of the associates you had to let go earlier. When you mention this during an executive meeting, another organizational leader suggests that you are being overly optimistic about the economic recovery and the company's growth.
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The decisional roles of a leader help make critical decisions that can affect how an organization works. At the core of decision making, a leader is faced with how to deal effectively with change, proactively prepare for an unexpected business climate, ensure that organizational resources are adequately engaged, and negotiate on behalf of the organization while maintaining its mission, vision, and values as well as trending toward current goals and objectives. With this in mind, consider the following:
1. What are the alternatives available for staffing future initiatives? Click here for more information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm#)
While there are several possibilities, it would prove wise to hire as the projects need personnel. You thereby avoid having unnecessary idle staff on hand.
2. How can the atmosphere of economic uncertainty be overcome? Click here for more information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm#)
When it comes to the economy, realize that even economists differ in opinion/forecast. As such, identify the business elements that you have control over, and those you don't. Attempt to work with those elements that you can control.
3. Are there processes or procedures you could use to avoid being overly optimistic? Click here for more information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm#)
The other senior leader's cautious outlook is a valid perspective. As such, seek the opinions of others more frequently instead of less to make better decisions.
4. What can you leverage in order to maintain proper levels of staffing engagement? Click here for more information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm#)
You can leverage your relationship with the Chief Operations Officer (regarding current projects/project management) as well as the Human Resources head (regarding talent management).
5. At what level should you seek to engage your staff? Click here for more information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm#)
As mentioned previously, you should look to engage your staff more frequently, not less during uncertain economic times.
6. Are there negotiations that you should seek to hold in order to staff your operation? Click here for more information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm#)
Meeting internally (COO/HR Head) as well as with clients is a reasonable process to conduct to determine staffing negotiations (quantity, as well as cost).
7. What can you do so that the negotiations are favorable for the business? Click here for more information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm#)
You should leverage current business relationships and seek future initiatives with such clients. You could also include more benefits to current contracts in order to attempt to secure future business (i.e., over deliver).
Management and Leadership Compared
In defining his 10 managerial roles, Mintzberg did not distinguish between leaders and managers, choosing— as many scholars have—to see the two roles as interrelated: two sides of the same coin. However, the terms leadership and management often have different connotations for different people, and other experts in the field argue that the characteristics and duties of leaders and managers are indeed distinct. Can leaders be managers and vice versa? What is the difference between leaders and managers? Do their processes differ significantly? Are they different types of people?
While scholars differ on whether individuals can be both leaders and managers, they agree that both are needed for an organization to be successful. Zaleznik (2004) believed that managers and leaders are distinctly different; you are either a leader or a manager. He argued that managers are reactive and work with people collaboratively but with little emotional involvement. Leaders, however, shape and change ideas and are very emotionally involved with people. Managers limit choice; leaders expand options to solve problems. Leaders change other people's attitudes, while managers only change people's behavior (Rowe and Boulgarides, 1992). For example, President John F. Kennedy reoriented the nation's thinking and attitudes toward exploring space by describing it as illustrative of American ingenuity, progress, and sense of adventure; managers at NASA helped make that dream possible by equipping astronauts to reach the moon.
Rowe and Boulgarides (1992) contended that leaders and managers possess different philosophical perspectives. Managers are deterministic; they believe that their respective organizations, industries, and environments determine their work and the way they conduct themselves. Leaders believe in free will; they believe that their choices affect and shape their organizations, industries, and environments. Rowe also argued organizations need both strong management and strong leadership. Organizations that have strong management but little or no leadership are too bureaucratic, constraining creativity and innovation. On the other hand, organizations with powerful leadership and little or no management may adopt change for the sake of change and be misguided (Rowe, 2007).
Other scholars agree that organizations need both effective managers and leaders but have argued that an individual can hold both roles simultaneously, integrating management and leadership functions for high performance (Yukl & Lepsinger, 2005).
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What do you think? Can leaders be managers and vice versa?
Kotter (1990, 1996), whose distinctions between managers and leaders are outlined in Table 1.1, called for "leader–managers." Managers are needed to handle complexity through planning and budgeting, organizing and staffing, and controlling and problem solving. Leaders are required to handle change by setting direction,
aligning, motivating, and inspiring people. Kotter contended that organizations are overmanaged and underled, but also pointed out that strong leadership with weak management may create worse situations.
Table 1.1 Management and Leadership
Management Leadership
Direction Plans for the bottom line Creates a shared vision and strategy
Alignment Focuses on the organization Creates common culture and values that reduce boundaries
Relationships Occupies a position of power; plays the role of the boss; focuses on production
Desires to motivate and inspire people and followers; plays the role of coach; mediates, facilitates, and serves
Personal qualities
Emotionally separated; highly talkative; expert minded; in favor of standardization
Emotionally engaged; listens to others; open‐minded; diversified
Outcomes Stability and predictability; efficiency Change and effectiveness
Source: Based on A Force for Change: How Leadership Differs From Management, by J. P. Kotter, 1990, New York, NY: The Free Press.
Mintzberg (1990) argued that managers lead and leaders manage, and individuals need to be managers and leaders simultaneously. He described managers as leading with "a cerebral face," which emphasizes calculation, sees an organization as a portfolio of components—that is, departments and functional areas (human resources, production, sales, etc.)—and operates with rationality. Leaders lead by using "an insightful face." This face emphasizes commitment and sees organizations through an integrative perspective, grounded in the image and feel of integrity. Mintzberg argued that managers need to be "two–faced"—that is, they need also to be leaders, when required.
You may take Assessment 1.2, on whether you are a manager, leader, or both. Management has been characterized as planning, organizing, staffing, and controlling organizational resources, while leadership is viewed as creating vision, culture, and change and focusing on people. However, both leaders and managers influence people and participate in the achievement of common goals—key to our definition of leadership—and we will not distinguish between the two roles in this text.
Assessment 1.2: Are You a Leader or a Manager?
Instructions: Questions 1–6 are about you right now. Questions 7–14 are about how you would like to be if you were the head of a major department at a corporation. Answer "Mostly False" or "Mostly True" to indicate whether the item describes you accurately, or whether you would strive to perform each activity as a department head.
Click here to download a copy of this assessment. (https://media.thuze.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/constellation/book/AUMGT380.11.2/{assessments}assessment_1.2.doc)
Now Mostly False
Mostly True
1. When I have a number of tasks or homework assignments to do, I set priorities and organize the work to meet the deadlines.
____ ____
2. When I am involved in a serious disagreement, I hang in there and talk it out until it is completely resolved.
____ ____
3. I would rather sit in front of my computer than spend a lot of time with people. ____ ____
4. I reach out to include other people in activities or discussions. ____ ____
5. I know my long–term vision for career, family, and other activities. ____ ____
6. When solving problems, I prefer analyzing things myself to working through them with a group of people.
____ ____
Head of a Major Department Mostly False
Mostly True
7. I would help subordinates clarify goals and ways to reach them. ____ ____
8. I would give people a sense of long–term mission and higher purpose. ____ ____
9. I would make sure jobs get out on time. ____ ____
10. I would scout for new product or service opportunities. ____ ____
11. I would give credit to people who did their jobs well. ____ ____
12. I would promote unconventional beliefs and values. ____ ____
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13. I would establish procedures to help the department operate smoothly. ____ ____
14. I would verbalize the higher values that I and the organization stood for. ____ ____
Scoring and Interpretation: Count the number of "Mostly True" answers to even numbered questions: __. Count the number of "Mostly True" answers to odd‐numbered questions: __. Compare the two scores.
The even‐numbered items represent behaviors and activities typical of leadership. Leaders are personally involved in shaping ideas, values, vision, and change. They often use an intuitive approach to develop fresh ideas and seek new directions for the department or organization. The odd‐numbered items are considered more traditional management activities. Managers respond to organizational problems in an impersonal way, make rational decisions, and work for stability and efficiency.
If you answered yes to more even‐numbered than odd numbered items, you may have potential leadership qualities. lf you answered yes to more odd‐ numbered items, you may have management qualities. Management qualities are an important foundation for new leaders because the organization first has to operate efficiently. Then leadership qualities can enhance performance. Both sets of qualities can be developed or improved with awareness and experience.
Sources: From Daft, The Leadership Experience 4th ed. Copyright © 2008 South‐Western, a part of Cengage Learning, Inc. Reproduced by permission. www.cengage.com/permissions
Managerial Skills and Functions
Roles and responsibilities can also differ from one level of management to another. Leadership scholars also weigh in the difference between leaders and managers.
Leadership Is Everyone's Business
Leadership is relational; it happens among people, and it is codependent in nature. Followers need leaders, but leaders, whatever role they play in their organization, need thoughtful followers to work toward and achieve their common goals.
This text includes both classical and contemporary leadership studies, which focus on leaders and followers in formal organizational settings. But consider that you are a leader, even if you are not the CEO of an organization. After all, you must lead yourself, and you may have to lead your family, team, peers, supervisors, suppliers, vendors, and others at some point during your life. Many individuals are capable of leadership. It can be learned and developed (Jago, 1982); it is not an innate set of characteristics granted to chosen individuals.
The following sections of this chapter present a historical overview of four major theories and approaches that have shaped and continue to shape leadership research and practice. You will learn about what traits and abilities are thought to distinguish leaders from nonleaders ("great man" theory and trait theory), effective leadership styles (style and behavior approaches), and how these styles interact with different work environments (situational and contingency approaches). You will also have the opportunity to see practical models and assessments used by management consultants and to profile yourself using shorter assessments. These are designed to help you understand what type of leader best suits your style and professional needs, and what type of leader you are—or wish to become. Warren Bennis, a renowned pioneer in executive leadership education and consulting, noted that "leadership is a function of knowing yourself, having a vision that is well communicated, building trust among colleagues, and taking effective action to realize your own leadership potential" (The Teal Trust). You should also have an idea of what it means to be a better follower; the subject of leadership really is everybody's business.
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Studies on leadership have found that great leaders like Mahatma Gandhi are born, not made.
1.2 Leadership Traits and Personalities We've raised the question "Are leaders born or made?" In an attempt to address this question, scholars have worked to identify different character traits and personalities that influence leadership style. Their conclusions are presented here—although leadership can be developed, certain traits pave the way for effective leadership better than others. As you read, consider your own approach to leadership, or perhaps those of leaders you admire, and how it all fits into the theories presented.
Trait Theory
One of the first modern efforts to scientifically study leadership was trait theory. Researchers in the early 1900s were interested in why certain people became leaders and others did not. They studied military, political, and religious figures—Jesus, Mahatma Gandhi, Abraham Lincoln, Napoléon Bonaparte, Joan of Arc, and others—and focused on identifying leadership traits, or innate individual characteristics that might result in a good leader. Their conclusion: Great leaders were born, not made.
The "great man" theory, as it was called, would give rise to what is now known as trait theory, but it was initially called into question: Researchers examining the early studies noted that while these "great men" did share some characteristics, the theory overall failed to take a leader's situational context into account (Stogdill, 1948). In other words, people who were leaders in one situation may not be leaders in a different kind of situation. However, Stogdill would later revive the trait approach when he empirically showed that certain traits did support effective leadership across various situations (1974). These traits included dependability, cooperativeness, assertiveness, initiative, dominance, high energy, self–confidence, stress tolerance, responsibility, achievement orientation, adaptability, cleverness, persuasiveness, organizational and speaking abilities, risk taking, and originality.
Later researchers isolated other traits. Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991) found in their qualitative studies that task knowledge, confidence, motivation, drive, cognitive ability, and integrity differentiate leaders from nonleaders. Other researchers have found that leaders have certain traits related to social intelligence, that is, the understanding and awareness of their own and others' emotions, feelings, behaviors, and thoughts, as well as the ability to self–monitor and respond to different situations (Marlowe, 1986; Zaccaro, 2002). More recently, Zaccaro, Kemp, and Bader (2004) found higher intelligence, reasoning, and verbal and perception abilities in leaders compared to nonleaders. These researchers caution that leaders who have higher intelligence than their followers may experience problems relating to the followers because of the leaders' advanced ideas.
Contemporary researchers have also argued that optimism, drive, self–confidence, honesty, and integrity are particularly important for effective leadership (Jones, 2005). These particular traits are discussed in more depth here because they are particularly relevant to the leadership theories discussed in subsequent
chapters.
Optimism refers to having a positive outlook or thinking positively; optimistic leaders tend to see the good in people and organizations and believe in favorable results. This doesn't mean leaders are blind to the negative; they are simply able to see possibilities and seek opportunities. Imagine if Apple CEO Steve Jobs had stopped at Macintosh computers, or if he had allowed a power struggle with the company's board to halt his career. (This happened in the 1970s, and Jobs went on to found another company before returning to Apple and spearheading the launch of its vanguard cell phone and tablet.) Stephen McDonnell, founder and CEO of Applegate Farms, the leading producer of organic and natural meats and cheeses is widely quoted as arguing that optimistic attitudes are the most commonly observed characteristic in top level executives. Daft (2011, p. 40) also notes that optimism is a main characteristic of leaders. Furthermore, optimistic leaders instill and inspire similar attitudes in others. They demonstrate more self–confidence, believing in themselves and showing more assurance in their own skills, abilities, decisions, and visions. Self–confident, optimistic leaders are not paralyzed by fear or anxiety and can therefore more readily lead others to face uncertainty and challenging situations.
Drive can be described as determination, motivation, or compulsion that leads to increased effort. Driven leaders seek achievement, show tenacity, and are perceived as ambitious (Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991). In other words, they work hard. Effective leaders also often tap into their followers' drive. A management strategy called ROWE–which stands for "results–oriented work environment" and was first introduced at Best Buy—evaluates employees by the results they produce, not the schedules they keep. Google cofounder and CEO Larry Page supports a "20% program," in which professional engineers can use 20% of their time to create and team up on projects they like. Such approaches involve giving "people autonomy over what they're doing and how they do it, an opportunity to master it and a sense of purpose in doing it in the first place" (Spiers, 2010; see also Pink, 2009).
Honesty can be defined by what it is not: lying, and knowingly and willingly deceiving others. Integrity means wholeness of character; a leader with integrity is integrated and balanced, and acts ethically. A survey of 1,500 managers identified honesty and integrity as the most desired values in leaders:
"Honesty is absolutely essential to leadership. After all, if we are willing to follow someone, whether it be into battle or into the boardroom, we first want to assure ourselves that the person is worthy of our trust. We want to know that he or she is being truthful, ethical, and principled. We want to be fully confident in the integrity of our leaders." (Kouzes & Posner, 1993, 138–9).
Integrity and honesty are also related to the survival and success of corporations. Corporate scandals at Enron, Tyco, WorldCom, Arthur Andersen, and other prestigious firms at the turn of this century have taught us that honesty counts. Enron, specifically—the former energy, commodity, and services company—became synonymous with corporate corruption and greed after executives decided to hide the company's true financial condition via suspect accounting practices. The company and its former executives paid the consequences: Enron had to divest and sell its North American power utility, gas pipeline assets, and global interests in utilities and power plants, and paid out more than $21.6 billion to its creditors between 2004 and 2010 ("Enron Creditors Recovery Corp."). Former president Ken Lay and former CEO Jeff Skilling were found guilty on multiple charges, including fraud, making false statements to accountants, and insider trading. Ken Lay died of a heart attack in 2006 before being sentenced to a life term in jail, and as of 2011, Jeff Skilling was still serving a 24–year prison sentence. However, the fallout extended far beyond those two men: Thousands of employees at Enron and the other firms lost almost all of their pension savings.
Trait theory is based on considerable research and has broad appeal; people like to perceive leaders in terms of certain traits. However, while the traits discussed have shown to be associated with leadership, no traits have been linked to successful
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In the Enron scandal the company's CEO Jeff Skilling was found guilty of multiple fraud, making false statements, and insider trading. He was sentenced to a 24‐year prison term. Ken Lay died of a heart attack before sentencing.
Figure 1.1 Emotional Intelligence—Four Dimensions
organizational outcomes or performance, and it is difficult to predict how leaders with certain traits would be effective in organizational situations. (We will discuss this more in later sections.) However, the approach does serve a purpose in the workplace. As Northouse noted, organizations can examine traits to "identify how individuals will fit within their organizations. The trait approach is also used for personal awareness and development because it allows managers to analyze their strengths and weaknesses to gain a clearer understanding of how they should try to change to enhance their leadership" (2010). As we will discuss further in the following section on personalities, trait theory serves its purpose in providing some insight into what makes a good leader.
Personality Approach
Personality theory provides a broader context of which trait theory is a part. Personality is the combination of physical, mental, emotional, and social characteristics and traits. It can be the way people act and react to others (Robbins & Judge, 2011), and it affects an individual's perceptions and behaviors. Unlike the "great man" theory and early research on traits, some personality characteristics have been linked to leadership effectiveness. Leaders benefit by knowing their personality characteristics: First, they can increase their self‐awareness and awareness of others. Second, they can learn to adjust their personal style to accommodate their followers. Finally, they can adapt their communication and personal style to enhance performance.
We will examine two personality theories that are among the most popularly used by corporations worldwide and are of interest to current scholars: the Big Five personality model and the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator® (MBTI®). We will also discuss emotional intelligence. Although it is not a personality theory or type, it is of interest to those in the personality community because of its role in an individual's personality.
MBTI copyright © The Myers & Brigg Foundation. Reprinted by permission.
The Big Five Personality Dimensions The Big Five personality dimensions are the product of decades of research on traits (Digman, 1990) and have shown the most promising empirical results related to leadership effectiveness. The model condenses 25 years of research into five general dimensions (or factors) that make up personality. According to this model, any individual's personality you wish to describe is based on the following dimensions:
1. Extraversion: The extent to which a person is outgoing, excitable, sociable, talkative, assertive, and emotionally expressive. 2. Agreeableness: The extent to which a person shows trust, cooperation, compassion, kindness, affection, and understanding. 3. Conscientiousness: The extent to which a person is thoughtful, goal directed, dependable, organized, and mindful of details. 4. Neuroticism: The extent to which a person is emotional, unstable, anxious, moody, irritable, and prone to sudden emotional outbursts. 5. Openness: The extent to which a person is imaginative, insightful, and intellectually curious.
Another way of understanding the Big Five model is to view it as a continuum:
1. Extraversion................................Introversion 2. Agreeableness............................Antagonism 3. Conscientiousness......................Unscrupulousness 4. Neuroticism................................Emotional stability 5. Openness to experience.............Closed‐mindedness
A meta‐analysis—an analysis that combines and synthesizes the results of several separate and related studies—of leadership and personality studies between 1967 and 1998 found that four of the traits from the Big Five theory were strongly associated with being an effective leader: in order of strongest effect, extraversion, conscientiousness, openness, and low neuroticism. Studies have also largely supported the idea that the Big Five theory is universally applicable across cultures, despite differences in language, history, religion, political systems, and other cultural features (McCrae & Costa, 1997; Paunonen et al., 1996). As will be discussed in later chapters, culture affects behaviors and values, which in turn can affect how coworkers interact with one another. The Big Five theory "provides a way to assess broad personality dimensions in every culture examined so far," McCrae and his colleagues wrote (1997). "Potentially, there are also some culture‐specific constructs, but the common … dimensions make cross–cultural comparisons feasible."
Take the brief general personality inventory at http://www.personalitytest.org.uk (http://www.personalitytest.org.uk) , then reflect on your experiences and personal style at work, at home, and with friends. Do your experiences agree with or differ from your Big Five results? In what ways can this assessment be helpful to you as a developing leader?
Emotional Intelligence (EQ) Emotional intelligence, which can be abbreviated EI or EQ (as in IQ, only here we are discussing emotional elements of intelligence), is a person's ability to be self– aware (recognize one's emotions when experienced), notice emotions in others, and manage emotional cues and information. An emotionally intelligent leader is able to effectively manage oneself and others (Goleman, 2000) and is further able to use the power of emotional energy to inspire, motivate, understand, and improve the morale of organization members and teams. One researcher attributed Abraham Lincoln's enormous power as a president to emotional intelligence, not to IQ, charisma, or political ability (Kauffman and Coutu, 2009). Another study, which examined the successes and failures of 11 U.S. presidents
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Source: Adapted from The Emotional Competence Inventory, University Edition, by R. Boyatzis & D. Goleman, 2001, Boston, MA;
The Hay Group; and The Leadership Experience, 5th ed., by R. Daft, 2011, Mason, OH: Cengage Learning.
Social awareness is the ability to understand others and be empathetic. Los Angeles Lakers' coach Phil Jackson shows professional intimacy, organizational awareness, and a service orientation to his players, the Lakers organization, and the NBA.
(from Franklin Roosevelt to Bill Clinton), found that the main characteristic differentiating the successful (e.g., Roosevelt, Kennedy, and Reagan) from the unsuccessful (e.g., Johnson, Carter, and Nixon) was emotional intelligence (Smola & Sutton, 2002). Emotional intelligence can be learned and practiced.
One research study indicated that effective leaders use different components of emotional intelligence. Goleman (2000) grouped these various capabilities into four basic classifications, as shown in Figure 1.1: self–awareness, self– management, social awareness, and relationship management.
Self‐awareness is the foundation for the other three emotional capabilities. When leaders are not self‐aware, it is doubtful they can be aware of others. Being self‐aware means being able to see and understand your emotions and feelings and how they affect you in your work and private life. As a result, you can accurately evaluate your weaknesses and strengths. You also have more self‐ confidence and trust in your own instincts, particularly when there are no answers from other sources. A self‐aware leader is better able to "see reality" in complex situations and other people.
Self–management, the second important capability, is the ability to control moods, emotions, and desires that can be problematic and disruptive. This doesn't mean suppressing, avoiding, disguising, or denying these feelings; it means understanding them (Weisinger, 1998). Thus, those around you can be assured that you will be consistently authentic and honest with them—without
being an emotional time bomb. You also will be known for honoring your responsibilities and overcoming obstacles easily because you can adapt to different situations without letting your emotions get in the way (Daft, 2011). Leaders who cannot do this can self–destruct professionally: They may offend or blame followers or important partners by projecting their fears and insecurities onto them. They may act immorally and illegally by not controlling their desires or moods. Consider politicians who have had emotional outbursts, committed unethical acts, or been caught lying and consequently been pressured to quit because they lost the public's trust, their legitimacy, and influence. It takes years to build a credible reputation, and moments to lose it.
Social awareness is the ability to understand others. A socially aware leader is empathetic: able to put oneself in other people's situations and show compassion and concern—while keeping an objective perspective. Frost (2004) called this process the ability to show "professional intimacy." Socially aware leaders are also better able to understand the context of an organizational situation—they can more clearly see the big picture of their organization—while understanding the needs of clients, employees, and other external stakeholders. Former Los Angeles Lakers coach Phil Jackson, who has worked with some of the sport's great players, emphasized social awareness in his coaching style. As a former professional basketball player himself, Jackson was able to empathize with the men he coached. He practiced meditation and settled his team down with moments of quiet reflection, strengthening the team's common bond and helping players become more aware of each other's capabilities. Jackson recognized that a strong, cohesive team is the key to the big picture: an NBA championship. Jackson won 11 NBA championship titles as a coach and player—the most in the league's history (The Lakers Meditate?, 2006).
Relationship management is the capability to emotionally connect with others, build positive relationships, and express kindness, compassion, and sensitivity. Successful leaders are good communicators able to create and sustain relationships, thus building broad networks of people and setting the stage for unprecedented collaboration. We have already established that leaders inspire trust. As a result, they are able to influence others, setting the tone for a caring or high–achieving company culture, managing conflict, leading change, and guiding people to achieve extraordinary visions and organizational goals.
Emotional intelligence has had mixed empirical results with regard to leadership effectiveness, but continues to be studied and used by practitioners. It is important to note that EQ, while important to leadership, is not a substitute for IQ (mental ability) (Dubrin, 2007). Leaders need logical and emotional abilities in solving problems and influencing others. Neither IQ or EQ is more important than the other; both are essential for effective leadership and followership. Leadership studies have provided sufficient evidence over the last century to argue that there is no best way, style, or characteristic to lead and influence people to accomplish organizational goals.
Please take Assessment 1.3 and compare your results with the other assessments you have taken. If you take the MBTI assessment online, you will have more information to reflect on the personality dimension of your personal and professional leadership style. Remember, there is no right or wrong style. These assessments
can help you identify your strengths and areas for development as an evolving leader.
Assessment 1.3: Emotional Intelligence
Instructions: For each of the following questions, please indicate the degree to which each statement characterizes you: 1 = never like me, 2 = occasionally like me, 3 = sometimes like me, 4 = frequently like me, or 5 = always like me.
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Click here to download a copy of this assessment. (https://media.thuze.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/constellation/book/AUMGT380.11.2/{assessments}assessment_1.3.doc)
1. I sympathize with other people when they have problems. ____
2. I go out of my way to help someone in need. ____
3. Most people feel comfortable talking to me about their personal feelings. ____
4. People enjoy spending time with me. ____
5. It is easy for me to openly express warm and loving feelings toward others. ____
6. When someone is annoying me, I stop to think about the other person's situation rather than losing my temper. ____
7. In most cases I give people a second chance. ____
8. I think about how I can improve my relationships with those people with whom I don't get along. ____
9. I think about why I don't like a person. ____
10. When someone makes me uncomfortable, I think about why I am uncomfortable. ____
11. I can be assertive and forceful in situations where others are trying to take advantage of me. ____
12. I can delay gratification in pursuit of my goals. ____
13. When I am anxious about a challenge, I still can prepare for it. ____
14. I am able to stay motivated when things do not go well. ____
15. I keep myself focused on my goals. ____
16. Overt human suffering makes me feel uncomfortable. ____
17. Criticism is difficult for me to accept. ____
18. Having car trouble makes me feel stressed. ____
19. I lose control when I do not win in a sporting contest. ____
20. Traffic jams cause me to lose control. ____
Scoring: Sum your score for questions 1–5, and divide by 5.
My "perception, appraisal, and expression of emotions" score is: ___.
Sum your score for questions 6–10, and divide by 5.
My "emotional facilitation of thinking" score is: ___.
Sum your score for questions 11–15, and divide by 5.
My "understanding and analyzing emotions, and employing emotional knowledge" score is: ___.
For questions 17–20, reverse–score each item by subtracting your score from 6. Next, sum your new scores for these four questions, add in your score to question 16, then divide by 5.
My "reflective regulation of emotions" score is: ___.
Finally, sum your four scores together and divide by 4.
My overall (global) emotional intelligence score is: ___.
Interpretation: Thorndike (1920) provided an intelligence framework that identified three types of intelligence: social, concrete, and abstract. His conceptualization of social intelligence is the underpinning for the contemporary reference to emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence "involves the ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to regulate emotions reflectively to promote emotional and intellectual growth" (Tapia, 2001). This definition links intelligence and emotion and promotes the dual ideas that emotion can make thinking more intelligent and that one can think intelligently about emotions.
According to Tapia (2001), your first score reflects your ability to appraise emotions in yourself and others (empathy). The second score deals with emotions when thinking is prioritized by directing attention to important information. (Are your emotions sufficiently vivid and available so they can be used as aids to judgment and memory concerning feelings?) Your third score deals with your ability to label emotions and understand complex feelings. Your fourth and final score concerns your ability to stay open to feelings (both those that are pleasant and those that are unpleasant). Overall, the global scale for emotional intelligence attempts to assess your perception, assimilation, understanding, and management of emotion.
A high score on each of the four dimensions is reflective of a high level of emotional intelligence on that particular dimension. A score equal to or greater than 4 on each dimension and on the global assessment suggests a high level of emotional intelligence. A score equal to or less than 2 on each dimension and on the global assessment suggests a low level of emotional intelligence.
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Level 5 Leadership is defined as a blend of deep personal humility and intense professional will.
Source: Reproduced with permission of author and publisher from: M, Tapia. Measuring Emotional Intelligence, Psychological Reports, 88 (2001) pp. 353––364, Copyright Psychological Reports 2001. These 20 items reflect a subset of the Tapia (2001) and Tapia & Burry–Stock (1998) instrument for the measurement of emotional intelligence and are shown here to illustrate the measure and highlight the construct's meaning. Tapia and Burry–Stock's
41–item measure can be found in: M. Tapia & J. Burry–Stock. 1998. Emotional Intelligence Inventory. Tuscaloosa, AL: The University of Alabama.
Myers‐Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Bob is a company vice president. He is shy and soft‐spoken, but is known for his behind–the–scenes skill of quietly influencing others for the good of the company. His peer Sarah, on the other hand, is far more outspoken and can even be confrontational. She has a knack for persuading others to work harder.
Who is the more effective leader? There is no obvious answer to this question, except for perhaps "It depends." It depends on parts of all the leadership theories, concepts, and approaches in this book. We will discuss this in more depth throughout the text, but for now we will consider this question from the perspective of these two individuals' personalities. The theories we have discussed so far offer helpful insights into comparing these two hypothetical leaders. The Myers‐Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) personality assessment offers a more complete profile of how different personality dimensions, taken together, can help leaders evaluate and gain insights into the general effectiveness and ineffectiveness of their behaviors.
The MBTI is the most widely used assessment worldwide (Kennedy & Kennedy, 2004). Almost 90% of Fortune 100 companies report using this instrument, including AT&T, 3M, General Electric, Citigroup, Apple, and FedEx. It is also used by the U.S. armed forces and other organizations. Although research does not validate the MBTI's effect on leadership effectiveness, the assessment is used to help leaders better understand and appreciate themselves as well as their followers.
The MBTI consists of 93 questions. It classifies individuals as:
Extraverted (E) or Introverted (I). Extraverts are generally sociable, outgoing, and assertive. They gain energy from being around others. Introverts are generally quieter and sometimes shy and gain energy by focusing internally on their thoughts and feelings. Intuitive (N) or Sensing (S). Intuitive types focus on the big picture and look for patterns and relationships. They are visionaries. Sensing types use their five senses to gather information. They are more fact and detail oriented. Feeling (F) or Thinking (T). Feeling types focus on emotions, values, and others' feelings. Thinking types focus on logic and objectivity in making decisions. Perceiving (P) or Judging (J). Perceiving types desire more information and data in order to make a decision. They enjoy ambiguity and complexity. Judging types like closure, certainty, and deadlines in making decision quickly on limited data.
Personalities are thus described in terms of varying combinations of these four categories. Each has its own strengths, weaknesses, and typical behaviors, which come with potential positive and negative consequences. If you take the MBTI assessment online, reflect on how accurately the profile describes you. Can you observe how your personality may relate to your leadership style and influence?
It is possible that you are not completely in one category or another. For example, you may fall somewhere in between being an extravert and an introvert, but your results label you an extravert because you happen to lean more in that direction. Note, also, that these types are not unchangeable. As individuals age and gain more experience and expertise, their types usually change.
Answer the MBTI questions at http://www.humanmetrics.com/cgi‐win/jtypes2.asp (http://www.humanmetrics.com/cgi‐win/jtypes2.asp) 1 and read your profile from the 16 types at http://www.myersbriggs.org/my‐mbti‐personality‐type/mbti‐basics/the‐16‐mbti‐types.asp (http://www.myersbriggs.org/my‐mbti‐personality‐type/mbti‐ basics/the‐16‐mbti‐types.asp) . Reflect on your results as you read this text.
There is no magic combination of letters that guarantees a better leader, but studies have revealed some trends. Limited research suggests that judging and thinking appear most related to effective leadership. Most leaders studied are judging types, and even organizations that would seem to value "feeling" more highly—such as counseling centers—tend to select thinking types as managers. (Daft, 2011). A book titled Profiles of Genius, by Landrum (1993), examined 13 founders of highly successful companies (such as Sony, Microsoft, Apple, and Honda) and found that most were NTs (intuitive thinkers) —a type found in only 5% of the U.S. population.
Other tentative research findings include:
Intuitive leaders are the majority in fields and organizations that involve long– term planning and breaking new ground. Sensing types are the majority in the construction, manufacturing, and banking fields, where immediate and tangible preferences are valued over intuitive styles (Daft, 2011).
Of course, not all successful leaders or managers come from the same mold or fit the same stereotypes. Darwin Smith, who was CEO of the paper–products company Kimberly–Clark from 1971 to 1991, was described as "shy, awkward, shunning attention." However, Good to Great author Jim Collins, in a Harvard Business Review article (2005), described Smith as having what Collins termed "Level 5 leadership": a blend of "deep personal humility" with "intense professional will." Collins wrote that Smith "showed iron will" as he turned the company into a "worldwide leader in its industry, generating stock returns 4.1 times greater than the general market." It might be that Smith, like the shy vice president Bob in our hypothetical example at the beginning of this discussion, had other characteristics (like iron will) that may or may not have been reflected in a personality assessment. He could also have had the right mix of experience, attitudes, and skills that matched the organization (Kimberly–Clark) at the right time in its life cycle. Had Smith taken the MBTI, he might have confirmed that his personality profile identified his organizational style accurately.
1Jung Typology Test™ copyright © Humanmetrics Inc. Reprinted by Permission. Humanmetrics Jung Typology Test™ instrument uses methodology, questionnaire, scoring and software that are proprietary to Humanmetrics, and shall not be confused with the MBTI®, Myers‐Briggs® and/or Myers‐Briggs Type Indicator® instrument offered by CPP, Inc. Humanmetrics is not affiliated with CPP, Inc.
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1.3 Other Personality Characteristics Other personality attributes are also important predictors of leadership behaviors. The following characteristics help you better understand and evaluate leadership effectiveness in others and in yourself: self–concept, locus of control, narcissism, Machiavellianism, entrepreneurial leadership, risk taking, and proactiveness.
Self–Concept
Self–concept is a person's overall understanding about herself or himself that includes attitudes, feelings, self–esteem, and self–confidence. Those who have a positive self–concept see themselves as capable and in control of themselves and their environment, and have confidence in their judgments, ideas, and skills. Those with a negative self–concept question their capabilities, see themselves as powerless, and tend not to value or like themselves (Barry & Friedman, 1998; Robbins & Judge, 2011). Leaders who have negative or weak, insecure self–concepts and core evaluations can limit others' career development and personal growth, as well as sabotage their own reputations.
Self–concept can also affect the way leaders view, influence, and lead others. McGregor (1960) observed two types of general attitudes that leaders have about subordinates: Theory X and Theory Y. Theory X leaders, whose assumptions may be characterized as "command and control," see people as lazy and unmotivated to work and thus believe followers have to be controlled, directed, coerced, and micromanaged. These types of leaders are more production and task oriented and can be short–tempered, impatient, and autocratic when it comes to followers' feelings and concerns. Theory Y leaders, on the other hand, whose assumptions may be characterized as commitment and trust oriented, see people as being more interested in assuming responsibility and more willing and ready, in the right working environments, to give full effort, attention, creativity, and energy to helping achieve organizational goals. Such leaders tend be more consideration and people oriented. Research evidence regarding attitudes and leadership success generally supports McGregor's two classifications, but his theory requires more study.
Locus of Control
Why do some leaders tend to take credit for success but blame others for mistakes, while other leaders assume responsibility for whatever happens under their leadership? This tendency can be described in terms of an individual's locus of control. Locus is another word for site or location, so locus of control literally refers to where a person thinks control, or responsibility, lies. Leaders with a high internal locus of control believe what happens to them is a result of their own actions and take responsibility. Leaders with a high external locus of control believe outside forces determine what happens to them and tend to blame others for mistakes and mishaps. These people are less likely to succeed in effectively leading others.
A leader who exhibits a high internal locus of control owns and takes responsibility for a decision he or she makes, its outcome, and its consequences. Former President George W. Bush adamantly took responsibility, without apologies—regardless of the wisdom or accuracy of the decision—for his policies and use of the phrase "global war on terrorism."
Narcissism
Narcissists have a grandiose sense of self–importance. They are arrogant and are always seeking admiration and attention. To the more extreme narcissist, the world revolves around him or her. Oracle's CEO Larry Ellison has been described as having a high level of narcissistic tendencies. One of his executives said, "The difference between God and Larry is that God does not believe he is Larry" (Maccoby, 2000, p. 70).
Most would agree that Ellison is a successful leader—Oracle is among the top software companies in the world—but narcissists are generally less favorable leaders. Narcissists in the workplace talk down to and belittle people who challenge them, and tend to create toxic environments. In extreme cases, narcissistic leaders can literally destroy companies. We can return to Enron as an example, as former CEO Jeff Skilling could possibly have been such an extreme narcissist. He manipulated financial statements and information to suit his needs and formed a clique around himself of Enron traders and aggressive followers whom he liked and could manipulate. He acted in his own self–interest, without regard to ethics or other people, and forced Enron's spectacular downfall.
Manufacturing conglomerate Tyco provides another example. The company came under fire in 2002 when it was discovered that then–chairman and CEO Dennis Kozlowski was using company money for personal luxuries: For example, Kozlowski hosted lavish parties imitating ancient Roman settings and once gave a $2 million birthday party for his wife on the Italian island of Sardinia, at Tyco's expense. He was also found to have purchased a $6,000 shower curtain with company funds (Crawford, 2005). Kozlowski was sentenced in 2005 to a lengthy prison sentence for stealing hundreds of millions of dollars from Tyco, but the company spent years working to repair its reputation.
However, as we saw with Oracle's Ellison, narcissists do not necessarily leave scandals in their wake. In a Harvard Business Review article, Maccoby (2000) described what he called "productive narcissists":
Leaders such as [former General Electric chairman and CEO] Jack Welch or [financier and philanthropist] George Soros are examples of productive narcissists. They are gifted and creative strategists who see the big picture and find meaning in the risky proposition of changing the world and leaving behind a legacy. Indeed, one reason we look to productive narcissists in times of great transition is that they have the audacity to push through the massive transformations that society periodically undertakes.
Maccoby noted that productive narcissists can become unproductive when they become "unrealistic dreamers"—people who are unable to see things as they really are. Productive narcissists can become unrealistic dreamers because they are poor listeners, are sensitive to criticism, lack empathy, dislike mentoring, and possess an intense desire to compete. Exhibiting these types of behaviors and lack of skills does not contribute to effective goal attainment or meaningful influence on followers. Maccoby suggests that such individuals find a trusted sidekick who can help anchor them—and that they get therapy.
Machiavellianism (Mach)
Machiavellianism is named after Niccolò Machiavelli, who, in a sixteenth–century book, wrote about how to get and use power. The term Mach (short for Machiavellianism) refers to those who gain and use power without regard to the consequences: As Machiavelli wrote, let the ends justify the means; if it works, use it.
Take Bill, for instance. Bill is a real go–getter. He is the youngest supervisor for a large financial–services firm, and has had two promotions in the last 2 years. A vice president who knows Bill commented, "Bill is nice guy, but he'll do anything it takes to get ahead. I know he's thrown a couple of guys who were competing for his position under the bus. We like that spirit and energy, but it may do him in if he isn't careful." Bill may be what theorists call a high Mach, or someone who shows more Machiavellian behaviors. (Take the Mach assessment at http://www.amanet.org/training/articles/Ethical‐
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The term Mach is derived from Niccoló Machiavelli's 16th century book The Prince and refers to those who gain and use power without regards to consequences. Machiavelli wrote that "the ends justify the means."
Characteristics of the Entrepreneur
This clip explores the personal characteristics of the "typical" entrepreneur, as well as the challenges and opportunities that come with operating a small business.
Leadership‐Self‐Assessment‐How‐Machiavellian‐Are‐You.aspx (http://www.amanet.org/training/articles/Ethical‐ Leadership‐Self‐Assessment‐How‐Machiavellian‐Are‐You.aspx) and see how you score.)
Research shows that high Machs are more manipulative. They tend to persuade others rather than be persuaded. High Machs like their work less than low Machs and are often more stressed and involved in deviant work behaviors (Christie & Geis, 1970)—but they also tend to win.
Scoring high on the Mach assessment does not mean that you are immoral or sinister. A high Mach score may indicate that you are more detached and not as personally engaged with others. High Machs may see life as a game and use pragmatic and manipulative means to excel. Thus, high Machs seem to prosper when face–to– face interaction is prevalent over indirect communication; when situations have minimal rules and regulations, allowing for more improvisation; and when winning can be achieved without emotional involvement in details (Christie & Geis, 1970). High Machs, then, succeed more in situations where the ends justify the means; where regulations are ambiguous to nonexistent; and where the stakes (monetary or other material gain) are high. Whether or not they cross the line from ethical to unethical or legal to illegal behaviors and actions is not an inherent part of being a high Mach. It may simply be one risk a high Mach faces.
Entrepreneurial Leadership and Risk Taking
Entrepreneurial leaders organize and initiate new, innovative ventures and business practices, assuming much of the responsibility and risk in hope of maximum reward (Daft, 2011; Kuratko & Hodgetts, 1998). These people can range from business magnates like Donald Trump to small‐ business owners. Some college and university students are and have become entrepreneurial leaders: Microsoft's Bill Gates, Google's Larry Page and Sergey Brin, and Facebook's Mark Zuckerberg were university students when they started their companies. All had the same thing in common: vision, enterprise, and a willingness to take risks.
Risk taking involves behaviors that can be harmful or dangerous, yet at the same time hold the potential for positive outcomes. It could be argued that without risk, there is little reward. But taking risks does not assume success. Donald Trump, for instance, overextended himself during his years as a New York City developer and ended up with a net worth of negative $850 million in 1994. Trump picked up his losses to reinvest in the Caribbean, New Jersey, and New York, and in 2011 his net worth was estimated at $2.7 billion (Mitchell, 2011).
However, to assume that entrepreneurs only start companies would be limiting the definition of entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurs who work inside established organizations are called intrapreneurs. Intrapreneurs take risks to create new solutions to develop, extend, and change products and services for competitive advantage. For example, the yellow Post–It notes that are now taken for granted were invented by scientists Spencer Silver and Art Fry, who both worked at 3M. Silver developed the adhesive, and it was Fry who thought to apply this "low–stick" adhesive to a piece of paper. However, even after they designed and readied the Post–It prototype, it reportedly would be several years before 3M was willing to recognize its value. Silver and Fry were probably one of the first intrapreneurs. 3M later instituted a
"bootlegging" program, enabling innovative engineers to take time off while at work to experiment with entrepreneurial products.
Proactive Personalities
Proactive personalities work to challenge and change the status quo. They are driven, creative, independent thinkers who are often able to initiate change in their organizations or influence work situations in their favor, regardless of obstacles (Robbins & Judge, 2011). It should not surprise you that both entrepreneurs and intrapreneurs are proactive personalities (Becherer & Maurer, 1999; Grant, 2000); proactive personalities are more likely to leave an organization to start their own business. Activities of proactive personalities can be either positive or negative, depending on the organizational setting and situation. Proactive personalities can exhibit negative behaviors when they seek to influence work situations to their favor (Robbins & Judge, 2011).
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Leaders of the "consideration" style use a people–oriented leadership style that often is most effective when less structure but more consideration is needed.
Figure 1.2 Four Leadership Styles
1.4 Style and Situational Approaches The theories and approaches discussed so far have sought to answer the question "What makes an effective leader?" (Remember, an effective leader is someone who works with, motivates, and helps followers to attain their common organizational goals.) Later approaches following trait theory shifted attention from who leaders are to what leaders do and how they fit into different situations and organizations, offering a far more complex answer to the question. We discuss several such theories in this section including style and behavioral approaches (the Michigan and Ohio State Studies), contingency theory, and others. It is important to note, as was indicated earlier, that leaders are not necessarily heroes. They work with followers and, as we will show, lead within the constraints and opportunities of specific organizational contexts and situations.
Style and Behavioral Approaches
The style and behavioral approaches focus on leaders' behavior rather than their personality characteristics, as in the trait and personality approaches. Specifically, theorists look at how leaders approach tasks and deal with followers. We will examine two contributions to the style and behavioral approaches: (1) early studies conducted at the University of Michigan and The Ohio State University, and (2) Blake and Mouton's Leadership Grid.
Michigan and Ohio State Studies The research at the University of Michigan and The Ohio State University began in the late 1940s and was critical in the development of style and behavioral–leadership theory. The studies at these two institutions were actually performed separately, but as the two groups reached very similar conclusions, we will discuss them together in this text.
Researchers eventually pinpointed two types of behavior in leaders: Leaders were either task oriented, focusing on achieving goals and organization, or people oriented, focusing on followers and interpersonal relationships (Stogdill, 1948). The Michigan and Ohio State researchers argued that different leadership styles were more effective in different situations.
A task–oriented leadership style involves assigning tasks, specifying procedures, defining work schedules, and helping followers set goals—in other words, focusing more on getting work done than on showing consideration to people. Michigan researchers called this a production orientation, while Ohio State researchers termed it an initiating structure style. This style is needed when tasks call for a lot of structure but little need to show followers consideration. In these situations, one–way, top–down communication and decision making are necessary. Consider this example: In 2005, Hewlett–Packard (HP) was at a crossroads. The company could either continue to give ground to the competition or regain its former glory as a leading computer manufacturer. The company needed a leader who would drive hard, give direction, expect high performance, set high standards, and ask tough questions. Mark Hurd took the job. Some questioned his tough, numbers–driven, task–oriented style, but by the end of 2009 he had succeeded in turning HP around. He was the right leader at the right time for HP: more task oriented, rather than people oriented.
A people‐oriented leadership style creates a supportive, friendly, and trusting environment for followers, working to satisfy needs and develop relationships. Michigan researchers said these leaders possessed an employee orientation, while Ohio State
researchers called this style a consideration style. A people‐oriented leadership style is often most effective when less structure but more consideration is needed. In these situations, two‐way, participative communication and decision making are needed (Likert, 1961). Take, for example, a university that recently completed a physical building project in which 15% of the campus was either rebuilt or restored. The president recruited at the start of the project was a retired corporate executive known for his command and control. He had successfully managed the building transformation but alienated many faculty and staff members, who felt he did not understand their work or needs. While the president's task—oriented style was appropriate at the start of the project—everything was on time, almost within budget, and according to specifications—at the end of the project the board of trustees decided it was time for a different leadership style. They hired a former academic with 15 years of successful university administration and fund–raising experience who was able to inspire, motivate, and align faculty, rejuvenate and rebuild a collaborative community, provide emotional as well as academic leadership support, and promote the principles and values of scholarship. The more people–oriented approach fit the organization at the right time in its life cycle.
The timeliness of the people–oriented focus is noteworthy. A recent survey found that 66% of employees reported appreciation as a factor that motivated them most at work (Akst, 2007). A recent review of 160 studies showed that followers of leaders who were high in consideration were more motivated and satisfied with their job and had more respect for their leader (Robbins & Judge, 2011).
Some scholars argue that leaders are either more concerned with people or more concerned with tasks; they cannot be both. Other scholars consider the two styles to be complementary, as seen in Figure 1.2, rather than opposed. As shown in Figure 1.2, leaders can possess varying quantities of both styles. The people–oriented leader's style is reflected in the upper left quadrant, while the task–oriented leader's style can be seen in the bottom right quadrant. However, according to this visualization, leaders can also be both task oriented and people oriented; arguably, the new president in the earlier university example actually fits into this upper right quadrant because he or she was able to engage the community while maintaining the structured environment that was needed. A leader could also be neither task oriented nor people oriented, as seen in the
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Source: Based on New Patterns of Management, by R. Likert, 1961, New York, NY: McGraw–Hill.
bottom left quadrant. As we will discuss later, a "country–club" leadership style has and shows little concern for people and skill for getting work done. This has also been referred to as an impoverished leadership style. How do such leaders keep their jobs? We discuss this and other related styles in this chapter.
We should note that even though a leader may prefer or tend to use one of these four leadership styles, it does not mean he or she cannot change or adapt. (We will discuss this further in the context of contingency theory.) For example, some observers said Jack Welch was more of a task–oriented leader when he joined General Electric (GE): He fired unproductive workers and focused on streamlining GE to compete in only the top two businesses they entered. However, as he matured in his leadership role and as GE excelled, he adopted a people orientation as well.
Take Assessment 1.4 to identify your leadership style based on this model. If you score high on a task (structure and production) focus and low on a people (consideration and employee orientation) focus, you tend to make decisions more yourself rather than delegating tasks, and you may communicate using one–way communication with followers instead of asking for their feedback. If you score high on a people (consideration) focus and low on a task (structure) focus, you tend to be a more open communicator and share decision making to solve problems. Do you agree with your results? As you continue to read this book, you will gain awareness and knowledge about how to become more effective in different leadership skills (e.g., communicating, influencing others, using power effectively). You will also become more aware of different types of organizational cultures and situations that best suit your interests and skills.
Assessment 1.4: Initiating Structure versus Consideration
Instructions: The items below relate to your personal leadership orientation. Each item describes a specific kind of behavior but does not ask you to judge whether the behavior is desirable or understandable.
Read each item carefully.
Think about how frequently you engage in the behavior described by the item.
Draw a circle around one of the five numerical response codes (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) following each question, which reflects the frequency of this behavior.
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1. Put suggestions made by people in the work–group operation.
Always Often Occasionally Seldom Never
1 2 3 4 5
2. Treat all people in the work group as equal.
Always Often Occasionally Seldom Never
1 2 3 4 5
3. Back up what people under you do.
Always Often Occasionally Seldom Never
1 2 3 4 5
4. Reject suggestions for change.
Always Often Occasionally Seldom Never
1 2 3 4 5
5. Talk about how much should be done.
A Great Deal Fairly Much To Some Degree Comparatively Little Not at All
1 2 3 4 5
6. Assign people in the work group to particular tasks.
A Great Deal Fairly Much To Some Degree Comparatively Little Not at All
1 2 3 4 5
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Figure 1.3 The Leadership Grid
Source: From The Managerial Grid, by R. Blake and J. Mouton, 1964, Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing. Copyright 1991 by Scientific Methods, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Grid International.
7. Offer new approaches to problems.
A Great Deal Fairly Much To Some Degree Comparatively Little Not at All
1 2 3 4 5
8. Emphasize meeting deadlines.
A Great Deal Fairly Much To Some Degree Comparatively Little Not at All
1 2 3 4 5
Scoring: Consideration behavior—Subtract your scores to questions 1, 2, and 3 from 6. Next, sum these adjusted scores and your score to question 4 and divide by 4.
Enter your consideration score here: _____.
Initiating structure behavior—Subtract your scores to questions 5, 6, 7, and 8 from 6. Next, sum these adjusted scores and divide by 4.
Enter your initiating structure score here: ____.
Interpretation: A high consideration score (4 or greater) suggests a relatively strong orientation toward consideration‐oriented behavior. A low score (2 or less) suggests a relatively weak consideration orientation.
A high initiating structure score (4 or greater) suggests a relatively strong orientation toward initiating structure behavior. A low score (2 or less) suggests a relatively weak initiating structure orientation.
Source: From "The measurement of leadership attitudes in industry," by Fleishman, Edwin A. Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol 37 (3), June 1953, 153‐158.
The Leadership Grid The most well–known of the behavioral approaches is the Leadership Grid, which builds on the Michigan and Ohio State studies and also depicts leadership style as a blend of two different approaches. Originally published by Blake and Mouton as the Managerial Grid in 1964, the grid identifies five leadership styles plotted on two axes. As shown in Figure 1.3, the horizontal axis represents concern for production or results, and the vertical axis represents concern for people. Each axis is on a 9–point scale, where a score of 1 represents least or lowest concern and 9 represents the most concern. Individual leaders' scores can be plotted anywhere on the graph. As you read the descriptions of the following five leadership styles in this model, consider this: Is there a leader that fits a 9.9 (most optimum classification on this model)? Think about which of the following profiles might best describe your style.
The team leader (9.9) has high concern for tasks, followers, and peer relationships. This leader is highly results driven while being very engaged and concerned with followers and peers. Some might say that Virgin Group founder Sir Richard Branson is an example of a 9.9 team leader. The so–called business tycoon began his entrepreneurial career at 15 years old selling discount records. This business turned into the Virgin Records which he sold for $973 million before starting Virgin Atlantic Airways. Branson is also an environmentalist, an explorer, a philanthropist, and the fifth‐richest person in the United Kingdom. He said in an interview, "Business is giving people in their lifetime what they need and what they want" (Byrne, 2000).
The authority–compliance leader (9.1) focuses on getting the job done with no concern for followers or perhaps peers. This person's style is what has been referred to as a bulldozer: overcontrolling, results driven, and insensitive to others' needs. The 9.1 leader may be productive in the short term, but at the cost of getting the necessary help and support from teammates and followers.
The middle–of–the–road leader (5.5) is partly concerned about task accomplishment and somewhat concerned about followers and peers. This "average" leader produces enough to get by and shows enough concern to be acceptable to followers and peers. This leader may have to compromise and find a balance between work requirements and follower concerns. The middle–of–the–road leader performs at "good enough" levels; he or she is neither a star nor a laggard. This leader may avoid conflict.
The country–club leader (1.9) shows less concern about task accomplishment and more involvement in interpersonal relationships with followers and peers. This leader focuses on followers' social and individual needs, to the detriment of getting work and tasks accomplished. This leaders may create a comfortable working environment, but may find productivity, work–related problem solving, and the handling of difficult conflicts problematic.
The impoverished leader (1.1) is uninvolved and disconnected from followers, peers, and work tasks, putting forth minimal effort. This leader may appear alienated, distant, indifferent, and uncommitted to the organization and to others.
The Leadership Grid has been widely used by corporate and organizational training programs. It was updated and changed in 1978, 1985, and 1991. An additional style
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Figure 1.4 Hersey and Blanchard's Situation Leadership Framework
Source: From P. Hersey, K. Blanchard, and D. Johnson. Management of Organizational Behavior: Utilizing Human Resources, 7th. Ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1996), p. 200. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc.
Participative Management
Blake and McCanse (1991) added to the Leadership Grid is the opportunist. An opportunist is a leader who uses any of the styles combined to promote his or her own advancement. While the opportunist is not located in any one style on the grid, this person is able to move across styles according to his or her needs and interests. Many politicians are skillful opportunists. They read the polls, check out the changing situation with their competition, and act accordingly. The opportunist is motivated by "end justifies the means" logic.
Like trait theory, the behavioral and style approaches are based on decades of empirical research. They are straightforward, simple, and appealing to practitioners and researchers. However, they are not without their issues. First, no optimal leadership style can be applied to all situations. The 9.9 score in the Leadership Grid model, or the "high–high" in the Michigan and Ohio State approaches, seems optimal and desirable to obtain, but these styles may not be the most effective in all or particular situations. Goleman (2000) concluded after studying 3,000 executives that leaders who get the best results in their organizations use several different styles in any given week. More research is needed to investigate this question.
Second, it may not be possible for some leaders to be a 9.9 or a "high–high." Not all leaders and managers can be all things to all people and organizations. For example, a leader may be highly effective in his or her particular organization but not have the capacity to master both production–oriented and people skills.
Third, leadership styles in these approaches were studied like traits, that is, stable properties of the individual leader that were unaffected by organizational or work influences. Complex interactions and forces in organizations affect leadership styles, and styles affect people and tasks. The situational theory attempted to address this by examining a leader's situational context.
Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Approach
Hersey and Blanchard's situational approach adds another important dimension to the Leadership Grid by taking into account follower and task characteristics. In this model, leaders observe, change, and adapt to the situation at hand, and leadership effectiveness is determined by the extent to which leaders can match their styles to the followers to meet organizational goals. The understanding that one leadership size does not fit all organizational requirements is central to this approach. The follower, for the first time in leadership studies, becomes the most important element of the organizational context.
Follower Characteristics The situational approach is based on the premise that leaders will match their directive and supportive styles—how they give instruction and meet needs—to meet followers' level of development. Followers' needs and styles are determined by their level of development, or their readiness to take on various tasks. Follower readiness is understood from the degree of competence and commitment they show (Hersey & Blanchard, 1969), or how able and willing they are to take on various tasks. A follower may be highly skilled—very competent— but unmotivated or unwilling to perform assigned tasks; that follower is not committed. In the same way, a follower may not have the necessary skills and may require much training, but be enthusiastic about the work. For a leader to be effective, she or he must first determine—by listening, observing, and asking questions—where subordinates are on the follower readiness continuum, shown in Figure 1.4. We will discuss the follower readiness levels, located at the bottom of the figure, before we discuss the leader styles in the top part of the figure.
New employees who are inexperienced, somewhat insecure, and unwilling to step up and take on difficult assignments are at level R1. After working a few months, some of the new employees may be more willing and more confident but still unable to fully complete a complex task without instruction; they are at level R2. With coaching and mentoring, employees may move from the level R1 to R2 or even R4 (able and willing or confident); others may remain at level R3 in need of more coaching. Employees can move in either direction in their development, and in a matter of days, weeks, or months. Before you read about the various leadership styles described in this model, ask yourself which level of readiness best describes you now in either your current job or a job you would like to take. Why would you say you are at that level? Have you changed levels? Do you want to change levels? What would you need from a supervisor, mentor, coach, or other leadership figure to advance or maintain? As you read about the leadership styles, try and identify what leadership style would be most appropriate in various situations in your life, whether you are on the receiving end of leadership or trying to lead others.
Leader Styles The style a leader chooses to adopt is thus based on the follower development levels. In this model, styles are—in varying degrees—either directive (task–oriented) or supportive, as seen on the horizontal axis and vertical axis in the upper portion of Figure 1.4. Low–to–high directive, or task, refers to how much direction the leader gives the follower: Does the leader levy clear orders (high) or give the follower room to take initiative (low)? Low–to–high supportive refers to how much support the leader gives the follower: Does the leader foster a warm mentorlike relationship (high) or remain aloof and official (low)? As you can see in the figure, the varying quantities and combinations of directive and supportive leadership result in four different styles in four quadrants: telling, selling, participating, and delegating. The colors in the figure show which styles are best matched with which follower readiness levels.
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Author and management expert Kenneth H. Blanchard talks about the benefits of participative management.
Telling (or directing), in the lower right quadrant, is a high–task–low–supportive style that meets the very basic, developmental needs of followers at the R1 level (where they are unable and unwilling or insecure). This style provides basic, explicit instructions, clear and direct communication regarding goal attainment, and close supervision of followers. At this level, followers' readiness and willingness are very basic. Instruction, telling, is what is needed, more than being sold on, coached, or participated with by a manager or leader. This is not to say that subordinates should be ill– treated, avoided, or neglected—not at all. Employees who are new or returning to the workforce or a different company, industry, or field may welcome this style in the beginning of their employment. Selling (or coaching), in the upper right quadrant, is a high–task–high–supportive style that meets the developmental needs of followers at the R2 level (where they are unable but willing or confident). This style is direct and provides open communication—sharing, asking questions, receiving information—on goal attainment. The style also provides social and emotional support to needs of followers by encouraging them in their efforts. This leadership style is effective with followers who may not yet have the experience or expertise for the job but want to contribute and are confident they can. Participating (or supporting), in the upper left quadrant, is a high–supportive–low–task style that meets the developmental needs of followers at the R3 level (where they are able but unwilling or insecure). This style does not overemphasize goal attainment. It offers support by praising, encouraging, and giving and receiving feedback as needed. This style can be effective with followers who are experienced and skilled but insecure in their capability to get the job done. Leaders who can offer challenging goals while participating when necessary can satisfy more highly skilled and creative followers. Delegating, in the bottom left quadrant, is a style of low concern for task and supportive behavior in relationships with followers who are at the R4 development level (where they are able and willing or confident). Little direction or support may be needed, since these followers take charge of the work and execution because they are able, willing, and confident. The leader empowers followers and teams to take responsibility for tasks depending on their judgment and initiative. This style is necessary when followers have as much experience as the leader—if not more—in specialized areas. Senior professionals in the workforce who respond to this style are ready, willing, and able to carry out assignments and may also have more relevant experience than their supervisors. This is an interesting style, since the leader must be both a coach and a supervisor.
Situational approach attributes more control to both leaders and followers, empowering them to respond to different situations rather than locking them into specific roles or styles. Blanchard and Hersey's model has reportedly been used in 400 of the Fortune 500 companies' training programs (Papworth, Milne, & Boak, 2009).
However, unlike prior approaches, there is a lack of a research history to verify situational approach. The leadership questionnaire used in Hersey and Blanchard's approach has been criticized because of its promotional rather than objective content. That is, it lacks a researched basis on which to gauge and interpret the results. There are also no demographic characteristics that suggest how education, age, experience, or gender would influence the effectiveness of the exchange between leader and follower. Neither does the theory explain differences between individual and group leadership. Should a leader of a group match her or his style to the average of the group development level or to each individual's development level in the group? (Northouse, 2010; Vecchio & Brazil, 2002). In the following sections, the theories take a different approach, in which the leader's style does not change but is still matched to the followers and the organization.
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1.5 Contingency Approach Contingency theorists continue to study leadership styles, but are interested in finding an effective fit between a leader's style, followers' characteristics, and the organizational setting. These approaches look at leaders whose styles match an organization's context, and effectiveness is contingent on how well the two match— hence the name of the theory. We will examine two contingency theories: Fiedler's theory, which seeks to prescribe a leader–situation match, and Path–Goal Theory, which focuses on the leader–follower relationship itself and how leaders motivate followers.
Fiedler's Theory
In Fiedler's theory, leaders examine their own style through a questionnaire, diagnose the specific organizational situation—also through a questionnaire—and then match the two. In this theory, the leader's style does not change.
Please take Assessment 1.5, the Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) questionnaire, before continuing; otherwise your results will be biased.
Assessment 1.5: Least Preferred Coworker (LPC)
Instructions: Think of the person with whom you can work least well. This may be someone you work with now or someone you knew in the past. It does not have to be the person you like least well, but it should be the person with whom you had the most difficulty in getting a job done. Describe this person, as he or she appears to you, by circling a number for each scale.
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Pleasant 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Unpleasant
Friendly 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Unfriendly
Rejecting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Accepting
Helpful 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Frustrating
Unenthusiastic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Enthusiastic
Tense 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Relaxed
Distant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Close
Cold 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Warm
Cooperative 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Uncooperative
Supportive 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Hostile
Boring 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Interesting
Quarrelsome 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Harmonious
Self–assured 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Hesitant
Efficient 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Inefficient
Gloomy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Cheerful
Open 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Gaurded
Scoring: Your LPC score is the sum of the answers to these 16 questions. A high score (greater than 76) reflects a relationship orientation, while a low score (less than 62) signals a task orientation.
Interpretation: According to Fiedler's work, a person with a high LPC score tends to be relationship oriented. These leaders generally tend to perform best under conditions of intermediate favorability. Leaders with a low LPC score are more task oriented, and they tend to function best under conditions of high and low favorability. Work by John K. Kennedy Jr. indicated that "the performance of middle LPC leaders is generally superior to that of the high and low LPC leaders" (1982, p. 1)*
Source: From F. E. Fiedler & M. M. Chemers, Leadership and Effective Management (Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman. 1974).
Leadership Style Determined Results of the LPC questionnaire, which asks you to recall your current and past coworkers and think of your least preferred coworker, indicate whether your style is task or relationship oriented—similar to the Michigan, Ohio State, and other models we discussed earlier.
The least preferred coworker is rated on a scale of 16 sets of contrasting adjectives, including supportive–hostile, pleasant–unpleasant, efficient–inefficient, and open– guarded. If the leader describes the least preferred coworker in positive terms, then the leader is considered relationship oriented—that is, the leader is caring, sensitive, and aware of other people's feeling. However, if the leader describes the coworker in negative terms, then the leader is considered task oriented—that is, the leader places more value on tasks than on people.
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In Fiedler's theory, leaders examine their own style through a questionnaire that diagnoses their specific organizational situation then match the two.
Situation Defined The organizational situation, or context, can be defined in terms of three dimensions: (1) the relationship between the leader and the organization members, (2) the ways tasks are structured, and (3) the amount of influence the leader has on subordinates. Each of these elements can be seen as favorable, moderate or intermediate, or unfavorable to the leader.
Figure 1.5 Fiedler Contingency Model
Source: From "The Effects of Leadership Training and Experience: A Contingency Model Interpretation," by F. E. Fiedler, 1972, Administrative Science Quarterly, 17, p. 455, Figure 1. Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications.
1. Leader–member relations measure the group climate or atmosphere. If the degree of confidence, trust, and respect members have in their leader is low, then leader–member relations are poor or unfavorable. If confidence, trust, and respect for the leader are high, then leader–member relations are good or very favorable. This element can also be moderate or intermediate, between favorable and unfavorable for the leader. This is the most important factor in defining the organizational situation.
2. Task structure is the degree to which job assignments are structured or unstructured, routine or nonroutine, unambiguous or straightforward, and easily understood or complicated. This is the second most influential factor of situational favorableness in Fiedler's theory. Structured situations offer leaders more influence, since the leader will have to spend less time with this element; therefore structured tasks are more favorable to leaders. Unstructured, ill–defined tasks and jobs are more unfavorable for the leader, since she or he will have to spend more time with this element.
3. Position power is the degree of influence a leader has over subordinates—hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salary raises. Position power is high when the leader has power to direct, evaluate, and reward or discipline subordinates. Position power is low when the leader lacks such power.
The bottom half of Figure 1.5 combines these three situational elements to create eight different situations, ranging from most favorable to least favorable. In observing Figure 1.5, you can see that
Situation I is the most favorable to the leader—leader–member relations are good, task structure is high, and leader position power is strong. Situation II is also favorable, but not as ideal as Situation I. Situation VIII is the most unfavorable for the leader, since leader–member relations are poor, task structure is low, and position power is weak. Situation VII is also unfavorable, but not as unfavorable as situation VIII. Situations III, IV, V, and VI are intermediate or moderate, representing a range of favorableness to the leader.
Determining the Leader–Situation Match
The upper half of Figure 1.5 compares how task– and relationship–oriented leaders would perform in the eight different situations, with high performance clearly being preferred. In Fiedler's model, task–oriented leaders perform better in highly favorable and highly unfavorable situations (I, II, VII, and VIII). Task–oriented leaders excel in highly favorable situations because everyone is cohesive, the tasks are understandable, and the leader has power. The leader steps in and leads. In unfavorable situations, the task–oriented leader also excels, because she or he defines the task and exerts authority over followers. Since leader–member relations are poor, a task– oriented leader's popularity will not be affected.
Relationship‐oriented leaders perform better in moderately favorable situations (IV, V, and VI), since people skills are needed to achieve increased group performance. A relationship‐oriented leader has the interpersonal skills to improve relationships, get tasks on track, and establish position power with members who moderately like the leader. These leaders also work more effectively in moderately favorable situations because, Fiedler theorized, in extreme situations they tend to overreact, and with less control provided, they may overfocus on relationships, thus failing to complete the tasks. It should be noted that research to date has not answered why
leaders with low LPC scores work effectively in extreme situations and those with high
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A relationship–oriented leader has the interpersonal skills to improve relationships. Get tasks on track, and establish power with members who moderately like the leader.
LPC scores do not. Contingency theory has been challenged based on the lack of verification of these assertions.
Consider the organization where you are working or wish to work. Using your LPC questionnaire results, determine how the combined three dimensions in your specific work situation add up to be very favorable, intermediate, or very unfavorable for you as a leader. How well do you fit in that organizational setting?
Fiedler assumed that leader's styles are inflexible; therefore, there are only two ways to increase leader effectiveness: (1) change the leader to fit the organizational context, as stated earlier, or (2) change the organizational context to fit the leader. Unlike in situational theory, this model does not allow for an individual or organization to change. Another problem is that practitioners have difficulty in understanding the LPC questionnaire and interpreting the variables in the model.
However, Fiedler's work was based on years of studies, many of which support his theory. Another relevant aspect of this theory and model is that leaders are not expected to be all things to all people or all organizations. Some styles work more effectively than others in different contexts. The model has also been useful to organizations that assess and identify professionals' strengths and capabilities for certain positions and assignments. For example, the model may be used (1) to help explain why an individual is not effective in a given position, even though the person is hard–working, conscientious, and loyal; (2) to help predict whether a person who has effectively worked in one position in a
company or organization can be as effective if moved into a different position in the same company; and (3) to help leaders and managers make changes in lower–level positions to ensure a good fit between a manager or employee and a particular work environment (Northouse, 2010).
Path–Goal Contingency Theory
Path–goal theory focuses on the leader—rather than the follower—and his or her responsibility to motivate followers to reach both personal and organizational objectives (Daft, 2011). Path–goal theory explains how individual employee performance fits with and is impacted by leaders' styles, tasks, and employee characteristics.
Developed by Robert House (1971), path–goal theory is the only leadership approach that focuses directly on the role of followers' motivation in accomplishing organizational goals. Although the theory is at first complex, it is appealing as a practical method that leaders can use to empower followers.
As the name of the theory suggests, leaders motivate followers by clarifying the path or emphasizing the goal. More specifically, the leader (1) defines the goals, (2) points to and clears the path to available rewards (possibly increasing them), and (3) supports the follower in achieving those rewards. The underlying logic of path– goal theory is that followers are motivated when they believe that (1) they are able to perform their work tasks, (2) their efforts will lead to certain outcomes, and (3) the payoffs from their work are worthwhile.
In this model, a leader's effectiveness also depends on matching his or her style with the followers' characteristics and demands of the task situation, and then taking steps to influence performance and satisfaction (House & Mitchell, 1974)—three contingencies that we will explore in more detail. Like in Hersey and Blanchard's situational approach, the leader is concerned with followers' developmental level and an organization's characteristics, but here a leader is also expected to address a subordinate's specific motivational needs. Table 1.2 depicts the interaction of the three contingencies that are necessary for leadership effectiveness.
Table 1.2 Path–Goal Model
Leadership Behavior Subordinate Characteristics Task Characteristics
Directive Provides guidance and psychological structure
Dogmatic Authoritarian
Ambiguous Unclear as to rules Complex
Supportive Provides nurturance
Unsatisfied Needing affiliation Needing human touch
Repetitive Unchallenging Mundane
Participative Provides Involvement
Autonomous Needing control Needing clarity
Ambiguous Unclear Unstructured
Achievement Oriented Provides challenges
Having high expectations Needing to excel
Ambiguous Challenging Complex
Source: From Leadership: Theory and Practice, 5th ed. (p. 131), by P. Northouse, 2010, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Copyright 2009. Used by permission.
Leader Styles Path–goal theory identifies four styles of leadership: directive, supportive, participative, and achievement oriented. As in situational theory, leaders in this model adapt their styles to followers' needs and work conditions. Leaders can show any or all of these styles and behaviors with different followers, depending on the circumstances and needs.
The directive leader tells followers what is expected of them and how to plan, control, and monitor tasks, make schedules, and follow procedures. This leadership style and behavior is related to the task–oriented styles discussed earlier, and is effective when the followers' roles and tasks are ambiguous and
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President Clinton's Management Style
Former Secretary of Labor and university professor Robert Reich talks about President Clinton's management style— and subsequent need for a strong Chief of Staff. Contrast the ideas in this clip with Kenneth Blanchard's comments in the prior clip. What are the strengths and weaknesses of each leadership style?
complex. The supportive leader is cordial and helpful and shows concern for followers' socioemotional needs and well–being. Supportive leadership is needed when followers' tasks are difficult and relationships are emotionally distressing. The participative leader consults with followers, solicits their input, asks for opinions and suggestions, meets with employees in their work spaces, and encourages dialogue and communication. This type of behavior and style is helpful when followers are personally involved in their work. The achievement–oriented leader sets clear and challenging goals for followers and expects high‐quality performance. This leader also shows confidence in followers and helps them learn how to obtain higher goals.
If you are a follower, which style do you respond to best? Why? If you are a leader, which style do you espouse?
Follower Characteristics Imagine that you have just joined an organization, and your supervisor has been trained in path–goal theory. Depending on what tasks you are assigned, how would you want and need a supervisor to assist you? What style and leadership role would work best to motivate you to achieve your work goals? As you read this section, think of your current or a previous work situation and what your motivational needs are or were with regard to carrying out your assignments. If you are in a leadership position, try to characterize your current subordinates based on these criteria.
Motivational needs—and thus a leader's approach—will differ based on three factors: the follower's ability to perform tasks; the follower's locus of control; and the follower's tendency to defer to others (authoritarianism).
The idea of ability discussed here directly mirrors the developmental level discussed in Hersey and Blanchard's situational theory. A follower who does not think he or she can do the work would require a directive leader who will provide specific instruction and training. A supportive leadership style would complement such a style for an insecure follower but would not be effective on its own. In contrast, a competent and confident follower would require less monitoring and would respond well to participative, achievement–oriented, or supportive leadership styles.
As discussed in personality theory, a follower with a high external locus of control believes outside forces determine the ability to achieve goals. This type of follower would need a directive leader. Likewise, a follower with a high internal locus of control believes one controls one's own life and takes responsibility for one's own goals. This type of follower would benefit from a participative leader who would invite the follower into decision making. Achievement–oriented and supportive leadership styles are less relevant here.
Finally, authoritarianism refers to a follower's need for an authority figure. An authoritarian or dogmatic follower prefers to defer to others and be told what to do and how. In environments that are high in uncertainty, this type of follower may need a directive leader to create a psychological structure and a comfort zone, to help the follower clarify goals and attain a greater sense of certainty. An achievement–oriented style may also be helpful here, but the primary need is for direction. For a follower who has a need for affiliation, or a relationship and emotional connection, a supportive leadership that is friendly and caring may be a helpful resource that enables a follower to achieve his or her goals. The collaborative nature of a participative leadership style may also appeal to this type of follower.
Task–Environment Characteristics Path–goal theory characterizes a task environment in terms of task structure, formal authority, and the follower's primary work group. Task structure refers to the characteristics of a task (or several tasks): Tasks may be complex and ambiguous with unclear rules, repetitive and unchallenging, or a mix of these two descriptions. Formal authority refers to the leader: The team leader may be too authoritarian or too lax and vague in giving instructions. A work group is self–explanatory; it encompasses those who work with a follower. Work–group members may be insensitive to an individual's motivational needs, or they may be caring and responsive.
Think of your task environment in your present job. What is the nature of your tasks? How much authority does the leader possess? What is your work group like? What leadership style would work best for you?
Taken together, the effects of these task–environment characteristics can be motivating or demotivating for followers. For example, when there are unstructured tasks with unclear goals, and the group is unsupportive, then an insecure new follower who has a need for affiliation will probably need a leader whose style combines supportive and directive characteristics. On the other hand, a highly skilled, competent, and overachieving follower may experience problems in a work environment that has clearly defined, routine tasks with a highly formal—even rigid—authority system and a work group whose norms include "If it isn't broken, don't fix it." In this situation, a leader whose style combines supportive and achievement–oriented behaviors may be helpful to the follower. The leader might suggest a change of work groups and work contexts after exploring the employee's needs and motivation further. Can you think of other task–environment scenarios and the styles—or combination of styles—that would be most effective in them?
Path–goal theory has continued to develop over the years—House added four additional styles in 1996 that will not be discussed here, but they are an example of how leadership theory often evolves alongside a changing work environment. Research results are mixed regarding this theory. Some studies support the relationship between directive leadership style and worker satisfaction when tasks are ambiguous, but other studies do not. Because of the complexity of the theory, critics argue that it is difficult to know which leadership style to use, and when, with any certainty. It is argued that the relationship between leader behavior and follower motivation has not been established.
There are other questions regarding the usefulness of the model. Practitioners cannot know if a particular leadership style affects followers' work motivation. Moreover, could follower dependency on leaders be created by this model? That is, could certain followers whose needs are not satisfied by a work context come to rely on a leader whose support and advice motivated them? Does this theory promote a one–way type of leader–follower exchange and relationship? More research is needed. However, even with these questions, the model contributes a practical and helpful method for followers and leadership by expanding on the dimensions of both task and consideration aspects of employer–employee relationships.
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Figure 1.6 The Competing Values Framework
From R. E. Quinn, Beyond Rational Management (San Francisco: Jossey‐Bass, 1988), p. 48. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
1.6 Contemporary Leadership Effectiveness The theories discussed earlier in this text paved the way for studying leadership effectiveness, but painted a picture of rather one–dimensional leaders and followers working in isolation: They did not include the entire organization or its external environment, nor were the leaders and followers viewed as performing multidimensional roles. For a "big picture" view of the context of leaders and managers, we turn to the Competing Values Framework (CVF), a model that brings together the organization, its changing environment, and leaders' competing roles, and also enables a descriptive and prescriptive examination of leaders' roles and activities with regard to their effectiveness. While it is beyond the scope and purpose of this chapter to explain the complete capacities of the CVF model, we will focus on its relevance to leaders and followers.
The Competing Values Framework: A Multidimensional Perspective
The Competing Values Framework (Quinn, Faerman, Thompson, McGrath, 2003) was named one of the 50 most important models in the history of management (ten Have et al., 2003). It has reportedly been used in organizations for over 25 years and offers a holistic way of studying leadership effectiveness. Cameron and Quinn (2009, p. 12) stated,
The Competing Values Framework serves as a map, an organizing mechanism, a sense–making device, a source of new ideas, and a learning system. It has been applied by researchers and practitioners to many aspects of organizations such as value outcomes, corporate strategy, organizational culture, core competencies, leadership, communication, decision making, motivation, human resources practices, quality, and employee selection.
As you can see in Figure 1.6, the CVF model argues that organizations exist in two dimensions (Quinn & Rohrbaugh, 1983). The first dimension is its organizational focus, which is plotted along the horizontal axis as internal versus external focus. The second dimension (on the vertical axis of the diagram) addresses how an organization handles stability and change, contrasting control and flexibility. The result is four quadrants, each with two roles that incorporate their adjacent axes. In prior theories, this kind of chart would suggest that a leader or an organization would fall into one of these eight categories, but in CVF, a leader or an organization must perform—or manage—all eight roles within the four quadrants; a quadrant can represent an individual leader's activities or a single part of an organization. The name of the framework, "competing values," reflects the tensions between these sometimes competing roles and focuses. Leaders and followers must try to fit and balance their roles and styles with each others' functional differences and with the organization's requirements to compete in its external environment. According to this model, organizations function effectively when they are positioned in the external (industry) environment that fits their product, service, and strategic goals and capabilities. For example, an environment that called for stable, routine types of products and services would not require a competitive, risk–taking type of leadership geared toward experimentation, nor would an environment that was highly turbulent and changing, where competitors flourished on innovative products, fit a leadership based on an orientation toward stability and routine. Leadership effectiveness using the CVF model, then, is the extent to which leaders can meet the requirements of the organization's internal and external challenges to achieve their goals. That is, leaders and managers must ensure that an organization's systems are both adaptable and flexible but also stable and controlled when navigating change.
Leading and Managing the Four Quadrants
As mentioned earlier, leaders must perform, or at least know how to manage, all eight roles within the four quadrants of the organization to be effective. (Remember, the framework represents the organization as a whole and its relationship to its internal and external environments.) However, we will also consider that each quadrant represents a different value orientation, and an organization may choose to focus more on one quadrant than the others. These quadrants, which will be referred to as "models" in subsequent paragraphs, may be separate, but they are highly interrelated and interwoven. They are the four subdomains of the larger construct, which is organizational and managerial effectiveness ("Competing Values Framework," 2010). The leader's responsibility is to ensure that those with competing values, objectives, and resources are aligned, integrated, and working toward the same vision, purpose, and goals of the enterprise.
To better understand the roles and critical activities that leaders and organizations must assume, let's look at each quadrant, or model, closely. Pay attention to which models share focus orientations and which models lie in opposition to each other. Also, in light of the assessments you have already completed, consider how well suited you are to work within these models and in what areas you might need more training and experience. Leaders, managers, and followers must all work with people from different quadrants, so it is helpful to understand the value and competency orientations of each.
Open–Systems Model The open–systems model, which is in the upper right quadrant and demonstrates flexibility and an external focus, values innovation, adaptation, growth, and resource acquisition. When dealing with the external environment in the open–systems model of the organization, the change is continuous and dynamic. Cameron and Quinn (2009, p. 16) noted: "Some organizations are viewed as effective if they are changing, adaptable, and organic—for instance, neither the product mix nor the organizational form stays in place very long at firms such as Microsoft or Nike—since agility and volatility typify their performance and are keys to their success." These organizations are more effectively oriented to the open–systems model. While not all organizations can operate successfully in this model, in today's changing environments most organizations must perform here to some extent. In this model, people are inspired, not controlled. Leaders assume innovator and broker roles. The innovator directs and guides change while the broker builds and maintains a power base and negotiates agreements. Leaders must lead and manage change, think creatively, present and promote the organization's progress and promise, and build and sustain a power base. These roles require interactions with venture capitalists, investment bankers, investors, change experts, and outside stakeholders, most of whom will have a vested interest in the organization.
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An excellent example of the human‐relations model is the Hewlett–Packard corporation's brands that are traditionally recognized for their "harmonious internal characteristics" which produce value for the company as well as consumers. It is known as "the H–P way."
Internal–Process Model The internal–process model, or the lower left quadrant, is opposite to and competes with the open–systems model, as it represents control and an internal organizational focus. This model stresses stability, control, documentation, and information management, and resembles the production orientation and task focus of the Michigan, Ohio State, and contingency theories discussed earlier. Organizations that fit in this model are seen as effective if they are stable, predictable, and mechanistic; Anheuser–Busch, the New York Stock Exchange, Coca–Cola, most universities, and government agencies fit here. These organizations value "longevity and steadiness in both design and output—so performance is consistent and even" (Cameron & Quinn, 2009). The skills of a CEO in this type of organization would be different from the skills of a leader at Nike, Microsoft, or Google, but again, all companies, regardless of size, must have operating systems to run their companies. This is where the internal–process model comes in. The chief operating officer, or COO, and the chief technology officer, or CTO, work with the CEO to ensure that the internal processes function to sustain the information, financial, and communication networks of the organization. These processes bring stability and control. In this model people are valued who are monitors and coordinators. Monitors manage individual and collective performance and analyze information. Coordinators manage and control projects and workflows. Managerial roles that work best in this model include monitoring, controlling, and coordinating. Technical software programmers, detail–oriented managers, and auditors represent professional orientations in this model.
Human–Relations Model The human–relations model, in the upper left quadrant, is focused on the internal and on flexibility in the organization, and stresses openness, commitment, participation, cohesion, and morale. Cameron and Quinn cite Dell and Hewlett–Packard as brands that are traditionally recognized for their "harmonious internal characteristics," which produce value for the company as well as consumers—hence, the "Dell way" or the "HP way" (2009, p. 16). (Note that current business practices in some of these companies may have shifted their value and expertise orientation due to turnarounds and downturns in the economy.) People are inherently valued in this model. They are viewed and treated not as isolated individuals, but as collaborative members of a common social system having a common stake in the organization's effectiveness. In this model, the leader and managers mentor and facilitate teams and individuals. Mentors work on developing employees and are thus able to communicate well and understand others. Facilitators build teams, manage conflict, and help people make decisions together. Emotional intelligence, awareness of different personalities, effective communication, and conflict– resolution skills are essential in these leadership roles. The employee and consideration orientations in the theories discussed earlier are similar to the roles here. Oprah Winfrey's consideration leadership style shares values and skills with the human– relations model. She focuses on communicating with her guests, staff, and crew members. She emphasizes understanding the self and others. Some of the human– resource functions, training and development, and team coordinators' responsibilities are found in this model.
Rational–Goal Model Opposite the human–relations model is the rational–goal model, which is in the lower right quadrant and is externally focused and control oriented. Toyota and Honda, for example, are known for "thinking globally but acting locally" when competing with American car companies. Instead of developing a centralized, uniform approach, the car companies encourage units to "adopt attributes of local environments" (Camerson & Quinn, 2009) This model emphasizes goal clarity, direction, productivity, and accomplishment. At the same time, it is possible for companies who are highly competitive but count on stable and predictable manufacturing processes to excel and be effective in the rational–goal model, for example, "companies that consistently outperform the market over time are those that have stable cultures, consistent visions, and dependable processes, including firms such as Harley–Davidson, Rubbermaid, and Walgreens" (Cameron & Quinn, 2009, p. 17). Over the decades, leadership in each of these firms has consistently read the markets in their changing environments and then created and adapted product strategies accordingly. Harley–Davidson's leadership, for example, is structured as three interlocking circles. These circle groups represent those who create demand, produce product, and provide support. The center, where these circles intersect, represents the company's so–called Leadership and Strategy Council, a small, innovative entity that identifies the business issues affecting the entire organization (e.g., strategic plans, human–resource policies, and operating budgets) and coordinates "cross– functional interdependent activities" (Merriman–Clarke, 2003).
Leaders must decide how strategic changes, according to the CVF approach, would fit the culture and individual followers in this model. People are valued in this model only if they contribute to an organization's ability to reach its goals. Leaders in the rational–goal model must take on director and producer roles. Directors set the vision, goals, and objectives, while producers work to foster a productive working environment. For example, John Chambers, CEO of the technology company Cisco Systems, is one of the most focused visionaries and goal setters in the business. In mid–2001, the company was reeling from negative growth of 45%. Chambers said that his mission was clear: "First, determine the vision and strategy; next, develop and recruit the leaders to implement the vision; third, develop the culture; and last, clearly communicate that vision and strategy to the entire organization." Today, Cisco is a market leader in its industry. "We knew what our strategy was, and we stuck to it. It was painful, but it made us a much stronger company," Chambers stated. "That's the scorecard to look back on at the end of the year" ("John Chambers," 2010).
The Competing Values Framework provides a comprehensive view of the organization that includes different levels of analysis (the environment and external outcomes, organizational and individual levels). Leaders, and you as students of leadership, can use this model in the following ways: First, the model can help in deciding what strategic direction an organization should take and in seeing how a particular strategy will affect the organization's external and internal dynamics. Which of the external environments in the CVF model best characterizes what the organization faces? Second, after deciding on the type of environment, you can identify which competencies and roles are needed by the leader(s) to effectively guide and equip the organization to meet external challenges. For example, an open– systems type of environment requires leaders to develop external, flexible competencies and strategies and take on the roles of innovator and broker. Third, the CVF can help leaders analyze the organization's present direction and implement change if needed. For instance, after examining the company's competitiveness and the environment, a leader may decide on a strategy based on control and stability to protect the market share the company has, or move to a change–and–compete strategy as Toyota successfully did in the U.S. auto industry. A control–and–stability strategy would emphasize efficiency measures; a change–and–compete strategy could emphasize innovation and market expansion. A leader must then consider how the company culture would be affected—and for whom—if he or she chose a more competitive strategy than the organization had. Individual skills, learning styles, and attitudes must also be considered. Again, as noted before, depending on the type of external environment that you determine an organization must compete in to succeed, you can identify the matching competencies and leadership roles required in that particular model.
The CVF addresses the following contingency–theory types of questions that you can also ask of organizations in which you work or which you observe or wish to study.
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Is the organization positioned (does it fit) in a suitable environment to effectively compete? Does the leader in the organization have the appropriate capabilities to perform the required roles and responsibilities for that organization? What roles and activities do leaders need to succeed at in meeting internal and external organizational demands? What are the competing internal organizational conflicts that leaders and followers need to know about to increase their (and the organization's) effectiveness? Are individual learning skills, motivations, and interests of followers a good fit within the organization (Lawrence & Noria, 2002)? Leadership effectiveness in this framework involves examining the fit between individual, group, organization, and environment—a multidimensional perspective.
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Ch 1 Summary Taken together, the theories and approaches discussed in this chapter present a foundational overview of early to recent history of leadership effectiveness. In the trait approach, we examined how researchers sought to link leadership effectiveness with certain traits and personalities. The situational approach showed how effective leaders could change their style to best fit the organizational situation at hand. We also saw in the contingency approach that leadership styles are unchanging, and the right leader must be matched with a suitable organizational context. Finally, the Competing Values Framework provided a holistic, contextual reference for linking effective leadership to different environments. An underlying aim of these theories and methods has been the search for how leaders can effectively guide and collaborate with followers to achieve the goals and work of the organization.
However, you may have noticed that a major theme of our discussion has been that there is no single or best leadership style that effectively matches an organization's requirements. Good leadership covers a range of styles, personality types, and skill sets—and it can be learned and developed. The key is knowing yourself and knowing how to apply your evolving style—as a leader or a follower—in your organization. The bottom line: Leaders and followers who work together and have shared purposes can achieve common goals—which brings us back to our original definition of leadership. In the following chapters, we explore models, methods, and knowledge that motivate leadership potential.
Web Links Imagine Leadership
What does leadership mean to you? XPLANE and Harvard Business School offer an introductory video titled "Imagine Leadership By XPLANE & Nitin Nohria" at http://youtube.com http://www.youtube.com/ (http://www.youtube.com/)
CEO Brain Scans
What makes a good leader? The BBC examines the brain scans of CEOs to see if anything can be revealed: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business‐11730685 (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business‐11730685)
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2 Transformational, Charismatic, and Ethical Leadership
While traditional leadership theories are still in use today, newer approaches have focused increasingly on leaders' actions and behavior, particularly those of dynamic leaders who are able to effect mass change. Recall that a critical component of leadership is influence. The theories presented in this chapter—transformational, charismatic, and ethical—explore the characteristics of leaders who can deeply influence followers and stakeholders of the organization. These three theories are sometimes interrelated; a transformational leader, for example, is likely to be charismatic as well. Ethical leadership is an evolving but increasingly important part of leadership studies because of the illegal and unethical corporate practices during the global financial meltdown and other crises. As you read, keep in mind that there is no single most effective leadership style, and consider what elements of each approach you would like to develop in your own leadership style or see in others. We will examine transformational leadership before discussing charismatic and ethical leadership.
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New York Police Chief Bill Bratton is a good example of a transformational leader because of the way he influenced, inspired, and moved followers to achieve New York Police Department organizational goals. Under him, citizen confidence in the police force rose markedly.
2.1 Transformational Leadership New York City, the so–called Big Apple, was called the Rotten Apple when police chief Bill Bratton arrived in 1994. Crime was rampant, and the New York Police Department's 35,000 officers were underpaid and unmotivated. Two years after Bratton's arrival, however, NYC became one of the safest cities in the United States: "Felony crime fell 39%; murders, 50%; and theft, 35%. Gallup polls reported that public confidence in the NYPD jumped from 37% to 73%, even as internal surveys showed job satisfaction in the police department reaching an all–time high" (Kim &Mauborgne, 2003).
How did Bratton succeed? He had a clear vision, goals, and methods for transforming and leading police departments. He ensured that officers led by example and were visible in the communities where they worked. "No one here can break the law in order to enforce it," he was known to have said. Bratton consulted with influential city councilors, court officials, media personnel, and community leaders in order to support his mission. He installed a sophisticated information system that tracked all police‐department data; statistics from that system were used to track trends of individual and overall performance. He also set a moral example and professional tone at the top. Bratton's success in New York—as well as in Boston and Los Angeles—was among the five organizational turnarounds he led in his 20–year policing career.
In a Harvard Business Review article, Kim and Mauborgne (2003) termed Bratton's style "tipping point leadership." They reported that Bratton strategically overcame cognitive, political, motivational, and resource hurdles to achieve the department's aggressive goals. "Perhaps most impressive," these authors stated, "the changes have outlasted their instigator, implying a fundamental shift in the department's organizational culture and strategy." In 2002, several years after Bratton left his New York position, New York's overall crime rate was the lowest among the 25 largest cities in the United States (Kim & Mauborgne, 2003).
Bratton is what leadership scholars would call a transformational leader. Transformational leaders influence, inspire, move, and literally transform followers to achieve organizational goals beyond their self‐interests (Burns, 1978), thus initiating and bringing about positive change. These leaders introduce new business models, products, and services because of their ability to create new organizational visions, strategies, cultures, and structures through committed followers (Tucker & Russell, 2004). At the same time, they positively change followers' lives, lifting spirits and even the commitment to ethics and morality. Alan Keith of the drug‐development company Genentech defined a central aspect of transformational leadership when he said, "Leadership is ultimately about creating a way for people to contribute to making something extraordinary happen" (Kouzes & Posner, 2007).
The increasingly competitive and demanding business environment of the early twenty‐first century requires leaders to champion transformational change. Turbulent changes—whether they be globalization, information‐technology innovations, or corporate scandals and crises—challenge leaders to think and perform creatively and boldly: They must develop new competitive strategies, restructure organizations, and change cultures and business processes to meet the product and service demands of changing markets. A transformational leader is equipped to meet this challenge.
Can just anyone be a transformational leader? As we discuss in this chapter, transformational leadership is not limited to a few great men and women. There are most likely such leaders in your organization; you may have transformational abilities and characteristics yourself. These qualities can be developed, but not everyone aspires or has the capacity to be exceptionally transformational. As with any skill presented in this book, different people will excel more with certain skills than others. Take Assessment 2.1 to get an idea of your capacity as a transformational leader.
Assessment 2.1: Transformational Leadership
Instructions: Think about a situation in which you either assumed or were given a leadership role. Think about your own behaviors within this context. To what extent does each of the following statements characterize your leadership orientation?
Click here to download a copy of this assessment. (https://media.thuze.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/constellation/book/AUMGT380.11.2/{assessments}assessment_2.1.doc)
Very Little
A Moderate Amount
Very Much
1. Have a clear understanding of where we are going. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2. Paint an interesting picture of the future for my group. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3. Am always seeking new opportunities for the organization/group. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4. Inspire others with my plans for the future. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5. Am able to get others to be committed to my dreams. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6. Lead by "doing," rather than simply by "telling." 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7. Provide a good model for others to follow. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8. Lead by example. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9. Foster collaboration among group members. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
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10. Encourage employees to be "team players." 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
11. Get the group to work together for the same goal. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
12. Develop a team attitude and spirit among employees. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
13. Show that I expect a lot from others. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
14. Insist on only the best performance. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
15. Will not settle for second best. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
16. Act without considering the feelings of others. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
17. Show respect for the personal feelings of others. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
18. Behave in a manner thoughtful of the personal needs of others. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
19. Treat others without considering their personal feelings. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
20. Challenge others to think about old problems in new ways. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
21. Ask questions that prompt others to think. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
22. Stimulate others to rethink the way they do things. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
23. Have ideas that challenge others to reexamine some of their basic assumptions about work.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
24. Always give positive feedback when others perform well. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
25. Give special recognition when others' work is very good. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
26. Commend others when they do a better‐than‐average job. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
27. Personally compliment others when they do outstanding work. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
28. Frequently do not acknowledge the good performance of others. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Scoring: Subtract your responses to questions 16, 19, and 28 from 8. There are seven dimension scores to be computed. Articulate vision: Sum your responses to questions 1 through 5 and divide by 5. Provide appropriate model: Sum your responses to questions 6 through 8 and divide by 3. Foster acceptance of goals: Sum your responses to questions 9 through 12 and divide by 4. High‐performance expectations: Sum your responses to questions 13 through 15 and divide by 3. Individual support: Sum your responses to questions 16 through 19 (using your adjusted responses for questions 16 and 19) and divide by 4. Intellectual stimulation: Sum your responses to questions 20 through 23 and divide by 4. Transactional leader behaviors: Sum your responses to questions 24 through 28 (using your adjusted response for question 28) and divide by 5.
My scores are: Articulate vision: _______. Provide appropriate model: ______. Foster acceptance of goals: ______. High–performance expectations: _______. Individual support: ______. Intellectual stimulation: ______. Transactional leader behaviors: ______.
Interpretation: Six basic dimensions of the transformational leader are profiled by this self‐assessment: articulate vision, provide appropriate model, foster acceptance of goals, high‐performance expectations, individual support, and intellectual stimulation. A high score (6 or greater) reflects a high behavioral orientation to engage in each of these behaviors. The seventh leadership dimension profiled here reflects your tendency to engage in behaviors characteristic of the transactional leader. A high score (6 or greater) reflects a strong behavioral orientation to give something to your followers in exchange for their giving something to you that as a leader you want (expect).
Source: From "Transformational Leader Behaviors and Their Effects on Followers' Trust in Leader, Satisfaction, and Organizational Citizenship Behaviors," by P. M. Podsakoff, S. B. MacKenzie, R. H. Moorman, and R. Fetter, 1990, Leadership Quarterly, 1(2), pp. 107–42. Reprinted with permission.
Characteristics of Transformational Leadership
The influencing process is central to the transformational leadership style. Transformational leaders not only move followers to concrete action—and extraordinary results—but they also transform followers in the process (Sashkin & Sashkin, 2003). Bass (1985, 1990), Bass and Avolio (1993, 1994 and Kuhnert (1994) argued that transformational leaders are motivated by strong internal values and ideals that enable them to influence and motivate followers to higher moral levels to achieve organizational goals. Followers believe they will be enriched while working toward positive goals.
Bass offered one of the most comprehensive definitions of transformational leadership:
Superior leadership performance—transformational leadership—occurs when leaders broaden and elevate the interests of their employees, when they generate awareness and acceptance of the purposes and mission of the group, and when they stir their employees to look beyond their own self–interest for the good of the group. Transformational leaders achieve these results in one or more ways: They may be charismatic to their followers and thus inspire them; they may meet the emotional needs of each employee; and/or they may intellectually stimulate employees. (1990, p. 21)
This definition can be refocused into the four I's, or the behaviors that enable transformational leaders to influence followers: idealized influence—also called charisma —inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration (Bass, 1990). These characteristics, while useful in isolation, are most powerful when used in conjunction to build up followers and thus produce performance beyond expectations—a distinguishing quality of transformational leadership (Gellis, 2001; Hay, 2006).
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President Franklin D. Roosevelt used idealized influence to inspire and rally Americans to his side in the Great Depression and World War II with his series of "fireside chats" on the radio.
Idealized Influence Idealized influence, or charisma, is based on the leader's personality, character, and behaviors, which followers wish to emulate. Transformational leaders are trusted, admired, and respected because of idealized influence (Bass, Avolio, Jung, & Berson, 2003); they become strong role models whom followers take pride in. President Franklin D. Roosevelt provides an example of a leader who used idealized influence. Despite his battle with a paralytic illness, Roosevelt, or FDR, was able to inspire and rally Americans to his side during the dark times of the Great Depression. He initiated friendly "fireside chats" with the public via the radio and spearheaded economic recovery with creative policies and daring activities. His popularity resulted in his being elected president four times—before presidential term limits were in effect. "If the leadership is truly transformational, its charisma or idealized influence is characterized by high moral and ethical standards," Bass wrote (1997). Notice that here, the focus is on the leader rather than the leader's position power or other contextual factors.
Inspirational Motivation Inspirational motivation refers to how a leader is able to move followers toward a goal, or perhaps a new idea. Inspirational leaders are able to express important purposes in simple ways and present an appealing view of the future, which draws followers (Bass, 1990). These leaders also encourage followers to buy into and become part of the overall organizational culture and environment; they also offer followers the opportunity to see meaning in their work and challenge them with high standards. To inspire followers, leaders encourage team spirit in rallies and meetings to reach goals of increased revenue and market growth for the organization; give speeches; engage followers in dialogue; and motivate by example. A classic example is Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" speech—a defining moment for the civil–rights movement at that time. Contemporary technology executives offer more recent examples: Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer is known for using his raucous but effectively engaging cheerleading style to lift expectations and competitive spirit among employees. Some of his speeches and appearances have even become viral videos, with several titled "Steve Ballmer Going Crazy." Apple CEO Steve Jobs is also a master at inspiring and motivating not only Apple employees, but also customers, the media, and technology geeks who love his new products. One business writer noted:
Leave it to Apple Chief Executive Steve Jobs to create a frenzy that gripped every gadget fan in the country. The hype, however, started with what I consider Jobs' best presentation to date—the introduction of the iPhone at the annual Macworld trade show in January. After watching and analyzing the presentation, I thought about five ways to distill Jobs' speaking techniques to help anyone craft and deliver a persuasive pitch. 1. Build tension ... 2. Stick to one theme per slide ... 3.Add pizzazz to your delivery ... 4. Practice ... and 5. Be honest and show enthusiasm. (Gallo, 2007)
Intellectual Stimulation Intellectual stimulation moves and supports followers to think and innovate "outside the box." Intellectual stimulation can include such leadership behaviors and practices as brainstorming, challenging the beliefs and norms of the group to innovate and be creative, promoting critical thinking and problem solving to make the organization better, and persuading and proposing new and even controversial ideas to followers without fear of punishment or ridicule. As part of breaking through rigid and reactive mindsets, Bill Bratton used a unique but simple technique in his police work to awaken followers and stakeholders to current problems and the need for change—what Kim and Mauborgne (2005) referred to as "break[ing] through the cognitive hurdle." He forced his managers to experience problems that cops on the beat and citizens in the city faced every day. His managers had to ride the New York City subway to and from work. For some it was their first experience being in the overcrowded underground system with the homeless, aggressive gangs, and youths jumping over the turnstiles without paying. Now, face to face with the reality that many of them had never encountered, the managers had a direct experience of the people whom they were paid to protect. It worked. They changed their lax way of leading and began connecting more with their subordinates to implement department goals.
Take the Lead: Transformational Leader: Leadership Balance and Focus
You have been with your organization for 5 years and have proven yourself as a future leader. You've worked hard, put in long hours, and shown that you are dedicated to doing whatever it takes to get the job done right. Your efforts have finally paid off: You've been promoted.
In your new role as team leader, you'll oversee five team members. Your department is currently going through a reorganization, which will result in three of your previous peers working for you, as well as two team members coming from other areas of the department.
You envision a bright career path from here. However, you realize that this initial leadership role will set the tone for future assignments—either roles of increasing leadership responsibilities or nonleadership! How can you ensure that you will be transformational enough? Consider the following:
1. What characteristics of idealized influence will you position as paramount in your new role? Click here for more information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm#)
Your personality, character, and behavior will come under the microscope of observation by those you now lead, as well as by the leaders who elevated you to your new position. The pressures associated with this perspective are incredible! You will be judged not only on what you say (the talk) but also on how you execute it (the walk).
2. How will you leverage your ability to project inspirational motivation with your new team? Click here for more information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm#)
Aiming low is often a problem in leadership. Sharing your passion with your new team and securing their commitment will be vital to your success as their new leader. However, they are not mindreaders; they will need to be able to visualize where you want to go together as a group. Then, working as a cohesive unit, you can build the plan for getting there.
3. In what ways will you provide intellectual stimulation? Click here for more information.
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The casual workplace of the 21st century allows employees great latitude not only in how they dress but in what actions they take during the workday. While the organization you work for may not have an air‐hockey table or PlayStation™ 3, there should be outlets that you provide, or situations you work with your team in, that provide intellectual stimulation.
4. How will you identify your new team's unique individualized considerations? Click here for more information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm#)
Your new team is made up of individual team members, each of whom has his or her own unique goals. Identify what their individual goals are by conducting a series of one‐on‐one meetings with them. Then, at monthly intervals, conduct "check‐in" meetings with them to identify progress toward those goals.
Individualized Consideration Individualized consideration offers attention and concern to followers. Leaders exemplify individualized consideration by offering individual coaching to followers, listening to their concerns, showing empathy to those who are demoralized or need uplifting, helping followers solve problems, providing counseling and emotional support when necessary, providing stimulation, and creating possibilities like higher–level assignments for talented followers. Herb Kelleher, chairman and CEO of Southwest Airlines from 1971 to 2008, remains one of the most personable and effective leaders in that industry and American business culture. He is known for the individual attention and concern he gave employees—as well as customers—regardless of their status or position in the company. Kelleher was known for constantly flying on Southwest's planes so he could talk to customers and employees about how Southwest was performing in a number of areas. One passenger reportedly sat next to Kelleher three times in 10 years. "Profit is a by–product of customer service. It's not an end in and of itself," Kelleher was known to have said (McConnell & Huba, 2001). He also joined employees and their family members in their homes, at company parties, and sometimes at hospitals. The husband of one employee recounted how, during that employee's 5‐hour high‐risk surgery, "Herb was with me there, holding my hand through the entire operation" (Sashkin & Sashkin, 2003).
Not all transformational leaders show individual consideration to followers in the same way. Leaders also mentor followers by teaching and sharing knowledge and skills in addition to showing emotional concern and support. Leadership mentoring includes discussing and sharing ideas to help followers and teams make the right strategic moves, developing communication methods and styles to ensure clear, effective, and constant communication, helping followers identify what makes them flourish, developing their capacity and resources for successful change, showing—again—empathetic support by listening to their concerns and facilitating processes designed for successful change ("Coaching Report #11," 2009).
Effectiveness of Transformational Leadership
In addition to transformational leadership's effect on followers, studies have shown that it can often lead to organizational success and better performance, whether in public, private, large, or small organizations. Keller's (2006) study of research‐and‐development firms found that high–scoring transformational project team leaders showed better–quality products after 1 year and had higher profits 5 years later.
Researchers have attributed transformational leaders' success to their ability to build consensus, motivate others, set goals, promote creativity, and take risks. Ling, Simsek, Lubatkin, and Veiga (2008) found that firms with transformational leaders were more likely to be engaged in corporate entrepreneurship because the firms had more decentralized responsibility with managers who were more likely to take risks.
Limitations of Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership is not effective in all organizational contexts. Much depends on the leader–follower dynamic, as well as the attitude of the follower. First, a transformational leader must be able to interact directly with followers to be most effective—rather than having to report to an external board of directors (Robbins & Judge, 2011) or deal with a highly bureaucratic, complicated, and large organization. For example, Ling, Simsek, Lubatkin, and Veiga (2008) found that transformational leaders had a higher impact on performance in smaller, privately held firms. Followers are more easily influenced if they are exposed firsthand to a leader's charisma and care for them. Second, followers must value group cohesiveness and be willing to cede authority for a transformational leader to be effective (Schaubroeck et al., 2007). Followers who possess more of a "lone wolf" mentality and prefer autonomy to teamwork will be less likely to listen to or be persuaded by a transformational leader.
The Competing Values Framework discussed at the end of Chapter 1 summarizes some of the roles and capabilities that transformational leaders perform in many of today's open‐system, flexible organizations: creative thinking, calculated risk taking, and high involvement with followers and stakeholders. However, transformational leaders' work also involves strategic planning and co‐managing complicated tasks, and this requires the ability to maintain a stable, running organization in addition to orchestrating change. Just as a leader must sometimes handle so–called managerial tasks, a transformational leader sometimes needs to adopt what leadership scholars call a transactional mind‐set.
The Need for Transactional Leadership
Transactional leaders, in contrast to transformational leaders, perform more routine but essential leadership and managerial tasks. Like the traditional model of managers discussed in Chapter 1, transactional leaders plan, schedule, control, and work with subordinates on detailed tasks. Without these leaders' contributions, organizational goals would not be implemented. Lussier and Achua wrote, "Transactional leadership seeks to maintain stability rather than promoting change within an organization through regular economic and social exchanges that achieve specific goals for both the leaders and their followers" (2007). Transactional leaders focus on managing consistent, quality performance from followers to achieve organizational goals and objectives (Bryant, 2003). Their work is mostly transaction or exchange based; in other words, they respond to, reward, support, and structure followers' contracted effort and performance (Jung & Avolio, 1999). Followers who perform well are rewarded, while followers who perform poorly are punished.
Characteristics of Transactional Leadership Several studies have identified the following characteristics of transactional leaders. Not all transactional leaders embody these characteristics, but all of the characteristics are illustrative of the exchange‐based nature of the style.
The contract reward (or contingent reward) is used to motivate followers to perform by promising rewards for good performance (Bryant, 2003). Rewards of this type
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Transactional leaders focus on managing consistent, quality performances from followers to achieve organizational goals and objectives. Followers who perform well are rewarded.
Figure 2.1 Characteristics of Transactional and Transformational Leaders
Source: From "From Transactional to Transformational Leadership: Learning to Share the Vision," by B. Bass, 1990, Organizational Dynamics, Winter 1990, p. 22. Copyright 1990 by American Management Association. Reprinted with
permission.
Transformational leadership can be more effective in creating and sharing knowledge at the individual and group levels whereas transactional leadership can be more useful at exploiting knowledge at the organizational level.
include (1) exchange of rewards for effort contracted, (2) rewards for achieving goals promised, and (3) recognition for accomplishments. (Hay, 2006). This type of exchange relationship between leader and follower may be transitory, depending on the negotiated contracts and assignment (Lussier & Achua, 2007). Some researchers have suggested that contingent‐reward leadership may not be only a characteristic of transactional leaders; transformational leaders also have to negotiate and broker significant contracts and can thus utilize contingent rewards to influence followers. In fact, some suggest that the transformational behavior in the 4‐I model may not always be superior in effectiveness to some
transactional behavior.
Management by exception has two types: active and passive. Active management by exception is when a leader observes and searches and takes corrective action. Bass, who identified these particular characteristics of transactional leaders, did not state what specific types of corrective action a manager takes—that is, whether or not punishment is offered, rewards withheld, and so on. Passive management by exception, according to Bass (1990), is when a manager intervenes only if standards are not met. Again, Bass (1990) did not specify what types of interventions are used or called for. Since he focused more on transformational leadership and stated that "transformational leaders have better relationships with their supervisors and make more of a contribution to the organization than do those who are only transactional," perhaps we can assume that motivating followers with a transformational style of leadership may be advised whenever possible.
Laissez–faire leadership abdicates responsibilities and avoids observing, giving feedback, and making decisions. It is the least effective of all a leader's characteristics (Bass, 1990). This approach differs from passive management by exception in that a manager may not even detect errors in subordinates' work.
Transactional and Transformational Leadership Compared While transformational and transactional styles are often seen as lying in opposition to one another, transactional characteristics complement transformational leadership. While transformational leadership contributes to developing and changing people, transactional leadership deals with what can be important but more routine functions (Sashkin & Sashkin, 2003). Bryant (2003) found that transformational leadership could be more effective in creating and sharing knowledge at the individual and group levels, whereas transactional leadership could be more useful at exploiting knowledge at the organizational level. Scholars generally agree that effective leaders use elements of both transformational and transactional styles to achieve organizational goals, as situations require (Bass, Avolio, Jung, & Berson, 2003; Judge & Piccolo, 2004). However, it should be noted that while a leader can be solely transformational and effective, leaders who are competent but solely transactional in nature may be less strategic, less inclined and able to motivate large–scale organizational change, and more inclined to implement routine and predictable organizational tasks.
Are women more transformational as leaders than men? Does gender matter here? Not really; research has shown that women are as much transformational leaders as men are. One field of research found that women tend to utilize transformational styles more often than men (Eagly, Johannesen‐Schmidt, & Engen, 2003). When women did turn to the transactional style, they preferred to use contingent rewards to influence behavior. Men, on the other hand, tended to use management by exception and laissez‐faire leadership. A 1999 study concluded that "female students in a masters of business administration program viewed themselves higher in masculine characteristics than in feminine characteristics. Findings from that study indicate that masculine gender role characteristics, rather than biological sex, may be the crucial aspect of gender that is related to leader emergence" (Gedney, 1999, 7; Linda , 1997, 152). However, there is no biological evidence that gender is a determining factor of transformational leadership, and regardless of gender, effective leaders strategically use components of both styles to achieve organizational goals as situations require.
The Transactional–Transformational Leadership Continuum
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Figure 2.2 Transactional–Transformational Leadership Continuum
Source: From Organizational Behavior, 14th Edition, by S. Robbins and T. Judge, 2011, p. 392. Boston: Prentice Hall. Reprinted with permission of Pearson Education, Inc.
Another way to think about transformational and transactional leadership is to consider their respective characteristics as lying on a continuum of passive to active and ineffective to effective leadership (Robbins & Judge, 2011). Figure 2.2 shows the full range of leadership characteristics a leader can use—individually or in combination—when relating to and influencing followers. The vertical axis ranges from ineffective to effective leadership. The horizontal axis moves from passive to active leadership. The three transactional characteristics (laissez‐faire, management by exception, and contingent reward) are more passive and ineffective and are thus in the lower part of the diagram, with laissez‐faire being the most passive and ineffective leadership characteristic. Management by exception is slightly better than laissez‐faire because leaders interact with their followers to observe and correct errors, but it remains a less ideal management style since followers usually benefit from having more feedback. Contingent reward may be effective in motivating followers and ensures that they perform according to their contracted assignments and position requirements; however, it does not necessarily inspire followers to perform outside their comfort zone, and it limits the leader‐follower relationship, as there is no emotional connection or concern for the follower.
The remaining four transformational characteristics inspire and influence followers to move beyond their interests to fulfill the organization's goals. Each of these four I's—or the four influencing characteristics of transformative leaders (idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration)—has been empirically demonstrated, when used together or separately, to lower follower turnover and absenteeism while increasing productivity, morale, and satisfaction. Followers who are led by effective transformative leaders have also shown greater adaptability and exerted more effort in meeting organizational objectives. Moreover, leaders are more effective when they apply each and all of the four influencing characteristics on a regular basis (Robbins & Judge, 2011).
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Presidential Leadership & Core Values
Former Secretary of State James A. Baker talks about the qualities that he believes make a president a good leader.
2.2 The Leadership Challenge: A Model of Transformational Leadership How does a leader who effectively blends transformational and transactional skills behave? In the mid–1980s, leadership researchers Kouzes and Posner began a project that they hoped would answer that question. They interviewed over 1,300 middle and senior‐level managers in both public‐ and private‐sector organizations, asking them to identify their "personal best" leadership experiences. Based on their interviews, Kouzes and Posner determined that effective leaders engage in five leadership practices to accomplish extraordinary things: They model the way, inspire a shared vision, challenge the process, enable others to act, and encourage the heart.
Kouzes and Posner's five practices are available to anyone who accepts what they have termed as the leadership challenge. Their five practices have stood the test of time, and our most recent research confirms that these practices are as relevant today as they were when these authors first began their investigation over two decades ago. (Brown, 2008)
We should note here that later research has shown that transformational leadership is not only about practices but also about personality, since personality and other factors influence leadership behavior—which can be learned. As we discuss each of the five practices, observe how they embody Bass's four I's of transformational leadership.
Model the Way
From their interviews with leaders, Kouzes and Posner learned that leaders reported on experiences that demonstrated their "personal best" when leading others—when they stood up for their beliefs and modeled the way. To do this, leaders must first be clear about their own principles and values and then clearly articulate and communicate those principles and values to their followers. Kouzes and Posner quoted Lindsay Levin, chairwoman of the Whites Group in England: "You have to open up your heart and let people know what you really think and believe."
Leaders, then, should model the behavior they expect of others and act consistently from their beliefs. They have to talk the talk and walk the talk. Or, put another way, action speaks louder than words. Kouzes and Posner (2011) stated that the personal–best projects that leaders wrote about repeated themes of relentless effort, steadfastness, competence, and attention to detail. Leading by example demonstrates that they are serious about their behavior and the organization's beliefs and principles. The authors quoted an engineer from their interviews as saying, "One of the best ways to prove something is important is by doing it yourself and setting an example." That leader noted that she didn't ask her team to do anything she wasn't willing to do herself. Consequently, the trust between her and the team was mutually edifying.
While the leaders were engaged in designing larger operational and strategic plans, they always gave time to simple things with followers. The authors noted that the leaders they observed "were about the power of spending time with someone, of working side by side with colleagues, of telling stories that made values come alive, of being highly visible during times of uncertainty, and of asking questions to get people to think about values and priorities."
Inspire a Shared Vision
Effective leaders dream and envision, then effectively translate those dreams and visions into plans, goals, and road maps for followers to implement. When leaders described their personal‐best leadership experiences to Kouzes and Posner, they related stories of times when they imagined exciting and attractive futures for their organization. They envisioned possibilities of what could be. They also believed and had absolute confidence that extraordinary things could happen from their dreams. Kouzes and Posner noted, "In some ways, leaders live their lives backward. They see pictures in their mind's eye of what the results will look like even before they've started their project, much as an architect draws a blueprint or an engineer builds a model."
Effective leaders not only had inspirational dreams and visions of what their organizations could be, but they could clearly communicate these pictures in detail. To attract followers, leaders have to present a compelling common vision for others to believe. Inspiring a shared vision is a process: Leaders have to know and understand followers' hopes, aspirations, dreams, and values as well as their own; leaders have to speak the language of their followers; and followers have to also believe that their leaders understand them and their needs and interests. As Kouzes and Posner said, "Leadership is a dialogue, not a monologue." A merchandise manager told the authors about sharing her vision: "If you don't believe enough to share it, talk about it, and get others excited about it then it's not much of a vision!"
Kouzes and Posner noted that the people in their study reported that they were very enthusiastic about their personal‐best projects, and that their enthusiasm was contagious. Followers' beliefs in and enthusiasm for the vision were "the sparks that ignited the flame of inspiration."
Transformational leaders who can also be charismatic (which we discuss in a following section) communicate their visions with stories, metaphors, and passionate imagery. Martin Luther King Jr.'s vivid "I Have a Dream" address—delivered in Washington, DC, on August 28, 1963—stands as one of the most compelling vision statements in history. King not only breathed life into the hopes and dreams of others, but he infused a passionate desire for freedom in all who listened—and continue to listen—to that speech. His speech also reflected vision elements that charismatic leaders, in particular, use to rally followers: Leaders include purpose and often a moral appeal to the common good or to a cause that underlies a particular ideal end state; they seek commitment, devotion, and sometimes sacrifice in their appeal; and they appeal to the emotions and passions as well as logical levels of sentiment to forge unity of purpose among followers (Langbert & Friedman, 2003).
Challenge the Process
The key elements of challenging the process are (1) taking calculated risks and having a pioneer mind‐set; (2) challenging the status quo in search of a better way of doing things or of making things better; (3) not relying on luck, chance, superstition, or someone else to bring change; (4) creating a supportive climate of experimentation and embracing failure as a process that leads to innovation; and (5) creating a learning organization where followers feel comfortable taking charge of their work and committing to change that supports new ideas and processes (Kouzes and Posner, 1995).
A product‐marketing manager told Kouzes and Posner, "Mediocrity and the status quo will never lead a company to success in the marketplace. Taking risks and
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Kouzes ad Posner developed a simple test to determine whether a person could be a leader. During an interview how often does the interviewee use the words "we" and "I"?
believing that taking them is worthwhile." He continued by saying that risk taking and believing in the risks "are the only way companies can 'jump' rather than simply climb the improvement ladder." Challenge is at the heart of change, and taking risks to challenge the status quo is the beginning of innovation. Every leader in these authors' study took some type of risk and challenge to move beyond the status quo in their organization, whether it was developing a new product or "killer app," introducing a new piece of legislation, creating a campaign to launch an environmental program, or launching a start‐up plant or business.
Mahatma Gandhi was known to have said, "Be the change you seek." Leaders are pioneers; they step into the unknown, searching for opportunities to develop, improve, and create new ways of doing things. No leader in Kouzes and Posner's study depended on luck or being in the right place at the right time for opportunities to come to them. One person at Intel stated that leaders should always be looking to improve their team, take initiative, network, stay current and competitive, take an interest in what is happening outside of their job or organization, and try new things.
The authors were quick to emphasize that innovation does not come from the leaders alone. Rather, product and service improvements, changes, and new creations come more from listening to others. Those who were doing the work and on the front lines—customers, clients, vendors—were often the sources of innovation, Kouzes and Posner discovered. Consequently, "leaders must constantly look outside themselves and their organizations for new and innovative products, processes, and services."
Initiating change that leads to innovation requires that leaders create a climate for experimentation and a learning organization: People should be able to sense a willingness to challenge the system and status quo in order to experiment with innovations that lead to new products, services, and processes. Furthermore, people should not be expected to get things right the first time; they can fail and try again. The authors noted, "Leaders must pay attention to the capacity of their constituents to take control of challenging situations and become fully committed to change. You can't exhort people to take risks if they don't also feel safe." Also, leaders are not expected to be inventors, but rather "patrons and adopters of innovation." Kouzes and Posner state that "life is the leader's laboratory, and exemplary leaders use it to conduct as many experiments as possible. Try, fail, learn. Try, fail, learn. Try, fail, learn. That's the leader's mantra. Leaders are learners. They learn from their failures as well as their successes, and they make it possible for others to do the same."
Enable Others to Act
Leaders get things done through other people. Leading through other people requires building trust by exhibiting competence and confidence. It also requires collaborating with others while holding them accountable. In looking over thousands of personal‐best cases, Kouzes and Posner noted how frequently interviewees used the word we and discovered that people used we more often than I in their personal‐best leadership experiences.
"Leaders enable others to act not by hoarding the power they have but by giving it away. Exemplary leaders strengthen everyone's capacity to deliver on the promises they make," Kouzes and Posner wrote. Followers have to be involved, given feedback, updated, and kept in the information loop. The authors quoted a person in one of their workshops who worked with a communications department and said that "inclusion (not exclusion) ensures that everyone feels and thinks that they are owners and leaders—this makes work much easier."
Since virtual organizations—companies that operate almost solely electronically—are as much the norm as the exception in today's business environment, leaders must cooperate with stakeholders and followers distributed across geographies and time zones. This includes all those who have a stake in the vision—peers, managers, employees, clients, suppliers, partners, citizens, and so on. Leaders must ensure that all complete their work and meet organizational goals, and motivate everyone to work with energy and produce quality results. This often requires leaders to engage their personal sense of power, ownership, and responsibility. Traditional command‐and‐control leadership techniques will not work, the authors stated, in the new dispersed organizational settings.
Leaders must also take care that their styles do not intimidate, alienate, or distance, people, or make them feel weak, undeserving, dependent, or mediocre. Participants in Kouzes and Posner's working sessions reportedly observed that when leaders empowered their followers (made them feel capable, strong, and trusted), followers gave efforts and results that exceeded even their own expectations. Through empowering relationships, followers become leaders themselves.
Encourage the Heart
Effective leaders encourage, support, and recognize followers for their work throughout their relationship, which can be key when people are exhausted or frustrated. Kouzes and Posner acknowledged that encouragement is a "serious business." An organizational climate where people feel valued, cared for, and appreciated by their leaders and peers is a highly effective motivator. Effective leaders often take the time to recognize individuals and teams when a job or assignment is completed; as the authors noted, sometimes a thank‐you note or e‐mail can be elevating. Some leaders have created newsletters with success stories of employees; others have instituted public recognition programs that offer awards and simple appreciation notices for work well done.
Leaders who demonstrate their support for followers are in effect linking intrinsic as well as extrinsic rewards with performance. Authentically encouraging the heart also promotes unity and solidity: It develops a strong collective identity and community spirit and tells followers that their behaviors are aligned with the leader's and organization's values (Kouzes & Posner, 2011).
Taken together, these five leadership practices (Table 2.1) show everyone in the organization what effective leaders do and how they do it. They also provide guidance for aspiring leaders and reinvigorate effective leadership characteristics for those in such positions.
Table 2.1: The Leadership Challenge
Leadership Practice Leadership Behavior
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Model the Way
1. Find your voice by clarifying your personal values 2. Set the example by aligning actions with beliefs
Inspire a Shared Vision
3. Envision the future by imagining exciting possibilities 4. Enlist others in a common vision by appealing to shared aspirations
Challenge the Process 5. Search for opportunities by seeking innovative ways to change, grow, and improve 6.Experiment and take risks by constantly generating small wins and learning from mistakes
Enable Others to Act
7.Foster collaboration by promoting cooperative goals and building trust 8. Strengthen others by sharing power and discretion
Encourage the Heart
9. Recognize contributions by showing appreciation for individual excellence 10. Celebrate values and victories by creating a spirit of community
Note. Leadership behaviors from "Kouzes Posner Model," retrieved from http://www.coachingcosmos.com/33.html (http://www.coachingcosmos.com/33.html)
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Charismatic leaders like President Barack Obama cause people to respond to to the leader's personality and behavior in a number of ways.
2.3 Charismatic Leadership A charismatic leader is one who is able to draw and influence followers through the sheer force and magnetism of his or her personality, rather than through his or her position or organization. The word charisma—the root of charismatic—was defined earlier in the chapter as another term for idealized influence, or one of the four I's of transformational leadership: the ability to inspire trust, conviction, and vision for change. Such leaders are admired as role models, generating pride, loyalty, confidence, and alignment around a shared purpose (Yukl, 1994). Charismatic leadership has been called "a fire that ignites followers' energy and commitment, producing results above and beyond the call of duty" (Klein & House, 1995).
Sociologist Max Weber said more than six decades ago that a charismatic leader has
a certain quality of an individual personality, by virtue of which he or she is set apart from ordinary people and treated as endowed with supernatural, superhuman, or at least specifically exceptional powers or qualities. These are not accessible to the ordinary person and are regarded as of divine origin or exemplary, and on the basis of them the individual concerned is treated as a leader. (Weber, 1947)
Weber's words are in line with the notion that leaders are born, not made. Based on that description, it is not surprising that charisma originally meant "gift" in Greek.
Unlike transformational leadership, charismatic leadership is more about charm and less about change: Charismatic leaders have been called "impression managers" (Giacalone and Rosenfield, 1991) and described as visionaries who have a strong desire for power. Avolio and Bass (1988) wrote that "the purely charismatic [leader] may want followers to adopt the charismatic's world view and go no further," hinting at the "dark side" of charismatic leadership that has resulted in the formation of cults (1988).
However, it is quite likely that a charismatic leader will be transformational; some scholars have argued that the two are very similar (House and Shamir 1993; Hunt 1999), and that "charismatic leaders by nature are transformational" (Lussier & Achua, 2007). In contrast, transformational leaders are not all charismatic; they can influence and inspire followers in other ways. For example, they can address followers' emotional needs through individualized consideration, intellectual stimulation, and reasoning about the need for change.
Regardless, charismatic leaders have "profound and unusual effects on followers" (Yukl, 1994). Some researchers have actually defined charismatic leadership as "transformational leadership seen from the followers' viewpoint" (Conger & Kanungo, 1992). Weber, in fact, did not claim that charismatic leaders' influence was primarily based on or limited to personality traits, despite his glowing "divine" description. Although a leader's character traits were important, he saw charismatic authority mainly as a relationship between a leader and his or her followers.
According to Robert House, followers respond to the leader's personality and behavior in a number of ways: They identify with the leader and feel more confident, emotionally involved, and inclined to obey the leader. They trust the leader's ideology and raise their own goals.
For example, when Ronald Reagan ran for president in 1981, voters expressed the need for hope, optimism, and change. American hostages were still imprisoned in Iran, the economy was worsening, and there was a mood of helplessness in the country. Reagan, nicknamed "the Great Communicator," offered a vision of recovering the United States' status as a proud, confident, and strong world power. The voters accepted and endorsed his positive vision and vibrant style. Similar scenarios were repeated later in the elections of two other highly charismatic leaders, Bill Clinton and Barack Obama.
Simply stated, from a charismatic‐leadership perspective, followers want and need leaders with whom they can identify and who can offer and clearly communicate a vision of a better future. They also want leaders who inspire, arouse, and excite them to achieve higher expectations and goals. House stated that charismatic leadership was more likely to be effective in distressing or crisis situations, in which followers need and desire help from an extraordinary leader. Although this has not been entirely confirmed by studies, it is repeated as a plausible generalization.
We will spend the remainder of this section examining charismatic leaders themselves: their behavior and the different types scholars have identified.
Assessment 2.2: Do You Have Charisma?
Instructions: This short quiz will help you determine whether you have characteristics that are associated with charismatic leaders. Circle the answer that best describes you.
Click here to download a copy of this assessment. (https://media.thuze.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/constellation/book/AUMGT380.11.2/{assessments}assessment_2.2.doc)
1. I am most comfortable thinking in a. Generalities b. Specifics
2. I worry most about a. Current competitive issues b. Future competitive issues
3. I tend to focus on a. The opportunities I've missed b. The opportunities I've seized
4. I prefer to
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Walt Disney is an example of a leader who was able to envision and articulate compelling idealized goals that eventually came to fruition. He had a vision of "the happiest place on Earth" and convinced financiers to invest in it.
a. Promote traditions and procedures that have led to success in the past b. Suggest new and unique ways of doing things
5. I tend to ask a. How can we do this better? b. Why are we doing this?
6. I believe a. There's always a way to minimize risk b. Some risks are too high
7. I tend to persuade people by using a. Emotion b. Logic
8. I prefer to a. Honor traditional values and ways of thinking b. Promote unconventional beliefs and values
9. I would prefer to communicate via a. A written report b. A one–page chart
10. I think this quiz is a. Ridiculous b. Fascinating
Scoring and Interpretation: The following answers are associated with charismatic leadership: 1. a; 2. b; 3. a; 4. b; 5. b; 6. a; 7. a; 8, b; 9. b; 10. b
Source: From Daft, The Leadership Experience 4th ed. Copyright © 2008 South‐Western, a part of Cengage Learning, Inc. Reproduced by permission. www.cengage.com/permissions
Behavior of Charismatic Leaders
Robert House described charismatic leaders as being dominant and self‐confident as well as possessing a strong desire to influence and a strong sense of their own moral values. However, they face three fundamental challenges in terms of their followers and their vision, according to Conger and Kanungo (1998): Charismatic leaders must (1) ensure followers are extremely committed and perform accordingly; (2) instill in their followers the necessary values, beliefs, and behaviors to realize their vision; and (3) devise and execute strategic initiatives to further that vision. Conger and Kanungo (1987, 1998) identified five behaviors charismatic leaders use to influence their followers: vision and articulation, sensitivity to the environment, sensitivity to member needs, unconventional behavior, and personal risk‐taking.
Vision and Articulation Charismatic leaders create and articulate compelling visions, called idealized goals, that offer a better future than the status quo. They present the positive aspects of this desired future state while painting an unattractive, undesirable picture of the present situation, thus emphasizing the discrepancy. They are also able to clarify and explain the importance of the vision for everyone to understand and inspirationally communicate the vision using stories, metaphors, anecdotes, and analogies.
The more a leader is perceived and experienced as likeable, knowledgeable, and trustworthy, the more likely it is that the leader's advocacy and idealized vision will be acceptable to followers (Conger & Kanungo, 1987; Hovland & Kelley, 1953). Leaders target their audience for specific impact and make everyone feel as if they are being personally addressed, thus "increasing people's feelings of worth and belonging" and motivating greater involvement and productivity (Dinkmeyer & Eckstein, 1996, p. 152).
Automobile manufacturer Henry Ford, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Walt Disney offer examples of leaders who were able to envision and articulate compelling idealized goals that eventually came to fruition. In 1908, Henry Ford presented his vision of the first automobile in America:
I will build a motor car for the great multitude. ... It will be so low in price that no man making a good salary will be unable to own one and enjoy with his family the blessing of hours of pleasure in God's great open spaces. ... When I'm through, everybody will be able to afford one, and everyone will have one. The horse will have disappeared from our highways, the automobile will be taken for granted ... [and we will] give a large number of men employment at good wages. (quoted in Collins & Porras, 1994).
The fulfillment of Ford's vision can be seen on our highways today. Churchill's 1940 address to the British Parliament before entering World War II demonstrates how a leader can motivate and inspire while describing a bleak alternate future:
Hitler knows he will have to break us on this island or lose the war. If we can stand up to him, all Europe may be free, and the life of the world may move forward into broad, sunlit uplands. But if we fail, the whole world, including the United States, including all we have known and cared for, will sink into the abyss of a new Dark Age, made more sinister and perhaps more protracted by the lights of perverted science. Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duties and so bear ourselves that if the British Empire and its Commonwealth last for a thousand years, men will still say, "This was their finest hour." (quoted in Collins & Porras, 1994)
And finally, Walt Disney would originally pitch his idea of "the Happiest Place on Earth" in the early 1950s to potential financiers using the following glowing description:
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The idea of Disneyland is a simple one. It will be a place for people to find happiness and knowledge. It will be a place for parents and children to spend pleasant times in one another's company; a place for teachers and pupils to discover greater ways of understanding and education. Here the older generation can recapture the nostalgia of days gone by, and the younger generation can savor the challenge of the future. Here will be the wonders of Nature and Man for all to see and understand. Disneyland will be based upon and dedicated to the ideals, the dreams and hard facts that have created America. And it will be uniquely equipped to dramatize these dreams and facts and send them forth as a source of courage and inspiration to the entire world. Disneyland will be something of a fair, an exhibition, a playground, a community center, a museum of living facts, and a showplace of beauty and magic. It will be filled with the accomplishments, the joys and hopes of the world we live in. And it will remind us and show us how to make those wonders part of our lives. (quoted in Nanus, 1992, p. 288)
Reprinted by permission of The Walt Disney Company.
Sensitivity to the Environment A charismatic leader scans and reads the environment to pick up concerns, moods, feelings, and issues of external stakeholders in order to tailor the vision and actions to relevant groups and individuals. Here the leaders' knowledge, experience, and expertise are critical. At a general level, most leaders—including noncharismatic leaders—generally identify and implement a strategy by first performing an environmental analysis using a SWOT approach: they identify the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats regarding markets, competitors, external groups, and resources. A SWOT analysis is done using existing data, surveys, and other information sources to discover if the company has any strategic advantages. Charismatic leaders also pick up on clues from others that help build a bond with those needed to adopt their vision and goals. This ability to pick up on clues in an internal environment can also serve to uncover unethical or illegal activities. Former WorldCom vice president Cynthia Cooper, for example, noticed in 2002 that there were irregularities in the telecommunications company's accounting (Lacayo & Ripley, 2002). Her subsequent investigatory work revealed that the company was indeed engaging in illegal accounting practices, posting inflated profit of nearly $4 billion while its competitors suffered losses. WorldCom eventually filed for bankruptcy in 2004 and was bought by Verizon. CEO Bernard Ebbers was indicted and sentenced to 25 years in prison. (Lyke & Jickling, 2002).
Sensitivity to Member Needs A charismatic leader's influence on followers often depends on their mutual relationship and interactions. A charismatic leader is perceptive and responsive to follower needs, emotions, and feelings, which in turn encourages follower loyalty: "Leaders gain follower commitment to a vision through finding a common denominator between themselves and follower motives" (Bass & Avolio, 1994). These leaders must be skilled at maintaining what we referred to in the last chapter as emotional intelligence and, in particular, relationship management. Since charismatic leaders rely on personal power (based on respect and trust) to influence and lead, they strive to be responsive to followers.
Unconventional Behavior and Personal Risk Taking Followers attribute—that is, interpret, give meaning to, and project—charisma to leaders who behave differently from noncharismatic leaders. Conger and Kanungo wrote that charismatic leaders show "exemplary acts of heroism involving personal risks, and their self‐sacrificing behaviors must be novel, unconventional, and out of the ordinary" (1987). Rather than seeking consensus, charismatic leaders actively innovate and strive for their "business as unusual" behaviors to be accepted. Charismatic leaders know that "prosperity breeds complacency and that experimentation and risk taking are as much a part of success as the acceptance of mistakes as a normal cost of progress" (Snyder & Clontz, 1997).
Engaging in unconventional behavior sometimes requires self‐sacrifice and taking personal risks. All classic religions have charismatic leaders who, as prophets or sages, took great personal risks through unconventional behaviors to mobilize followers toward a vision. The Buddha left a privileged life of royalty, comfort, and prosperity to seek enlightenment by following a vision that led to depriving himself of material goods, even food. The prophet Moses, risking the wrath of the pharaoh, shared his vision that God had a plan for his people before leading them out of Egypt. The historical Jesus of Nazareth risked imprisonment and death and rode into Jerusalem on a donkey during the Jewish high holiday of Passover.
A contemporary risk‐taking charismatic leader is media mogul Ted Turner, who raised eyebrows when he bought CNN in 1980. The purchase was an enormous risk because of the costs involved, and the channel Turner launched was reportedly expected to fail by almost all media experts. Turner was unfazed—in keeping with a sign on his desk that reads, "Lead, follow, or get out of the way." Turner said, "We won't be signing off until the world ends. We'll be on, and we will cover the end of the world, live, and that will be our last event ... and when the end of the world comes, we'll play 'Nearer, My God, to Thee' before we sign off" (Bibb, 1996; see also Turner & Burke, 2008). He then went on to launch what became the Headline News channel, now also successful, in 1982 (Bibb, 1996). In 1986, CNN showed a profit. The Pew Research Center's Project for Excellence in Journalism showed in its State of the News Media 2011 report that CNN was among the top cable news networks for 2010 in revenue projections (Pew Research Center's Project for Excellence in Journalism, 2011).
Take the Lead : Does being Charismatic Count?
You've been in your role as a leader within the organization for several years, but are now interested in a new leadership position that has been posted. This new position will have greater visibility to senior leadership, provide you with a larger team to manage, and come with a significant increase in compensation and benefits.
You feel that you would be a true asset in such a capacity and can envision yourself in this new role. However, you are concerned about how you are currently perceived as a leader in the organization. You know that in the past you've always delivered results as promised, but you wonder if the people within your organization really like working with you. This new role's increased exposure to leadership will require a charismatic leader, one who can not only deliver results but also attract and retain followers. Consider the characteristics of a charismatic leader with regards to the following:
1. In what ways have you shown that you are charismatic in your current capacity? Click here for more information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm#)
Perhaps you acted as a role model to a team member outside your group, rolled up your sleeves and stayed late to help out with completing a project as the deadline loomed, or covered an individual's back when another leader was critical in a meeting. These are the characteristics of a charismatic leader at work, connecting with followers.
2. Can you show that there are actual results from your being charismatic that will count towards organizational goals? Click here for more information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm#)
There are ways in which you can measure your charismatic effectiveness reflecting results. Metrics associated with being charismatic can
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Former Global Crossing Ltd. chairman Gary Winnick exemplifies the dark side of charismatic leadership. He bankrupted the company but saw to it that he enriched himself in the process.
include return on investment (ROI), employee turnover, operational efficiencies, product or project throughput, and so on. The bottom line: Without measurements in place, you won't be able to manage your charismatic efforts, and the results will reveal with precision the impact your efforts have on the organization.
The Dark Side of Charismatic Leadership
Our focus thus far has been primarily on the transformational, inspirational side of charismatic leaders. However, as has been suggested, charismatic leadership has a "dark side": Such persuasive leaders can lure followers into negative, even harmful behavior. One scholar warned, "It can be foolish, futile and even dangerous to follow leaders just because they are charismatic. Be careful of hero worship" (Raelin, 2003). After all, Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini could be described as charismatic, able to inflame and persuade others to rally around their visions—which proved to be destructive. Several of the flamboyant CEOs from recent history were notoriously narcissistic and unethical, engaging in illegal activities. One example is Gary Winnick, who bankrupted the telecommunications company Global Crossing. As chairman of Global Crossing, Winnick gave a top executive a Rolls‐Royce as a gift, demanded that the company maintain a fleet of five jets (including a Boeing 737), and sold $730 million of his company stock while he was driving the company into bankruptcy. As thousands of his employees were laid off, Winnick was renovating a mansion in Bel Air, California, valued at $92 million (New York Observer Staff, 2002).
Winnick carried his own interests to dangerous extremes. But unethical, narcissistic, charismatic organizational leaders are by no means a relic of the past: The recent global subprime‐lending crisis and subsequent economic downturn is in part due to unethical corporate officers, traders, and lenders. Here we learn that we shouldn't trust charming or flamboyant charismatic leaders without checking their backgrounds and motives—and that moral values can be an essential leadership capacity and competency.
Types of Charismatic Leaders
The behaviors of charismatic leaders—both positive and negative—demonstrate that charismatic leaders are not all one and the same. They may all possess charisma, but their charisma may stem from different sources, or they may have distinct motivations for influencing their followers. Researchers have identified five types of charismatic leaders (Conger and Kanungo, 1998; Dubrin, 2010).
Socialized charismatic leaders are autonomous, responsible, and empowered. They develop goals to meet the needs of the organization and team members. They use power for the good of helping the organization and its members. These leaders align followers' values with theirs and use intellectual stimulation to support followers.
Personalized charismatic leaders, unlike socialized charismatics, seek to fulfill their own interests and use unrestrained power to do so. They treat peers and followers as means to their own ends. Personalized charismatics impose self‐serving goals on others. They offer consideration and support to group members only when helping others helps them to achieve their goals. Followers of personalized charismatics are generally dependent, obedient, and submissive. Global Crossing's Winnick is an example of a personalized charismatic leader.
Officeholder charismatic leaders rely on their formal positions rather than personal characteristics to lead others. They have high status because of their role in the organization. When and if they lose their positions, they lose their charisma, which is attached more to their formal and enacted positions then to their personalities— contrary to classical charismatic theory. For example, former Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld's charisma was in large part dependent on the positions he held. Many of his staff viewed him as charismatic and even visionary at the beginning of the Iraq War. However, as that war waned and faltered, he was pressured to retire. Rumsfeld's influence and office‐holder charisma also diminished.
Personal charismatic leaders have traits, behaviors, and characteristics that identify them as charismatic. They influence others based on personal desirable traits and characteristics; specialized knowledge, competencies, and capabilities; and strong participation in the job (job involvement) (Halpert, 1990; Rao, 2010). Unlike office‐ holder charismatic leaders, personal charismatic leaders do not depend on roles or status to lead others.
Divine charismatic leaders are mystics, narcissists, and personally magnetic "saviors," who rise to the occasion to lead others from impending crises (Weber, 1947). Many of the leaders of major world religions or social movements could be considered divine charismatic leaders, such as Gandhi, Jesus, Moses, and Muhammad. There are also negative examples of such leadership, although some scholars question whether individuals who commit evil, unethical, and illegal acts should even be called "leaders." For example, Jim Jones—a self‐styled charismatic founder and leader of a "religious" cult that he moved to Guyana, Africa—made international news in 1978 when he directed one of the largest mass murders in U.S. history by ordering the cyanide poisoning of over 900 cult members. The event was called the "revolutionary suicide" by Jones and some of his followers beforehand. The event was precipitated by an investigation of and visit to the cult by Congressman Leo Ryan, who was murdered on his visit (Rapaport, 2003).
Can Charismatic Leadership Be Learned?
Are charismatic leaders born or made? The answer is both. Some leaders are born with the traits that define charismatic leadership (extroversion, self‐confidence, and achievement orientation) (House & Howell, 1992; Robbins & Judge, 2011); John F. Kennedy, Ronald Reagan, and a number of U.S. presidents and historical leaders offer such examples. However, the majority of scholars agree that some charismatic leadership characteristics can be learned and trained (Conger and Kanungo, 1998). Those characteristics include the abilities to (1) articulate a vision and idealized goal that offers a future more attractive than the status quo; (2) communicate the vision to others in an understandable way; (3) take on high personal risk and self–sacrifice to achieve a vision; (4) assess environmental constraints and resources needed to bring about change; (5) be sensitive to and respond to follower needs, particularly their feelings and needs; and (6) act in unconventional ways in order awaken others to different, more novel and innovative ways of doing things.
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Practical suggestions for developing behaviors to implement these characteristics include learning to be passionate and inspire enthusiasm in relationships and work assignments; engaging people in more strategic goals that are of interest to the organization; initiating meaningful dialogue; showing interest in others and their work; creating an emotional, authentic bond with people; communicating more actively and connecting with individuals; and seeking to listen and not only be heard. This is a process that is not accomplished quickly; it requires being open and accepting of others.
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Starbucks CEO Howard Schultz experienced growing up poor in a housing project and it left its mark. Schultz has developed a revolutionary benefits system for Starbucks employees and has used his corporate success to help the less fortunate.
2.4 Ethical Leadership Ethical leadership involves acting with moral purpose and integrity to do what is right, just, and fair in service of the common good. Ethics is generally defined as motivations or actions that are based on ideas of what is right and wrong, but it also encompasses the values and morals that an individual, society, or institution deems acceptable and desirable. In revisiting our original definition of leadership—the ability to influence followers to achieve common goals through shared purposes —we can see how ethics can be factored into every aspect of leadership. Leaders should be fair, rather than self‐serving, when they influence followers, and should take the common good into consideration as they work toward common goals through shared purposes. This last section will examine the characteristics and responsibilities of ethical leadership as well as the symptoms of unethical leadership before delving into two types of ethical leadership: stewardship and servant leadership.
Characteristics of Ethical Leadership
Much like the two other types of leadership discussed in this chapter, ethical leadership begins with the individual. A leader decides to act ethically due to personal values and convictions, and the leader's behaviors are the starting point for cascading ethics throughout the organization. As has been mentioned, corporate scandals often start with the CEOs and their executive teams, whose illegal actions destroy or cripple several companies. Ethical leadership might conjure up numerous descriptions, but for the purposes of this text, it can be best defined in terms of authenticity and integrity.
Authenticity Leaders who are ethical are first authentic. Authenticity plays a central role in ethical leadership. Authentic leaders genuinely desire to serve others, know themselves, and lead from their core values (George with Sims, 2007). In a study of 125 successful leaders, George (2003) found that authentic leaders (1) understand their purpose, (2) have strong values about doing the right thing in their work and lives, (3) establish trusting relationships with others, (4) show self‐discipline while acting on their values, and (5) are passionate about their mission.
When asked in an interview to summarize what an authentic leader is, George, a veteran executive with decades of leadership experience, said,
They lead with their whole selves—their hearts as well as their heads. They don't get pulled off course by seductions and pressures. Every leader who has failed, that I've seen, has not failed to lead other people, they've failed to lead themselves . ... A lot of the inauthentic leaders got pulled off by trying to be something different than they were . ... Leadership is a long journey into your own soul. (White, 2007)
George gave two examples of authentic leaders' stories in his study: Howard Schultz, CEO of international coffeehouse chain Starbucks, and Andrea Jung, CEO of cosmetics company Avon Products. Schultz grew up poor in a housing project in Brooklyn, New York, after his father lost his job and health benefits. The experience left a lasting mark on Schultz, who has developed a revolutionary benefits system for Starbucks employees and has used his corporate success to help the less fortunate. Jung, on the other hand, was a rising star at a luxury‐goods company before she walked out at age 35. When asked why she quit, since she was on track to become CEO, she answered, "That was the problem. I didn't want to spend the rest of my life making luxury goods for upper‐class women." She left without another job offer and wound up at Avon Products, where the company's practice of equipping the average woman to sell their products fueled her passion of "trying to help women achieve self‐sufficiency" (White, 2007).
George also suggested that the five dimensions of authentic leadership could be viewed in terms of how they are revealed to others. The authentic leader possesses purpose, values, relationships, self‐discipline, and heart. These dimensions can then manifest themselves respectively as passion, behaviors, connectedness, consistency, and compassion (George, 2003; Northouse, 2010). We will explore this further here.
Leaders in George's interviews have a sense of purpose: They know who they are and where they are going. They thus have passion: They are interested in and care about what they do and their work.
George also found that authentic leaders understand their values, or principles (their "true north"), which guide their behaviors, or actions. Their values help define who they are, where they're going, and what they should do. Authentic leaders do not compromise their values under pressure, but use them as a guide when faced with difficult situations. As Jung said, although she was on track to become CEO at a luxury–goods company, the company and its industry did not reflect her values. As a result, she altered her behavior—she left the company. Interestingly, when her values and behaviors were aligned, so was her sense of purpose and passion.
When an authentic leader is able to create and build relationships, what results is connectedness.Authentic leaders are able to be open with others and share their stories as well as listen to others' stories. This sense of connectedness fosters trust, which leads to commitment, loyalty, and closer relationships with followers. This characteristic and dimension can be seen in how charismatic leaders bond with followers.
Self‐discipline, another dimension of authentic leadership, is the ability and determination to stay focused in order to achieve goals. Leaders can set objectives and standards of excellence and gain energy from doing so. Self–discipline also enables leaders to be calm and relaxed and therefore show consistency—predictability in their behavior and security in themselves, and therefore greater communication. When leaders act and communicate with consistency, followers know what to expect from the leader.
Finally, authentic leaders who have heart are able to show compassion; they are sensitive to others and willingness to help and support. Compassion can develop from being directly involved with people unlike yourself on the basis of national origin, ethnic background, socioeconomic class, leadership style, and so on. By knowing and sharing followers' life stories, getting involved in community projects, and traveling to developing countries, leaders develop compassion and sensitivity to others' cultures and living situations.
Integrity The idea of individual integrity is interwoven with George's authentic‐leadership approach and is thus also a key component of ethical leadership. As another scholar
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stated, "Acting with integrity is the same as acting ethically or morally" (DeGeorge, 1993). Watson explained integrity in his book Managing With Integrity:
There is wholeness in what the person with integrity says and does. There is consistency between his actions and what he purports to honor. He pursues his aims along the high road and is uninterrupted and undiminished by temptations for quick or easy personal gain. He seems undisturbed by the opinions others hold or express about him and what he honors. His upright conduct is made possible through steadfast adherence to unbending principles and standards, and his character is marked by an undaunted quest for important ends far larger than his own needs, comfort, and interests. (1991)
Another common meaning of integrity is consistency, an "alignment between what one does and what one says" (Brown, 2005). Brown added that "doing and saying should belong to the same whole" (2005). We can see that the ethical virtue of integrity actually encompasses several dimensions found in authentic leadership.
So, what is an ethical leader? Ethical leaders are authentic and possess integrity. They are genuine with themselves and with others; they remain true to who they are and what they stand for. They also (1) articulate and embody the purpose and values of the organization; (2) focus on organizational success rather than on personal ego; (3) create a living conversation about ethics, values, and the creation of value for stakeholders; (4) raise awareness about questionable activities and practices in the organization; (5) make tough, responsible decisions while being imaginative; (6) see their leadership as a fully ethical task, not only as a required task; and (7) think in terms of integrating "the business" with "the ethics" (Freeman & Stewart, 2006).
Assessment 2.3: How Ethical Are You?
Instructions: Circle the numbers to indicate how well each item describes your current attitudes and behavior or how you would behave in group situation. Response choices: 1 = not at all; 2 = somewhat; 3 = very much; 4 = exactly.
Click here to download a copy of this assessment. (https://media.thuze.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/constellation/book/AUMGT380.11.2/{assessments}assessment_2.3.doc)
1. I use other people's mistakes to attack them personally. 1 2 3 4
2. I always get even. 1 2 3 4
3. As a leader, I would give special favors to my favorite employees. 1 2 3 4
4. I lie to group members if it fits my purposes. 1 2 3 4
5. I would let a group member take the blame to protect myself. 1 2 3 4
6. I would deliberately fuel conflict among group members. 1 2 3 4
7. People who know me well consider me to be ruthless. 1 2 3 4
8. I would use a performance evaluation to criticize an individual as a person. 1 2 3 4
9. I hold grudges against people. 1 2 3 4
10. I would allow coworkers to be blamed for my mistakes. 1 2 3 4
11. I would falsify records to help my work situation. 1 2 3 4
12. My morals are low. 1 2 3 4
13. I would make fun of someone's mistakes rather than coach the person on how to do the job better. 1 2 3 4
14. I would exaggerate someone's mistakes to make him or her look bad to my superiors. 1 2 3 4
15. I get revenge on people when possible. 1 2 3 4
16. I would blame a group member for my mistakes. 1 2 3 4
17. I would avoid coaching an employee so that he or she could fail. 1 2 3 4
18. A person's ethnic group influences how I treat him or her. 1 2 3 4
19. I would deliberately distort what another person said to make me look good. 1 2 3 4
20. I would deliberately make employees angry with each other. 1 2 3 4
21. I am a hypocrite. 1 2 3 4
22. I would limit the training opportunities of others to prevent them from advancing. 1 2 3 4
23. I would blackmail an employee if I thought I could get away with it. 1 2 3 4
24. I enjoy turning down the requests of group members. 1 2 3 4
25. If an employee were to get on my bad side, I would make trouble for him or her. 1 2 3 4
26. I would take credit for the ideas of others. 1 2 3 4
27. I would steal from the organization. 1 2 3 4
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Ethical leaders' authenticity and integrity must be translated into action and attitude toward others, including followers, external stakeholders, and the broader community.
28. I would engage in sabotage against the organization just to get even. 1 2 3 4
29. I would fire a person I did not like if I could get away with it. 1 2 3 4
30. I would do things that violate organizational policy and then expect employees to cover for me. 1 2 3 4
Scoring and Interpretation: Add up your responses to all 30 items. In interpreting your score, recognize that people tend to overrate themselves on ethical behavior because it is painful to admit to being devious and unethical.
30–35: Very ethical. If you scored in this range, your self‐image is that you are trustworthy and highly principled. If your answers are accurate, it could mean that your high ethics could be an asset to you as a leader.
36–61: Moderately ethical. A score in this range means that your impression is that you sometimes engage in slightly unethical behavior. You might strive to be more consistently ethical.
62–120: Very unethical. This range describes leaders who may be perceived as engaging in practices that are unethical, dishonest, unfair, and unprincipled. Although many unethical leaders are successful for a while, your unethical attitudes and behavior could be career‐limiting factors. It is time to reflect on your values and start taking corrective action. Studying ethics can also help.
Source: From Andrew DuBrin, Leadership: Research Findings, Practice and Skills, 6th ed., p. 168–170. Cengage Learning. (Adapted from "Perceived Leader Integrity Scale: An Instrument for Assessing Employee Perceptions of Leader Integrity," by S. B. Craig and S. B. Gustafson, 1998, Leadership Quarterly, 9(2), pp. 127–145.) Reprinted by permission.
Responsibilities of Ethical Leadership
For ethical leaders, authenticity and integrity must be translated into action and attitude toward others, including followers, external stakeholders, and the broader community. These leaders have a responsibility to show respect for others, treat all stakeholders equally, work for a common good, build community, and be honest. (Beauchamp & Bowie, 1988; Dalla Costa, 1998; Kitchener, 1984; Rawls, 1971; Rost, 1991).
Show Respect for Others Respecting others requires leaders to recognize the intrinsic worth of others, and forces them to treat people as ends in themselves—never as means to an end. In other words, people should be seen as valuable because of who they are, not because of what they can do for you or how they can help you advance. In our earlier discussion of charismatic leadership, we saw that personalized charismatic leaders tend to disregard others— or perhaps even use, manipulate, or lie to others—to implement their vision or secure more profit for themselves. (The opposite would be socialized charismatic leaders.)
Showing respect for others includes tolerating individual differences and affording followers the freedom to think independently, act as individuals, and pursue their own goals. When a leader shows respect for followers by providing them autonomy, subordinates can feel more useful, valued, and confident. Such a situation often leads to greater loyalty and productivity among subordinates.
Treat All Stakeholders Equally An ethical leader strives to treat everyone his or her decisions may affect in a fair and just manner. Equality is a top priority for ethical leaders, and needs to factor prominently into their decision making. Ethical leaders must refrain from offering special treatment to others; failure to do so creates winners and losers—in–groups and out‐groups—and can breed resentment between those who receive special treatment and those who do not. The only exception occurs when an individual's specific situation warrants special treatment in order for a just outcome to be realized.
Preventing winners and losers from emerging is not always easy. Some situations require the distribution of benefits and burdens, and such situations can test a leader's ability to ensure that justice is achieved. Beauchamp and Bowie (1988) defined the common principles that guide leaders facing such dilemmas; their findings can help leaders allocate responsibilities fairly and justly. These principles stipulate that every person must receive an equal share or opportunity according to his or her needs, rights, effort, societal contributions, and performance. For example, when a manager is deciding how to allocate a limited number of shifts among
her employees, she needs to consider which employees must help support their families (needs), which have the most seniority (rights), which work the hardest (effort), which are always available to cover for others (societal contributions), and which have produced the greatest profits for the company (performance).
Work for a Common Good Mahatma Gandhi offers an example of what striving toward a common good entails. Known for his commitment to nonviolent protests and mass civil disobedience, the Indian activist and ideological leader spent 20 years in South Africa opposing legislation that discriminated against Indians. He spent the remainder of his life in India fighting for independence from foreign rule and working to reduce poverty and taxation, liberate women, and end multiple forms of discrimination ("Mahatma Gandhi Biography," 2011). He championed such causes not because he would personally benefit, but because a larger, more substantial population would. Gandhi devoted his life to furthering social causes he believed in and developed a personal sense of purpose and meaning that later translated into a societal then global ethic.
Ethical leaders strive to further social or institutional goals that are greater than the goals of the individual. This responsibility requires the ethical leader to serve a greater good by attending to the needs of others. This type of behavior is an example of altruism: a steadfast devotion to improving the welfare of others. Altruistic behavior may manifest in a corporate setting through actions such as mentoring, empowerment behaviors (encouraging and enabling others), team building, and citizenship behaviors (such as showing concern for others' welfare), to name a few.
Build Community
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Whole Foods is known for its community outreach programs on both local and global scales and donates to community food banks and shelters.
Texas Instruments requires its chief executives to adhere to a code of ethics and any violation must be reported immediately to an ethics officer.
Ethics Challenges
This clip explores the various ethical dilemmas leaders sometimes face.
Whole Foods Market is well known for its community outreach programs on both local and global scales. Every Whole Foods store donates to community food banks and shelters, and throughout the year hold "5% days" when 5% of the day's net sales are donated to local nonprofit or educational organizations. Globally, the company established the Whole Planet Foundation to combat world hunger, and supports programs addressing issues such as animal welfare, nutrition, and environmentally friendly production methods ("Community Giving," 2011).
The efforts of Whole Foods to strengthen its stores' local and global neighborhoods are a perfect example of leaders building community. When an ethical leader focuses on the needs of others rather than the self, other people will often follow suit. This can lead to a strong contingent of followers working with the leader to achieve a common goal that benefits everyone and builds communities. For such an outcome, leaders and followers must find a goal that is compatible with the desires of all stakeholders. Furthering a common goal means that no one can place his or her needs ahead of the group's goals, and an ethical leader cannot impose his or her will on others. A successful CEO who works with many charities or other individuals to feed the homeless exemplifies a leader building community.
Be Honest Honesty is considered desirable by practically everyone, but it is sometimes unclear what honesty actually demands of us. Being honest is not simply telling the truth and avoiding deceitful behaviors; it requires leaders to be as open as possible and to describe reality fully, accurately, and in sufficient detail. Telling the complete truth is not always the most desirable action, however. Leaders must be sensitive to the feelings and beliefs of others and must recognize that the appropriate level of openness and candor varies depending on the situation.
Some corporations have adopted honesty guidelines their leaders must follow. Texas Instruments requires its CEO, chief financial officer, chief accounting officer, and controller to adhere to a code of ethics, which stipulates they must "act with honesty and integrity, avoiding actual or apparent conflicts of interest between personal and professional relationships." They are also required to "promote ethical behavior in the workplace," and any dishonest actions are to be reported immediately to an ethics director, the CEO, or the chairman of the audit committee for the company's board of directors ("Code of Ethics," 2011).
Dishonesty can be a disastrous practice for a leader. Dishonest leaders distort reality, which can lead to unfavorable outcomes for all stakeholders. Researchers Cialdini and Goldstein (2004) found that dishonest organizations suffer from tarnished reputations, decreased worker productivity, and various damages related to increased surveillance. They concluded that the costs of organizational dishonesty greatly outweigh any short‐ term gains from such behavior.
Practical Principles of Ethical Leadership
Ethical leaders' responsibilities seem straightforward, but practicing them may be an entirely different matter altogether. The Center for Business Ethics at Bentley University created the following six questions, embedded in classical ethical principles, that offer leaders decision‐making guidelines to assess the ethics of their planned actions in particular situations (Bowditch & Buono, 2001; Weiss, 2009):
1. Is it right? This question asserts that the ethics of the means must be weighed just as heavily as the ethics of the ends. A leader must consider his or her duty to and respect for others as well as the outcomes of his or her decisions. This principle applies at the societal level as well as in organizations and with their stakeholders.
2. Is it fair? This question is based on the notion that certain actions are intrinsically just or unjust. As we discussed, equality is a top priority for ethical leaders. Everyone must be given the same opportunity or advantage and held to the same standards. For example, it is unjust to hire an unqualified job applicant who is related to the company's CEO in an attempt to curry favor with one's superior instead of hiring a more qualified applicant.
3. Who will be hurt? This question favors choosing an action that will result in the greatest good for the largest number of people. In other words, whose utility (advantage) will increase or decrease the most? Unlike the question "Is it right?", which examines the morality of the decision or actions itself, the question "Who will be hurt?" focuses on the end result.
4. How would you feel if the details of your actions became public? This question requires decision makers to anticipate how all others would be affected by a particular decision and empathize with them. This question draws on the Golden Rule: Do onto others as you would have them do unto you.
5. What would you tell a young person—such as your child or young relative—to do? Originating from the deontological principle of reversibility, this question evaluates the ethics of an action by reversing the role of the decision maker: How would your decision sound if someone else implemented it?
6. How does it smell? This question is based on an intuition ethic and requires decision makers to pay
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attention to their common sense and gut feel of right and wrong. If an action does not "smell" right to a reasonable person, then there is a good chance that it is not ethical.
Symptoms of Unethical Leadership
Unethical leadership can manifest itself in different ways, but scholars have noted that unethical leaders share certain characteristics. In a nod to the 1990 business best seller The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People, Finkelstein (2003) reviewed contemporary business failures and identified "the seven habits of spectacularly unsuccessful people." Three of the habits he identified directly violate principles of ethical leadership: (1) putting personal interests ahead of company interests, (2) acting arrogantly and recklessly, and (3) eliminating anyone who might challenge the leader's decisions.
Take the Lead : Promoting Ethical Leadership
You are the division head for a Fortune 500 organization that operates on a multinational basis. You recently surveyed all 185,000 employees within your division to assess how they feel about their leaders. The results are mixed: While your leaders are very focused on doing things right, your employees report that leaders often fail to do the right things. The survey results do not surprise you. You have sometimes witnessed your leadership team focusing more on protocol and methodology than offering the customer a fantastic service experience, for example.
This frustrates you. You decide to hold a meeting with your key leadership to identify what those right things are so that you can put in place a series of modifications or corrections moving forward. You know that the solution lies in the tall task of ensuring that everyone has the right focus with the proper balance to carry out business missions.
Keep the characteristics of ethical leadership in mind as you consider the following:
1. How can your leaders behave more authentically in the workplace? Click here for more information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm#)
At the heart of authentic leadership are the abilities to: (1) understand one's purpose, (2) have strong values about doing the right thing in one's work and life, (3) establish trusting relationships with others, (4) show self‐discipline while acting on one's values, and (5) have passion for one's mission. With that in mind, communication skills play a primary role. A leader who, for example, takes the time to inquire and listen to subordinates regarding obstacles encountered during recently completed projects can establish trust.
2. In what ways can your leadership behave with greater integrity? Click here for more information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm#)
The saying "Actions speak louder than words" never rang truer. Those you work with will know if you're a leader who can talk the talk and walk the walk when it comes to your integrity.
3. When it comes to the responsibilities of ethical leadership, how will you show respect for others? Click here for more information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm#)
Leaders who hone in on individual characteristics show respect.
4. When it comes to the responsibilities of ethical leadership, how will you show justice to all stakeholders? Click here for more information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm#)
While it's natural to be biased and show favorites, each individual deserves the right to have equal time or voice during meetings. In other words, maintaining a level playing field will provide justice to employees.
5. When it comes to the responsibilities of ethical leadership, how will you work for a common good greater than yourself? Click here for more information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm#)
Leaders who can embody their constituents' preferences as their own—often referred to as acting like a chameleon—create a sense of common good.
6. When it comes to the responsibilities of ethical leadership, how will you build community? Click here for more information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm#)
Realizing that an organization is a member of the community in which it is based allows leaders and employees to cooperate on a local level. While the business impact may be felt globally, the actions of the individuals employed are received locally.
7. When it comes to the responsibilities of ethical leadership, how will you be honest? Click here for more information. (http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm/books/AUMGT380.11.2/sections/fm#)
The concept of leadership transparency, or not having a hidden agenda, will reflect honesty in leadership actions.
A related study by McCall and Lombardo (1983) focused on behaviors that derail executives and lead to their downfall. Every derailed executive included in the study had relationship problems. They were insensitive—the most frequent cause of failure—and cold with others. (Coldness included aloofness and arrogance.) Also, these executives often betrayed others' trust.
Seven additional symptoms of unethical leadership provide more insight into why corporate scandals and everyday unethical leadership behavior may occur (Weiss, 2009).
1. Ethical blindness: Not perceiving ethical issues due to lack of attention or ability. 2. Ethical muteness: Not possessing or using ethical language or principles. 3. Ethical incoherence: Not recognizing inconsistencies among values.
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4. Ethical paralysis: Not following personal values either due to lack of information or out of fear of the consequences of actions. 5. Ethical hypocrisy: Not following the same values others are expected to follow. 6. Ethical schizophrenia: Not making the same ethical decisions in different situations due to an incoherent set of values—for example, acting one way at work and
another way at home. 7. Ethical complacency: Not believing that one is vulnerable to unethical behavior or can do wrong.
Unethical Behavior
People sometimes fail to consider the moral or ethical dimensions of behavior because they assume any action that doesn't violate the law is acceptable. While legal statutes are codified and enforceable by the judicial system, ethics principles are highly subjective and often depend on voluntary compliance. As a result, such principles are much more likely to be ignored.
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Malden Mills owner Aaron Feuerstein receives thanks from his employees for continuing to pay them while his burned down plant was rebuilt. He is an excellent example of the stewardship style of leadership.
The ability to listen to others is an essential quality needed for servant Leadership.
2.5 Two Ethical Leadership Styles: Stewardship and Servant Leadership Aaron Feuerstein, a third‐generation owner of Malden Mills in Lawrence, Massachusetts, suffered his factory burning to the ground on December 11, 1995. Feuerstein had the option of using the insurance money to rebuild the plant, but he instead paid the salaries and complete benefits of all the 3,000 workers for 6 months while the factory was rebuilt. He later said that he had no other option than to help the employees. Based on his study of the Talmud, he told Parade Magazine:
I have a responsibility to the worker, both blue‐collar and white‐collar. I have an equal responsibility to the community. It would have been unconscionable to put 3,000 people on the streets and deliver a deathblow to the cities of Lawrence and Methuen. Maybe on paper our company is worthless to Wall Street, but I can tell you it's worth more. (Ryan, 1996)
Feuerstein exemplifies the two ethical leadership styles of stewardship and servant leadership, which focus specifically on how leaders work with followers. (Ethical leadership as a whole concerns the leader's characteristics and encompasses actions in both the internal and external organizational environment.) Stewardship is concerned with empowering followers to make decisions and gain control over their work. Servant leadership involves selflessly working with followers to achieve shared goals that improve collective, rather than individual, welfare. There is a wealth of information on both of these styles; we will briefly address both here, as both involve treating followers with respect—a key component of ethical leadership—and endowing them with the ability to grow both personally and professionally.
The stewardship approach instructs leaders to lead without dominating followers. Leaders who practice stewardship sincerely care about their followers and help them develop and accomplish individual as well as organizational goals. Effective stewardship breeds a team‐oriented environment in which everyone works together. Organizations led by steward leaders are marked by decentralized decision making—that is, leadership is not centered in one person, group, department, or administrative unity; power is distributed among all stakeholders (Lussier & Achua, 2007). Former President Jimmy Carter is an example of a contemporary steward leader. His mission and hands‐on help in sponsoring, funding, and helping build housing for the unfortunate has demonstrated this leadership style.
The servant–leadership approach was formulated by Robert K. Greenleaf, who believed that leadership is a natural corollary of service (Greenleaf, 1998). Servant leadership goes beyond stewardship by requiring leaders to eschew personal accolades and devote themselves entirely to a greater cause. Greenleaf stated, "The essential quality that separates servant‐leaders from others is that they live by their conscience—the inward moral sense of what is right and wrong. That one quality is the difference between leadership that works and leadership—like servant leadership—that endures" (1977). The following aspects are central to servant leadership:
1. Placing service before self‐interest. The servant leader's primary concern is helping others, not receiving recognition or financial reward. 2. Listening to others. Servant leaders recognize the importance of listening to the ideas and concerns of stakeholders; they never attempt to impose their will on
others. This aspect allows servant leaders to strengthen relationships, understand group needs and dynamics, and effectively allocate resources to improve the group's welfare.
3. Inspiring through trust. As we discusser earlier, ethical leaders must be trustworthy. It does not take much effort for servant leaders to be truthful because they usually have strong moral convictions.
4. Working toward feasible goals. Servant leaders realize that many problems cannot be solved by one person. They also tackle the most pressing issues facing their groups.
5. Helping others whenever possible. Servant leaders lend a helping hand when the opportunity arises. An example is the district manager of a fast‐food chain. She helps part‐time employees flip burgers during a lunchtime rush hour. Another is the director of a business unit who observes that a team is short a member and needs help in meeting a deadline; the director joins the team for the afternoon to help meet the deadline.
These two leadership styles differ from the others discussed so far in this text in that the leaders' mind‐set is geared toward championing their followers. These ethical leaders view no follower, regardless of his or her level of skill, readiness, or willingness, as someone who cannot be supported and helped. They also believe that followers perform higher and better when supported and cared for. This is not to say that such leaders are naive and can be gamed by cunning followers trying to get out of work. The mental model (or mind‐set) of these leaders espouses Theory Y (from Chapter 1): It is based on a deeply felt belief that individuals and teams are inherently valued as human beings who also happen to be employees. (This is a universalist, altruist ethic.) In some ways, steward and servant leaders demonstrate Kouzes and Posner's five dimensions of transformational leadership: They can ethically model the way, inspire a shared vision, challenge the process, enable others to act, and encourage the heart in a way that exceeds transactional, transformational, and even charismatic leaders.
Another way of understanding the distinguishing characteristics of servant leadership is offered by DeGraaf, Tilley, and Neal:
The main assumption is that true leadership should call us to serve a higher purpose, something beyond ourselves. One of the most important aspects of leadership is helping organizations and staff identify their higher purpose. The best test of the Servant‐Leadership philosophy is whether or not customers and staff grow as persons! Do customers become healthier, wiser, freer, more
autonomous, more likely themselves to become "servants"? And, what is the effect on the least privileged in society? Will they benefit? Or, at least, not be further deprived? To achieve this higher purpose of public organizations, you, as a leader, must be passionate about your desire to improve your community and yourself! (2001)
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Assessment 2.4: Your Servant‐Leadership Orientation
Instructions: Think about situations in which you were in a formal or informal leadership role in a group or organization. Imagine using your personal approach as a leader. To what extent does each of the following statements characterize your leadership? Please answer whether each item is mostly false or mostly true for you.
Click here to download a copy of this assessment. (https://media.thuze.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/constellation/book/AUMGT380.11.2/{assessments}assessment_2.4.doc)
Mostly False Mostly True
1. My actions meet the needs of others before my own. ____ ____
2. I explicitly enable others to feel ownership for their work. ____ ____
3. I like to consult with people when making a decision. ____ ____
4. I'm a perfectionist. ____ ____
5. I like to be of service to others. ____ ____
6. I try to learn the needs and perspectives of others. ____ ____
7. I consciously utilize the skills and talents of others. ____ ____
8. I am assertive about the right way to do things. ____ ____
9. I give away credit and recognition to others. ____ ____
10. I believe that others have good intentions. ____ ____
11. I quickly inform others of developments that affect their work. ____ ____
12. I tend to automatically take charge. ____ ____
13. I encourage the growth of others, expecting nothing in return. ____ ____
14. I value cooperation over competition as a way to energize people. ____ ____
15. I involve others in planning and goal setting. ____ ____
16. I put people under pressure when needed. ____ ____
Scoring and Interpretation: There are four subscale scores that represent four dimensions of leadership. For the dimension of authoritarian leadership, give yourself one point for each "mostly true" response to questions 4, 8, 12, and 16. For the dimension of participative leadership, give yourself one point for each "mostly true" response to questions 2, 6, 10, and 14. For the dimension of stewardship, give yourself one point for each "mostly true" response to questions 3, 7, 11, and 15. For the dimension of servant leadership, give yourself one point for each "mostly true" response to questions 1, 5, 9, and 13.
My leadership scores are: Authoritarian: ____. Participative: ___. Stewardship: ___. Servant: ___.
These scores represent four types of leadership—authoritarian, participative, stewardship, and servant—as described in the text and illustrated in Exhibit 6.5. A score of 3–4 on any of these dimensions is considered above average, and a score of 0–1 is below average. Compare your four scores to each other to understand your approach to stewardship and servant leadership. On which of the four dimensions would you like to have the highest score? The lowest? Study the specific items you called mostly true or mostly false to analyze your pattern of strengths and weaknesses. It is not possible to display all four dimensions of leadership simultaneously, so you should think about the dimension you want to emphasize to reflect your leader ideal.
Source: From Daft. The Leadership Experience, 5E. © 2011 South‐Western, a part of Cengage Learning, Inc. Reproduced by permission. www.cengage.com/permissions
Ethics and Leadership: An Emerging Field
Ethical leadership will remain relevant so long as questionable business practices endure, and it becomes a more significant matter when consumers and investors begin to increasingly value social responsibility. For example, some consumers seek out so‐called fair‐trade companies, which ensure that workers have been paid a living wage. Some financial advisors specialize in creating investment portfolios of socially responsible and ethical companies. For corporations, studies have shown that those with ethical leaders outperform their peers financially. A 2‐year study published in 2007 found that companies that went above and beyond the ethical requirements most firms adhered to returned more than 1,000% for investors over a 10‐year period compared to a 122% return for the S&P 500 (Sisodia, Sheth, & Wolfe, 2007). These upstanding corporate citizens, termed "firms of endearment" (FoEs), are said to practice "stakeholder relationship management": They endear themselves to stakeholders by integrating the stakeholder interests into the decision‐making process. Stakeholders are also able to contribute and benefit from gains in value. This kind of business model can provide the firm with a competitive advantage, as the firm can pull from a greater set of resources.
FoEs also possess a "humanistic soul"; they want to serve others. "These companies are imbued with the joy of service—to the community, to society, to the environment, to customers, to colleagues," the researchers wrote (Sisodia, Sheth, & Wolfe, 2007). Above all, FoEs are led by ethical leaders who "facilitate, encourage, reward, recognize, and celebrate their employees for being of service to their communities and the world at large, for no reason other than that it is the right thing to do." Companies designated as FoEs are listed in Figure 2.3.
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Figure 2.3 Corporations Designated "Firms of Endearment" (FoEs)
A similar study was conducted by Sandra A. Waddock and Samuel B. Graves (1997), who spent 2 years examining the relationship between corporate social responsibility and corporate financial performance, using data on 469 firms from 13 different industries. They concluded that the most profitable firms can more easily afford to devote resources to social‐responsibility initiatives—such as helping to provide food and shelter for the homeless—which in turn can create goodwill and lead to greater profits. The researchers determined that the relationship between social and financial performance may be a virtuous circle, in which corporate social performance and financial performance fuel and reinforce each other. Studies such as these provide evidence that ethical leadership generates important benefits for leaders and their organizations.
Still, more empirical and qualitative research must be completed before ethical leadership can be better understood. For example, prioritizing organizational ethics over financial performance has drawn criticism, and corporations that focus heavily on institutional ethics may have difficulties turning profits or attracting investors. FoEs may be exceptions to the rule rather than leaders of a growing model. Starbucks was discussed earlier as an example of an ethical corporation, but like all organizations, it is pressured by investors to reduce costs by cutting employee benefits ("100 Best Companies," 2011). Ethical‐leadership models, like those dealing with authenticity, will continue to evolve as have theories of transformational and charismatic leadership. Certainly the popularity of and demand for these newer leadership approaches is evidenced by their demand in training and education sectors.
Social Responsibility and Profitability
This clip explores social responsibility: its historical development and its effect on a company's bottom line.
6/27/2015 Print
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Ch 2 Summary Transformational, charismatic, authentic, and ethical leadership involve a wide range of skills and capacities that are needed to influence and mobilize organizations toward responsible competitiveness. Transformational leadership involves inspiring, stimulating, and motivating followers to change organizations in dramatic ways that they could not accomplish alone. Five particular leadership practices are modeling the way, inspiring a shared vision, challenging the process, enabling others to act, and encouraging the heart. Great political leaders have demonstrated such practices during crises and times of change, when masses of people needed to come together to protect themselves from invaders, rebuild infrastructures from natural disasters, and overcome mounting poverty. Organizational leaders have done so when their companies were threatened to become more competitive or close the doors, or when opportunities were presented to take an idea and build an industry around it. Leaders of organizational departments, divisions, small companies, and teams also show transformational characteristics and actions by taking risks to help grow, differentiate, add value, and remove obstacles for effective change.
Leaders who have charisma are also able to influence and move followers to identify with, align themselves with, and sign on to their personal energy, leadership examples, visions, missions, and initiatives. Many transformational leaders also demonstrate this type of attractive energy through personal characteristics—some in quiet ways, others more vocally, but all have a new or different end state (idealized vision) of where their organization, division, business, or team can go and excel. We also discussed the dark side of leadership charisma, when leaders attract others more to their own individual, egoistic or careerist interests over the organization's.
Leaders who care for the common good of their followers, organizations, and societies are authentic and lead by principles that are ethical and legal as well as effective in the economic marketplace. We discussed steward and servant leaders as two examples of leaders who go beyond the call of duty to help others. All leaders who are entrusted with an organization's assets, resources, and reputation must also serve by legal and ethical principles and practices. Recent scandals and illegal activities by CEOs, corporate presidents, and other leaders, many of whom are serving prison time—and many of whom are still practicing—demonstrated the need for ethical leadership. So transformational and charismatic leadership calls out for leaders to also be authentic, legal, and ethical in their intentions, actions, and outcomes.
Finally, leadership development—including transformational and charismatic styles—in general is an intentional learning process, regardless of what leadership style is desired. The first step is actually desiring and choosing to develop leadership characteristics. Some people have a belief and mind‐set that they are not and cannot become leaders. Changing that mind‐set is a first step in this process. Being an authentic leader means being who you are within whatever style you develop in order to be effective in different situations. Many transformational and charismatic leadership behaviors, again, are learned—for example, becoming more empathetic, outgoing, in charge, self‐confident, passionate, and articulate; developing a personal vision; and helping others understand difficult concepts. Evolving leaders also can and should challenge their own ethics. Learning to value the means to get to an end is an ethical consideration, as is striving to reach an endpoint, whatever the cost. Questioning whose interests are being served by a particular vision and mission is an ethical undertaking. Asking what the principles and values are that underlie your actions is about ethics. The following chapters continue to build on these leadership concepts, frameworks, and practices.
Web Links The First Follower
in a video titled "First Follower: Leadership Lessons from Dancing Guy" at http://www.youtube.com/ (http://www.youtube.com/)
Transformational Leadership Summary
A business professor offers a summary of some of the key points of transformational leadership: in a video titled "The Leadership Challenge // Part 2: Transformational Leadership" at http://www.youtube.com/ (http://www.youtube.com/)
The Leadership Challenge Website
This website provides more details and background on Kouzes and Posner's work: http://www.leadershipchallenge.com/home.aspx (http://www.leadershipchallenge.com/home.aspx)
Between the Lines With Jim Kouzes
Jim Kouzes discusses the leadership challenge on the TV show Between the Lines in a video titled "Between the Lines Jim Kouzes Part 1" at http://www.youtube.com/ (http://www.youtube.com/)
Herb Kelleher on People
The Southwest CEO describes his philosophy on how the business of business is people in a video titled "Business of Business is People: Herb Kelleher" at http://www.youtube.com/ (http://www.youtube.com/)
Ken Blanchard on Servant Leadership
Servant‐leadership expert Ken Blanchard talks about how to spot a self‐serving leader versus a true servant leader in a video titled "Ken Blanchard: The 4 Keys to Effective Leadership" at http://www.youtube.com/ (http://www.youtube.com/)