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C H A P T E R

Creating Visuals and Data Displays

When to Use Visuals

Guidelines for Visual Design

1. Check the Quality of the Data. 2. Determine the Story You Want to Tell. 3. Choose the Right Visual for the Story. 4. Follow the Conventions for Designing

Typical Visuals. 5. Use Color and Decoration with

Restraint. 6. Be Sure the Visual Is Accurate and Ethical.

Integrating Visuals in Your Text

Designing Data Displays and Images

• Tables • Pie Charts • Bar Charts • Line Graphs • Gantt Charts • Photographs • Drawings • Maps • Dynamic Displays

Summary of Key Points

Chapter Outline

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After only a few weeks in office, President Obama reversed a controversial policy dealing with visuals. His administration overturned

a policy that prohibited the

media from photographing cas-

kets of fallen soldiers returning

to the United States. Under the

new policy, the families of fallen

soldiers have the right to choose whether the media

can be present at the Dover Air Force Base in Dela-

ware, where all deceased soldiers are brought.

Former President George H. W. Bush started the

policy in 1991 during the Gulf War. Critics suggest

the policy was enacted to prevent the public from

seeing the horrors of war and the number of peo-

ple who had died. On the other hand, critics of the

new policy argue that allow-

ing the press to be present

creates a spectacle out of a

private family matter.

Supporters of the new

policy believe the photos are

a reminder to all Americans

of the sacrifices made by our troops and of the high

price of freedom.

How ethical do you believe it is to show the final

ceremony of fallen soldiers? If you had a family

member who died in war, would you want the press

to be present when the casket was returned?

Adapted from Julian E. Barnes , “U.S. to Allow Photos of War Dead’s Coffins,” in The Seattle Times: Politics & Government, http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/ html/politics/2008791894_wardead27.html (accessed March 7, 2009 ).

I N T H E N E W S

Visuals of Fallen Heroes

“The photos are a reminder to all Americans of the sacrifices made by our troops and of the high price of freedom.”

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242 Part 2 The Communication Process

Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you will know

1 When to use visuals.

2 How to create effective visuals.

3 How to integrate visuals into text.

Visuals are a design element that helps make data meaningful. They help com- municate your points in documents such as brochures, memos, letters, and reports, where they can add color and emotional appeal, as well as new infor- mation. Visuals, particularly PowerPoint slides, are also used to enhance oral presentations; PowerPoint slides are discussed in Chapter 10.

Visuals are particularly useful for presenting numbers dramatically. Suppose you want to give investors information about various stocks’ performances. They would not want to read paragraph after paragraph of statements about which stocks went up and which went down. Organizing the daily numbers into tables would be much more useful.

Tables of stock prices have been the norm until recently. Now, on the Inter- net, smartmoney.com offers subscribers Map of the Market, a graphics tool that helps them see the top performers. For 1,000 US and international stocks, Map of the Market displays visual information about each company’s perfor- mance. Each company is shown as a rectangle, and companies are clustered into industry groups. Users can click on industry groups for a more detailed view. The larger a rectangle, the larger the company’s market capitalization (total value of its stock). The blocks are color-coded to signify the size of the stock price change or other criteria selected by the user. Size and color provide easy cues for spotting the best and worst performers. 1

When to Use Visuals The ease of creating visuals by computer may make people use them uncriti- cally. Use a visual only to achieve a specific purpose. Never put in numbers or visuals just because you have them; instead, use them to convey information the audience needs or wants.

In your rough draft, use visuals

• To see that ideas are presented completely. A table, for example, can show you whether you’ve included all the items in a comparison.

• To find relationships. Charting sales on a map may show that the sales representatives who made quota all have territories on the East or the West Coast. Is the central United States suffering a recession? Is the prod- uct one that appeals to coastal lifestyles? Is advertising reaching the coasts but not the central states? Even if you don’t use the visual in your final document, creating the map may lead you to questions you wouldn’t other- wise ask.

In the final presentation or document, use visuals

• To make points vivid. Readers skim memos and reports; a visual catches the eye. The brain processes visuals immediately. Understanding words— written or oral—takes more time.

Doomsday Clock

The Doomsday Clock,

with its hands near

midnight, has become an iconic

image of the Atomic Age. The

clock shows how near humanity

is to “catastrophic destruction”

(midnight) according to the board

of directors of the Bulletin of the

Atomic Scientists.

The clock first appeared on the

cover of the Bulletin in 1947, at

which time it was set at seven

minutes to midnight, to illustrate

the concern of atomic scientists.

Since then it has fluctuated from

two minutes (the development

of the H-bomb) to seventeen

minutes (Strategic Arms Reduc-

tion Treaty) before midnight. The

clock setters, who include 18

Nobel laureates, now consider

such disasters as climate change

and bioterrorism as they decide

the time.

Currently the clock is set at five

minutes to midnight, primarily

because of renewed interest in

nuclear weapons by developing

countries and ignored dangers of

climate change.

Where would you set the hands

of the clock? What factors would

you consider?

Adapted from “‘Doomsday Clock’

Moves Two Minutes Closer to Mid-

night,” in Bulletin of the Atomic

Scientists: Media Center: Announce-

ments: January 17, 2007, http://

www.thebulletin.org/content/media-

center/announcements/2007/01/17/

doomsday-clock-moves-two-minutes-

closer-to-midnight (accessed March

7, 2009).

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Chapter 9 Creating Visuals and Data Displays 243

• To emphasize material that might be skipped if it were buried in a para- graph. The beginning and end are places of emphasis. However, some- thing has to go in the middle, especially in a long document. Visuals allow you to emphasize important material, wherever it logically falls.

• To present material more compactly and with less repetition than words alone would require. Words can call attention to the main points of the visual, without repeating all of the visual’s information.

The number of visuals you will need depends on your purposes, the kind of information, and the audience. You’ll use more visuals when you want to show relationships and to persuade, when the information is complex or con- tains extensive numerical data, and when the audience values visuals. Some audiences expect oral presentations and reports to use lots of visuals. Other audiences may see visuals as frivolous and time spent making visuals as time wasted. For these audiences, you’d sharply limit the number of visuals you use—but you’d still use them when your own purposes and the information called for them.

Guidelines for Visual Design Use these six steps to create good visuals:

1. Check the quality of the data.

2. Determine the story you want to tell.

3. Choose the right visual for the story.

4. Follow the conventions for designing typical visuals.

5. Use color and decoration with restraint.

6. Be sure the visual is accurate and ethical.

Let’s discuss each of these in more detail.

1. Check the Quality of the Data. Your data display is only as good as the underlying data. Check to be sure that your data come from a reliable source. See “Identifying the Source of the Data” in Chapter 19.

Also check that you have data for all factors you should consider. Are some factors missing data from key locations or demographic areas? When Nielsen Media Research, the TV audience measuring organization, switched from pa- per diaries of TV viewing to “people meters,” electronic recording devices, they discovered a marked rise in TV viewing by children and young adults. 2

If the data may not be reliable, you’re better off not using visuals. The visual picture will be more powerful than verbal disclaimers, and the audience will be misled.

2. Determine the Story You Want to Tell. Every visual should tell a story. Stories can be expressed in complete sentences that describe something that happens or changes. The sentence also serves as the title of the visual.

Not a story: US Sales, 2005–2010

Possible stories: Forty Percent of Our Sales Were to New Customers.

Growth Was Highest in the South.

Sales Increased from 2005 to 2010.

Sales Were Highest in the Areas with More Sales Representatives.

Managing by Data

The best decisions

are not necessar-

ily the ones based on analyzing

large amounts of data. Some-

times companies that manage

with a bent toward numerical

data are setting themselves up

for failure because some impor-

tant information isn’t quantifiable.

Employee morale, changing cus-

tomer tastes, and new competi-

tion are examples.

Data can be called up almost

effortlessly using dashboard dis-

plays. However, in some cases

the recent hype of these data

technology tools causes CEOs

and other higher ups to rely on

them. For example, when execu-

tives at Ford and GM were mar-

keting SUVs, whose numbers

looked great on the page, they

failed to consider the largest fac-

tor and ultimately their biggest

setback—gas prices.

Even when the numbers are

complete, their interpretation can

lead to bad calls. For instance,

managers relying on data often

assert correlations that aren’t

necessarily true. Furthermore,

the way data are expressed can

also shape interpretations. Notice

the difference between saying

10% of employees will leave if

management changes versus

90% will stay.

Adapted from David H. Freedman,

“Do You Manage by the Numbers?

Be Careful If You Do; Your Data

May Be Playing Tricks on You,” Inc.,

November 2006, 59–60.

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244 Part 2 The Communication Process

Stories that tell us what we already know are rarely interesting. Instead, good stories may

• Support a hunch you have.

• Surprise you or challenge so-called common knowledge.

• Show trends or changes you didn’t know existed.

• Have commercial or social significance.

• Provide information needed for action.

• Be personally relevant to you and the audience.

To find stories,

1. Focus on a topic (where are the most SUVs bought, who likes jazz, etc.).

2. Simplify the data on that topic and convert the numbers to simple, easy-to- understand units.

3. Look for relationships and changes. For example, compare two or more groups: do men and women have the same attitudes? Look for changes over time. Look for items that can be seen as part of the same group. For example, to find stories about entertainers’ incomes, you might compare the incomes of writers, actors, and musicians.

4. Process the data to find more stories. Find the average and the median (p. 588). Calculate the percentage change from one year to the next.

When you think you have a story, test it against all the data to be sure it’s accurate.

Some stories are simple straight lines: “Computer Sales Increased.” But other stories are more complex, with exceptions or outlying cases. Such stories will need more nuanced titles to do justice to the story. And sometimes the best story arises from the juxtaposition of two or more stories. In Figure 9.1 , BusinessWeek uses four grouped visuals to tell a complex story.

Almost every data set allows you to tell several stories. You must choose the story you want to tell. Dumps of uninterpreted data confuse and frustrate your audience; they undercut the credibility and goodwill you want to create.

Sometimes several stories will be important. When that’s the case, you’ll need a separate visual for each.

Environmental Maps

Environmental activists

are using the interesting

visuals available in Google Earth

to show consumers the environ-

mental impact of practices such

as clear-cutting and mountain-

top removal.

One such group is Appalachian

Voices, which fights against the

environmental dangers of coal

mining. You can visit their Web

site at www.ilovemountains.org/

myconnection and enter your

zip code to learn whether moun-

tain tops have been removed to

provide coal for your electricity

providers. The site also provides

links to help you protest to your

legislators and power company.

Some critics, however, question

whether the dramatic visuals will

have any impact on consumer

buying practices. They suggest

that the only people who will be

concerned with the images are

people already doing environmen-

tal work, not the general public.

What do you think? After view-

ing the Web site, are you inclined

to change any of your buying

practices to protect mountain

tops or other natural resources?

Adapted from Kevin J. Delaney, “Activ-

ists Start Googling: Internet Maps Illus-

trate Environmental Woes,” Wall Street

Journal, November 15, 2007, B4.

Source: “A New Era for Agriculture: What Happens When Farmers Plant Crops for Energy as Well as Food.” Reprinted from the February 5, 2007 issue of

Figure 9.1 A Complex Story Told Using Grouped Visuals

A New Era for Agriculture What happens when farmers plant crops for energy as well as food Billions of gallons Millions of metric tons Dollars

Percent of U.S. corn used for ethanol

Forecast average price for '06/'07

Corn

Wheat

Soybean

Note: Crop year runs Aug. to Aug.

World crop demand

Corn prices per bushel

Data: Renewable Fuels Assn., National Biodiesel Board Data: AgResources Data: USDA, AgResources Data: USDA, AgResources

Biofuel production in the U.S.

2006 2015* 0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

'00 '01 '02 '03 '04 '05 '06 '03/'04 '04/'05 '05/'06

'05/'06

'08/'09 Forecast

FEB '07

0 '07'

12 % 88 %

35 %65 %

Livestock feed and food

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Chapter 9 Creating Visuals and Data Displays 245

3. Choose the Right Visual for the Story. Visuals are not interchangeable. Good writers choose the visual that best matches the purpose of presenting the data.

• Use a table when the reader needs to be able to identify exact values. (See Figure 9.2a .)

• Use a chart or graph when you want the reader to focus on relationships.

• To compare a part to the whole, use a pie chart. (See Figure 9.2b .)

• To compare one item to another item, use a bar chart. (See Figure 9.2c .)

• To compare items over time, use a bar chart or a line graph. (See Figure 9.2d .)

• To show frequency or distribution, use a line graph or bar chart. (See Figure 9.2e .)

• To show correlations, use a bar chart, a line graph, or a dot chart. (See Figure 9.2f .)

• Use photographs to create a sense of authenticity or show the item in use. If the item is especially big or small, include something in the photograph that can serve as a reference point: a dime, a person.

• Use drawings to show dimensions, emphasize detail, or eliminate unwanted detail.

• Use maps to emphasize location.

• Use Gantt charts to show timelines for proposals or projects.

Trademark Cautions

Be careful when using

names or trademarks of

powerful organizations. Recently,

companies like Starbucks Cof-

fee, the Rock and Roll Hall of

Fame, and the Virgin Group all

went after little organizations who

used similar-sounding names. In

fact, in October of 2006, Presi-

dent Bush signed legislation that

allows companies with famous

trademarks to sue businesses

with similar names “regardless

of the presence or absence of

actual or likely confusion, or com-

petition, or of actual economic

injury.” Many would say this leg-

islation sides in favor of the big

guys. What do you think of the

law? Is it fair? Should smaller

businesses be sued for using the

same name as a larger business

even if there is no competition or

direct economic gain?

Adapted from Ryan McCarthy, ”Here

Come the Trademark Bullies,” Inc.,

January 2007, 23.

US sales reach $44.5 million.

Millions of dollars

Northeast

South

Midwest

W est

Totals

2000

10.2

7.6

8.3

11.3

37.4

2002

10.8

8.5

6.8

12.1

38.2

2004

11.3

10.4

9.3

13.5

44.5

Northeast

South

Midwest

W est

0 % growth, 2000-2004

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

11%

38%

12%

19%

Growth was highest in the South.

Sales increased from 1995 to 2005.

Sa le

s, m

ill io

ns o

f d ol

la rs

0 95 97 99 01 03 05

Nu m

be r

150 125 100

75 50 25

Years' experience 0 10

(or more) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Most sales representatives have 2-5 years' experience.

20 05

s al

es ,

m ill

io ns

o f d

ol la

Number of sales reps. in region 0 20025 50 75 100 125 150 175

Sales were highest in the areas with the most sales representatives.

Forty percent of our 2002 sales were to new customers.

Old customers

60%

New customers

40%

Figure 9.2 Choose the Visual to Fit the Story

a. Tables show exact values. b. Pie charts compare a component to the whole.

c. Bar charts compare items or show distribution or correlation.

d. Line charts compare items over time or show distribution or correlation.

e. Bar charts can show frequency. f. Dol charts show correlation.

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246 Part 2 The Communication Process

4. Follow the Conventions for Designing Typical Visuals. Every visual should contain six components:

1. A title telling the story that the visual shows.

2. A clear indication of what the data are. For example, what people say they did is not necessarily what they really did. An estimate of what a number will be in the future differs from numbers in the past that have already been measured.

3. Clearly labeled units.

4. Labels or legends identifying axes, colors, symbols, and so forth.

5. The source of the data, if you created the visual from data someone else gathered and compiled.

6. The source of the visual, if you reproduce a visual someone else created.

Formal visuals are divided into tables and figures. Tables are numbers or words arrayed in rows and columns; figures are everything else. In a docu- ment, formal visuals have both numbers and titles, e.g., “Figure 1. The Falling Cost of Computer Memory, 1990–2010.” In an oral presentation, the title is usually used without the number: “The Falling Cost of Computer Memory, 1990–2010.” The title should tell the story so that the audience knows what to look for in the visual and why it is important. Spot visuals are informal visu- als that are inserted directly into the text; they do not have numbers or titles.

5. Use Color and Decoration with Restraint. Color makes visuals more dramatic, but it also creates some problems. Col- ors may be interpreted positively or negatively depending on their context and the unique experiences of the people viewing them. Figure 9.3 gives some common positive and negative associations found in Western cultures. A good use of color occurs in the weather maps printed daily in many newspapers. Blue seems to fit cold; red seems to fit hot temperatures.

Meanings assigned to colors differ depending on the audience’s national background and profession. Blue suggests masculinity in the United States, criminality in France, strength or fertility in Egypt, and villainy in Japan. Red is sometimes used to suggest danger or stop in the United States; it means go in China and is associated with festivities. Red suggests masculinity or aris- tocracy in France, death in Korea, blasphemy in some African countries, and luxury in many parts of the world. 3

Color Positive Negative

White Clean, innocent, pure Cold, empty, sterile

Red Strong, brave, passionate Dangerous, aggressive, domineering

Yellow Happy, friendly, optimistic Cowardly, annoying, brash

Brown Warm, earthy, mature Dirty, sad, cheap

Green Natural, tranquil, relaxing Jealous, inexperienced, greedy

Blue Strong, trustworthy, authoritative Cold, depressing, gloomy

Source: Katherine Nolan, “Color It Effective: How Color Influences the User,” in Microsoft Office Online, FrontPage 2003 Help and How-to: Working with

Graphics, http://office.microsoft.com/en-us/frontpage/HA010429371033.aspx (accessed March 7, 2009).

Figure 9.3 Colors and Their Common Connotations in Western Culture

Medicine Shows Its Colors

One small, highly

specialized, commu-

nication device is the hospital

wristband. All patients have long

been tagged with a band contain-

ing identifying information. Now

hospitals are using colored bands

to alert staff to special conditions

such as medication allergies. Dif-

ferent colors represent different

alerts. Sounds great, doesn’t it?

The catch is that different hospi-

tals use different colors for differ-

ent alerts. One hospital may use

red for allergy alerts and yellow for

fall alerts (patients with a high risk

of falling); another hospital may

reverse the two. Since medical

staff may work in more than one

hospital, the colored bands are

causing confusion and in some

cases actually increasing risk.

To remedy the problem, hospi-

tal associations are trying to stan-

dardize the color codes. Some

hospitals are switching to colored

bands that also display a printed

phrase such as “allergy” or “fall

risk.”

Adapted from Laura Landro, “Hospi-

tals Target Risks of Color Wristbands,”

Wall Street Journal, April 4, 2007, D5.

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Chapter 9 Creating Visuals and Data Displays 247

These general cultural associations may be replaced by corporate, national, or professional associations. Some people associate blue with IBM or Hewlett- Packard and red with Coca-Cola, communism, or Japan. People in specific professions learn other meanings for colors. Blue suggests reliability to finan- cial managers, water or coldness to engineers, and death to health care profes- sionals. Red means losing money to financial managers, danger to engineers, but healthy to health care professionals. Green usually means safe to engineers, but infected to health care professionals.

Try to avoid graphs that contrast red and green, because the colors will be indistinguishable to people with red-green colorblindness. Almost 10% of men and 2% of women are colorblind. Furthermore, as people get older, their abil- ity to perceive colors also decreases. 4

Remember that color preferences change over time. In the 1970s, avocado green and harvest gold were standard colors for kitchen appliances, but today these colors seem retro to most US audiences. 5

These various associations suggest that color is safest with a homogenous audience that you know well. In an increasingly multicultural workforce, color may send signals you do not intend.

In any visual, use as little shading and as few lines as are necessary for clar- ity. Don’t clutter up the visual with extra marks. When you design black-and- white graphs, use shades of gray rather than stripes, wavy lines, and checks to indicate different segments or items.

Resist the temptation to make your visual “artistic” or “relevant” by turning it into a picture or adding clip art. Clip art consists of predrawn images that you can import into your document or visual. A small drawing of a car in the corner of a line graph showing the number of miles driven is acceptable in an oral presentation but out of place in a written report. Turning a line graph into a highway to show miles driven makes it harder to read: it’s hard to separate the data line from lines that are merely decorative. Visuals authority Edward Tufte uses the term chartjunk for decorations that at best are irrelevant to the visual and at worst mislead the reader. 6

6. Be Sure the Visual Is Accurate and Ethical. Always double-check your visuals to be sure the information is accurate. Also, many visuals have accurate labels but misleading visual shapes. Visuals com- municate quickly; audiences remember the shape, not the labels. If the reader

Cigarette warning labels are more severe in other countries. American audiences have not been receptive to such dire warnings.

Medical Picture Boards

Have you ever won-

dered what it would be

like to explain a medical emer-

gency to nurses or doctors if they

did not speak your language?

This scenario could happen for an

estimated 23 million Americans

who have only limited English

skills. To resolve the communica-

tion barriers, medical profession-

als are turning to visuals.

Servision Inc. developed picture

boards to be used in medical set-

tings. These boards contain com-

mon problems such as a cut, fall,

burn, itch, etc., and the part of the

body that is affected. Other boards

illustrate medical conditions such

as nausea, pain, and breathing

problems. Many of the boards

also have English and Spanish

words related to the pictures.

Thousands of these picture

boards have been adopted by

hospitals across the country. As

an added bonus, the medical

picture boards can also help deaf

or mute patients.

Adapted from Linda A. Johnson, “Pic-

ture Boards Help Bridge Language Gap

in Health Emergencies,” Associated

Press Archive, September 7, 2007.

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248 Part 2 The Communication Process

has to study the labels to get the right picture, the visual is unethical even if the labels are accurate.

Figure 9.4 is distorted by chartjunk and dimensionality. In an effort to make the visual interesting, the artist used a picture of a young man (presumably an engineer) rather than simple bars. By using a photograph rather than a bar, the chart implies that all engineers are young, nerdy-looking white men. The photograph also makes it difficult to compare the numbers. The number represented by the tallest figure is not quite 5 times as great as the number represented by the shortest figure, yet the tallest figure takes up 12 times as much space and appears even bigger than that. Two-dimensional figures dis- tort data by multiplying the apparent value by the width as well as by the height—four times for every doubling in value. Three dimensional graphs are especially hard for readers to interpret and should be avoided. 7

Even simple bar and line graphs may be misleading if part of the scale is missing, or truncated. Truncated graphs are most acceptable when the audi- ence knows the basic data set well. For example, graphs of the stock market

Train + Antelope = Doctored Photo

China’s state-run news

organization issued

an apology after a photograph,

depicting a herd of antelope

running beneath a bridge on

which China’s new high-speed

Qinghai-Xizang train zoomed by,

was discovered to be fake. The

photograph had received honors

in 2006 as one of China’s top

photos of the year. It created a

national stir because it eased

environmental concerns about

the new train connecting China

and Tibet.

After the photo was displayed

in a Beijing subway terminal,

Chinese citizens started to ques-

tion the authenticity of the photo.

The first suspicions were posted

on Internet blogs and from there

developed momentum. Even sci-

entists who study the antelope

argued that the noise from the

train would encourage the ani-

mals to scatter, instead of run-

ning in the tight pack pictured in

the photo.

The photographer confessed

to forging the photo; he spliced

two different pictures together in

Photoshop. He has since been

stripped of all his awards and has

resigned from his position as a

photojournalist.

Adapted from Jane Spencer and Juliet

Ye, “China Eats Crow over Faked

Photo of Rare Antelope: They Didn’t

Truly Run with a Train to Tibet; Xinhua

Agency Recants,” Wall Street Journal,

February 22, 2008, A1.

Figure 9.4 Chartjunk and Dimensions Distort Data

Source: Adam Lashinsky, “Valley Horror Show: The Incredible Shrinking Engineer,” Fortune, December 10, 2001, p. 40.

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Chapter 9 Creating Visuals and Data Displays 249

almost never start at zero; they are routinely truncated. This omission is ac- ceptable for audiences who follow the market closely.

Since part of the scale is missing in truncated graphs, small changes seem like major ones. Figure 9.5 shows three different truncated graphs of US unem- ployment data. The first graph shows the trend in unemployment from May 2003 to January 2004. The curve falls from the fifth level of the graph to the second, resembling a 60% decline. But a close look at the numbers shows the decline is from a high of 6.3% to a low of 5.6% (a decline of 11%). The period chosen for the horizontal axis also is truncated. The first graph emphasizes the declining trend in unemployment since a tax cut was enacted in 2003, but the second graph uses the period November 2002–November 2003 to show unem- ployment wavering around 6%. The graph accompanies a news article about “cautious” employers and unemployment that “edged lower.” The truncated scale on the vertical axis again makes the changes appear larger. The third graph takes a longer view (back to 1980) and puts the percentages on a scale starting at zero. On this scale, the changes in the unemployment rate seem less dramatic, and the recent decline looks as if it could be part of a regular pattern that follows recessions (the shaded areas). The graph starting with 1980 shows that the latest (“current”) unemployment rate was lower than those after past recessions. 8

Data can also be distorted when the context is omitted. As Tufte suggests, a drop may be part of a regular cycle, a correction after an atypical increase, or a permanent drop to a new, lower plateau. 9

To make your data displays more accurate,

• Differentiate between actual and estimated or projected values.

• When you must truncate a scale, do so clearly with a break in the bars or in the background.

• Avoid perspective and three-dimensional graphs.

• Avoid combining graphs with different scales.

• Use images of people carefully in histographs to avoid sexist, racist, or other exclusionary visual statements.

Photographs in particular have received close attention for accuracy and ethics concerns. The doctored Katie Couric photo is a current example (see sidebar on page 250). However, the problem is not new. Photographers have

6.4 6.2 6.0 5.8 5.6 5.4 5.2

May

Source: Economy.com Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics Gray bars denote recessions

June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan

Unemployment Rate

Bush Tax Cut Signed

MayApr Jun July Aug Sep Oct NovNov Dec Jan Feb Mar

U.S. Unemployment Rate

5.9%

6.6 6.4 6.2 6.0 5.8 5.6 5.4

5.0 5.2

20041980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000

Unemployment Rate Declining (Civilian unemployment rate, SA)

7.8% Peak: 6.3% Current: 5.5%

10.8% 12% 10% 8% 6% 4%

0% 2%

Sources: From Jerry Bowyer, “In Defense of the Unemployment Rate,” National Review Online, March 5, 2004, http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=YzNiZGJjYTZl ZDNlYzQzZjUxNzFlMWJkNjBiODIzMmI, Mark Gongloff, “Payroll Growth Disappoints,” CNN Money, December 5, 2003, http://money.cnn.com; and Joint Economic

Committee, “Charts: Economy,” http://jec.senate.gov, last updated August 27, 2004.

Figure 9.5 Truncated Scales Distort Data

Absolut-ly Not Political

In a Mexican ad cam-

paign, Absolut Vodka

used a map of North America

showing Mexico and the United

States as being about the same

size. The map pictured what

the border would look like in an

“Absolut World”: translate that to

be a better world from a Mexican

perspective. California, Nevada,

Texas, and Utah, plus parts of

Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico,

and Wyoming were all pictured

as part of Mexico, as they would

have been without the Mexican–

American War.

The ad spread quickly through

the Internet. While it appealed to

its intended Mexican audience, it

riled US audiences—so much so

that Absolut issued an apology.

Is the map ethical? Would it

offend you? Can you think of

other examples where maps have

been used for political purposes?

Adapted from “An Absolut Mexico,”

in Strange Maps, http://strangemaps.

wordpress.com/?s=absolut+mexico

(accessed March 7, 2009).

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250 Part 2 The Communication Process

always been able to frame their pictures in ways that cut objects they do not want. Pictures of homes for real estate sales can omit the collapsing garage; shots of collapsed homeless people can omit the image of social workers stand- ing by to give aid. Now Adobe Photoshop has added a new dimension to the discussion with its easy aid for altering photos.

A classic example of an altered photograph is the Time magazine cover of O. J. Simpson. On June 27, 1994, the cover of Time showed O. J.’s LAPD mug shot. In the photo, Simpson looked unshaven and surrounded by deep shadows: he looked like a criminal. However, Time’ s image was digitally altered. A com- puter had darkened the photo and given Simpson a sinister look. That same day, the cover of Newsweek featured the original, unaltered photo, and when people saw the two images side-by-side on newsstands, they accused Time of biased, unethical journalism.

More recent discussions have involved the use of digital alterations to in- crease the beauty of ad models to unnatural degrees. You can watch the short video at http://www.campaignforrealbeauty.com/flat4.asp?id = 6909 to see an illustration. First the model’s looks are greatly enhanced with makeup and hairstyling. But even that gorgeous result is not good enough. The video shows the made-up model having her brows raised and her neck thinned and elongated with digital alterations for her billboard display.

In his discussion of photography ethics, John Long notes that it’s easy to think of small changes to photographs as harmless. He argues that any change to the picture is deceptive, because when people see a photo, they assume that it’s a true record of a real event. When you change a photo, you use that as- sumption to deceive. 10

Integrating Visuals in Your Text Refer in your text to every visual. Normally the text gives the table or figure number but not the title. Put the visual as soon after your reference as space and page design permit. If the visual must go on another page, tell the reader where to find it:

As Figure 3 shows (page 10), . . .

(See Table 2 on page 14.)

Summarize the main point of a visual before you present the visual itself. Then when readers get to it, they’ll see it as confirmation of your point.

Weak: Listed below are the results.

Better: As Figure 4 shows, sales doubled in the last decade.

How much discussion a visual needs depends on the audience, the com- plexity of the visual, and the importance of the point it makes. If the material is new to the audience, you’ll need a fuller explanation than if similar material is presented to this audience every week or month. If the visual is complex, you may want to help the reader find key points in it. If the point is important, you’ll want to discuss its implications in some detail. In contrast, one sentence about a visual may be enough when the audience is already familiar with the topic and the data, when the visual is simple and well designed, and when the information in the visual is a minor part of your proof.

When you discuss visuals, spell out numbers that fall at the beginning of a sentence. If spelling out the number or year is cumbersome, revise the sen- tence so that it does not begin with a number.

Forty-five percent of the cost goes to pay wages and salaries.

In 2002, euronotes and coins became legal tender.

Slimming Down Couric

Always be careful about

altering the appearance

of photographs.

Katie Couric has two famous

photographs. The first was

snapped in May 2006 as an offi-

cial media photo. The second,

supposedly the same photo,

appeared in the September 2006

issue of Watch!, a magazine with

a circulation around 400,000

distributed to CBS affiliates and

to passengers on American Air-

line flights. In the second version

Katie Couric dropped around

20 pounds and looked much

younger. The magazine article

which included the photo adver-

tised Couric’s move from NBC’s

Today to CBS’s Evening News.

When asked about the doc-

tored photo, Couric reportedly

said that she liked the original

because “there’s more of me to

love.” Media experts suggest that

whenever a photo is altered, the

public deserves the right to be

told about it.

What do you think? What are the

ethics of altering photos so that

subjects are slimmer and younger

looking? How does this altering

influence the public’s obsession

with beauty? How does Couric’s

photo hinder goodwill between

CBS and the public?

Think about the photos you see

in the media every day. How many

of them have been altered? How

would you know? If you wanted

to use an altered photo, what

steps would you need to take to

use it ethically?

Adapted from Buzzle Staff, “Katie Cou-

ric Magically Loses Weight in Photo

Distributed to Media,” in Buzzle.com,

http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/9-

1-2006-107383.asp (accessed March

7, 2009).

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Chapter 9 Creating Visuals and Data Displays 251

Put numbers in parentheses at the end of the clause or sentence to make the sentence easier to read:

Hard to read: As Table 4 shows, teachers participate (54%) in more community service

groups than do members of the other occupations surveyed; dentists

(20.8%) participate in more service groups than do members of five of the

other occupations.

Better: As Table 4 shows, teachers participate in more community service groups

than do members of the other occupations surveyed (54%); dentists partici-

pate in more service groups than do five of the other occupations (20.8%).

Designing Data Displays and Images Once you know your story—once you know what you’re saying, how you’re saying it, and how you want text and visuals to combine to say it—then you’re in a position to choose and create visuals. Each type of visual can do different things for you. Here are some of the most common types of visuals (data displays and images), and here’s when, where and how they’re most effective.

Tables Use tables only when you want the audience to focus on specific numbers. Graphs convey less specific information but are more memorable. Figure 9.6 illustrates the basic structure of tables. The boxhead is the variable whose label is at the top; the stub is the variable listed on the side. When constructing tables,

• Use common, understandable units. Round off to simplify the data (e.g., 35% rather than 35.27%; 44.5 million rather than 44,503,276).

• Provide column and row totals or averages when they’re relevant.

• Put the items you want readers to compare in columns rather than in rows to facilitate mental subtraction and division.

• When you have many rows, shade alternate rows (or pairs of rows) or double- space after every five rows to help readers line up items accurately.

Showing Trends and Changes

Jerry Atkinson gives

his clients not only

financial statements but also

graphs of key trends. Atkinson

is managing director of Atkinson

and Company, a 62-employee

CPA firm in Albuquerque, New

Mexico.

Current-month or -year informa-

tion isn’t enough, he says. Clients

need to see trends and changes.

And graphs offer an easy way to

show that.

Atkinson personalizes the

graphs by using the colors of the

company being profiled.

Adapted from John von Brachel,

“Interpreting Financial Statements:

How One Firm Uses the Language

of Graphics,” Journal of Accountancy

180, no. 2 (August 1995), 42–43.

St ub

Boxhead

Table Number – Title

Figure 9.6 Tables Show Exact Values

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Pie Charts Pie charts force the audience to measure area. However, people can judge posi- tion or length (which a bar chart uses) more accurately than they judge area, thus making information in pie charts more difficult for an audience to under- stand accurately. 11 The data in any pie chart can be put in a bar chart. There- fore, use a pie chart only when you are comparing one segment to the whole. When you are comparing one segment to another segment, use a bar chart, a line graph, or a map—even though the data may be expressed in percentages.

When constructing pie charts,

• Make the chart a perfect circle. Avoid 3D circles; they distort the data.

• Start at 12 o’clock with the largest percentage or the percentage you want to focus on. Go clockwise to each smaller percentage or to each percentage in some other logical order.

• Limit the number of segments to no more than seven. If your data have more divisions, combine the smallest or the least important into a single “miscellaneous” or “other” category.

• Label the segments outside the circle. Internal labels are hard to read.

Bar Charts Bar charts are easy to interpret because they ask people to compare distance along a common scale, which most people judge accurately. Bar charts are use- ful in a variety of situations: to compare one item to another, to compare items over time, and to show correlations. Use horizontal bars when your labels are long; when the labels are short, either horizontal or vertical bars will work. When constructing bar charts,

• Order the bars in a logical or chronological order.

• Put the bars close enough together to make comparison easy.

• Label both horizontal and vertical axes.

• Put all labels inside the bars or outside them. When some labels are inside and some are outside, the labels carry the visual weight of longer bars, dis- torting the data.

Visuals That Translate Well

When preparing visu-

als, keep in mind cul-

tural differences:

• Make sure any symbols in the

visual will have the correct

meaning in the culture of your

audience. For example, a red

cross symbolizes first aid in

North America, but in Muslim

countries the symbol with

that meaning is typically a

green crescent.

• If you use punctuation marks

as symbols, be sure they are

meaningful to your audience.

A question mark in English

and certain other languages

might signal a help function

or answers to questions. But

in languages without this

symbol, it has no meaning.

• In showing humans, respect

the cultural norms of your

audience. Europeans tend

to accept images of nudity,

but some cultures can be

offended by images of even a

bare leg or other body part.

• Organize the information

according to the reading

customs of the audience.

North American and European

audiences will tend to read

visual information as they do

text: from left to right. Asians

view from right to left, and

Middle Easterners in a rotation

moving counterclockwise.

• Learn your audience’s

conventions for writing

numbers. In the United States,

a period indicates the decimal

point, and commas separate

groups of three digits. In

much of Europe, a comma

represents the decimal point,

and a space goes between

each group of three digits. For

US and French readers, 3,333

would have different values.

Adapted from Gerald J. Alred, Charles

T. Brusaw, and Walter E. Oliu, The Busi-

ness Writer’s Handbook, 8th ed. (New

York: St. Martin’s Press, 2006), 248–50,

558–62; and The Chicago Manual of

Style, 15th ed. (Chicago: University of

Chicago Press, 2003), 385.

Sources: http://www.netratings.com/pr/pr_070620.pdf (accessed March 7, 2009).

Provider Searches

(000) YOY

Growth Share of

Searches

1. Google Search 4,033,277 44.9% 56.3%

2. Yahoo! Search 1,540,949 18.6% 21.5%

3. MSN/Windows Live Search 605,400 0.8% 8.4%

4. AOL Search 381,961 5.1% 5.3%

5. Ask.com Search 142,418 –2.8% 2.0%

6. My Web Search 61,784 N/A 0.9%

7. Comcast Search 34,908 N/A 0.5%

8. EarthLink Search 33,461 21.7% 0.5%

9. BellSouth Search 30,122 N/A 0.4%

10. Dogpile.com Search 26,295 –10.6% 0.4%

Top 10 Search Providers for May 2007, Ranked by Searches (U.S.)

Figure 9.6 Tables Show Exact Values (continued)

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Chapter 9 Creating Visuals and Data Displays 253

• Make all the bars the same width.

• Use different colors for different bars only when their meanings are dif- ferent: estimates as opposed to known numbers, negative as opposed to positive numbers.

• Avoid using 3D perspective; it makes the values harder to read and can make comparison difficult.

Several varieties of bar charts exist. See Figure 9.7 for examples.

• Grouped bar charts allow you to compare either several aspects of each item or several items over time. Group together the items you want to compare. Figure 9.7a shows that sales were highest in the West each year. If we wanted to show how sales had changed in each region, the bars should be grouped by region, not by year.

• Segmented, subdivided, or stacked bars sum the components of an item. It’s hard to identify the values in specific segments; grouped bar charts are almost always easier to use.

• Deviation bar charts identify positive and negative values, or winners and losers.

• Paired bar charts show the comparison between two items.

• Histograms or pictograms use images to create the bars.

Line Graphs Line graphs are also easy to interpret. Use line graphs to compare items over time, to show frequency or distribution, and to show possible correlations. When constructing line graphs,

• Label both horizontal and vertical axes. When time is a variable, it is usu- ally put on the horizontal axis.

The Power of the Golden Arches

Company logos have

big business implica-

tions. In a 2007 taste test with 63

children aged 3 to 5, researchers

found that the children preferred

food if it came in McDonald’s pack-

aging. For example, even though

the children were served the same

chicken nuggets from McDonald’s

in two different bags, 59% of chil-

dren preferred chicken nuggets in

the McDonald’s packaging; only

23% suggested there was no dif-

ference. The same held true for

milk with 61% of children prefer-

ring the McDonald’s cup, fries with

77% preference, and carrots with

54% preference. The researchers

also found that the children who

lived in houses with more televi-

sions were more likely to prefer

McDonald’s branded food.

Assuming these results hold

true for a larger random sampling

of children, what should McDon-

ald’s do with this information?

What ethical implications exist in

this study’s results?

Adapted from Nicholas Bakalar, “If It

Says McDonald’s, Then It Must Be

Good,” New York Times, August 17,

2007, 7.

Northeast South Midwest West

2004 2006 2008

30 20 10

0 –10 –20

New jobs

Northeast

South

Midwest

West

= 10,000 new jobs

Television Cable Videos

Cincinnati

San Francisco

Pittsburgh

Baseball Attendance

Football Attendance

Hours

a. Grouped bar charts compare several aspects of each item, or several items over time.

b. Segmented, subdivided, or stacked bars sum the components of an item.

c. Deviation bar charts identify positive and negative values.

d. Paired bar charts show the comparison between two items.

e. Histograms or pictograms use images to create the bars.

Figure 9.7 Varieties of Bar Charts

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254 Part 2 The Communication Process

• Avoid using more than three different lines on one graph. Even three lines may be too many if they cross each other.

• Avoid using perspective. Perspective makes the values harder to read and can make comparison difficult.

Gantt Charts Gantt charts are bar charts used to show schedules. They’re most commonly used in proposals. Figure 9.8 is a Gantt chart for a marketing plan. From the chart, it is easy to see which activities must be completed first in order to finish the total plan on time. When using Gantt charts,

• Color-code bars to indicate work planned and work completed.

• Use a red outline to indicate critical activities, which must be completed on time if the project is to be completed by the due date.

• Use diamonds to indicate progress reports, major achievements, or other accomplishments.

Photographs Photographs convey a sense of authenticity. The photo of a prototype helps convince investors that a product can be manufactured; the photo of a devas- tated area can suggest the need for government grants or private donations.

You may need to crop, or trim, a photo for best results. If someone else is doing the production, mark the places for cropping in the margins of the photo or attach nonsticky paper. Never write or mark on the photo or the negative.

Two-Timing Pictures

Thanks to the spread

of digital photo libraries,

companies—sometimes compet-

ing ones—have been discovering

that they are using the same photo

in their advertisements. Both Bank

of America and Key Bank used

the same photo of a father show-

ing something on his computer

to his daughter. MetLife used the

same male that Pfizer used in its

Viagra ad. Dell and Washington

Mutual used the same picture of a

young Asian woman.

The duplication happens when

companies buy photos from stock

agencies without paying the high

premiums for exclusive use. The

problem intensifies when compa-

nies want pictures of minorities.

Adapted from “When Marketers See

Double: As Digital Libraries Spread

the Use of Stock Photography, Some

Ad Images Are Recycled,” Wall Street

Journal, November 28, 2006, B1.

Figure 9.8 Gantt Charts Show the Schedule for Completing a Project

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Chapter 9 Creating Visuals and Data Displays 255

A growing problem with photos is that they may be edited or staged, pur- porting to show something as reality even though it never occurred. See the discussion of ethics and accuracy starting on page 249.

On the other hand, sometimes photos are obviously edited to serve a pur- pose. The law firm Bingham McCutchen LLP got much publicity from its advertisement, which ran in the Wall Street Journal and the Economist, showing a grizzly bear holding a human baby between its paws and nuzzling it. The ad’s text said, “The best lawyers know how to balance aggression with delicate handling.” Even Stephen Colbert poked fun at it, wondering what happened after the photographer’s flash went off. 12

Drawings The richness of detail in photos makes them less effective than drawings for focusing on details. With a drawing, the artist can provide as much or as little detail as is needed to make the point; different parts of the drawing can show different layers or levels of detail. Drawings are also better for showing struc- tures underground, undersea, or in the atmosphere.

In the drawings in Figure 9.9 , no attempt is made to show the details of warehousing and transportation facilities. Such details would distract from

McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Figure 9.9 Sketches Can Show Processes

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the main point. Here, the drawings show how UPS Logistics handles the vari- ous activities required to move Birkenstock sandals from the shoe company’s German factories to thousands of stores in the United States.

Drawings can also be used to insert creativity into the presentation of infor- mation. Time magazine used a Seek & Find drawing, like those in magazines asking children to find the hidden items in a picture, to highlight consumer goods whose prices would likely rise as corn is turned into ethanol. 13

Maps Use maps to emphasize location or to compare items in different locations. Figure 9.10 shows the prevalence of childhood asthma by state. A map is appropriate because the emphasis is on the distribution of asthma in various regions. Several computer software packages now allow users to generate

Figure 9.10 The State of Childhood Asthma Current asthma prevalence among children 0–17 years of age, by state, annual average for the period 2001–2005

ID OR

NV UT CO

NMAZ

4.4 – 7.8 percent

7.9 – 8.5 percent

8.6 – 9.7 percent

Over 9.8 percent

Data not reliable

IN OH

ALMS GA

VA WV

VT NH

DE MD DC

NOTES: Ranges are based on approximate quartiles among states with available estimates. Differences portrayed in this map should be

interpreted with caution. The 95 percent confidence intervals for many states overlap. Current asthma prevalence estimates are based on the

questions “Has a doctor or other health professional ever told you that (child’s name) had asthma?” and “Does (child’s name) still have asthma?”

Estimates for Delaware, the District of Columbia, Mississippi, Nebraska, Nevada, and New Hampshire have a relative standard error greater than

30 percent and less than or equal to 50 percent and should be interpreted with caution as they do not meet the standard of reliability or precision.

The estimates for Alaska, Idaho, Maine, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Vermont, West Virginia, and Wyoming have a relative standard

error greater than 50 percent and therefore are not represented in this figure.

SOURCE: CDC/NCHS, National Health Interview Survey.

Source: Lara J. Akinbami, “The State of Childhood Asthma, United States, 1980–2005,” in Advance Data from Vital and Health Statistics (Hyattsville, MD: National

Center for Health Statistics, 2006). (http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/ad/ad381.pdf ) accessed May 4, 2009.

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Chapter 9 Creating Visuals and Data Displays 257

local, state, national, or global maps, adding color or shadings, and labels. When using maps,

• Label states, provinces, or countries if it’s important that people be able to identify levels in areas other than their own.

• Avoid using perspective. Perspective makes the values harder to read and can make comparison difficult.

Dynamic Displays Online visuals are expanding the possibilities of data displays. Many of these displays are interactive, allowing users to adapt them to personal needs. At BabyNameWizard.com, you can see the popularity of various names over the years, or you can track the popularity of one name. Some displays are animated. At CReSIS, the Center for Remote Sensing of Ice Sheets, you can see the effects of global warming on coastal areas around the world as coasts flood while you watch. 14

Summary of Key Points • Visuals help make data meaningful for your audience.

• In the rough draft, use visuals to see that ideas are presented completely and to see what relationships exist. In the final report, use visuals to make points vivid, to emphasize material that the reader might skip, and to present mate- rial more compactly and with less repetition than words alone would require.

• You’ll use more visuals when you want to show relationships and to per- suade, when the information is complex or contains extensive numerical data, and when the audience values visuals.

• Always check the quality of your data.

• Pick data to tell a story, to make a point.

• Visuals are not interchangeable. The best visual depends on the kind of data and the point you want to make with the data.

• Tables are numbers or words arrayed in rows and columns; figures are every- thing else. Formal visuals have both numbers and titles that indicate what to look for in the visual or why the visual is included and is worth examining.

• Visuals must present data accurately and ethically. Chartjunk denotes dec- orations that at best are irrelevant to the visual and at worst mislead the reader. Truncated graphs omit part of the scale and visually mislead read- ers. Graphs and charts with 3D mislead readers.

• Summarize the main point of a visual before it appears in the text.

*Go to www.mhhe.com/locker9e for additional Exercises and Problems. C H A P T E R 9 Exercises and Problems

9.1 Reviewing the Chapter

1. When should you use visuals? (LO 1)

2. What are some specific ways to create effective visuals? (LO 2)

3. What are some concerns that must be addressed to keep your visuals accurate and ethical? (LO 2)

4. What are some guidelines for integrating visuals into your text? (LO 3)

5. What are some guidelines for constructing bar charts? (LO 2)

9.2 Evaluating the Ethics of Design Choices

Indicate whether you consider each of the following actions ethical, unethical, or a gray area. Which of the

actions would you do? Which would you feel uncom- fortable doing? Which would you refuse to do?

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Evaluate each of the following visuals.

Is visual’s message clear?

Is it the right visual for the story?

Is the visual designed appropriately? Is color, if any, used appropriately?

In problem 9.3 , visuals 1 and 2 are the former and current food pyramids. Which pyramid is clearer? More informa- tive? Which pyramid do you prefer? Why?

Is the visual free from chartjunk?

Does the visual distort data or mislead the reader in any way?

9.3 Evaluating Visuals

KEY Fat (naturally occuring and added) Sugars (added)

Those symbols show fats and added sugars in foods.

Fats, Oils & Sweets

Milk, Yogurt & Cheese Group

Meat, Poultry, Fish, Dry Beans, Eggs & Nuts Group

Bread, Cereal, Rice & Pasta

Group

Fruit GroupVegetable Group

USE SPARINGLY

2–3 SERVINGS 2–3 SERVINGS

2–4 SERVINGS

6–11 SERVINGS

Former food pyramid

3–5 SERVINGS

Source: http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/Publications/MyPyramid/OriginalFoodGuidePyramids/FGP/FGPPamphlet.pdf (accessed May 5, 2009)

1. Using photos of Hawaiian beaches in advertising for Bermuda tourism, without indicating the location of the beaches.

2. Editing a photo by inserting an image of a young black person into a picture of an all-white group, and using that photo in a recruiting brochure designed to attract minority applicants to a university.

3. Altering people in your photographs so that they look skinnier and younger. (Watch the short video mentioned in the ethics discussion of this chapter.)

4. Modifying real estate photos by changing the physical appearance of houses or stores.

5. Including pictures in restaurant menus that are exaggerated in presentation quality, color appearance, and portion size.

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Moderation Moderation is represented by the narrowing of each food group from bottom to top. The wider base stands for foods with little or no solid fats or added sugars. These should be selected more often. The narrower top area stands for foods containing more added sugars and solid fats. The more active you are, the more of these foods can fit into your diet.

Variety

Proportionality Proportionality is shown by the different widths of the food group bands. The widths suggest how much food a person should choose from each group. The widths are just a general guide, not exact proportions. Check the Web site for how much is right for you.

Variety is symbolized by the 6 color bands representing the 5 food groups of the Pyramid and oils. This illustrates that foods from all groups are needed each day for good health.

Gradual Improvement Gradual improvement is encouraged by the slogan. It suggests that individuals can benefit from taking small steps to improve their diets and lifestyle each day.

Anatomy of MyPyramid

Current Food Pyramid

MyPyramid.gov STEPS TO A HEALTHIER YOU

One size doesn’t fit all USDA’s new MyPyramid symbolizes a personalized approach to healthy eating and physical activity.The symbol has been designed to be simple. It has been developed to remind consumers to make healthy food choices and to be active every day. The different parts of the symbol are described below.

Activity Activity is represented by the steps and the person climbing them, as a reminder of the importance of daily physical activity.

Personalization Personalization is shown by the person on the steps, the slogan and the URL. Find the kinds and amounts of food to eat each day at Mypyramid.gov.

GRAINS

U.S. Department of Agriculture Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion April 2005 CNPP-16

USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer

VEGETABLES FRUITS MILK MEAT& BEANSO

IL S

Source: United States Department of Agriculture, “Steps to a Healthier You,” in MyPyramid.gov, http://www.mypyramid.gov (accessed May 5, 2009).

Source: Data provided by World Health Organization.

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Terrified of bees, snakes and swimming pools? Thousands of Americans die in accidents every year, but the odds are extremely high that you won't be one of them. A look at what killed Americans in 2003, the most recent year for which data are available, shows that just 4% of fatalities were accidental. So go ahead and take that plane trip or swim in the ocean. Just be careful out there.

Maybe you should worry more about your heart Even if you exercise regularly and don't smoke or drink, you will probably die of a disease. Two ailments—heart disease and cancer— cause half of all deaths in U.S. Exotic bugs like avian flu and mad cow disease might grab a lot of headlines, but so far they haven't killed a single person in the U.S.

Selected causes

=200 =200

Selected causes

Motor-vehicle accident*

HIV

Alcoholic liver disease

Viral hepatitis

Anemia

Asthma

Malnutrition

SIDS

Tuberculosis Pregnancy and birth

Appendicitis West Nile virus

Anorexia Salmonella

Measles

Bird flu Mad cow disease

All other deaths 8,364

(Includes complications from surgery, law-enforcement incidents

and unknown causes)

44,757

13,658

Homicide 17,732

Suicide 31,484

Diab etes

74,2 19

Chro nic-l

ower -resp

irato ry di

seas e 12

6,38 2

Stro ke 1

57,6 89

Canc er

556 ,902

Hea rt d

isea se

685 ,08

Other

disea ses

681, 150

12,360

5,431

4,594

4,099 3,153

2,162

711

545

439

264

79 43

1 0

11,212Drug overdose

Motorcycle accident

Bicycle accident

Fire Choking on object

Falling down stairs

Falling off a ladder

Falling out of bed

Pool drowning

Bathtub drowning

Slipping on ice/snow

Bee/wasp sting

Lightning strike

Dog attack

Skydiving

Crushing by human stampede

Commercial- airline accident

Playground- equipment accident

Snakebite

Marine-animal attack

*Excluding motorcycles **Number varies widely by year. The average number of annual fatalities for the past 10 years is 82, including the 265 people who died on airplanes on Sept. 11, 2001

Choking on food

3,676

3,369 3,004

1,588

875 762

594

515

365 332

103

47 32

22**

TOTAL ANNUAL DEATHS

DISEASES 2.3 millionACCIDENTS 109,277

2.5 MILLION

Sources: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; National Transportation Safety Board.

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Chapter 9 Creating Visuals and Data Displays 261

Source: From American Demographics, June 2000.

with permission of Dow Jones & Company, Inc. via Copyright Clearance Center.

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Burden of disease attributable to: ALCOHOL (% DALYs in each subregion)

Proportion of DALYs

Worldwide alcohol causes 1.8 million deaths (3.2% of total) and 58.3 million (4% of total) of Disability- Adjusted Life Years (DALYs). Unintentional injuries alone account for about one-third of the 1.8 million deaths, while neuro-psychiatric conditions account for close to 40% of the 58.3 million DALYs. The burden is not equally distributed among the countries, as is shown on the map.

<0.5%

0.5–0.9%

1–1.9%

2–3.9%

8–15.9%

4–7.9%

Source: World Health Organization, “Alcohol,” in Management of Substance Abuse, http://www.who.int/substance_

abuse/facts/alcohol/en/ (accessed May 5, 2009).

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9.4 Creating a Web Guide to Graphs

Create a Web page explaining how to create good visu- als. Offer general principles and at least seven links to examples of good and poor visuals. (More is better.) At the top of the page, offer an overview of what the page covers. At the bottom of the page, put the creation/ update date and your name and e-mail address.

As your instructor directs,

a. Turn in one copy of your page(s). On another page, give the URLs for each link.

b. Electronically submit your Web page files or submit them on a CD.

c. Write a memo to your instructor (1) identifying the audience for which the page is designed and explain- ing (2) the search strategies you used to find mate- rial on this topic, (3) why you chose the pages and

information you’ve included, and (4) why you chose the layout and graphics you’ve used.

d. Present your page orally to the class.

Hints:

• Searching for words (graphs, maps, Gantt charts, data) will turn up only pages with those words. Also check pages on topics that may use graphs to explain their data: finance, companies’ performance, sports, cost of living, exports, and so forth.

• In addition to finding good and bad visuals on the Web, you can also scan in examples you find in newspapers, magazines, and textbooks.

• If you have more than nine links, chunk them in small groups under headings.

9.5 Creating Visuals

As your instructor directs,

a. Identify visuals that you might use to help analyze each of the following data sets.

b. Identify and create a visual for one or more of the stories in each set.

c. Identify additional information that would be needed for other stories related to these data sets.

1. Active Internet home users.

Worldwide Active Internet Home Users, January 2009

Country December 2008 January 2009 Growth (%) Difference

Australia 11,576,309 11,618,329 0.36 42,020

Brazil 24,545,405 24,467,388 –0.32 –78,017

France 28,955,721 28,687,263 –0.93 –268,458

Germany 39,382,877 38,214,598 –2.97 –1,168,279

Italy 17,610,828 17,435,926 –0.99 –174,902

Japan 50,638,687 49,898,929 –1.46 –739,758

Spain 18,315,052 18,168,896 –0.80 –146,156

Switzerland 3,742,101 3,755,761 0.37 13,660

U.K. 29,772,512 28,838,135 –3.14 –934,376

U.S. 153,326,129 156,732,434 2.22 3,406,306

Source: Enid Burns, “Active Home Internet Users by Country, January 2009,” http://www.clickz.com/3633357 (accessed May 5, 2009). Reprinted with permission.

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2. Daily Change in Traffic to NCAA-Related Sports Web Sites, during “March Madness” (U.S., Home and Work).

Site Wed: 3/15 UA (000)

Thurs: 3/16 UA (000)

Fri: 3/17 UA (000)

Wed Fri Growth

CBS Sportsline.com Network 1,958 3,603 3,135 84%

AOL Sports (Web-only) 761 999 1,006 31%

FOX Sports on MSN 1,510 1,953 2,237 29%

Yahoo! Sports 2,121 2,601 2,377 23%

Sl.com 724* 819* 773* 13%*

ESPN 3,074 3,312 2,941 8%

Total Unduplicated UA (Unique Audience) 8,005 9,659 9,573 21%

*These estimates are calculated on smaller sample sizes and are subject to increased statistical variability as a result.

From Enid Burns, “March Madness Invades Office Life,” Trends & Statistics: The Web’s Richest Resource. Reprinted with permission.

3. Customer Satisfaction with Airlines.

Base- line 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08

Previous Year %

Change

First Year %

Change

Southwest

Airlines Co.

78 76 76 76 74 72 70 70 74 75 73 74 74 76 79 3.9 1.3

All Others NM 70 74 70 62 67 63 64 72 74 73 74 74 75 75 0.0 7.1

Airlin es 72 69 69 67 65 63 63 61 66 67 66 66 65 63 62 −1.6 −13.9

American

Airlines (AMR

Corporation)

70 71 71 62 67 64 63 62 63 67 66 64 62 60 62 3.3 −11.4

Continental

Airlines Inc.

67 64 66 64 66 64 62 67 68 68 67 70 67 69 62 −10.1 −7.5

Delta Air

Lines Inc.

77 72 67 69 65 68 66 61 66 67 67 65 64 59 60 1.7 −22.1

Northwest

Airlines

Corporation

69 71 67 64 63 53 62 56 65 64 64 64 61 61 57 −6.6 −17.4

United

Airlines (UAL

Corporation)

71 67 70 68 65 62 62 59 64 63 64 61 63 56 56 0.0 −21.1

US Airways

Group Inc.

72 67 66 68 65 61 62 60 63 64 62 57 62 61 54 −11.5 −25.0

Source: “Airlines,” in The American Customer Satisfaction Index: Scores By Industry, http://www.theacsi.org. Reprinted with permission.

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Chapter 9 Creating Visuals and Data Displays 265

part of a short report. Possible groups include career counselors, radio stations, advertising agencies, and Mothers Against Drunk Driving.

e. Brainstorm additional stories you could tell with additional data. Specify the kind of data you would need.

As your instructor directs,

a. Identify at least five stories in one or more of the fol- lowing data sets.

b. Create visuals for three of the stories.

c. Write a memo to your instructor explaining why you chose these stories and why you chose these visuals to display them.

d. Write a memo to some group that might be inter- ested in your findings, presenting your visuals as

Source: From American Demographics, May 2001.

1. Data on tipping.

9.6 Interpreting Data

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2. Alcohol consumption, 1997, 2005, 2006.

Both Sexes Male Female

Characteristic 1997 2005 2006 1997 2005 2006 1997 2005 2006

Age Percent current drinkers among all adults

All persons

18–44 years ............................................. 69.4 66.4 65.8 74.8 72.0 71.4 64.2 60.9 60.4

18–24 years ......................................... 62.2 58.1 59.3 66.7 62.7 64.2 57.7 53.7 54.5

25–44 years ......................................... 71.6 69.2 68.1 77.2 75.3 73.9 66.1 63.3 62.4

45–64 years ............................................. 63.3 62.6 61.5 70.8 68.0 67.3 56.2 57.5 56.1

45–54 years ......................................... 67.1 66.3 64.9 73.8 71.0 69.8 60.7 61.9 60.3

55–64 years ......................................... 57.3 57.3 56.8 65.8 63.8 63.8 49.4 51.5 50.4

65 years and over .................................... 43.4 43.1 43.7 52.7 52.0 54.4 36.6 36.5 35.6

65–74 years ......................................... 48.6 47.7 48.2 56.7 55.1 58.5 42.0 41.3 39.4

75 years and over ................................. 36.6 38.0 38.5 46.7 47.8 48.8 30.2 31.7 31.8

Race

White only ................................................... 66.0 64.4 63.8 71.8 69.8 69.4 60.7 59.4 58.6

Black or African American only .................... 47.8 46.4 48.5 56.9 56.2 58.7 40.9 38.8 40.4

American Indian or Alaska Native only ........... 53.9 50.0 52.8 66.1 54.1 57.3 45.2 47.7 48.1

Asian only .................................................... 45.8 42.9 43.0 60.2 53.5 55.9 31.6 32.4 31.3

Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific

Islander only .............................................

— — — — — — — — —

2 or more races ........................................... — 51.6 55.0 — 55.7 59.5 — 48.2 52.9

Hispanic origin and race

Hispanic or Latino ........................................ 53.4 50.8 50.5 64.6 61.8 62.6 42.1 39.7 38.2

Mexican ................................................... 53.0 48.1 49.0 66.9 61.3 61.5 38.9 34.8 35.2

Not Hispanic or Latino ................................. 64.1 62.9 62.5 70.2 68.3 68.2 58.7 58.1 57.5

White only ................................................ 67.5 67.0 66.4 72.7 71.4 70.8 62.9 63.0 62.4

Black or African American only ................. 47.8 46.0 48.4 57.1 55.8 68.8 40.7 38.5 40.3

Geographic region

Northeast .................................................... 68.7 69.0 68.5 74.4 74.2 74.5 63.8 64.6 63.6

Midwest ...................................................... 66.8 66.0 65.5 73.0 71.0 70.5 61.1 61.3 60.7

South .......................................................... 56.2 54.2 55.1 63.9 60.3 62.5 49.2 48.8 48.5

West ............................................................ 64.9 61.6 59.6 71.5 69.8 66.8 58.9 53.6 52.8

Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, “Table 68: Alcohol Consumption among Adults 18 Years of Age and Over, by Selected Characteristics:

United States, 1997, 2005, and 2006,” in Health, United States, 2007, http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hus/hus07.pdf#068 (accessed March 7, 2009).

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Chapter 9 Creating Visuals and Data Displays 267

“pay rank” and get a list ordered by earnings. You can also find lists for other years.

3. Top Celebrities, 2008.

Forbes magazine’s Web site provides the full list of 100 top celebrities, explains the methodology, and re-ranks the list on any column. For example, you can click on

Rank Name Pay ($mil) Web Rank Press Rank TV Rank

1 Oprah Winfrey 275 2 5 1

2 Tiger Woods 115 12 1 3

3 Angelina Jolie 14 1 9 15

4 Beyonce Knowles 80 3 32 14

5 David Beckham 50 10 3 18

6 Johnny Depp 72 17 19 36

7 Jay-Z 82 6 43 41

8 The Police 115 15 20 51

9 J. K. Rowling 300 23 27 64

10 Brad Pitt 20 4 8 7

11 Will Smith 80 26 39 32

12 Justin Timberlake 44 5 24 17

13 Steven Spielberg 130 34 23 60

14 Cameron Diaz 50 13 50 45

15 David Letterman 45 42 34 10

16 LeBron James 38 32 13 13

17 Jennifer Aniston 27 21 67 49

18 Michael Jordan 45 38 45 29

19 Kobe Bryant 39 28 18 24

20 Phil Mickelson 45 87 12 23

21 Madonna 40 15 20 67

22 Simon Cowell 72 65 47 40

23 Roger Federer 35 40 2 26

24 Alex Rodriguez 34 51 7 6

25 Jerry Seinfeld 85 79 72 38

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4. Statistics on high school graduates.

a. Curriculum levels completed, by gender

1990

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 800

61* 9* 4*27*

60* 10* 5*25*

52* 12* 6*30*

46* 14* 10*31*

45* 14* 9*32*

36 17 1037

47* 11* 6*35*

41* 13* 8*37*

37* 12* 11*40*

29* 16* 11*44*

PERCENT

Females

Males

1994

1998

2000

2005

1990

1994

1998

2000

2005

Less than standard Standard Midlevel Rigorous

*Significantly different from 2005.

Source: “Curriculum Levels Completed, by Gender,” in U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences,

National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), various years, 1990–2005, http://

nationsreportcard.gov/hsts_2005/hs_stu_5b_2.asp (accessed May 5, 2009).

b. Trend in grade point average by gender

0 1990 1994 1998

HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATION ON YEAR 2000 2005

2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 4.0

G R

A D

E P

O IN

T A

V E

R A

G E

2.77*

2.59* 2.68*

2.79* 2.83 2.86

2.90* 3.00*

3.05* 3.09* Female

Male

*Significantly different from 2005.

Source: “Trend in Grade Point Average, by Gender,” in U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences,

National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), various years, 1990–2005, http://

nationsreportcard.gov/hsts_2005/hs_stu_5b_3.asp (accessed May 5, 2009).

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Chapter 9 Creating Visuals and Data Displays 269

c. Trend in twelfth-grade average NAEP reading scores

270

280

290

300

500 Scale score

292* 291* 290* 287 286

Year

287

'92 '94 '98 '02

Accommodations not permitted KEY

Accommodations permitted

'05

*Significantly different from 2005.

Source: “Trend in Twelfth-Grade Average NAEP Reading Scores,” in U.S. Department of

Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics, High School

Transcript Study (HSTS), various years, 1990–2005, http://nationsreportcard.gov/reading_math_

grade12_2005/s0202.asp (accessed May 5, 2009).

9.7 Creating Graphs for Two Audiences and Scenarios

“Assume that you work for a local nonprofit organization with the following income expense for 2007 (see Table 1 ).

Income Expenses

Description $ Amount Description $ Amount

Government grants $375,000 Program services $741,935

Fees for services $273,467 Administrative costs $ 88,500

Contributions $114,763 Miscellaneous $ 5,230

Special events $ 58,450

Sale of products produced by

participants in your program

$ 12,468

Total income $834,148 Total expenses $835,665

Table 1

As directors of the organization, you are responsible for bringing in more money and must present the past year’s financial information to two groups of people, described in the following scenarios:

1. Within the community is a core group of consistent contributors who give the same amount each year, although the cost of running your organization continues to go up. You must convince these contributors to give additional funds during your

presentation at the annual fund-raising banquet. You need to create graphic representations of financial data that will convince the contributors of the need for additional funds and that will reassure them the money they have given in the past has been spent wisely.

2. Your organization is eligible for a new grant from a federal government agency. You have to write a

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proposal explaining why your organization needs the money and demonstrating that it is fiscally responsible. There is a strict page limit, so you must present financial information concisely but in enough detail to make a strong case.”

With a group of two or three peers, as your instructor directs,

a. Create a graphic representation of the financial data for the presentation and the proposal.

b. Write a memo that justifies the choices you made in creating the graphics for the different audiences and situations.

c. Prepare a brief presentation to the class that justifies your choices in creating the graphics.

Quoted from Susan M. Katz, “Creating Appropriate Graphics for Business Situations,” Business Communication Quarterly 71, no. 1 (March 2008): 71–75. Copyright © 2008 by Sage Publica- tions Inc. Journals. Reproduced with permission of Sage Publi- cations Inc. Journals via Copyright Clearance Center.

9.8 Graphing Data from the Web

Find data on the Web about a topic that interests you. Some sites with data include the following:

Catalyst (women in business)

http://www.catalyst.org/page/64/ browse-research-knowledge

ClickZ (digital marketing)

http://www.clickz.com/showPage.html?page = stats

FEDSTATS (links to 70 US government agencies)

http://www.fedstats.gov/

United Nations Environment Program

http://na.unep.net/

U.S. Congress Joint Economic Committee

http://jec.senate.gov/index .cfm?FuseAction = ChartsData.Home

As your instructor directs,

a. Identify at least five stories in the data.

b. Create visuals for three of the stories.

c. Write a memo to your instructor explaining why you chose these stories and why you chose these visuals to display them.

d. Write a memo to some group which might be inter- ested in your findings, presenting your visuals as part of a short report.

e. Print out the data and include it with a copy of your memo or report.

9.9 Creating a Visual Argument

With a partner, research one of the following topics:

• Having English-only laws in the workplace.

• Introducing new technology into the marketplace.

• Laying off employees during economic downturns.

• Requiring employers to offer insurance plans.

• Banning smoking in the workplace for insurance purposes.

• Hiring/recruiting and diversity in the workplace.

• Current hot business topic.

Then, prepare a four-minute slideshow presentation to share with your peers. The presentation should include only visual elements and contain no words. With the visuals, you should take a stand and present

an argument about one of the topics. Recall the guide- lines outlined in this chapter about effectively using visuals.

Remember that your presentation needs to be cap- tivating to the audience and effectively convey your purpose. Finally, don’t forget to cite all source material.

As your instructor directs,

a. Submit a copy of your slideshow presentation, including both hard and electronic versions.

b. Write a brief memo in which you explain in words the argument you were trying to make.

c. Submit a list of works cited for each of the visuals you used.

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“Oh, I can come now,” Rudy says, getting up and fol- lowing Doug into his office.

After briefly talking about his presentation and explaining the table to Rudy, Doug asks him to prepare charts based on the spreadsheet. “Make them simple to understand and accurate,” he says, by way of parting advice.

Rudy nods as he leaves Doug’s office. The next day Rudy returns with the charts. “Here’re

the charts,” he says, apparently pleased with himself. “Thanks,” Doug says, looking up from a report he is

reading. “Leave them here and I’ll call you if I need you to make changes.”

Later, Doug looks at the printouts left by Rudy. The first chart (shown in Figure 1 ) frustrates Doug because Rudy has chosen an inappropriate type of chart to rep- resent the given data. The second and the third charts ( Figures 2 and 3 below) seem right at a first glance, but after looking at them for a few seconds more Doug real- izes the problems in the charts.

Doug knows he cannot show just the spreadsheet in his presentation. Although he can quickly reduce the spread- sheet to its main points, his colleagues in upper manage- ment are too used to charts to let him get away with just showing a table. Doug looks for Kioni, whom everyone in the department admires. However, she has accompa- nied Erin and the new product engineers on a field visit. Miguel and Linda have gone to Nebraska to sign a con- tract with the union there. Suddenly Doug spots Rudy, who is turning the pages of a telephone directory. He snaps to attention as Doug approaches.

“How’s it going, Rudy?” Doug asks, noticing Rudy’s disheveled hair, “Haven’t seen you in a while.”

“I’ve been here Doug, on the job,” Rudy says, his voice a little trembly.

Doug remembers Erin talking about Rudy a few days back, something to the effect of his increasing absentee- ism and late arrivals. However, Doug decides to let Erin take care of Rudy’s behavior. Doug needs someone to prepare the charts and Rudy is apparently free.

“Rudy, I have a few charts to make,” Doug says, politely. “Why don’t you come into my office as soon as you’re finished with what you were doing?”

Retirement Benefits Medical Care Paid Holidays

Private Industry1

All- Weather

Private Industry2

All- Weather

Private Industry3

All- Weather

All employees 61% 72% 71% 78% 77% 78%

Management/professional

employees

76% 100% 86% 100% 89% 100%

Service employees 37% 49% 46% 57% 52% 49%

Sales and office employees 65% 75% 71% 80% 81% 90%

Installation, maintenance, and

repair employees

67% 55% 83% 65% 93% 65%

Production employees 68% 80% 82% 90% 92% 85%

1,2,3 Actual numbers reported by the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Employee Benefits in the United States, March 2008,” http://www.bls

.gov/news.release/pdf/ebs2.pdf, accessed March 7, 2009.

9.10 All-Weather Case: Critiquing and Revising Charts Showing Employee Benefits

Doug is to give a presentation to the upper-management team and a few union representatives on the status of employee benefits in All-Weather. Miguel has already given Doug a spreadsheet comparing All-Weather’s ben- efits to those prevalent in private industry as reported by the National Compensation Survey (NCS), 2008, courtesy of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the U.S. Department of

Labor. Miguel uses these numbers as benchmarks because specific numbers related to employee benefits among win- dow and door manufacturers are difficult to obtain. This is what the spreadsheet prepared by Miguel looks like (all categories—except All-Weather, which is fictional—are based on National Compensation Survey, 2008, Bureau of Labor Statistics, US Department of Labor):

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68% 80% 72%

49%75%

55% 100%

61%

76%

Private Industry All-Weather

37% 67%

65%

All Emp Mgmt Serv Sal Instal Prod

Figure 1 Retirement Benefits: Private Industry versus All-Weather

45% All Emp Mgmt Serv Sal Prod

Pvt Ind All-W

55%

95%

65% 75% 85%

Figure 2 Medical Care: Private Industry versus All-Weather

45%

A ll

E m

M g

m t

S e

S a

Pvt Ind All-W

55%

95%

65%

75%

85%

Figure 3 Paid Holidays: Private Industry versus All-Weather

Based on your reading of Chapter 9 and the spreadsheet prepared by Miguel, critique and revise the three charts prepared by Rudy. Before revising the charts, however, identify and list the problems in the three charts. As you

look for problems in the charts, look at Miguel’s spread- sheet and check whether the numbers reported in the spreadsheet have been accurately and fully depicted in the charts.

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