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COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS

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FOR RESULTS COMMUNICATING A Guide for Business and the Professions Tenth Edition

Cheryl Hamilton Tarrant County College—NE Campus

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Communicating for Results: A Guide for Business and the Professions, Tenth Edition Cheryl Hamilton

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Brief Contents

CHAPTER 1 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS: AN INTRODUCTION, 1

CHAPTER 2 COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE, 30

CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS, 65

CHAPTER 4 EFFECTIVE LISTENING, 108

CHAPTER 5 NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION, 135

CHAPTER 6 OVERCOMING OBSTACLES TO COMMUNICATION IN THE ELECTRONIC AGE, 165

CHAPTER 7 BASIC INFORMATION FOR ALL TYPES OF INTERVIEWS, 199

CHAPTER 8 THE EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW, 225

CHAPTER 9 SMALL-GROUP COMMUNICATION AND PROBLEM SOLVING, 259

CHAPTER 10 PARTICIPATION AND LEADERSHIP IN TEAMS, 289

CHAPTER 11 INFORMATIVE PRESENTATIONS: PLAN, RESEARCH, ORGANIZE, AND DELIVER, 315

CHAPTER 12 VERBAL AND VISUAL SUPPORTING MATERIALS, 352

CHAPTER 13 PERSUASIVE PRESENTATIONS: INDIVIDUAL OR TEAM, 392

CHAPTER 14 POLISHING YOUR WRITTEN COMMUNICATION, 431

To my many classroom, online, and seminar students for reading the materials, trying out the activities, and making such excellent suggestions.

BRIEF CONTENTS, v

ABOUT THE AUTHOR, xi

PREFACE, xii

CHAPTER 1 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS: AN INTRODUCTION, 1

Communication Defined, 3 Models of Communication: An Overview, 4 One-Way Model, 4 Circular Model, 5 Transaction Model, 5 The Basic Transaction Model Expanded, 6 Person A/Person B, 6 Stimulus and Motivation, 6 Encoding and Decoding, 7 Frame of Reference, 8 Code, 10 Channel, 11 Feedback, 15 Environment, 19 Noise, 20 Communication and Ethics, 22

CHAPTER 2 COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE, 30

Communication Inside the Workplace, 32 Formal Communication, 32 Informal Communication, 35 Coordination of People and Groups, 38 Organization Models, 39 The Traditional (or Classical) Model, 42 The Human Relations Model, 46 The Human Resources Model, 49 The Systems/Contingency Model, 54 The Transformational Model, 57 Communication Differences in the

Organization Models, 60

CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS, 65

Managing Conflicts in the Workplace, 67 Conflict Types, 67 Conflict Strategies, 68 Choosing the Best Conflict Strategies, 71

Reaching Consensus in Conflict Management, 72

Cultural Differences in the Workplace, 74 Individualistic and Collectivistic Cultures, 74 High- and Low-Context Cultures, 75 Monochromic and Polychromic Cultures, 76 Cultural Differences and Conflict, 77 Interpersonal Relationships in the

Workplace, 78 Keys to Building and Maintaining

Relationships, 79 Communication Styles and Business

Relationships, 82 Final Tips, 91 Becoming Flexible in Use of Styles, 96 Survey of Communication Styles—Long

Form, 100

CHAPTER 4 EFFECTIVE LISTENING, 108 Effective Listening in the Workplace, 111 Listening to Customers, 111 Listening to Employees, 113 Listening to Supervisors, 115 Listening to Coworkers, 117 Signs of Poor Listening, 117 Breaking the Chain of Command, 118 Learning about Events Too Late, 118 Always Putting Out Fires, 119 Information Must Be Repeated, 119 Tasks Given to Others, 119 Increase in Written Communication, 119 Increase in Poor Listening Habits, 120 Barriers to Good Listening, 121 Physical Barriers, 121 Personal Barriers, 121 Gender Barriers, 122 Semantic Barriers, 124 Technology Barriers, 124 Listening Skills: Improvements

Lead to Payoffs, 125 Understanding the Stages of

Listening, 125 Improving Your Listening—

Key Points, 129 Payoffs of Effective Listening, 131

vii

Contents

viii CONTENTS

CHAPTER 5 NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION, 135 Nonverbal Communication: Definition,

Culture, and Principles, 137 Technical Level, 138 Formal Level, 139 Informal Level, 139 Types of Nonverbal Communication

and Their Effects on Business Communication, 139

Facial Expressions and Eye Contact, 140 Body Movements, Posture, and

Gestures, 143 Touch, 144 Clothing and Personal Appearance, 146 Distance and Personal Space, 148 Physical Environment, 150 Time, 152 Status Symbols, 153 Nonverbal Messages and

International Business Transactions, 156

Mistakes and Culture Shock, 156 Improving Nonverbal Skills, 158 Expectancy Violations Theory, 158 Immediacy Behaviors, 159 Creating Effective Habits, 159

CHAPTER 6 OVERCOMING OBSTACLES TO COMMUNICATION IN THE ELECTRONIC AGE, 165

Communication Technology, 167 Email, 168 Blogs, 169 Instant Messages (IM), 171 Facebook and Twitter, 172 Electronic Meetings, 173 Communicator Anxiety, 176 Situational Anxiety, 177 Trait Anxiety, 179 Vague Instructions, 183 Jumping to Conclusions, 187 Bypassing, 188 Sexual Harassment, 190 Sexual Harassment—

Face-to-Face, 190 Sexual Harassment and Email, 192

CHAPTER 7 BASIC INFORMATION FOR ALL TYPES OF INTERVIEWS, 199

Types of Interviews, 201 Counseling Interview, 201 Employment Interview, 202 Exit Interview, 202 Grievance, or Confrontation,

Interview, 202 Group Interview, 203 Informational Interview, 205 Interrogation Interview, 206 Performance Review, 206 Persuasive Interview, 207 Telephone or Skype Interview, 207 Basic Interview Organization, 208 Opening Phase, 208 Question–Response Phase, 210 Closing Phase, 210 Using Questions Effectively in the

Interview, 211 Determine the Types of Questions

to Ask, 211 Decide How to Best Organize

Questions, 215 Be Prepared to Answer Questions

Effectively, 218

CHAPTER 8 THE EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW, 225 Interviewee: Preparing for the

Job Hunt, 227 Investigating the Employment Market, 227 Locate Specific Jobs of Interest, 229 Prepare a Resume: Conventional,

Scannable, Email, or Web, 229 Check Resume Content for Accuracy

and Honesty, 239 Prepare a Letter of Application or

Cover Letter, 240 Interviewee: Preparing for the

Interview, 241 Have a Positive Attitude, 242 Communicate and Dress for the Occasion—

Impression Management, 242 Be Prepared for Any Type of Interview, 244 Carefully Plan Answers to Probable

Questions, 246

CONTENTS ix

Be Prepared with Questions to Ask the Interviewer, 248

Be Prepared to Follow up the Interview, 248

Send a Thank-You Card, 248 Interviewer: Planning the

Interview, 249 Get to Know the Interviewee Ahead

of Time, 249 Plan the Environment, 249 Organize the Interview Carefully, 249 Interviewer: Conducting the

Interview, 251 Ask Only Lawful Questions, 251 Listen Carefully to the Interviewee, 254

CHAPTER 9 SMALL-GROUP COMMUNICATION AND PROBLEM SOLVING, 259

Definition of a Small Group, 262 Use and Value of Teams in the Effective

Organization, 263 Characteristics of Effective Problem-

Solving Teams, 265 Effective Teams Are Well Prepared and

Organized, 265 Effective Teams Receive Periodic

Training, 266 Effective Teams Examine Assumptions and

Opinions, 267 Effective Teams Evaluate Solutions by

Comparing Them to Criteria and Consequences, 267

Effective Teams Avoid Groupthink, 268 Effective Teams Manage Cultural

Diversity, 269 Effective Teams Can Operate Virtually, 270 The Basic Problem-Solving

Procedure, 271 Step 1: Define the Problem, 272 Step 2: Research and Analyze the

Problem, 274 Step 3: Establish a Checklist of

Criteria, 275 Step 4: List Possible Alternatives, 278 Step 5: Evaluate Each Alternative, 281 Step 6: Select the Best

Alternative(s), 283

CHAPTER 10 PARTICIPATION AND LEADERSHIP IN TEAMS, 289

Effective Team Participants Have Good Communication Skills, 291

Effective Team Participants Perform Needed Task and Maintenance Roles, 294

Task and Maintenance Roles, 294 Effective Team Leadership, 297 Trait Theory of Leadership, 297 Function Theory of Leadership, 299 Leadership Styles or Three-Dimension

Theory of Leadership, 300 Situational Contingency Theory of

Leadership, 303 Situational Leadership Theory, 305 Transformational Leadership, 306 Leader Responsibilities, 308 Virtual Meetings, 308 Face-to-Face Meetings, 309

CHAPTER 11 INFORMATIVE PRESENTATIONS: PLAN, RESEARCH, ORGANIZE, AND DELIVER, 315

Informative Presentations: Planning, 318 Informative versus Persuasive

Presentations, 318 Types of Informative Presentations, 318 Audience Analysis, 319 Topic Selection, 321 Informative Presentations:

Researching, 324 Why and What to Research, 324 Where to Research, 325 How to Avoid Plagiarism when

Researching, 330 Informative Presentations:

Organizing, 331 Organizing the Body of the

Presentation, 332 Organizing the Introduction of the

Presentation, 336 Organizing the Conclusion of the

Presentation, 338 Adding Transitions to the Presentation, 339 Informative Presentations: Delivery, 340

x CONTENTS

Methods of Delivery, 340 Characteristics of Effective Delivery, 342 Maintaining a Confident Delivery, 345

CHAPTER 12 VERBAL AND VISUAL SUPPORTING MATERIALS, 352

Verbal Supporting Materials, 354 Explanations, 354 Comparisons, 355 Illustrations, 356 Examples, 357 Statistics, 359 Expert Opinions, 360 Citing Sources of Supporting Materials, 363 Visual Supporting Materials, 364 Benefits of Using Visuals, 364 Types of Visual Aids, 366 Selecting Your Visual Aids, 369 Designing Your Visual Aids, 372 Text and Graphic Visuals, 373 General Design Principles, 382 Tips for Using Color, 385 Using Microsoft PowerPoint, 386

CHAPTER 13 PERSUASIVE PRESENTATIONS: INDIVIDUAL OR TEAM, 392

Persuasive Presentations: Definitions and Types, 394

Persuasion Defined, 394 Types of Persuasive Presentations, 394 Persuasion in Business, 395 Persuasive Presentations: Theory, 396 Evidence and Logic of the Message, 396 Credibility of the Speaker, 403 Psychological Needs of the Listeners, 407 Opinions of Key Listeners, 410 Persuasive Presentations: Preparation

Steps, 411 Step 1: Analyze Your Expected Listeners

and Their Needs, 411 Step 2: Write Your Exact Purpose as a

Position Statement, 411 Step 3: Determine Your Initial Credibility

and Plan to Increase It If Necessary, 412 Step 4: Research Your Topic and Choose

the Best Method for Presenting Evidence to This Audience, 413

Step 5: Decide How to Organize Your Presentation for the Best Effect, 413

Step 6: Prepare an Outline to Polish Verbal and Visual Supports, Introduction, and Conclusion, 417

Step 7: Review Your Presentation to Ensure It Is Ethical, 419

Step 8: Practice Your Presentation to Gain Confidence, 420

Team Presentations, 420 Effective Team Presentations, 420 We Must Save NASA!, 425

CHAPTER 14 POLISHING YOUR WRITTEN COMMUNICATION, 431

Effective Written Communication, 433 Adapts to the Audience, 433 Makes a Good First Impression, 434 Is Effectively Organized: Proper Clarity

and Length, 434 Looks Professional: Proper Formatting

and Typeface, 436 Includes Accurate Sources—No Plagiarism,

Distortion, or Exaggeration, 436 Writing Successful Email Messages, 437 Writing a Successful Letter, 439 The Thank-You Letter, 439 The Follow-up Letter, 440 Writing an Effective Resume, 441 Effective Resumes Grab Immediate

Attention, 441 Effective Resumes Are Easy to Read, 442 Effective Resumes Provide More than Basic

Information , 443 Writing to Inform, 445 Informative Outlines, 446 Informative Reports, 447 Writing to Persuade, 451 Persuasive Outlines, 453 Persuasive Reports, 456

ANSWERS TO AWARENESS CHECK QUIZZES, 463

REFERENCES, 467

AUTHOR INDEX, 497

SUBJECT INDEX, 503

CHERYL HAMILTON, an author well known for her writing style and award-winning teaching, understands the importance of oral and written communication as a lifelong skill. Also the author of two other texts—The Essentials of Public Speak- ing and Communicating for Success—she has conducted a number of research studies, including one published in the Community College Journal of Research and Practice. Dr. Hamilton has presented more than 40 papers at professional conventions, including those sponsored by the National Communication Asso- ciation, Southwest Educational Research Association, Western Communication Association, and Texas Speech Communication Association. She has conducted seminars for groups such as the National Property Management Association, Bell Helicopter Textron, U.S. Postal Department, North Central Regional Po- lice Academy, and LTV Aerospace. A native of Illinois, Dr. Hamilton received her bachelor’s degree from Eastern Illinois University in Charleston, Illinois; her master’s degree from Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana; and her doctoral degree from the University of North Texas in Denton, Texas. She is a professor of speech communication at Tarrant County College—NE Campus, which is an urban college district with over 50,000 students on five campuses in and around Fort Worth, Texas. She is active in college affairs where she has served as chair of the faculty senate and president of the faculty association. Al- though she has taught more than ten different communication courses at both two-year and four-year colleges, her favorite courses remain business communi- cation, public speaking, and fundamentals. Her love of teaching is shown by the numerous teaching awards she has received including the Chancellor’s Award for Exemplary Teaching.

About the Author

xii

Preface

Each year the National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE) con- ducts research to determine how employers across the nation rank the skills and qualities of potential employees. Year after year, written and oral communica- tion skills are chosen as number one in importance. At the same time, NACE research published in Job Outlook 2009 notes that communication skills are also selected “as the number one skill that is most-lacking in new college graduate hires” (p. 24).

From this report, then, we can see the key importance that both oral and written communication skills will play in your career success. For example, even though interviewing is an oral process, if the letter of application and resume you send are poorly written, you may make such a negative impression that you will not be invited to an actual interview. Or your written skills may result in an interview, but if your oral skills during the interview are less than impressive, you may not get a job offer. Oral and written communications are intertwined even in everyday events. For example, you may be good at face-to-face commu- nication but alienate people with your written email messages.

As always, Communicating for Results, Tenth Edition, is directed at those who are interested in self-improvement. It is designed to introduce necessary communication skills to people with very little work experience, to improve the communication skills of entry-level managers and employees, and to serve as a reference book for experienced professionals who wish to refresh or update their oral and written communication skills. This text emphasizes important skills from four basic communication areas: interpersonal and organizational, inter- viewing and group, public communication, and written communication.

● Interpersonal and organizational skills include understanding organizational communication; improving communication and relationships with bosses, employees, and customers; handling conflict; improving listening; interpret- ing and using nonverbal communication; decreasing misunderstandings with others, both face-to-face and electronically; and overcoming obstacles to communication.

● Interviewing and group skills include preparing conventional, scannable, email, and online resumes; conducting or participating in interviews of vari- ous types; knowing what questions are unlawful in pre-employment inter- views; conducting and participating in conferences; and making decisions in small groups.

● Public communication skills include giving individual or team presentations to employees, managers, and groups inside or outside the organization; using effective organization and delivery techniques for traditional and online pre- sentations; preparing professional visual aids; and knowing how to manage presentation software. Written communication skills include important tips for any type of business writing as well as specific guidelines to polish your email messages, thank-you and follow-up letters, resumes, and informative and persuasive outlines and reports.

Although the chapters in this book may be read in any order, they are or- ganized so that each chapter builds on the skills taught in those preceding it.

The skills are discussed practically and lend themselves to immediate appli- cation. In other words, what is read today can be applied at work tomorrow. Activities within the chapters (Awareness Checks) and at the end of chapters (Collaborative Learning Activities) suggest ways for you to practice new skills and techniques. The Communicating for Results online resources and Instruc- tor’s Resource Manual feature additional application activities, test questions, and more.

Communicating for Results, Tenth Edition not only features a skills orienta- tion but also provides you with the theoretical basis for each skill discussed. It is my hope that you will find this book valuable and that you will add it to your personal library.

Features of the New Edition Technology takes a front seat in the Tenth Edition of Communicating for Results. Technology has changed so rapidly since the last edition that a complete revision was needed. Every chapter now includes multiple references to how technology in the Electronic Age affects communication as well as tips on how to use it more effectively. From the first chapter that begins with a case study on Facebook and other social media; to text messages, IM, blogs, Twitter, and email; to organiza- tion models, virtual teams, and sales; to the way technology has changed in- terviewing and problem-solving; to the role of technology in the preparation, presentation, and delivery of oral and written presentations.

In this Tenth Edition, written communication has moved into the text as Chapter 14 called Polishing Your Written Communication. This chapter features much needed advice on the do’s and don’ts of effectively writing resumes, email messages, letters, and informative and persuasive presentation outlines and busi- ness reports. In addition to offering a more complete discussion of the impor- tance of written communication skills, the appendix provides an easy-to-access place in the book to locate tips about and examples of written communication.

Three chapters received a complete revision in the Tenth Edition: Chapters 3, 11, and 12. Chapter 3, now called Conflict, Culture, and Relationships, provides new and expanded information on all three categories. The discussion of com- munication styles was revised based on 2011 research into Private, Dominant, Sociable, and Open styles. The Communication Styles Survey—Long Form is now included at the end of the chapter. Chapter 11, now called Informative Presentations: Plan, Research, Organize, and Deliver, combined and updated material from chapters 11 and 12 in the previous edition. Everything you need to know to plan, prepare, and deliver an informative presentation is together in a handy, easy-to-use chapter. Chapter 12, now called Verbal and Visual Support- ing Materials, combines information from chapters 11 and 13 in the previous edition. New and expanded information including supporting materials used by “real” speakers and the latest research and advice on using visual aids and PowerPoint, make speaking success a certainty.

Newly revised features include the following: ● The chapter-opening case studies, which preview each chapter’s content,

have been updated with five new cases, highlighting communication issues

PREFACE xiii

xiv PREFACE

related to Facebook, the University of Texas, Chesapeake, and more. Updated Revisiting the Case Study boxes throughout each chapter ask students to consider the case study scenario in light of the concepts discussed in the chapter.

● New and updated It Really Works boxes in each chapter still highlight a real-world executive’s use of the skills presented in the book, and the Ethical Dilemma boxes, now called Dilemmas in Communication, ask readers to think critically about how they might handle questionable situations in the working world.

● New and updated Collaborative Learning Activities at the end of each chap- ter provide interesting and fun ways for students and seminar participants to apply the concepts in each chapter, thereby improving and cementing learning.

● Expanded coverage of ethics and cross-cultural and gender communica- tion, both in the United States and internationally, includes a new Dilem- mas in Communication case about the First Lady and the Queen and new and expanded information on cultural differences such as exchanging busi- ness cards as a ritual in Chapter 5.

● Chapter 7 highlights a new type of interview, the Skype interview. ● New examples of a letter of application and sample resumes are included

in Chapter 8 and in Chapter 14 on written communication. ● Chapter 11 and Chapter 14 include, respectively, a new informative speech

and a new persuasive speech. ● All chapters have been streamlined and some have been reorganized for

clarity and ease of reading.

Additional Student and Instructor Resources Communicating for Results is accompanied by a full suite of integrated materi- als that will make teaching and learning more efficient and effective. Note to faculty: If you want your students to have access to the online resources for this book, please be sure to order them for your course. The content in these resources can be bundled with every new copy of the text or ordered separately. If you do not order them, your students will not have access to the online re- sources. Contact your local Wadsworth Cengage Learning sales representative for more details.

● The Speech Communication Coursemate for Communicating for Results provides students with one-stop access to all the integrated technology resources that accompany the book. These resources include an enhanced eBook, a student workbook, Speech Builder ExpressTM 3.0, Speech Studio 2.0TM, InfoTrac College Edition, interactive video activities, interactive versions of the Awareness Check quizzes and Checkpoint activities, web links, and self-assessments.

● The Communicating for Results interactive video activities feature the Communication Situation communication scenario clips presented in the text so students can see and hear how the skills they are studying can be used in various workplace circumstances. Students can answer the critical

PREFACE xv

thinking questions that accompany each video and then compare their an- swers to the author’s. This online resource also features videos of the business informative and persuasive speeches referenced in the book. Each speech is accompanied by a transcript, a preparation outline and a speaking outline, note cards, the ability to time-stamp comments, and critical thinking ques- tions. Also available in the interactive video activities are specially created videos on organizational models (Chapter 2) and communication styles (Chapter 3) that help bring challenging content to life.

● The Speech Builder Express 3.0 organization and outlining program is an interactive web-based tool that coaches students through the speech orga- nization and outlining process. By completing interactive sessions, students can prepare and save their outlines—including a plan for visual aids and a works cited section—formatted according to the principles presented in the text. Text models reinforce students’ interactive practice.

● The InfoTrac College Edition with InfoMarks is a virtual library that fea- tures more than 18 million reliable, full-length articles from 5,000 academic and popular periodicals. These articles can be retrieved almost instantly. This resource also provides access to Info Marks—stable URLs that can be linked to articles, journals, and searches to save valuable time when doing research—and to the Info Write online resource center, where students can access grammar help, critical thinking guidelines, guides to writing research papers, and much more.

● The Cengage Learning Interactive eBook is a web-based version of Communicating for Results that offers ease of use and maximum flexibility for students who want to create their own learning experience. The interactive eBook includes advanced tools such as a hypertext index, bookmarking, easy highlighting, and faster searching, easy navigation, and a vibrant web-based format. Students get access to the enhanced eBook with the printed text, or they can just purchase access to the stand-alone enhanced eBook.

● Speech Studio 2.0TM is an online program for the Public Speaking course. With Speech Studio 2.0, students upload recorded speeches, watch and assess their peers’ speeches, and review their grades and instructor feed- back. Instructors create assignments, comment on student speeches with a library of comments, and grade them with customizable, editable ru- brics. Instructors also can choose to allow peer review. Grades flow into a light gradebook so that instructors can easily manage their course from within Speech Studio, or instructors can export the grades to a learning management system.

Speech Studio 2.0 includes enhancements such as easy adding, deleting, and resetting of assignments; uploading additional assignment elements like outline and PowerPoint® slides; grading with weighted rubric criteria; en- hanced peer review functionality; and a rubric editor.

● CengageBrain Online Store. CengageBrain.com is a single destination for more than 15,000 new print textbooks, textbook rentals, eBooks, single eChapters, and print and digital tools. Cengagebrain.com provides free- dom to purchase Cengage Learning Products á la carte—exactly what you

need, when you need it. Visit cengagebrain.com for details. The Instructor’s Resource Manual with Test Bank by Samuel Todd Brand, Meridian Community College, features teaching tips, suggestions for online instruc- tion, sample course outlines, lists of useful media resources, detailed chap- ter outlines, skill-building activities, forms and checklists, and an extensive test bank.

● The Power Lecture CD-ROM contains an electronic version of the Instruc- tor’s Resource Manual, Exam View® Computerized Testing, predesigned Microsoft PowerPoint presentations created by Ron Shope, Grace Univer- sity, and JoinIn® classroom quizzing. The PowerPoint presentations contain text, images, and cued videos of student speeches and can be used as they are or customized to suit your course needs.

● Special-Topic Instructor’s Manuals by Deanna Sellnow, University of Kentucky, are three brief manuals that provide instructor resources for teaching public speaking online, with a service-learning and problem-based learning approach that focuses on critical thinking and teamwork skills. Each manual includes course syllabi; icebreakers; information about learn- ing cycles and learning styles; and public speaking basics such as coping with anxiety, outlining, and speaking ethically.

● CourseCare training and support. Get trained, get connected, and get the support you need for the seamless integration of digital resources into your course. This unparalleled technology service and training program pro- vides robust online resources, peer-to-peer instruction, personalized train- ing, and a customizable program you can count on. Visit cengagebrain.com /coursecare/ to sign up for online seminars, first day of class services, tech- nical support, or personalized, face-to-face training. Our online and onsite trainings are frequently led by one of our Lead Teachers, faculty members who are experts in using Wadsworth Cengage Learning technology and can provide best practices and teaching tips.

● The Flex-Text customization program lets you create a text as unique as your course: quickly, simply, and affordably. As part of our Flex-Text program, you can add your personal touch to Communicating for Results with a course-specific cover and up to 32 pages of your own content, at no additional cost.

xvi PREFACE

For their helpful comments and suggestions, I would like to thank the following reviewers of the Tenth Edition: Cassie Boland, Sanford-Brown College; Suzanne Buck, University of Houston; Elaine Cohen, Concordia University; Janet Driever, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire; Kenny Embry, Florida College; Arthur Khaw, Kirkwood Community College; Jeremy Osborn, Albion College; Rachel Reznik, Elmhurst College; and Kristi Schaller, University of Georgia.

In addition, I would like to offer many thanks to reviewers of past editions: Heather Allman, University of West Florida; Ruth D. Anderson, North Carolina State University; Richard N. Armstrong, Wichita State University; Michael Laurie Bishow, Indiana-Purdue University; Cam Brammer, Marshall University; Pat Brett, Emory University; Christa Brown, Minnesota State University, Mankato; Linda Brown, El Paso Community College; Nicholas Burnett, California State University, Sacramento; Sue Cox, Wallace State Community College; Larry M. Caillouet, Western Kentucky University; Joan T. Cooling, University of Northern Iowa; Margie Culbertson, University of Texas, Austin; Ann Cunningham, Bergen Community College; Carolyn Delecour, Palo Alto College; Joe Downing, Western Kentucky University; Vella Neil Evans, University of Utah; Michele Foss-Snowden, California State University, Sacramento; Judyth Gonzalez, Delta College; G. Jon Hall, University of Northern Iowa; Martha Haun, University of Houston; Tracey Holley, Tarleton State University; Lawrence Hugenberg, Youngstown State University; Robin J. Jensen, St. Petersburg College; James A. Johnson, State University of New York at Geneseo; Pamela Johnson, California State University–Chico; J. Daniel Joyce, Houston Community College; Jim Katt, University of Central Florida; Frank L. Kelley, Drexel University; Sandra M. Ketrow, University of Rhode Island; Amos Kiewe, Syracuse University; Vivian Kindsfather, Texas Wesleyan University; Marianna Larsen, Utah State Universi- ty; Gary S. Luter, University of Tampa; Martha Macdonald, York Technical Col- lege; Valerie Manno-Giroux, University of Miami; Steven R. Mark, University of Toledo; Katherine May-Updike, Mesa Community College; Judith Norback, Georgia Institute of Technology; Donovan J. Ochs, University of Iowa; John Parrish, Tarrant County College; Steven Ralston, East Tennessee State Univer- sity; Ken Rhymes, University of Texas at El Paso; Edwin N. Rowley, Indiana State University; Robert Sampson, University of Wisconsin–Eau Claire; Paul Scovell, Salisbury State College; Alan Shiller, St. Louis Community College–Meramec; Gary Shulman, Miami University; Gary F. Soldow, Baruch College/City Uni- versity of New York; Del Stewart, Georgia State University; Robert A. Stew- art, Texas Tech University; Bobbi Stringer, Tarrant County College Northwest; Susan Timm, Northern Illinois University; Tyler Tindall, Midland College; Rona Vrooman, Old Dominion University; Lionel Walsh, Virginia Common- wealth University; John L. Williams, California State University–Sacramento; and Thomas Wirkus, University of Wisconsin–La Crosse.

The staff and project team at Wadsworth Cengage Learning have also been extremely helpful, especially Julie Martinez, the developmental editor for this edition. Additional thanks go to Monica Eckman, Alicia Landsberg, Jessica Badiner, Michael Lepera, Linda May, Ben Rivera, Kara Kindstrom, Janice Yi, and Sue Brekka.

Acknowledgments

xvii

xviii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would also like to thank my long-time colleague and coauthor, Dr. C. Cordell Parker (1940–2003), for his assistance with the first six editions; Charles Conrad for his help and advice on the organizational chapter in previous edi- tions; Edward T. Hall for his suggestions on the three levels of culture; Dan O’Hair and Blaine Goss for writing the listening chapter for the second edition; Lisa Benedetti, Tarrant County College—NE Campus, for her online activities and teaching advice for instructors, Samuel Todd Brand, Meridian Communi- ty College, for writing the Instructor’s Resource Manual and test bank; Stacey Macchi, Western Illinois University, for writing the Student Workbook; Debi Blankenship for the test bank in earlier editions and for finding Ted Goff and his wonderful cartoons; Pamela Ann Hayward, Augusta State University, for producing the PowerPoint presentations for this edition; Karen Wolf, Suffolk County Community College, for producing the web quizzes; Katrina Bodey, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, for producing the JoinIn quizzes; the many students who have allowed their speeches, outlines, and PowerPoint pre- sentations to be used in this text and online; Erin Hamilton for writing many of the It Really Works features; Doris Redd and Erin Hamilton for their ready assistance in providing ideas and copyediting assistance; Howard Hamilton and Jon Thompson for the title; Doyle D. Smith for coauthoring the first edition; and the many communication and business students from my classes and seminars for their helpful advice.

Cheryl Hamilton Ft. Worth, Texas

DEFINE what is meant by communication.

IDENTIFY AND DESCRIBE each element of the basic transactional model of communication.

PINPOINT where in the model your main communication problems occur.

IDENTIFY how Americans view the honesty and ethical standards of several professions, including your own and summarize what can be done to encourage ethical communication.

As you read chapter 1...

THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS: AN INTRODUCTION

CASE STUDY Facebook Falters What role does communication play in the many successes and failures of various organizations? Let’s take a look at one organization that has had phenomenal success and some fail- ures: Facebook—a popular social networking site chronicled in the 2010 movie The Social Network. Mark Zuckerberg was a Harvard sophomore when he began operating Facebook for college and high school friends. Since then, the site has grown at an unbelievable rate, with 200 million active users in 2009; 845 million on December 31, 2011; and an expected 1 billion active users sometime in 2012 (Paul, 2012; Stone, 2009a). It was because of this rapid growth that Microsoft decided to in- vest $240 million for 1.6% ownership (Stone, 2009a, 2009b). According to Stone:

Like other social networks, the site allows its users to create a profile page and forge online links with friends and acquaintances. It has dis- tinguished itself from rivals, partly by imposing a Spartan design ethos and limiting how users can change the appearance of their profile pages. That has cut down on visual clutter and threats like spam, which plague rival social networks. In May 2007, Facebook revealed an initiative called Facebook Platform, inviting third-party software makers to create programs for the service and to make money on advertising alongside them. The announcement stimulated the creation of hun- dreds of new features or ”social applications” on Facebook, from games to new music and photo sharing tools, which had the effect of further turbo-charging activity on the site.

It’s not just people aged 18 to 24 years old who use Facebook either—the fastest-growing Facebook users are people over 40 (Rosenthal, 2011). Also, 425 million Facebook fans now use mobile devices to access the social network, and 80% of users are from outside the United States (Hempel, 2009; Paul, 2012). Still, it is a social net- working site, and communicating relationships are all important; it is estimated that Facebook has helped create 100 billion online friendships resulting in 2.7 billion likes/ comments and 250 million photos added every day (Paul, 2012). To meet the needs of so many people using the site for so many purposes, Facebook continues to experiment with new policies and features. Communicating these with

all of the users has not been easy, and keeping them happy hasn’t been easy either.

In 2006, Zuckerberg introduced a feature that is now highly used and even taken for granted by new users: the news feed ”which allows users to see their friends’ most recent on- line activities” (The Editors, 2009). Customer backlash was considerable, but the new feature stayed and customers were allowed to opt out if they wished. In 2007, users again became angry when a new feature called ”Beacon” was implemented. According to Timothy Lee (The Editors, 2009), Beacon was “an ill-conceived advertising program that many users regarded as an invasion of privacy. … Facebook was forced to beat a hasty retreat in the face of widespread outrage.” Apparently, users didn’t like the idea of their friends seeing the sites they visited and the purchases they made. A new approach called “Con- nect” takes care of the previous complaints that information was being shared without their knowledge because users have to “opt in” before any sharing occurs.

It’s not just features that cause user outrage. Com- plaints numbered in the tens of thousands after May 2009, when Facebook “deleted a provision from its terms of service that said users could remove their content at any time, and added new language that said it would retain users’ content after an account was terminated” (The Editors, 2009). This change seemed to say that Facebook would own materials us- ers placed on their pages. As one blog noted, “never upload anything you don’t feel comfortable giving away forever, be- cause it’s Facebook’s now” (Stone & Stelter, 2009). Although

AP Photo/Paul Sakuma

As you read this chapter... See if you can: (a) explain what caused so many people to re- act so quickly, (b) determine at which point in the communication model this misunderstanding oc- curred, and (c) theorize whether and how this misunderstanding could have been prevented.

Zuckerberg and other Facebook representatives did their best to assure users that there was a communication mis- understanding and that they had no intent of taking owner- ship of users’ materials, it seemed that the only answer was to rescind the changes and go back to the previous terms of service, which Facebook did.

Even so, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) took an interest in these privacy issues and charged Facebook “with eight counts of violating its users’ privacy that con- stituted ‘unfair and deceptive’ behavior” when it made

users’ profiles public by default (Raice & Angwin, 2011). The 20-year settlement with the FTC requires Facebook “to ask users for permission before changing the way their personal information is released” and to agree to a privacy audit every two years (p. B1). As Facebook goes public in 2012, it will be interesting to see whether users feel more secure or whether the seven million apps and integrated websites connected with Facebook (Raice, 2012) make the advantages of using Facebook outweigh any fears about lost privacy.

The chapter opener reminds us how important communication skills are to success in business and professional organizations. A 2011 survey of corporate recruiters from over 900 companies was conducted by the Graduate Management Admission Council (gmac.com). In the primary skills, knowledge, and experience category, 86% of these recruiters ranked communi- cation skills (oral and written) as the number one hiring characteristic looked for in new 2011 MBA hires (Edgington, 2011, p. 15). Specifically, employers “want hires with better communication, listening, and presentation skills who can influence, sell, and manage” (p. 20).

Communication skills are important in entry-level jobs as well. According to Job Outlook 2011, compiled by the National Association of Colleges and Em- ployers (2010), verbal communication skills ranked first as the most important quality or skill that employers look for in new hires—“more important than written communication abilities and all other skills” (p. 25). The most recent survey—Job Outlook 2012—reports that verbal communication ranks second just behind team skills as the most important skill for job candidates (2011, p. 28). The ability to communicate verbally ranked 4.59 on a 5-point scale; the ability to work in teams ranked 4.60. As you can see, regardless of the exact ranking, verbal communication skills are crucial to your success in the workplace.

Despite evidence that communication skills are necessary for success in the workplace, individuals from new hires to managers continue to have problems in this area. In fact, a survey of 150 executives from 1,000 large companies found that “14 percent of each 40-hour workweek is wasted because of poor communica- tion between staff and managers—amounting to a stunning seven weeks a year” (Thomas, 1999, p. 1). Fortunately, communication is a skill that can be learned. If you are new to the workforce, the best place to begin is to understand how com- munication works and the major causes of communication errors that you are likely to experience; if you have work experience, all you probably need is a re- fresher. This text is designed to help you both.

COMMUNICATION DEFINED When business and professional people are asked to define communication, they often respond with something like this: “Communication is the pro- cess of transferring thoughts and ideas from one person to another.” On the surface, this definition sounds good. It acknowledges that communication

4 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

is a process (which means that it is ongoing), and it includes the idea of communicating our thoughts and ideas to others. However, the words transferring and from one person to an- other inaccurately imply that person A takes knowledge from his or her head and simply pours (transfers) it into the head of person B. Obviously, communication is not so simple.

A more accurate definition of communication can be found by look- ing at its original meaning. The Short- er Oxford English Dictionary, 6th ed. (2007) lists the Latin root of communi- cate as communicare, which means “to impart, share; make common.” Accord- ing to this definition, when people com- municate, they express their ideas and feelings in a way that is understandable (common) to each of them. Each per- son has a direct effect on the other person and on subsequent communica- tion. Therefore, communication is the process of people sharing thoughts, ideas, and feelings with each other in commonly understandable ways.

MODELS OF COMMUNICATION: AN OVERVIEW Whether you are communicating with one person, a small group, or many people, misunderstandings often arise. The key to success is being able to identify the cause for these misunderstandings and figuring out how to keep them from occurring again. This is where communication models prove so helpful—they allow us to pinpoint where in the communication process mis- understandings occur so that we can correct them.

Communication models have evolved from the early one-way models (such as that of Shannon and Weaver, 1949), to circular models (such as that of Schramm, 1955), to today’s more accurate transactional models (first introduced by Barnlund, 1970).

One-Way Model Figure 1.1 shows a one-way model, in which communication is viewed as a linear process going from person A (the sender who encodes the message) and ending with person B (the receiver who decodes, or interprets, the message). The model also shows that communication occurs in the presence of internal

Should the Miami Marlin’s Manager Be Held Accountable for His Comments?

In April 2012, the recently hired manager for the Miami Marlins, Ozzie Guillen, experienced the consequences of his words. In an interview with Time magazine, Guillen mentioned that he loved and respected Fidel Castro because “A lot of people have wanted to kill Fidel Castro for the last 60 years, but that (expletive) is still here” (Ortiz, 2012). Although a respected manager with a World Series win in 2005, this wasn’t the first time Guillen experienced trouble for something he said; however, it is “The biggest mistake in my life so far,” said Ozzie during a news conference during which he apologized to the Marlins fans many of whom are Cuban Americans (Kepner, 2012, p. B14). Although his apology seemed very sincere, it wasn’t enough for some Miami politi- cians and residents, who called for him to be fired. Instead, the Marlins placed him on a five-game suspension, which was supported by Baseball Commissioner Bud Selig, who said that comments like Guillen’s “have no place in our game” (Wine, 2012). Whether Guillen’s apology will be accepted by the Marlins fans remains to be seen.

QUESTIONS What do you think? Which two elements in the basic transaction model (beginning on page 6) explain most of Guillen’s problems? Would you label this sports dilemma as a communication, ethical, or cultural problem? Why?

DILEMMAS IN COMMUNICATION

CHAPTER 1 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS: AN INTRODUCTION 5

and external noise and that the message is carried by code (verbal, vocal, and nonverbal symbols) traveling through a channel (such as a text message or tele- phone). Notice that there is no response or feedback included with this model— thus it is one-way.

Circular Model Figure 1.2 shows the circular model, in which communication is viewed as a cir- cular or interactive process beginning with the sender, who communicates a mes- sage to a receiver who interprets it and sends a reply back to the sender. Although this model includes feedback, it implies that communication occurs in a step-by-step process, which rarely happens. Notice the addition of frame of reference (individual experience and background) indicated by the picture frames.

Transaction Model Figure 1.3 shows the more complete transaction model, in which communi- cation is viewed as a simultaneous, transactional process between senders and receivers. It is simultaneous because the persons involved in the communication

FIGURE 1.1 One-way model

Person A Encodes

Code

Channel

Person B Decodes

Internal Noise

External Noise

Message

Code

Channel

Internal Noise

External Noise

Message

Code

Channel

Feedback

Person A Encodes

Person A Decodes

Person B Decodes

FIGURE 1.2 Circular model

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6 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

may be sending and receiving at the same time; it is transactional because both persons are responsible for creating meaning and both influence and are influenced by the other. Notice the addition of environment and stimulus/ motivation, which may also affect understanding.

THE BASIC TRANSACTION MODEL EXPANDED To help you more accurately assess your own communication strengths and weaknesses, let’s look at the transaction model in more detail. The transaction model shown in Figure 1.3 includes the following basic elements: person A/ person B, stimulation and motivation, encoding and decoding, frames of refer- ence, code, channel, feedback, environment, and noise. As you read, think about which of these communication elements cause you the most difficulty at work, at home, and with friends.

Person A/Person B Either person A or person B in the transaction model could be the sender (the source of the message) or the receiver (the interpreter of the message). Actually, during most of their communication, they will both send and receive simultane- ously. When conversations really get rolling, it can be difficult to determine at any one moment who is the sender and who is the receiver. However, to sim- plify our discussion of the model, we will continue to use the terms sender and receiver.

Stimulus and Motivation Two things must happen before the sender even wants to send a message. First, the sender must be stimulated—an internal or external stimulus trig- gers a thought, which in turn triggers the desire to communicate. Here is an example: A publications supervisor, while briefing new personnel on basic

Environment

Frame of reference Frame of reference

Channel

Code Sti

mu lati

on/

Mo tiva

tion

Stimulation/ Motivation

Person B Encodes; Decodes

Internal Noise

External Noise

Person A Encodes; Decodes

Message / Feedback

Overlap

FIGURE 1.3 Transaction model

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CHAPTER 1 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS: AN INTRODUCTION 7

procedures for lettering signs, suddenly remembers that he has not ordered the media equipment needed for the next day’s briefing. He tells the new workers to take a 5-minute break, hurries to his office, and calls the media secretary. The supervisor’s communication with the secretary was triggered by an internal stimulus.

An external stimulus can also trigger the desire to communicate. Meetings and professional gatherings that are filled with awkward silences are missing the external stimuli needed to start relaxed communication. For example, a sales representative who is promoting a new book at a convention is careful to arrange for appropriate external stimuli, such as drinks, appetizers, soft music, and the author of the book—all in a suite with a breathtaking view of the city. Carefully planned business meetings might include such external stimuli as coffee, a prog- ress chart, or an outside consultant.

However, a stimulus alone is not enough to trigger communication. The second requirement for sending a message is sufficient motivation. Think of the times when a manager or leader has asked a question and some of the people present were fairly sure they knew the answer (were stimulated) but did not respond. Why not? Prob- ably because they were not sufficiently motivated—that is, they saw no personal ben- efit in answering. Or perhaps they saw greater benefit in not answering if they feared giving an incorrect answer. In contrast, if they suspected that their promotions could be influenced by the amount of their participation, they might be motivated to an- swer the question even though they felt some anxiety.

The importance of these two steps—stimulation and motivation—cannot be overlooked. Potential customers will rarely listen carefully to a sales presentation if the stimulus is absent, and they certainly won’t buy unless they can see how they will benefit (motivation). The key to being a good salesperson lies in knowing how to stimulate and motivate the customer to buy. Good speakers are also aware of these two steps. In the introduction to an oral presentation, a good business speaker first gets the audience’s attention (stimulation to listen) and then shows them how the presentation will be valuable to them personally (motivation to continue listening).

Encoding and Decoding After being stimulated and motivated to communicate, the sender must decide how best to convey a message to the specific receiver. The process of putting a message into the form in which it will be communicated is encoding. For ex- ample, when a manager finds it necessary to give a negative critique to an em- ployee, he or she should think about how to encode the message: What type of words should be used—mild or firm? What volume should be used—loud or soft? Would a frown or a smile achieve the best result? What specific examples would help the employee understand? Email messages should receive the same careful encoding—for example, is my message clear and does it project the de- sired tone? Because senders encode messages before communicating them, the sender is often referred to as the encoder.

When the encoder’s message is picked up, the receiver tries to make sense out of it—that is, to decode it. Decoding is the process the receiver goes through in trying to interpret the exact meaning of a message. Because receivers decode

8 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

messages, they are often referred to as decoders. For example, when an employee receives a negative critique from a supervisor, the employee may consider cer- tain questions when decoding: How serious a mistake have I made? Is the boss serious or just joking? Am I going to lose my job or promotion? Email is even more difficult to decode, isn’t it? Have you ever received an email or text message that made you instantly angry or completely confused? Weinstein (2009) warns that companies can lose close to a half million dollars because of “inefficiencies and misunderstandings caused by email messages” (p. 9). Note: If you would like to improve your use of email, see “Email” in Chapter 6 and “Writing Successful Email Messages” in Chapter 14.

Frame of Reference Inaccurate encoding and decoding can be responsible for some of our major communication breakdowns. These breakdowns occur because we use our own background and experience—our frame of reference—to encode and decode messages. Each person’s frame of reference includes educational background, race, cultural values, gender, life experiences, attitudes, and personality. Haney (1986) was the first to suggest that we should think of our frames of reference as an invisible window. Everything we see, touch, taste, smell, and hear takes place through our particular window. Some windows have a large frame that gives a broad view of what is going on outside them; others have a small frame that limits what can be observed. Some windows have clear glass, which allows for accurate viewing; others have thick or tinted glass that distorts images.

Unless the backgrounds and experiences of the sender and receiver are identical, their messages may not be accurately encoded or decoded. In fact, as the transaction model in Figure 1.3 indicates, it is only when our frames of reference overlap that we can expect real understanding to occur. Here are some examples of misunderstanding caused by frame of reference differences:

Nike withdrew its flame logo used on one of its basketball shoes when it re- ceived complaints from offended customers that the graphic resembled the Arabic script for Allah, the word for God (Ricks, 2006).

Alka-Seltzer had problems with customers knowing how many tablets to take until the popular slogan, “Plop, plop, fizz, fizz, oh what a relief it is” clarified that point in an entertaining manner—sales doubled (Luntz, 2007).

An elderly patient, who was a successful businessperson for over 40 years, had difficulty paying attention to a health-care professional who was us- ing Elderspeak—calling elderly adults sweetie or honey, using baby talk, and using “we” inappropriately (“Are we ready to take our medicine?”). Al- though the health-care professional thought she was showing compassion, Elderspeak was interpreted as a sign of disrespect by this patient—as it is by many elderly adults, who get angry and depressed when hearing it (Berman et. al., 2008).

A new purchaser for overseas accounts received an urgent message on May 1 from a Dutch associate in Amsterdam requesting information needed “before closing time on 6/5.” Feeling pleased with herself, the

CHAPTER 1 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS: AN INTRODUCTION 9

purchaser faxed the information three weeks early, on May 10. To her surprise, the Dutch office expressed anger and asked that she be taken off their account. The Dutch associate had really asked for information by May 6; Europeans usually write the day before the month (adapted from Ferraro, 1998, pp. 163, 172).

No Identical Frames of Reference Based on what we have discussed so far, do you think it is it possible for any two people to have exactly the same frame of reference? If you said no, you are correct. Even identical twins have dif- ferent personalities and react differently to the same experiences.

Managers and employees certainly have different frames of reference. In a now famous study (Bormann et al., 1969), managers and employees were asked to rank a list of morale factors according to their importance to employees. The managers rated appreciation of work done, a feeling of being “in on things,” and sympathetic help on personal problems as eighth, ninth, and tenth in impor- tance to employees. The employees, however, ranked these three factors as first, second, and third.

Frame-of-reference differences definitely play a role in international busi- ness confusion as well. Consider Figure 1.4, which lists the top 10 cultural values

FIGURE 1.4 Differences in cultural values. Source: Roy D’Andrade (2008). A study of personal & cultural values: Americans, Japanese, & Vietnamese. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, p. 63. Reproduced with permission of Palgrave Macmillan.

American (U.S.) Japanese Vietnamese

1. Enjoying life 1. Being healthy 1. Having deep respect for parents and grandparents

2. Being a good person 2. Avoiding war 2. Taking care of my parents when they get old

3. Having a personally fulfilling life

3. Treating human life as precious

4. Having love 4. Having close, supportive friends

4. Following my conscience and doing right

5. Having someone I can really talk to

5. Having a world free of war 5. Not dishonoring my family

6. Choosing my own goals 6. Making friends 6. Fulfilling family obligations

7. Being true to myself 7. Having someone I can really talk to

7. Being employed

8. Finding a mate with good qualities

8. Having a positive outlook on life

8. Being healthy

9. Having wisdom 9. Enjoying life 9. Being responsible

10. Being independent and self-reliant

10. Having love 10. Having a secure job

AMERICAN (U.S.), JAPANESE, VIETNAMESE

10 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

of Americans, Japanese, and Vietnamese (D’Andrade, 2008)—is there any doubt about why communication misunderstandings occur? As D’Andrade notes, these top-ten lists “show very little overlap” (p. 63). Compare these value differences with your own values and the individualistic/collectivistic cultures and the low- context/high-context cultures discussed in “Cultural Differences in Conflict Management” in Chapter 3.

If everyone’s frame of reference is somewhat different from everyone else’s—especially when the difference is cultural—then we must assume that we will encounter difficulties in communicating. On the other hand, each communicator needs to remember that the message that counts is the one re- ceived. It does not matter what you really said, what you thought you said, or what you meant to say. As a sender, you need to be concerned with what your receiver thought you said. Therefore, the burden of communication lies with you as the sender. It’s a good idea to check the reception of your messages by asking receivers to paraphrase (summarize in their own words) what they think you meant.

Business communicators who strive for communication excellence will probably have more success if they acknowledge that 100% communication is a communication fallacy and prepare for possible misunderstanding ahead of time. By anticipating different frames of reference, the effective communicator is able to prevent many errors.

Code Another element of the basic communication model is the code—the symbols that carry the message. There are three basic communication codes:

Language (verbal code): Spoken or written words used to communicate thoughts and emotions.

Paralanguage (vocal code): The vocal elements that go along with spo- ken language, including tone of voice, pitch, rate, volume, and emphasis. (Although paralanguage is often listed as a subcategory of nonverbal com- munication, it is separated here to emphasize the importance of each.)

Nonverbal cues (visual code): All intentional and unintentional means other than writing or speaking by which a person sends a message, including fa- cial expressions, eye contact, gestures, appearance, posture, size and location of office, and arrival time at meetings.

Many businesspeople think that the only important code is the language code. In cases where the message deals with factual, nonemotional, straight- forward information, language may be all that is needed for an accurate interpretation (Lapakko, 1996). However, when a message is complicated, emotional, or imprecise (as most messages are), all three codes are needed for a “richer,” more accurate interpretation. R. L. Birdwhistell (1970) reports that “probably no more than 30 to 35 percent of the social meaning of a con- versation or an interaction is carried by the words.” This leaves 65 to 70% of meaning conveyed by the nonverbal and paralanguage codes. Analyzing the results from 23 studies, J. S. Philpott (1983) found that, indeed, the verbal

CHAPTER 1 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS: AN INTRODUCTION 11

code accounts for 31% of the variance in meanings between sender and re- ceiver, whereas the vocal and visual codes account for the remaining 69% of variance (see Figure 1.5).

Many other studies have found that when adults attempt to determine the meaning of a statement, they rely more heavily on nonverbal cues and paralanguage than they do on what is actually said (Burgoon & Hoobler, 2002). This seems to be true for first impressions, attitudes, job interviews, and boss– employee conversations, to name a few (Burgoon, 1983; Burgoon, et al., 2010). In other words, “the ability to encode and decode nonverbal messages is critically important to successful communication” (Burgoon & Hoobler, 2002, p. 247).

The difference among the codes can be illustrated in the following example. You arrive home after a hard day at work. You walk in, slam the door, plop down on your recliner, and let out a long sigh. When asked, “How was your day?” you reply, “Oh, it was fine!” In this instance, to which code would the questioner pay more attention: the slamming of the door (nonverbal), the loud sigh (paralan- guage), or the actual words spoken (language)?

To communicate effectively, the sender must communicate the same mes- sage by all three codes. However, many people either deliberately or unknow- ingly send conflicting or double messages. Whenever there is a conflict among the messages received, people tend to believe more of what they see than what they hear. Grouping language and paralanguage together as verbal, Argyle (1973) found that “with initially equated signals the nonverbal messages out- weighed the verbal ones at least 5 to 1, and where they were in conflict the verbal messages were virtually disregarded.” (p. 78). For example, the flight attendants’ reassuring words (language code) on a nearly disastrous Eastern Airlines flight were probably ignored by the passengers, who could see the fear on their faces (nonverbal code) and could hear the fear in the voice of the cap- tain (paralanguage code). One passenger reported, “The worst part was when the captain told us that the ditching was imminent. . . . He had a real quivering voice, and it scared the hell out of everyone” (Lerner, 1983, p. 40).

Channel The success of your message may depend not only on the consistency of your codes but also on the channel you select. A channel is the medium selected

Verbal code

69%

31%

Visual and vocal codes

FIGURE 1.5 When interpreting a message, listeners rely more heavily on the visual and vocal codes: (what they see and how you speak) than on the verbal code (what you say).

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12 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

TABLE 1.1 SHORTHAND FOR EMAIL, TWITTER, BLOGS, AND CHAT-ROOM MESSAGES

SHORTHAND MEANING SHORTHAND MEANING

BTW or FYI By the way or for your information

SEC or chk Wait a sec or check

HTH Hope that helps 2 Two, to, or too

IDK I don’t know b/c or b4 or ab Because, before, or about

IBTD I beg to differ (: & or >:-< Angry or mad

IMHO In my humble opinion 4/ward or fwd Forward

IOW In other words :-I or :( or : / Frown or sad or confused

deets Details :-) or wOOt! Happy or excitement

LOL Laughing out loud { } No comment

JK Just kidding R or RU? Are or are you?

Im or Em Instant message or email

:-o or =O Surprise or shock

to carry the message. Examples of communication channels are face-to-face discussions, telephone calls, memos, emails, instant messages (IMs), blogs, newsletters, social networks like Facebook and Twitter, magazines, radio, and television.

Not all channels have the same capacity to carry information. The amount of information a channel can convey is referred to as channel richness (Daft & Lengel, 1986). The more codes a channel carries, the higher its level of rich- ness. For example, in a business meeting, when participants are using the face- to-face communication channel, all three codes—nonverbal, language, and paralanguage—carry messages. Television also carries all three codes. Radio and telephone communication, however, lack the visual clues of the nonverbal code. As a result, these channels carry a greater risk of communication break- down. Memos, email, text messaging and blogs are even more limited because they contain only the language code (although we attempt to add paralanguage by underlining, adding arrows, circling in red, or using shorthand as shown in Table 1.1.

Even though email is not a “rich” channel, it is corporate America’s most commonly used form of written communication (DeKay, 2010). Keep in mind that memos and email are most effective when used to follow up a face-to-face meeting, list the decisions reached during a meeting, or summarize the areas discussed. The receivers of these types of messages have less difficulty in de- coding accurately because they were present at the meeting and their frames of reference are more closely attuned to the sender’s. For specifics on how to write successful email messages, see Chapter 14.

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CHAPTER 1 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS: AN INTRODUCTION 13

Channel Selection In deciding which channel is most appropriate, there are other factors to consider in addition to channel richness (Timm, 1986):

The importance of the message. Important messages usually require the face- to-face channel. If technology is used instead, Robert Heller’s (1998) book Communicate Clearly offers three guidelines:

“Send only essential messages; keep messages short; and avoid delays in replying” (p. 31). Heller also recommends a few helpful rules of Internet etiquette, also known as netiquette: “Use meaningful subject titles; be as brief as possible; and distinguish business from non-business email” (p. 30).

The needs and abilities of the receiver. Some people are able to work from memos and phone conversations; others are better at interpreting face-to- face messages.

The amount and speed of the feedback required. Complicated messages and messages needing immediate feedback are normally best with the face-to- face channel, where all codes are present. Keep in mind that although email allows for fast feedback, it is easy to misinterpret. Charles Steinfield (1990), manager of Xerox, had the following to say: “In the absence of immediate feedback and the tempering effects of nonverbal cues and the physical pres- ence of receivers, electronic messages can sometimes be perceived as overly critical or blunt, or can simply be misinterpreted. . . . In situations in which a response is meant to be critical, the absence of context can lead to its being interpreted as stronger criticism than intended (p. 292).

The necessity of a permanent record. Written instructions, memos, and email can be used to verify a conversation and to serve as a permanent record of what was said.

The cost of the channel. In the business world, time and energy equal cost. For example, it costs less to fax or send email, more to speak on the phone long distance, and often much more to bring employees to a central place for a face-to-face meeting.

The formality or informality desired. Although face-to-face communication can be quite formal, it is normally considered less formal than a newsletter or a memo but more formal than email.

One supervisor found out the importance of the use of channels the hard way. During the lunch hour, he received a call from a person representing a key account who wanted to know if it was possible to get a special shipment of parts by Noon the next day. “No problem,” assured the supervisor. “We can ship them to you by High Priority.” “Excellent,” replied the caller. “If we don’t get that shipment by Noon, we will lose a big account!” The supervisor was scheduled to attend a very important meeting in 5 minutes, so he wrote a de- tailed memo and dropped it on the shipping foreman’s desk on his way to the meeting. The supervisor was involved in this important meeting for most of the afternoon and soon forgot about the phone call. Two days later, he re- ceived a letter from the key account representative stating that they not only had failed to receive the parts by Noon but also had never received the parts

14 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Adapted from Bovee & Thill, 2012; Kupritz, 2011; Rice & Gattiker, 2001; Sandberg, 2003.

at all. As a result, they were canceling all current orders and taking their busi- ness elsewhere!

What did the supervisor do wrong? First, he chose a poor channel for such an important message, and second, he failed to follow up the memo to make sure its meaning was clear to the foreman. When using a channel other than a face- to-face meeting, a sender must be sure to follow through by checking to see that the message has been received, understood, and carried out correctly.

Face-to-face communication is especially important in large organizations undergoing rapid change (Wagner & Hollenbeck, 2010). Also, keep in mind that “In many organizations, social networking, IM, email, blogs, and other elec- tronic media have largely replaced paper memos” (Bovee & Thill, 2012, p. 94). To help you decide which channel is most appropriate (face-to-face, written, or electronic), consider the information shown in Table 1.2.

The channel selected is also important when communicating with the public. When selling merchandise or ideas, the organization should select the channel that (a) is the least expensive but (b) reaches the target audience with (c) the appro- priate codes needed to sell the item or idea. For example, suppose your company is planning to sell a new brand of laundry detergent. In deciding which channel to use for marketing, you would first want to identify the target audience—in this instance, probably homemakers or possibly college students. You would then de- cide which codes would be needed to sell the item. For example, do they need to

TABLE 1.2 CHOOSING THE BEST CHANNEL TO SEND YOUR MESSAGE

USE FACE-TO-FACE SEND WRITTEN MESSAGE SEND ELECTRONIC MESSAGE

Immediate feedback needed

Immediate feedback not needed

Immediate feedback not needed, but speed important

Permanent record not needed

Permanent, verifiable record needed

Permanent record not needed, but wish to overcome time-zone barrier

Message emotional, confusing, or complex; discussion or questions expected

Exact wording important; public relations message straightforward

Message explicit, little interpreta- tion needed, transferred quickly

Message sensitive, confi- dential, or personal

Message routine but details needed; possibly a form letter used

Message not confidential; security or safety issues; agenda or policy topics

Message important and new; group cohesion or consensus needed

Follow-up to face-to-face meeting needed

Information for support or to add excitement or multimedia appeal

Confidence and trust need developing

Content more important than feelings

Speed, cost, or convenience crucial

Convenient and economi- cal to assemble audience

Audience large and geo- graphically dispersed

Audience large and geographically dispersed, but speedy back-and- forth messages important©

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CHAPTER 1 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS: AN INTRODUCTION 15

see the item’s size or packaging, or would hearing about it be enough? Finally, you would decide which channel would be as inexpensive as possible and still contain the necessary codes to reach the target audience. To reach the appropriate audi- ence, ad campaigns often use more than one channel and strive to activate word- of-mouth marketing through blogs, social networks, or IM (Kozinets et al., 2010).

Word Choice When memos or email must be used to send important or new information, the sender should select language with extreme care. Automobile companies have found that they sell more used cars when the cars are referred to as “pre-owned” rather than as “used.” In the 1980s, oil companies outraged customers by charging a “credit surcharge” for credit- card use (customers paying cash were not charged extra). Companies who offered a “discount for cash,” however, were viewed as customer-friendly. Both approaches charged customers more for credit-card use and less for cash, but the language used to describe each approach affected customer perceptions (Wagner & Hollenbeck, 2010).

Researchers have found that the tone of a written statement determines how the reader perceives the author of the message and even the organization for whom the author works. For example, according to Raymond Friedman and Steven Currall (2003), because messages sent by email have no vocal or non- verbal cues to meaning, and because people tend to read them more than once, even messages that aren’t intended as critical “can be easily misinterpreted as being more aggressive than intended” (p. 1342). Check your words carefully listening for tone and possible interpretation.

Feedback When people observe their own behavior and resolve to do better next time, when people ask friends to give an opinion on how well they handled a certain situation, or when managers suggest ways in which employees can improve their performance, feedback is being used. Feedback is the verbal and visual response to a message. Feedback can be a self-monitoring response that al- lows us to modify our behavior until it meets our expectations. Feedback is also the only way we can know whether messages we send are interpreted as we intended. Without feedback, all we can do is as- sume that the messages have been received correctly.

Advantages of Feedback Supervisors who encourage their employees to give feedback find that it improves the accuracy and productivity of both individuals and groups (Clampitt & Downs, 1983; Deal & Kennedy, 1999). Misunderstandings often occur because people honestly think they have understood the boss’s or peer’s instructions well enough that feedback is unnecessary. The few seconds that it would take to verify the assignment could save both time and money. © 2

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16 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Another advantage is that feedback increases employee satisfaction with the job. People like to believe that their ideas and opinions are valued. When given the opportunity to ask questions or make suggestions, employees tend to feel more a part of the organization and are willing to take on responsibility for accurate communication. In a field study with nurses, Jackson (1983) found that bimonthly information-sharing meetings between nurses and supervisors resulted in less role conflict and ambiguity, as well as lower stress, absenteeism, and turnover.

Disadvantages of Feedback Despite the advantages of feedback, many managers and employees avoid its use for several reasons (Bormann et al., 1969, pp. 148–149). First of all, feedback can cause people to feel psychologically at- tacked. Even the most experienced manager or employee can become defensive when feedback seems negative. Sometimes, feedback indicates that the message was not communicated very well. However, people should worry when they don’t receive any feedback; the receivers may be either so confused that they don’t know what to ask or so confident of their understanding that they ignore the need for verification.

Another disadvantage is that feedback is time-consuming. It takes time to make sure that everyone understands, but it takes more time (and money) to redo tasks that should have been done correctly the first time. One consulting firm uses this slogan in its seminars: “If you don’t have time to do the job cor- rectly, when will you find time to do the job a second time?”

In addition, feedback can be difficult to elicit. Many people seek feed- back by asking, “Are there any questions?” or “Are you sure you understand?” Then they can’t understand why no one ever has any questions. Asking others if they understand pressures them to say, “No, I don’t have any ques- tions” or “Yes, I understand,” even when the opposite may be true. When employees are afraid of appearing stupid in front of the manager, they will pretend to understand whether they do or not. Instead of asking employees whether they understand, managers should ask them what they understand by requesting that they paraphrase the instructions they have received. Para- phrasing allows managers to determine which part of the instructions, if any, are unclear.

Another reason people are reluctant to give feedback is past experience. They may have reacted negatively to feedback in the past, or others may have reacted badly to their feedback. It takes only a few negative verbal or nonverbal reactions to convince people that it is simply too risky to say what they think or to admit that they don’t understand.

Effective Use of Feedback To improve your use of feedback, try adopting the following suggestions (based on Bormann et al., 1969, pp. 151–154). When Receiving Feedback from Others

Tell people you want feedback. When people feel that their opinions and observations may be used against them or that your feelings may be easily hurt, they withhold feedback. Therefore, let them know that you

CHAPTER 1 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS: AN INTRODUCTION 17

consider feedback (including personal opinions, questions, and disagree- ment) not only useful but also necessary. If you are hesitant to ask for feedback, try “360-degree feedback” (O’Reilly, 1994). In this process, you request anonymous feedback from a full circle of observers, including peers, superiors, subordinates, customers, suppliers, and sales staff.

Identify the areas in which you want feedback. If you want personal feedback, you might say, “I am trying to improve my delivery and am interested in how confident I appeared in today’s meeting.” If you want only feedback pertaining to the organization of your ideas, then specify that topic.

If you are a manager, set aside time for regularly scheduled feedback sessions. Such sessions show employees that you value feedback and thus tend to make it easier for them to ask questions and express opinions.

Select the proper channel. When feedback is routine, the channel can safely have low media richness. However, if the message is nonroutine, compli- cated, or negative, the channel needs to be high in media richness. Imagine how the 403 employees at Radio Shack felt when they received via email the bad news that they had been fired (Augstums & Halkias, 2006).

Use silence to encourage feedback. Too many people ask a question, wait only 2 or 3 seconds, and then begin talking again. It takes more time than that for most people to organize and verbalize their responses. If you remain silent for at least a full 10 seconds, you will probably get more responses.

Watch for nonverbal responses. Because the nonverbal code carries a sig- nificant amount of the meaning of a message, it is an excellent source of feedback.

Ask questions. Do not assume that you understand the meaning of the feedback you receive from others. When in doubt, ask for clarification.

Paraphrase. Even when you feel sure you understand a person’s feedback, it is a good idea to paraphrase. For example, if your boss says, “This rush job has top priority,” you could paraphrase by saying, “Then you are telling me that this rush job has higher priority than any other job I’m working on now.” As the need for message accuracy increases, the need for paraphrasing increases.

Use statements that encourage feedback. People usually adjust their feedback by monitoring the listener’s verbal and nonverbal reactions. If you want a person’s honest opinion, you must encourage it by purposely saying such things as “Really?” “Interesting.” or “So, you feel that. . . .”

Reward feedback. If you are a manager, you can reward feedback by compli- menting the person, preferably in front of colleagues. Some companies have a “Best Idea of the Month” contest and put the winners’ names on a placard

AP Photo/Paul Sakuma

Revisiting the Case Study... Will Facebook’s asking users for feedback lead to more advantages or disadvantages? Give specific examples.

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18 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

or give each of them a company pen with their name engraved on it. As an employee, you can sincerely thank people for their comments and perhaps write them a note of thanks.

Follow up. Individual conversations and group meetings often require oral or written follow-up to ensure that successful communications occurred and to encourage implementation of any decisions reached.

When Giving Feedback to Others

Direct feedback toward behavior rather than toward the person. A common mis- take is to criticize the person rather than the behavior. Telling your assistant “You are a poor excuse for a secretary” is a personal attack rather than feedback on a particular behavior, and it only causes a defensive response. Your feed- back is much more likely to be received positively if you identify the particular behavior and focus on what can be done to correct it in the future: “Janice, a mistake like this one costs way more than our weekly office budget. From now on, please check with me before finalizing any orders costing more than $100.”

Use language that is descriptive instead of evaluative. Descriptive feedback is tactfully honest and objective, whereas evaluative feedback is judgmental and accusatory. Evaluative feedback: “Where is your sales report? You know it is due on my desk no later than 9:00 each morning. You’re obviously not reliable anymore.” Descriptive feedback: “When you don’t turn your sales re- ports in on time, I’m unable to complete the departmental report on time. This makes both me and the department look bad. You’ve been late twice this month. Is there something I can do to help you get those reports in on time?” Evaluative words cause defensiveness and hurt feelings; words that simply describe the situation are more likely to result in cooperation.

Recognize that feedback involves sharing ideas, not giving advice. It is not always appropriate to give advice to other people. If your advice does not work, you will be blamed. One of the best ways to improve a relationship is by openly sharing opinions and ideas. Suppose a manager who is having trouble with some employees comes to you and asks, “What am I doing wrong?” Instead of giving advice, share a personal experience with the manager. For example, you might describe a similar problem you had and how you handled it. It is then up to the manager to decide what to do.

Include only as much information as the person can handle at one time. Suppose during a performance appraisal, you give an employee a list of 20 items that need improvement. You may feel better now that you have fully expressed your feelings, but how can anyone improve on 20 things at the same time? Give only two or three suggestions—a number the person can reasonably handle.

Remember that effective feedback is immediate and well timed. Immediate feedback is more valuable than delayed feedback because it allows the per- son to correct actions or behaviors while they are still fresh in their minds. For example, after a foul-up in shipping, discuss the problem with the re- sponsible employee immediately, if possible, or at least within a day or two. Because feedback should also be well timed, sometimes it can’t be imme- diate. For example, if you point out the employee’s mistakes in front of a group of coworkers, resentment is likely. Or if it’s after quitting time, your

CHAPTER 1 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS: AN INTRODUCTION 19

suggestions may not receive the attention they deserve. Sensitive feedback should be given in a private, relaxed atmosphere. Unfortunately, many peo- ple give feedback in anger, without stopping to consider the consequences.

Allow face-saving when possible. In an attempt to make themselves look good to others, a person will often continue to argue for a plan even when it is obvi- ously not working or in the best interest of the organization (Brockner, 1992). People are more likely to accept negative feedback when allowed some de- gree of face-saving. For example, instead of saying, “Your idea was rejected,” mention that the rejection was due in part to lack of funds or other factors, thereby allowing the person a face-saving out (Simonson & Staw, 1992).

Environment The effective communicator plans and controls the environment as much as possible. The environment includes the “time, place, physical and social surroundings” (Holm, 1981, p. 22) in which you find yourself. For example, the

Feedback—Is eBay Still Listening? So you don’t want to hold a garage sale but hesitate to throw away your old “stuff.” Or maybe you are looking for something unusual to decorate your game room. Where could you go? How about eBay? People from all over the world can buy and sell items through eBay. In 1998, eBay had 2.1 million registered users and in 10 years that number had grown to 84 million (About eBay, 2009). eBay is an Internet commerce site that began with an annual revenue of $4 million and 138 employees when it went public in 1998 and has grown to $8 billion in revenue and 15,000 employees in 2008. Company success is indicated by its stock, which rose 5,600% during that 10-year period (Cohen, 2008). Although the rate of growth has slowed since 2008, at the end of 2011, eBay had more than 100 million active users with goods sold totaling over $68.6 billion (“Who We Are,” 2012).

Meg Whitman, company CEO from 1998 to 2008, credits eBay’s phenomenal success to the feedback the company received from their many registered users through discussion boards, blogs, surveys, and personal contact. Whitman communicated directly with users about their experiences during the eBay Live conventions held in locations throughout the United States each year since 2002 (Lashinsky, 2003). Many of their ideas and innovations in the past have come from users. According to Whitman, “You are truly in partnership with the community of users.

The key is connecting employees and customers in two-way communication. We call it ‘The Power of All of Us.’”

However, after changing the way PayPal works on eBay, it remains to be seen how CEO, John Donahoe, will handle the unhappy user responses. Early in 2012, Donahoe “sent out notices to sellers informing them that all payments they receive through PayPal for items sold on eBay will now be put on hold for up to 21 days” for buyer protection (Morrissey, 2012). This policy, says Morrissey, stands regardless of how high the seller’s rating from buyers may be. Sellers were not happy and by February had already posted more than 600 pages of complaints on PayPal’s website forum. Here is a sample post Morrissey received on April 12, 2012, to her Fortune article called “eBay’s Got a PayPal Problem”:

My husband has been an eBay/PayPal customer for 13 years and he was just flagged!! He has 100% positive feedback so I find it COMPLETELY outrageous that PayPal is holding funds!! I will be contacting our BBB and guarantee that we will never sell any items on eBay again. . . .

WHAT DO YOU THINK? Have you used eBay, and does it seem to you that man-

agement is open to feedback from its registered users? Do you think the unhappy feedback eBay’s receiving

from users’ warrants a change in policy?

IT REALLY WORKS

20 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

mood of your meeting, and consequently the success of your communication, can depend on the time of the meeting—8:00 a.m., 2:00 p.m., or 30 minutes before quitting time. The best time depends on the people involved, their expec- tations, and the purpose and expected length of your meeting. The location of a meeting also greatly affects communication. For this reason, your best business deals may take place outside the office, such as at a restaurant or on a golf course, where pressures are not felt so keenly. Communication is also affected by the physical environment of the location. Such conditions as the size of the room, the brightness of the lights, the room temperature, the comfort and arrangement of the chairs, the shape of the table, and the noise level can alter the type and success of communication. Social environment—the relationships of the people present—also affects your communication. For example, don’t most of us feel and act differently when our supervisors are present at a gathering?

An organization’s social and work environment is of- ten referred to as its climate. An organization’s climate is determined by the prevail- ing atmosphere and attitudes of its members. Climate can have such a powerful ef- fect on communication that we will discuss it further in Chapters 2, 3, and 5.

Noise Anything that interferes with communication by distorting or blocking the message is noise. External noise includes distractions in the environment, such as the speaker’s poor grammar, papers being shuffled, phones ringing, people talking, cold air in the room, and lights that are too dim. Internal noise refers to conditions of the communicators (both speakers and listeners), such as a headache, daydreaming, lack of sleep, preoccupation with other problems, or lack of knowledge on the topic. Any of these noises can distort or block communication.

The effect of noise on communication is demonstrated by the following exam- ple. Suppose you are upset about not receiving the same raise as the other people in your office. You write a memo to your boss requesting a private interview. Two days after sending the memo and getting no response, you and your boss unex- pectedly run into each other in a busy workroom. The boss, thinking that this time is as good as any other, motions you to sit down and says, “So what did you want to talk to me about?” How successful can this grievance interview be with phones ringing, machines running, and interested people walking in and out? These exter- nal noises are fairly obvious. Less obvious, but equally distracting, are the internal noises. We can only guess at the internal noise that the boss is experiencing—pre- occupation with other problems or a perception of you as a satisfied employee, perhaps. However, your internal distractions seem fairly clear. You are unhappy and feeling mistreated. You will probably interpret your boss’s interviewing you on

Revisiting the Case Study... Where in the transaction communication model do Facebook’s main problems occur?

AP Photo/Paul Sakuma

CHAPTER 1 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS: AN INTRODUCTION 21

the spur of the moment in such a noisy public place as further proof of disrespect and unfair treatment. The chance that the two of you will arrive at a mutually agreeable solution will be influenced by both external and internal noise.

As a communicator, you need to be aware of potential noise and its effect on messages. When possible, you should select an environment that is rela- tively noise-free. If unexpected noise does occur, you should either postpone the message until the noise ends or eliminate the noise. If all else fails, simply acknowledge the problem and continue as best you can.

Communicator Quiz How skilled a communicator are you? To check your communication effectiveness, take the following quiz. Compare your answers with those in the back of this book. You can also take this quiz online via the CourseMate website for Communicating for Results..

DIRECTIONS: For each of these statements about your communication, select one of the following answers: (A) usually, (B) sometimes, or (C) rarely.

________ 1. Do you knowingly stimulate and motivate the receiver of the message? ________ 2. Do you try to encode ideas so they will fit into the frame of reference of the

receiver? ________ 3. Do you try to decode messages using the sender’s frame of reference? ________ 4. Do you try to send each message by the nonverbal, paralanguage, and

language codes? ________ 5. Do you try to improve your communication success by controlling the

environment? ________ 6. Do you let the importance of the message and the ability of the receiver

determine the channel you select? ________ 7. Do you realize that 100% communication is unlikely and therefore plan for

ways to avoid possible misunderstandings? ________ 8. When you communicate, do you remember that the only message that counts

is the one received? ________ 9. Do you avoid becoming defensive or placing blame when communication

breakdown occurs? ________ 10. Do you view feedback as absolutely necessary for successful communication,

and therefore both give and receive feedback on a regular basis?

SCORING: Number of times you answered A (usually) ________ Number of times you answered A + B (usually and sometimes) ________ Number of times you answered C (rarely) ________

RESULTS: If you have seven or more A answers, you are an outstanding communicator. If you have seven or more A + B answers, you are an average-to-good communicator. If you have seven or more C answers, you need immediate improvement.

AWARENESS CHECK

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22 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

COMMUNICATION AND ETHICS So far, we have discussed the basic elements involved in the communication pro- cess and identified some major causes of communication errors. Before finishing this chapter, we also need to take a careful look at the crucial role ethics plays in communication success. Shockley-Zalabak (2012) defines ethics this way:

Ethics . . . are the standards by which behaviors are evaluated for their moral- ity: their rightness or wrongness. When applied to human communication, ethics are the moral principles that guide our judgments about the good and bad, right and wrong, of communication. . . . (p. 112)

Pick up almost any newspaper to see reports of unethical practices by individu- als and organizations, ranging from lying on resumes, plagiarizing dissertations, and paying others to take their ACT and SAT tests to industrial sabotage, decep- tive advertising, fraud, and failure to report negative drug reactions. Conrad and Poole (2012) report that “between 1975 and 1990 two-thirds of the Fortune 500 firms were convicted of serious crimes ranging from price fixing to illegal dumping of hazardous wastes” (p. 449). You have read of former Enron execu- tives Kenneth Lay and Jeffrey Skilling, who were convicted of fraud when the company collapsed in 2001, erasing $2.1 billion from pension plans and a $60 billion market loss for stockholders around the world. More recently, the papers were filled with the conviction of Bernard (Bernie) Madoff in 2009 for stealing more than $65 billion from investors in a long-running Ponzi scheme. Madoff who is serving a 150-year sentence will be joined by his brother Peter, who was charged by the Securities and Exchange Commission on June 29, 2012 of fraud and false statements. Peter will serve 10 years in prison and forfeit basically all his money—several billion dollars (Bray, 2012). As this edition went to press, we learned of two more serious ethics crimes: Jerry Sandusky, ex–Penn State coach, was found “guilty on 45 of 48 sex abuse counts” with a possible coverup by Penn State (Curry et al., 2012; Reilly, 2012); and Russell Wasendorf, Sr., CEO of col- lapsed brokerage firm Peregrine Financial Group, admitted to “embezzling more than $100 million from clients over nearly 20 years” (Bunge et al., 2012).

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For their role in the Ponzi scheme that stole over $65 billion from investors, brothers Bernie and Peter Madoff were sentenced to 150 and 10 years respectively.

CHAPTER 1 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS: AN INTRODUCTION 23

According to Gallup poll surveys, the American public has lost faith in the honesty and ethics of most professional people, including business professionals (Jones, 2011). Since 1976, pollsters have asked, “How would you rate the hon- esty and ethical standards of people in these different fields—very high, high, average, low, or very low?” See Table 1.3 for the percentages of respondents

Sources: Adapted from Lydia Saad (December 5, 2006), “Nurses Top List of Most Professionals”; Jeffrey M. Jones (December 4, 2007), “Effects of Year’s Scandals Evident in Honesty and Ethics Ratings”; Lydia Saad (November 24, 2008), “Nurses Shine, Bankers Slump in Ethics Ratings”; Lydia Saad (December 9, 2009), “Honesty and Ethics Poll Finds Congress’ Image Tarnished”; Jeffery M. Jones (December 3, 2010), “Nurses Top Honesty and Ethics Poll for the 11th Year; and Jeffery M. Jones (December 12, 2011), “Record 64% Rate Honesty, Ethics of Members of Congress Low,” Gallup Poll Tuesday Briefing Online, Galluppoll.com. Note that the poll comes out in December of each year. Copyright © 2000–2005 the Gallup Organization. Reprinted by permission.

PROFESSION RATING (%)

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Nurses 82 84 79 84 83 81 84

Druggists, pharmacists

67 73 67 70 66 71 73

Medical doctors 65 69 63 64 65 66 70

High school teachers

64 — — 65 — — 62

Police officers 61 54 53 56 63 57 54

Clergy 54 58 53 56 50 53 52

Funeral directors 44 — — 47 — — 44

Accountants 39 — — 38 — — 43

Journalists 28 26 — 25 23 — 26

Building contractors 20 — — 22 — — 26

Bankers 41 37 35 23 19 23 25

Real estate agents 20 — — 17 — — 20

Lawyers 18 18 15 18 13 17 19

Labor union leaders 16 — — 16 — — 18

Business executives 16 18 14 12 12 15 18

Stockbrokers 16 17 — 12 9 — 12

Advertising practitioners

11 11 6 10 11 11 11

Telemarketers 7 — — — — — 8

Congresspersons 14 14 9 12 9 9 7

Car salespeople 8 7 5 7 6 7 7

TABLE 1.3 PERCENTAGES OF RESPONDENTS RATING EACH PROFESSION AS HAVING “HIGH” OR “VERY HIGH” ETHICAL STANDARDS

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24 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

from 2005 through 2011 who rated each profession as having “high” or “very high” ethical standards. Note that nurses continue to be the highest-ranked professionals, with 84%; followed by druggists and pharmacists, with 73%; medical doctors, with 70%; and high school teachers, with 64%. Clergy and police officers scored in the 50% range. Dropping way down to the other end of the scale we find telemarketers, at 8%, with congresspersons and car sales- people tied at the bottom, with 7% each. Apparently, the American public is skeptical about the honesty and ethics of its professionals. A May 2009 Gallup poll found that 71% of Americans think the moral values of the country are getting worse (Jones, 2009).

It may be that ethics breeches such as these have increased ethics awareness in the workplace. In fact, National Business Ethics Surveys (NBES) indicate that employees observing a violation of company standards or a violation of the law during the previous year dropped from 56% in 2007 to 49% in 2009 to 45% in 2011; also, the number of people that reported these violations increased from 58% to 63% to 65% in the same years (National Business Ethics Survey, 2011). Although seeing fewer violations and reporting more of them is a good thing, employees are responsible for expensive unethical actions. Bredeson & Goree (2012) report the following areas:

Employee theft. A survey by the National Retail Federation found that “U.S. employees stole $14.4 billion from their employers” in 2009 (p. 117).

Employee waste of time. In 2010, employees “with PCs spent about five hours a week on their work computers doing personal business on the Web” (p. 117).

Employee misuse of technology. The day after Thanksgiving in 2010, online shoppers purchased $1 billion of items—more than half of that amount was ordered from office computers (p. 118). Also, a National Business Ethics Survey (2011) found that “Active social networkers spend at least 30 percent of their workday on social networking activities” and that 11% of social net- workers are considered “active” (p. 30).

To avoid unethical practices, G. R. Jones and George (2011) recommend that managers and employees base their decisions on four ethical rules adapted from several ethics theories:

The utilitarian rule. Ethical decisions create “the greatest good for the great- est number of people.”

The moral rights rule. Ethical decisions protect people’s “fundamental rights and privileges.” In other words, do unto others as you would have them do unto you.

The justice rule. Ethical decisions provide fair and equal treatment for all individuals or groups involved.

The practical rule. Ethical decisions are easy to communicate “to people out- side the company because the typical person” would find them acceptable— thus, you feel good as well.

An example of a firm that could answer “yes” to these four ethics rules is Johnson & Johnson, which is well known for its code of ethics, called “The Credo,” which covers physicians, customers, employees, communities, and stockholders

CHAPTER 1 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS: AN INTRODUCTION 25

(Jones & George, 2011). The Credo begins with the following words: “We believe our first responsibility is to the doctors, nurses, and patients, to mothers and fathers and all others who use our products and services” (p. 135). Johnson & Johnson’s top management credit this code of ethics with the action they took during the Tylenol scare of 1982 (Greenberg, 2011; Treviño & Nelson, 2011). When it was discovered that seven people in Chicago had died after taking Extra Strength Tylenol, the company pulled all Tylenol capsules off the shelves, urged people not to use any Tylenol they had at home, and offered a $100,000 reward for information leading to a resolution of the case (it was later found that the deaths were due to tampering). Although their Credo guided them in their deci- sion, it was still a difficult one—management knew the costs would run high. Not only did the company experience a loss of revenue (31 million bottles of Tylenol were removed from store shelves), but many loyal customers switched brands. Months later after developing tamper-resistant packaging, “Tylenol’s share of the pain reliever market not only returned to where it was before this in- cident, but surpasses it, reflecting consumers’ willingness to support a company that’s committed to treating them ethically” (Greenberg, 2011, p. 49).Over the years Johnson & Johnson has experienced some ethical issues such as their recall of infants’ Tylenol (Rockoff, 2012)—staying true to an ethical statement like The Credo takes continual vigilance. Still, “when you talk to current J&J employees, they talk easily about the credo, its importance in the J&J culture, and how it guides ethical conduct in the organization” (Treviño & Nelson, 2011, p. 169).

Texas Instruments is another company with a strong code of ethics. They have a hotline at 800-33-ETHIC, available from anywhere in the world, and they give their employees an ethics business card with the following information (which follows the four ethics rules discussed previously) on one side of the card (The Values and Ethics of TI, 2011, p. 1):

TI Ethics Quick Test

Is the action legal? Does it comply with our values? If you do it, will you feel bad? How will it look in the newspaper? If you know it’s wrong, don’t do it. If you’re not sure, ask. Keep asking until you get an answer.*

Texas Instruments was selected by Ethisphere Institute as a member of its 2012 list of the World’s Most Ethical Companies—TI has made the list all six years that Ethisphere.com has given the award (Smith, 2012).

Companies like Texas Instruments with open communication and hotlines that encourage individual reporting can “cut their fraud losses . . . by 50 percent,” according to a survey by the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (Verschoor, 2003, p. 20). Why? The survey found that of all the fraud tips received by companies, “information from individuals resulted in the discovery of almost half the fraud schemes” (p. 20). Being aware of the

*Reprinted courtesy of Texas Instruments

26 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

company code of ethics isn’t enough; employees need to know how to use it in their day-to-day decision making. To help with this problem, some com- panies have developed ethics games, including Lockheed Martin’s “Ethics Challenge” game and Citigroup’s “The Work Ethic” game (Williams, 2011, p. 131). Even when ethics training is enjoyable, ethics specialists warn that unless leaders are perceived to live up to the high standards of ethical conduct they set, training programs and ethics codes will be meaningless (Greenberg 2011). In Managing Business Ethics, Treviño and Nelson (2011) warn, “The most important thing for managers to remember about their job as role mod- el is that what they do is infinitely more important than what they say. They can preach ethics all they want, but unless they live that message, their people won’t” (p. 314).

As an employee, watch out for the following ethics traps that tempt business and professional communicators regularly (Bell, 1991, p. 68):

The trap of necessity. “I really have no choice. If I suddenly stop charging as much, someone is sure to investigate.”

The trap of relative filth. “What I’m doing isn’t half as bad as what others have done.”

The trap of rationalization. “It’s all right if I call in sick. If I don’t use my sick days before January, I lose them.” It’s estimated that “U.S. businesses lose about $40 billion annually from nonviolent, unethical behavior” (Wimbush & Shephard, 1994).

The trap of self-deception. “So what if I claim my experience is more varied than it really is. No one will ever find out.”

The trap of the end justifying the means. “If I exaggerate the uses of this prod- uct just a bit, I will be able to increase my sales and get a promotion.”

Being an ethical person is a responsibility we all share. In addition, there are some practical reasons for being ethical:

1. If people lose faith in you, or in your company, failure is inevitable. A 2005 survey by the American Management Association and the Human Resource Institute, finds that business ethics has a great impact on brands, reputations, customer trust, investor confidence, and public acceptance (“The Ethical Enterprise,” 2006).

2. Not only do people enjoy dealing with honest people, but they also prefer working for ethical companies; being ethical is good business. One study found that employees are six times more likely to stay with a company they believe to be ethical (Smith, 2000).

3. Unethical behavior weighs heavily on your conscience; it’s difficult to feel good about yourself.

Chapter 1 and this section on ethics end by asking you to think about your own personal ethics code. If you wait until an ethical problem arises to consider where you stand on ethical issues, you may not be prepared to han- dle the situation. Dennis Gioia (1992) was a young executive at Ford when ethical problems occurred involving the Pinto automobile. Gioia was part of

CHAPTER 1 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS: AN INTRODUCTION 27

the decision not to recall the Pinto (even though its gas tank could burst into flames in rear-end collisions at speeds as low as 25 miles per hour). In a special “Reflections on the Pinto Fires Case” written for Treviño and Nelson (2011), Gioia ends with this advice:

Last, be prepared to face critical responsibility at a relatively young age, as I did. You need to know what your values are . . . so that you can know how to make a good decision. Before you do that, you need to articulate and affirm your values now, before you enter the fray. I wasn’t really ready. Are you? (p. 101)

CHAPTER REVIEW1 © Phil Boorman/AgeFotostock

KEY TERMS channel (11) channel richness (12) circular model (5) climate (20) code (10) communication (4) decoding (7) descriptive feedback (18)

encoding (7) environment (19) ethics (22) evaluative feedback (18) feedback (15) four ethical rules (24) frame of reference (8) motivation (7)

noise (20) one-way model (4) paraphrase (10) receiver (6) sender (6) stimulated (6) transaction model (5)

SUMMARY Now that you have read this chapter, has your frame of reference on communication changed? Effective communication involves more than just talking or listening; communication is hard work! Whether you are new to the business or professional world or have already launched your career, perfecting your communica- tion skills will help ensure your success.

Organizations are looking for employees who can com- municate. They are looking for employees who prepare care- fully, execute effectively, and follow up their communications. For example, effective communicators check out the frame of reference of those with whom they communicate and try to encode their messages specifically for each person’s under- standing; they realize that 100% communication is unlikely to occur and plan ways to avoid misunderstanding. Effective communicators also realize the importance of stimulus and

motivation, as well as using all three codes (i.e., language, paralanguage, and nonverbal) when communicating. They at- tempt to select the best environment and channel for their communication and use feedback effectively. Even when com- munication seems successful, they follow up to make sure instead of assuming all is well. When communication misun- derstanding occurs, they remember that the message to be concerned with is the one that is received and do not become defensive or assign blame for the problem. And of course, effective communicators ensure that their communication with colleagues, bosses, and customers is ethical at all times. Finally, effective communicators know that misunderstand- ings are going to occur; no one is perfect. However, when problems do occur, they will analyze them carefully so that the same problems won’t happen again.

Before continuing to the next chapter, check your understanding of Chapter 1 at the CourseMate website for Communicating for Re- sults. CourseMate gives you quick and easy access to this text’s electronic resources to help improve your communication skills and prepare you for quizzes and exams. These resources include: Study tools including the student companion workbook,

digital glossary, flash cards, and review quizzes. Activities and assignments including Awareness Checks,

Checkpoints, and Collaborative Learning Activities. Media resources such as Web Links (explore communication

concepts); Speech Builder Express (develop your speech outlines); Interactive Video Activities (watch and critique videos of professional communication situations and sample speeches); Speech Studio (upload your speech videos for peer reviewing and critique other students’ speeches); and Audio Study Tools (download chapter reviews).

For more information or to access this book’s online resources, visit www.cengage.com/login.

Collaborative Learning Activities 1. In small groups discuss the following: a. What are the important differences between the one-

way model, the circular model, and the transaction model of communication? Why is the transaction model the most complete?

b. Which element of the transaction model of commu- nication generally creates the most problems in un- derstanding: environment/context, stimulation/moti- vation, encoding/decoding, frame of reference, code, channel, feedback, or noise? Why do your element choices create more misunderstandings than other elements?

2. Divide into four groups representing ethics, gender, tech- nology, and culture. Each group should:

a. Discuss its topic and select two of the best examples of communication misunderstanding out of a list of several that are mentioned by members.

b. Next, decide which of the four topic areas generally cre- ate the most misunderstanding in the workplace: yours or one of the other three.

c. Finally, share your examples and decision with the other groups.

3. Career Activity: As this chapter indicated, ethical deci- sions are not always clear-cut. To think about some difficult ethical questions, complete the following activity:

a. On your own paper, answer whether it is ethical (yes or no) to do the following, adapted and updated from the Wall Street Journal’s Workplace Ethics Quiz (1999).

1. Use your company email address to send personal email?

COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS ONLINE

2. Use your personal smart phone during office hours to send personal email or text messages?

3. Use a company phone to make personal calls during working hours?

4. Use your smart phone to make personal calls during working hours?

5. Use a company computer during working hours to play games or shop online?

6. Use your personal smart phone during office hours to play games or shop online?*

b. In groups of four to seven compare individual an- swers. Discuss the reasons for your answers and work to come to an agreement on as many ques- tions as possible. For any questions receiving a “yes” answer, what percent of an eight-hour day would be acceptable?

c. Compare answers with other groups. To see how busi- ness students and executives from the United States and college students from a Middle Eastern culture answered the questions, see the research study conducted by

Michael Shurden and colleagues (2008)—use a database like EBSCOHost to locate the article.

4. Career Activity: Employees have been fired for “bad-mouth- ing employers” on Facebook and other social-networking sites (Trottman, 2011). For example, one paramedic using her home computer called her supervisor a “scumbag” on Facebook and was fired. The National Labor Relations Board has reviewed 113 cases and is using the 1935 Wagner Act to determine whether online actions are protected or not. So far, it appears that online complaints against an employer are not protected unless the complaints were made during an online discussion in which coworkers were complain- ing about such things as supervisory actions or working conditions. Discussion: In groups of four to seven, answer the following:

a. What types of comments should Facebook users feel free to post about their employers, if any?

b. Should employers be able to fire or discipline workers for what they say on social networking sites? Why, or why not?

* Adapted with permission from The Wall Street Journal, October 21, 1999.

COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE

DISCUSS the differences between formal and informal commu- nication in the workplace, and summarize the impor- tance of messages that flow upward, downward, and horizontally.

COMPARE AND CONTRAST the three different ways organizations coordinate people.

LIST the five organization models at work today in the United States and the world, summarize the main beliefs of each.

DETERMINE the organization model(s) for which you would most enjoy working.

Hill Street Studios/Blend Images/Jupiterimages

2 Hill Street StuStudios/Bllenl d Images/Jupiterimages

As you read chapter 2...

Chesapeake CEO Aubrey McClendon

interests and the interests of Chesapeake. They pres- sured the board to end the Founder Well Participa- tion Program, which allowed McClendon to person- ally “purchase a 2.5% stake in each well Chesapeake drills” (Gold, 2012b, B2). This was not a problem when Chesapeake drilled 19 wells during the first year of the program. However, in 2011 it drilled approximately 1,700 wells which meant that McClendon’s cost was $457.2 million. To raise the needed money, “he arranged for extensive personal loans [amounting to more than $1 billion] from an array of companies that did busi- ness with Chesapeake”—thus the possible conflict of interest (Gold, 2012a, p. A2). The board will end the arrangement in 2014.

Stockholders are also concerned about the exor- bitant salary paid to McClendon and other executives as well as the cost of their travel on company air- craft. For example, McClendon’s compensation reached $112.5 million in 2007; his 2011 compensation was worth $17.9 million, even though stock prices had dropped sig- nificantly (Kahn, 2012), plus he earned $108 million profit from his stake in the wells sold by Chesapeake (Gilbert &

As you read this chapter... See if you can (a) identify which type of formal and infor- mal communication predominated at Chesapeake and what changes, if any, could have been made to help the company; (b) explain which orga- nizational model was used at Chesapeake and what role it played in the company’s handling of challenges; and (c) discuss the role the company CEO Aubrey McClendon played in its success and problems. For an update on Chesapeake, go to its website at http://www .chk.com/Pages/default.aspx.

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Chesapeake Energy Corporation

CASE STUDY

In 20 years Chesapeake has gone from a $50,000 startup com- pany to a leading natural gas producer and Fortune 500 compa- ny, with over 12,500 employees. According to Chesapeake, not only do they take pride in “fueling America’s future,” they also take pride in their employees (Work For Us, 2012). For the past 5 consecutive years, Fortune Magazine has listed them in their “100 Best Companies to Work For”—they ranked 18th in January 2012. Employees are encouraged to solve problems in teams and are empowered to make decisions. At their headquarters in Oklahoma City, employees enjoy an on-site health and dental center (also for families); a 72,000-square-foot fitness center with a pool, jogging track, workout equipment, and trainers; four on-site gourmet restaurants; a large sustainable employee garden; and a 63,000-square-foot child care facility (Careers, 2012). They also have an excellent benefits package, with a 401(k) that the company matches up to 15% of an employee’s salary level, and managers who care. For example, the IFO, Cathy Tompkins, often hosts breakfasts for employees.

Not only do employees seem happy, but also their in- novations have contributed to Chesapeake’s success. For ex- ample, innovations on how to drill for gas in shale formations such as the Barnett Shale in Texas or the Marcellus Shale in the northeast include “horizontal drilling” and “hydrau- lic fracturing” (Gilbert & Dezember, 2012). Further innova- tions have cut the amount of water needed and created the Green Frac® Program to identify and remove chemicals and additives involved in hydraulic fracturing from the air (Green Frac, 2012). However, three unlucky problems contributed to Chesapeake’s challenges. One is that energy companies have found so much natural gas that there is now a glut on the market; two is the unusually warm winter in 2011–2012; the third is the unexpected economic downturn in 2008. All three of these situations contributed to the drop in natural gas prices—in April 2012 Chesapeake’s share prices were down 70% from the high early in 2008 (Freeman, 2012).

Low prices aren’t the only problems facing Chesapeake—the investors and shareholders are not pleased with management, especially Aubrey McClendon, cofounder of the company who served as chairman and CEO until May 2012. On May 1, the board removed him as chairman (although he will stay on as CEO for now) because of pressure from shareholders who are concerned about a possible conflict of interest between his personal

Casselman, 2012). Although the board has not announced a cut in McClendon’s pay, they have cut pay for executive directors by 20%, leaving them with an average yearly salary of $350,000 (Denning, 2012). Jet travel is reported to have cost Chesapeake $2.9 million in 2011. Executives are allowed “extensive personal usage,” but McClendon is required to “fly on its aircraft for both personal and business travel for efficiency and security reasons” (Maremont & Gilbert, 2012, p. B7). McClendon reimbursed Chesapeake for personal travel amounting to $375,000 in 2010 and $650,000 in 2011.

Finally, McClendon “apologized to investors . . . for allowing his personal finances to cause what he called distractions” (Gold, 2012b, p. B1). Now the real problem is cash flow, with Chesapeake needing “between $11.5 and 14 billion to retire debt and fund operations”; however, on May 10, 2012, when they announced the possibility of delay- ing the sale of assets to fund operations, Chesapeake “lost more than $1 billion in stock-market value in 46 minutes of trading” (Gilbert & Casselman, 2012, p. B1). Things are defi- nitely tense, and whoever the new chair of the board may be, there is much work ahead.

As the opening case study clearly shows, challenges in an organization not only affect the organization, but also impact the lives of employees and their families, investors and customers, entire communities, and sometimes even the nation. With the rapid changes occurring in the job market because of technology, globalization, outsourcing, financial downturn, and even fraud, most people will go through many changes in their lives and will work for many different companies.

Although it may seem to be nothing more than theory, in actuality this chapter has the potential to personally benefit your happiness and success in the workplace. As you read this chapter, look for the different types of communication, the different methods of coordinating people/groups, and the different models used by organizations today. Why? Because know- ing which organization types you would feel the most comfortable work- ing in will allow you to successfully locate and interview for the jobs and workplace environments that are a match for your personality and work preferences.

COMMUNICATION INSIDE THE WORKPLACE In Chapter 1 we stated that the success of an organization depends on the com- munication skills of all its employees. We begin this chapter by looking inside the workplace at two common but very important types of communication: formal and informal communication.

Formal Communication Formal communication flows along the official paths prescribed by the organi- zation’s chain of command and is shown by its organizational chart (Figure 2.1). Formal messages flow downward, upward, and horizontally.

Downward Communication Formal messages that flow from managers and supervisors down to subordinates are called downward communication. Downward communication definitely affects employee satisfaction. Specifically,

CHAPTER 2 COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE 33

Goldhaber (1993) found the following:

Information about personal job-related matters (e.g., how to do my job, my pay and benefits, etc.) is needed to prevent dissatisfaction, but it will NOT create satisfaction. Information about organization-wide concerns (policies, plans, decision-making, failures, etc.) is needed to create satisfaction. (p. 157)

Although downward communication can lead to information overload, one researcher found that employees with information overload were not necessarily dissatisfied with their jobs. However, all the employees who experienced infor- mation underload were dissatisfied (O’Reilly, 1980).

Another problem with downward communication is that it is often in writ- ten form. Although the redundancy of written English helps readers interpret messages, there are several problems with written messages:

They are usually brief and may omit needed details; supervisors often as- sume that subordinates know more than they really do.

Also, because of the need for brevity, memos and email normally do not include the job rationale.

Frame-of-reference differences between sender and receiver make interpretation of messages difficult; we often wrongly assume that others see things as we do.

If memos and emails are accompanied by face-to-face communica- tion (which is rich in information because all three codes—verbal, vocal, and visual—are operating), message interpretation is greatly improved (Conrad & Poole, 2012; Daft & Marcic, 2013). In addition, employees at all levels often pre- fer oral communication (Turner, 2007) and managers prefer to hear oral com- ments from people they know and like, even if they are less knowledgeable than others they could seek for information (Mackenzie, 2005).

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34 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Why Were Enron Employees Afraid to Question Unethical Practices?

The rise and fall of Enron will be discussed and analyzed for years. Enron began with the merger of two fairly quiet energy companies— Texas’s Houston Natural Gas and Omaha’s InterNorth—and due to numerous unethical practices grew to become a powerful international organization. At one point Enron was the seventh largest corporation in the United States, with stock reaching $90 per share. Yet, in 2001, when the company collapsed, 5,600 people lost their jobs, $2.1 billion was erased from pension plans, and stockholders around the world lost over $60 billion in market value.

Creative Accounting After their collapse, it was discovered that while Enron’s structure and accounting processes gave the illusion of success (Fusaro & Miller, 2002), they were designed to be “so complex they were not likely to be discovered, much less understood or successfully prosecuted against” (Conrad & Poole, 2005, p. 429).

Rank and Yank In addition, their employee reward system created a culture that was “absolutely cutthroat,” where “most employees were afraid to express their opinions or to question unethical and potentially illegal business practices” (Fusaro & Miller, pp. 51–52). Twice a year each employee was rated by peers and managers on sets of criteria. Then executive panels would “debate and rank each employee on a scale of 1 to 5” (McLean & Elkind, 2003, p. 63). Employees referred to this system as “rank and yank.” Although criteria might include team and communication skills, what really counted was how much money each individual made for the company. To keep from being “yanked,” most individuals had to show a “short-term paper profit” (Conrad & Poole, 2012, p. 476). People ranked “1” received huge bonuses, whereas those at the bottom were fired if they failed to improve. For example, in 1999 the top 200 employees (not including the top CEOs) made a total of $402 million, counting stocks, bonuses, and salaries (McLean & Elkind, p. 241).

QUESTIONS What do you think? What has to happen for a workplace culture to make employees afraid to question unethical practices? What role do you think formal and informal communication played in the Enron workplace?

For more details on Enron, read one of the books referenced above or watch the 2005 docu- mentary, Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room, directed by Alex Gibney, or the television movie, CrookedE: The Unshredded Truth about Enron, which aired in January 2003 by CBS.

DILEMMAS IN COMMUNICATION Upward Communication Formal messages that flow upward from sub- ordinates to supervisors and managers are called upward communication. The following types of messages are valu- able when upwardly communicated (Planty & Machaver, 1977, p. 167): re- ports of employee work, achievements and progress; outlines of work problems that need to be solved; suggestions for improvements within the department or company; and how employees think and feel about their jobs, associates, and company. Bill Gates credited an employ- ee’s observation and concerned memo with changing Microsoft’s placement of the Internet from a low priority to a top priority, resulting in the company be- coming a leader in this new technology. The employee had visited Cornell Uni- versity and noticed that the Internet was being used “for far more than just com- puter-science applications” (Krames, 2003, p. 163).

Effective decision making depends on timely, accurate, and sufficient informa- tion traveling upward from subordinates. On the other hand, if all information reached the top, information overload would hamper management decisions. For example, in his book Inside Bureau- cracy, Downs (1967, p. 117; Conrad & Poole, 2012, p. 79) estimates that top decision makers would receive an un- manageable 4,096 messages per day in a seven-level hierarchy, with each supervi- sor having four subordinates and all em- ployees producing one message per day to be sent to the top. Obviously, some mes- sages need to be screened out or short- ened, but in that seven-level hierarchy, if each person screened out only half of the upward-bound messages, 98.4% of the information would never reach the top of the hierarchy! Thus, the problem is how to get the information needed without causing information overload. Email only

CHAPTER 2 COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE 35

makes matters worse because computer information systems do not filter infor- mation (Rice & Gattiker, 2001).

For upward communication to be effective, it must be accurate. Unfortunately, many subordinates tend to conceal or distort upward communication to protect themselves and to make messages more acceptable to superiors. The desire to conceal bad news is referred to by researchers as the “MUM effect” (Lee, 1993). Upward messages are also more likely to be distorted or withheld when subor- dinates don’t trust their superiors (Jablin, 1985) or when subordinates desire upward mobility or recognition (Sashkin & Morris, 1984).

In a high-tech environment, upward feedback must not only be accurate, but it must also be fast. For example, product sales data (received daily from salespeople using handheld computers) allowed Frito-Lay executives to observe a slump in sales in south Texas, to pinpoint a competitor’s white corn tortilla chip as the cause, and, in 4 months, to produce a new white corn Tostitos chip, which rapidly regained the previous market share (Rothfeder et al., 1990).

Horizontal Communication In horizontal communication, messages flow laterally between people of the same rank. Horizontal communication is im- portant for coordinating tasks (with employees or departments), solving prob- lems, sharing information, and resolving conflicts (Goldhaber, 1993, p. 163). Horizontal communication is especially valuable for unusually difficult or com- plex problems (Wilson, 1992). Empowered teams—teams with the power to make decisions—are especially adept in this situation and are the mainstays of the newest organization models: the multiunit and virtual organizations (see pages 58–59).

Organizations are paying much more attention to horizontal communica- tion than they did in the past. According to Rice and Gattiker (2001), email is one type of electronic media that is especially good for increasing hori- zontal communication. The Internet and company intranets have made it cheaper and easier for employees to communicate horizontally. Some compa- nies are implementing social-networking applications to improve employee communication—especially horizontal communication. For example, 7-Eleven has around 2,000 employees using Yammer, which it implemented in May 2011 for employees to “share their knowledge and learn best practices from one an- other” (Raice, 2012b, p. R6). The cost to send an average business letter in 1995 was $16.45 (Dartnell Corporation, 1995). Memos and email obviously cost a lot less. However, information overload is still a real possibility with so many ways to monitor information—email, text message, Facebook, Twitter, smart- phone, landline, and Yammer, to name a few—and everyone wanting an instant response (Turkle, 2011).

Informal Communication Not all messages flow along the official paths prescribed by the organization’s chain of command. Many messages flow along an informal network commonly called informal communication, or the grapevine (see Figure 2.1, page 33). Informal communication exists because of limitations of formal networks.

36 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Conrad and Poole (2012) state the following:

Formal communication networks allow people to handle predictable, rou- tine situations, but they are inefficient means of meeting unanticipated communication needs, for managing crises, for dealing with complex or de- tailed problems, sharing personal information, or exchanging information rapidly. (p. 125)

Although many people view the grapevine as unimportant, research indicates the opposite.

Consider the following:

The type of information the grapevine carries indicates the health of the orga- nization. If an organization’s managers are fairly open with the employees and send all necessary information through formal channels, the grapevine usually carries only personal interest items, or gossip. Gossip is necessary to the maintenance of the grapevine. Without it the network would dry up (March & Sevon, 1982). However, when the formal communication channels fail to do the job, the grapevine begins to carry information about the orga- nization, such as policy changes, impending layoffs, or workload revisions (Deetz, 1995). Daft (2008) reports that 55% of 22,000 shift workers across a wide variety of companies “said they get most of their information via the grapevine” (p. 576).

Information carried by the grapevine is 75 to 95% accurate (Caudron, 1998; Walton, 1961, pp. 45–49). Of course, some entirely false rumors are also spread through the grapevine, especially the electronic grapevine (Pitts, 1999). However, grapevine information can be confirmed, whereas rumors cannot. Grapevine messages are often more accurate than formal ones because status, power, and rank differences seem less important. In one study, middle man- agers reported that they often found informal communication to be a better source of organizational information than formal communication (Harcourt et al., 1991).

Information carried by the grapevine travels fast. It is not uncommon for top management, who reached an important decision late at night, to arrive at work early the next morning to find that the decision is common knowledge (Hymowitz, 1988; Simmons, 1985). According to Inc. magazine (“Reign- ing in Office Rumors,” 2004), “Good news travels fast, bad news travels faster, and embarrassing news travels at warp speed” (p. 60). Use of email, blogs, and social media have caused grapevine news to travel even faster, yet without the nonverbal and paralanguage codes, they are even more difficult to interpret correctly (Burke & Wise, 2003).

People who regularly use the grapevine are more satisfied with their jobs and more committed to the organization (Caldwell & O’Reilly, 1982; Conrad & Poole, 2012, p. 125; Eisenberg et al., 1983).

Effective managers use the grapevine. Managers who listen carefully to the in- formal communication network find it a useful source of information about

CHAPTER 2 COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE 37

employee concerns and problems. Some managers actually leak new ideas or proposals to the grapevine to test worker response. If an idea is greeted with hostility, they drop it or revise it. If the idea is received positively, they introduce it through official channels.

In his study of bureaucratic organizations, Peter Blau (1974) found two main advantages to using informal communication networks: (a) We can get advice and information without formally having to admit we need it; and (b) we can “think out loud” about problems, thus increasing our self-confidence and problem-solving ability (p. 7). This “off-the-record” thinking stimulates innova- tive thinking as well (Albrecht & Hall, 1991).

As with horizontal communication, the Internet and company intranets have made the grapevine easier for employees to use, as well. Whereas the grapevine used to flourish around the water cooler or department coffeepot, now electronic forums and electronic bulle- tin boards and social network applications allow employees to transfer information and in- spire creative ideas (Raice, 2012; Sproull & Kiesler, 1992).

Although effective commu- nication is imp ortant, organiza- tions need more than commu- nication if they are to achieve results.

Gossip is necessary to the maintenance of the organization’s grapevine. Without it the network would dry up.

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38 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

COORDINATION OF PEOPLE AND GROUPS1 Organizations must successfully coordinate people and groups to achieve maxi- mum productivity. Knowing these coordination methods will help you better understand and appreciate the different organization models discussed in the next section. According to Wagner and Hollenbeck (2010), organizations use three basic types of coordination: mutual adjustment, direct supervision, and standardization.

Mutual adjustment involves horizontal communication between peers who meet face to face (or by Internet) to make work-related decisions. They decide what job needs to be done, who will do it, and how it should be done. Because they can meet whenever they need to, this method is flexible and is implemented only when needed. Small mom-and-pop organizations may never need any other type of coordination. When an organization exceeds around 12 members, how- ever, “process loss” occurs, which means that members “spend so much time communicating with one another that very little time is left for task completion” (p. 241). In these larger organizations, the next coordination method—direct supervision—is needed.

Under direct supervision, members do not make all their own decisions; in- stead, a supervisor has the authority to organize and direct their work. However, mutual adjustment is still used as a secondary means of coordination. Direct supervision is a more effective way to funnel information and coordinate the activities of midsize organizations—usually between 12 and 50 employees. Su- pervisors with more than 50 subordinates are likely to experience information overload trying to keep up with employee needs.

For organizations with over 50 employees, standardization—specific, writ- ten standards for tasks, output levels, skills, and workplace norms—is a more ef- fective means of coordination. Global organizations may use videoconferencing (discussed in Chapter 6) to inform employees about standards and to train them as well. Standardization procedures are initially costly to set up, but once they are running, the need for coordination and communication is reduced, and the sys- tem basically runs itself. According to Wagner and Hollenbeck (2010), standard- ization of norms, behaviors, and tasks increases “the likelihood that people will behave appropriately and consistently over time” (p. 240). Direct supervision and mutual adjustment are used as secondary coordination methods when necessary.

Organizations that emphasize standardization are more bureaucratic in nature. One weakness of standardization is that it works only as long as condi- tions remain stable. In rapidly changing industries where procedures and stan- dards quickly become obsolete—like the computer industry—standardization fails to work effectively and is usually replaced with the more expensive mutual adjustment method. Many large organizations that have traditionally relied on standardization for their coordination are finding that the flexibility offered by mutual adjustment teams is more effective in today’s constantly changing mar- ket; the extra cost is considered necessary for survival. According to Wagner & Hollenbeck (p. 243), the three coordination methods can be viewed as a

1 Much of the material in this section is based on Chapter 11, “Structuring the Organization,” in John A. Wagner III and John R. Hollenbeck, Organizational Behavior: Securing Competitive Advantage. New York: Routledge, 2010.

CHAPTER 2 COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE 39

continuum as illustrated in Figure 2.2. Although organizations may use more than one method, a single coordination method is primary.

ORGANIZATION MODELS Not until the beginning of the 20th century did anyone pay much attention to the internal workings of organizations. Since that time, theorists have searched for a “best way” for organizations in the workplace to function. These theories ranged from decision trees and brainstorming in the 1960s; theory X/theory Y and management by objectives (MBO) in the 1970s; zero- based budgeting and quality circles in the 1980s; one-minute managing, total quality management (TQM), and six sigma in the 1990s; to current theories such as open book management, outsourcing, and 360-degree management. Some of these theories were passing fads; some are still to be proven; and others have had lasting effects on organizational structures and management. We can get a good feel for communication problems unique to organizations by looking at five main organization models in use today: the traditional model (including the scientific and bureaucratic organizations), the human relations model, the human resources model, the systems/contingency model, and the transformational model (including the multiunit and virtual organizations). In Table 2.1 five managers discuss their model’s basic man- agement techniques and assumptions. As you read, identify which of these managers seems to be describing an organization with which you are familiar or in which you are especially interested.

It’s interesting that each manager approaches problems and relates to em- ployees quite differently. We also can see that different kinds of communica- tion are encouraged in the five organization models. Each model has its best way to do things, and each one has its strengths and weaknesses. Although each model is currently in use, not all of them fare equally well in today’s di- verse global market. The influx of women and minorities into the workplace, the global competition for customers, the rapid growth of the Internet, and the instability of the economy have made constant change the norm. Even as far back as 1993, Hammer and Champy noted in their book Reengineering the Corporation that “In today’s environment, nothing is constant or predict- able—not market growth, customer demand, product life cycles, the rate of technological change, or the nature of competition” (p. 17). Change has not slowed down. In fact, in The World Is Flat (2005), Thomas Friedman notes that changes in technology, lower hardware costs, and the explosion of software have flattened the international playing field so that “we are now connecting all the knowledge centers on the planet together into a single global network”

Mutual Adjustment

2–11 employees

Direct Supervision

12–50 employees

Mutual Adjustment Small groups

Standardization Over 50 employees

FIGURE 2.2 Three methods of coordination

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40 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Traditional Manager—“Always remember to let employees know who is boss. If you are too friendly and get involved with their personal problems, they will take advantage of you and respect you less. Employees are basically lazy, and they will goof off if you let them. To keep employee respect, you must take control. For example, tar- diness should never be tolerated. In addition, for employees to feel secure, they need and want structure and control. Don’t waste time asking for opinions. Let them know where they fit in the company’s organizational chart and clarify the expected chain of command. Tell them exactly how you want things done. If structure and control are not enough, money is a certain motivator. For a bonus, employees will do almost anything.”

Human Relations Manager—“I totally disagree with the traditional manager! Employees are more productive if they feel appreciated and content. You can’t treat people like machines—their social and psychological needs are important. Since employees need and want tender loving care (TLC), we view our organization as “one happy family.” Managers should call their employees by first names, be friendly, joke and laugh with them, and express sympathy with their personal problems. We show that we really care by celebrating birthdays and sponsoring company picnics and athletic events. Managers can gauge the happiness of employees by listening carefully to the grapevine. When conflicts do occur, we smooth over them, or even ignore them if possible, because conflict can damage our friendly atmosphere and hamper employee productivity.”

Human Resources Manager—“Both the previous managers have an inaccurate view of employees and of the employee–management relationship. First of all, employees aren’t lazy, and they don’t have to be bribed or manipulated with bonuses or with TLC. In fact, employees want to work and will motivate themselves if they are allowed to participate in decision making. Second, successful organizations use a team-oriented approach where teams make major decisions that affect the company and productivity. The organization’s climate is supportive, flexible, and trusting. Therefore, the role of the manager is that of facilitator, allowing employees to take an active role in problem solving and in developing their potential. Don’t forget that employees must be allowed to make mistakes if you want them to be creative.”

Systems/Contingency Manager—“Regardless of what other managers may say, there is no single best way to manage—any model could be successful. For example, in deciding which management style would be the most effective in a particular situation, a manager should consider such internal factors as employee needs, expectations, and abilities; the complexity of employee jobs; and the manager’s own comfort with various models. Such external factors as customer expectations, local and national economy, and competition from other organiza- tions should also be considered. In addition, managers and employees must be aware that every part of the organiza- tion is interdependent on every other part and that the actions of any one department or even one person can affect the entire organization—thus showing the critical role of communication and feedback.”

Transformational Manager—“Actually, none of the previous management styles works in today’s global market dominated by information technology. Constant change requires an absolute flexibility that’s missing in the other styles. We’re experimenting with new, decentralized structures, including multiunit and virtual structures. In a multiunit structure, each division is really an autonomous business under the same holding company. In a virtual structure (a temporary alliance among several companies with different areas of expertise), employees communicate through the Internet and videoconferences and may never meet face to face. Our employees have maximum personal autonomy and self-motivation. Most communication occurs via computer-connected teams that supervise themselves. Downsizing, like change, is a normal and positive part of organizational life. Employees expect to change jobs fairly often.”

Questions: Individually or in small groups, answer the following questions:

Which of these managers have you worked for and what are the advantages and disadvantages of working for them?

Based on your personal experience, what other characteristics would you add?

Summarize what you see as the key differences between the managers and the models they represent.

TABLE 2.1 MANAGERS TALK

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(p. 8). Although they were only dreamed about a few years ago, here are a few things that are considered normal today:

hospitals sending computed tomography (CT) scans at night to be read by doc- tors in India and Australia and receiving them ready for use the next morning;

major newspapers sending news stories to Bangalore, India, to be typed into the proper electronic version ready for print or distribution online faster and cheaper than it could be done in the United States;

customers calling the help desk about their new computers and finding that the knowledgeable person on the other line lives overseas.

Organizations that succeed in today’s changing marketplace may well be those that can attract skilled employees, understand and use globalism, capital- ize on diversity, make rapid changes, understand employee needs, and make use of new technology. Using these key forces leads to “profits, productivity, innova- tion, and real organizational learning,” while ignoring them may result in “job dissatisfaction, poor morale, reduced commitment, lower work quality, burnout, poor judgment, and a host of unhealthy consequences” (Ivancevich et al., 2011, pp. 4–7).

Complete the following Awareness Check to determine your general under- standing of the five organization models:

Organization Models To check your knowledge of the five organization models in today’s workplace, take the following quiz. Compare your answers to those at the back of this book. You can also take this quiz online. Go to cengagebrain.com to access your Speech Communi- cation CourseMate for Communicating for Results.

DIRECTIONS: Assume that each manager from Table 2.1 is planning to build two new company plants—one in upstate New York and one in Texas. Identify each comment below as coming from a manager using one of these models: (a) traditional manager, (b) human rela- tions manager, (c) human resources manager, (d) systems/contingency manager, (e) transformational manager, or (f) none of these.

1. The only organization model that works in today’s global market requires a flexible, decentralized structure allowing em- ployees to use computer and Internet-connected teams that supervise themselves through mutual adjustment. Therefore, I would implement a form of this same structure in both locations.

2. No matter where they are located, employees need control and structure, so I would implement the same model and system of control in both locations.

3. Texas and New York may well respond to different organization models. However, the only way to be sure which models would work best is to send a research team to both locations to discover: (1) the values, expectations, and skills of the potential managers and employees; and (2) external factors such as the economy of the area and potential customer needs and wants. Once discovered, I would use this information to implement the best organization model for each loca- tion whether it was traditional, human relations, human resources, or even transformational.

4. I would establish a formalized structure of control in upstate New York, and a friendly, casual model in Texas to match the people found in the two locations.

5. People want to be respected and liked no matter where they are located. To improve productivity, I would create a friendly and relaxed atmosphere in both locations—everyone loves the feeling of belonging.

6. All employees experience more personal satisfaction when they are involved in decision making. I would establish teams of employees at both locations and allow them to help make important organization and product decisions.

AWARENESS CHECK

42 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

To summarize the Awareness Check answers (available at the end of the text), most managers tend to think that their preferred model works best for all people in all locations. The traditional manager feels that structure and con- trol are essential in all situations; the human relations manager feels sure that tender loving care makes employees more satisfied and productive; the human resources manager is certain that employees need and want to make decisions in teams; and the transformational manager is convinced that technology is the key to flexible, productive employees. It is generally the systems/contingency manager who is the most flexible in selecting an organization model. They know that a model of organization that works well in one location may not work at all in a different location with different employees, managers, and cultural and environmental factors. On the other hand, as good as flexibility sounds, even the systems/contingency manager will admit that flexibility is difficult to achieve and maintain.

Now that you have a general idea about each organization model, let’s take a more detailed look at each so that you can be sure which one(s) fit you the best. All these models are in use in the United States today. Once you know which model fits your personality and expectations the best, you are more likely to find the “ideal” job and succeed at it.

The Traditional (or Classical) Model Early in the 20th century, large organizations were a new phenomenon with no role models except the military. A manager could not go to a bookstore and find self-help books on management. Concepts like the one-minute manager, 360-degree feedback, and open-book management were unknown. Therefore, companies were managed by hunch or intuition, and employers’ attempts to mo- tivate and control employees were inefficient and often inhumane. When man-

agers’ decisions (made with little planning and inadequate information) reaped less than desirable results, the managers blamed employees.

Two types of organiza- tion theorists (who we now call “traditionalists”) emerged: the scientific managers, who wanted to improve organiza- tions by working first with employee problems, and the bureaucratic managers, who felt that improvements would occur more quickly by dealing first with management prob- lems. Both types of theorists were interested in changing inefficient organizations into The Traditional Model encourages productivity through structure and control.

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“systematically designed, objective, and fair systems of man- agement and supervision” (Conrad & Poole, 2012, p. 75).

Traditional Model and Scientific Managers Frederick Taylor (1911), a U.S. theorist, was responsible for the popu- larity of the scientific management approach. Taylor observed firsthand many of the organizational problems of the day. For example, workers’ and managers’ roles were not clearly defined; hostilities existed between them; decision making was based on too little information; and production was inefficient because of poorly motivated workers, poorly designed job procedures, minimal work standards, and inept employee placement (em- ployees were often overqualified or underqualified).

Taylor’s best way was to apply four scientific principles to the problems of production and management:

1. Scientific design of each task. With the help of subordi- nates, managers were to find the shortest and easiest way to perform tasks and then standardize them. For example, in the 1890s, Taylor conducted time-motion studies on coal shoveling at Bethlehem Steel Company (Rogers & Agarwala-Rogers, 1976). He found that maximum shoveling efficiency was obtained with a shovel load of 21 pounds. When workers were issued shovels with a 21-pound capacity, given instructions on the most productive and least fatiguing way to shovel, and offered a pay incentive for superior performance, the results were amazing:

The average volume of material moved per day soared from 16 to 59 tons. Handling costs plummeted from 7.3 cents to 3.2 cents per ton (even after deducting the total cost of the experiment and incentive pay that boosted the average shovel pay from $1.15 to $1.88 per day). Bethlehem was able to reduce its yard crew from more than 400 to 140 employees. (Koehler et al., 1976, p. 12)

2. Scientific selection of workers. For each task, managers were to determine the necessary characteristics for an individual to perform that task success- fully and then hire only workers with those characteristics (i.e., standardized hiring).

3. Adequate training and rewards for productivity. Once the managers had de- termined the most productive method to complete a task and had hired the appropriate workers, employees were trained to use this method and were carefully timed to see how much they could produce without exerting them- selves. This level became a production standard on which employee pay was based, with a bonus given to workers who produced above the standard rate. Problems resulted when too many workers earned a bonus, so management raised the minimum needed to receive a bonus. Viewing this as punish- ment, workers began to produce no more than the minimum acceptable level, pressuring all workers to fall into line.

The Traditional Model in Brief

Landmark Books:

Taylor, Scientific Management (1911)

Fayol, General and Industrial Management (1949)

Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization (1947)

Focus of Theory:

Scientific: Reducing production costs.

Bureaucratic: Administrative efficiency.

View of Communication:

Restricted to downward use by managers.

44 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

4. Division of both labor and responsibilities. Problems and errors were no lon- ger to be blamed on employees. Management and labor were to be team members and share the responsibility and the monetary rewards for in- creased efficiency.

Traditional Model and Bureaucratic Theorists Henri Fayol, a French mining engineer, and Max Weber, a German sociologist, were Taylor’s contem- poraries. Whereas Taylor sought to improve organizational efficiency by stan- dardizing employee tasks, these two bureaucratic theorists were interested in improving direct supervision through structure and control. The foundation of bureaucratic theory was organizational structure, the formal patterns of rela- tionships and roles needed to get tasks accomplished (who works with whom and who reports to whom). Fayol and Weber believed that organizations must have a clear division of labor. The division of labor is the way an organiza- tion parcels out the work to be done (who does what). Division of labor works best when the organization has a clear chain of command—the communication structure of an organization, shown by the pyramidal organization chart intro- duced by the bureaucratic theorists.

Although the bureaucratic theorists favored formal, downward communica- tion, they were aware of the limitations of a pyramidal structure. Fayol’s best way was the innovative suggestion that direct, horizontal communication between people in different departments be allowed, but only in legitimate crises. If per- son E needed information from person F before it could make its way through the formal chain of command, then person E could contact person F directly (Fayol, 1949). This method of bypassing the chain of command became known as Fayol’s bridge (Figure 2.3).

The bureaucratic theorists also believed in a small span of control, referring to the number of employees that a manager can effectively supervise. They said

B C

ED GFFayol's bridge: bypasses chain of command

Normal line of communication

FIGURE 2.3 Fayol’s bridge

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that each employee should have only one manager, and each manager should oversee no more than five or six people. Span of control determines the shape of an organization. “If most managers throughout the organization have a small span, the overall shape of the organization will be tall. If the typical span is great, then the overall shape of the organization will be flat” (Goldhaber, 1993, p. 146). Figure 2.4 illustrates tall and flat organization structures.

Despite the recommendation of bureaucratic theorists, the flat organiza- tion (with decentralized decision making and fewer levels of hierarchy) has sev- eral advantages over the tall organization:

Complex problems are handled more efficiently; Problems are handled faster; Communication is less distorted because messages pass through fewer

people; and Employee morale and satisfaction are fairly high because employees make

more of their own decisions.

In contrast, the tall organization (with multiple levels and centralized deci- sion making) is often used by large companies and has the following advantage and disadvantages:

Uncomplicated tasks are handled with more efficiency; Communication is less efficient and problems generally take longer to

handle; Employee morale and satisfaction are fairly low (Conrad & Poole, 2005, p. 75).

Max Weber’s (1947) best way was to formalize the bureaucracy, put every- thing in writing, and keep communication impersonal. Specifically, some of his most enduring ideas which typify the thinking of the bureaucratic theorists are summarized here:

The policies and rules of an organization should be specified in writing— high standardization.

Tall organization

Flat organization

FIGURE 2.4 Tall and flat organizations

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46 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

All decisions and actions should be put in writing, even those determined in oral conversations.

Managers should keep all relationships with employees detached and imper- sonal so that no emotions will influence their decisions.

Because authority in a bureaucratic organization is limited, the formal writ- ten rules should be the legal basis of authority and control over employees.

The Traditional Model in Today’s World Scientific and bureaucratic theo- rists have certainly left their mark on modern organizations. For example, automa- tion, merit pay, time-motion studies, and reward systems introduced by Taylor are used to enhance productivity in many organizations today. Furthermore, practically every organization uses “some degree of bureaucratic control” (Daft, 2013, p. 371). For example, Weber’s organization charts, division of labor, chain of command, and span of control are all now in common use. The traditional bureaucratic model “is still the dominant strategy used in the United States for governmental agencies, educational institutions, and many private firms” (Conrad & Poole, 2012, p. 107).

The United Parcel Service (UPS) is an example of a large, successful bureau- cracy. UPS employs over 398,000 people worldwide, delivers 15.8 million pack- ages per day, and maintains an aircraft fleet of 223 planes and charters over 300 additional planes (Worldwide Facts, 2012). In addition:

UPS operates according to strict rules and regulations. It teaches drivers an astounding 340 steps for how to correctly deliver a package—such as how to load the truck, how to fasten their seat belts, how to walk, and how to carry their keys. Specific safety rules apply to drivers, loaders, clerks, and managers. Strict dress codes are enforced—clean uniforms (called browns)—every day, black or brown polished shoes with nonslip soles, no beards, no hair below the collar, no tattoos visible during deliveries and so on. Before each shift, drivers conduct a “Z-scan,” a z-shaped inspection of the sides and front of their vehicles. Employees are asked to clean off their desks at the end of each day so they can start fresh the next morning. Managers are given copies of policy books with the expectations that they will use them regularly, and memos on various policies and rules circulate by the hundreds every day. (Daft & Marcic, 2013, p. 22)

It should be noted that much of the success of UPS and other traditional organi- zations comes from their use of information and communication technologies (ICTs). According to Conrad & Poole (2012), “The development of ICTs prom- ises to enhance the effectiveness of the traditional strategy and has in a real sense revitalized it” (p. 107).

The Human Relations Model In addition to worker and labor union rejection of the traditional organization, by the time of the Great Depression many organizations had their own reasons to welcome the human relations movement. Engineering and business schools were turning out large numbers of educated, white-collar workers—workers so valuable that companies suddenly became concerned with the employee. At about the same time, one of the key ideas of scientific management—that em- ployee productivity could be improved solely by economic motivation—was

CHAPTER 2 COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE 47

apparently disproved by a group of research studies conducted at Western Electric’s Hawthorne plant in Cicero, Illinois.

One of these studies was designed to determine at what level of illumination the workers would be the most productive (Roethlisberger & Dickson, 1939). Surprisingly, productivity in- creased no matter what the researchers did. When light- ing was increased from 24 to 46 foot-candles, then to 70, productivity increased both times; when lighting was decreased to 10, then to 3 foot- candles, productivity still in- creased. Productivity dropped only when the room became so dark that the workers could not see. Moreover, productiv- ity even increased in the con- trol group for whom the light level remained constant! These results were so unexpected that the Hawthorne executives contacted Harvard University.

Human Relations and Elton Mayo The Hawthorne studies, conducted by Elton Mayo and his Harvard University colleagues between 1927 and 1932, substantiated the previous findings at the Hawthorne plant that changes in task conditions were not responsible for the increase in productivity. Although the original study varied the level of light, the studies by Mayo (1933) varied such conditions as number of rest periods, time of lunch break, and the length of the work day. The Hawthorne studies reached two radical conclusions (Conrad, 1990, p. 202):

Worker attitude affects productivity more than working conditions: In other words, workers in relaxed and congenial work groups with supervisors who listen to them, are concerned about their needs, and are supportive are more productive than other workers, even when other working conditions are not favorable.

Personal relationships also affect productivity: Workers’ satisfaction with the social and interpersonal relationships they have with their peers signifi- cantly influences their productivity, and workers feel substantial pressure from their peers to conform to the norms of their work group.

These conclusions served as the foundation of the human relations move- ment. In short, Mayo’s best way was the concept that individual-centered tender loving care by supervisors and upper management would lead to greater work productivity.

The Human Relations Model encourages productivity through employee happiness.

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48 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Human Relations and Chester Barnard Chester Barnard, a contemporary of Mayo’s and former president of the New Jersey Bell Telephone Company, was another important figure in the human relations school. Barnard’s best way emphasized the importance of communication to organizational success. “The first executive function,” he wrote, “is to develop and maintain a system of communication” (Barnard, 1938, p. 226). He also acknowledged the importance of informal communica- tion, pointing out that informal groups within an organization establish norms and codes of conduct and provide cohesion, communication, and satisfaction to workers. Like Mayo, Barnard recognized that economic motives were not the only employee motivators.

Despite Barnard’s opinion of the importance of commu- nication, he still viewed it much as the scientific managers did—as a one-way tool to be used by managers for command functions. Indeed, he urged clearly established, formal commu- nication channels and recommended that bypassing them not be allowed (Barnard, 1938, pp. 175–181).

The Human Relations Model in Today’s World An open, trusting climate—which is so necessary in the human relations organization—may be easier to implement in small, family-run organizations, although a good exam- ple of the human relations model is provided by Southwest Airlines. According to Gary Kelly, CEO of Southwest Airlines, “Our People are our single greatest strength and our most enduring longterm competitive advantage” (southwest .com/about, 2012).

Ideas, products, and procedures are relatively easy to come by; happy, productive employees are not. According to the founder and chairman emeri- tus of the board Herb Kelleher, “Our esprit de corps is the core of our success. That’s most difficult for a competitor to imitate” (Krames, 2003, pp. 179–180). To maintain a fun-loving atmosphere, Southwest hires “attitudes,” not just people, and uses a targeted selection interview method to evaluate candidates on seven traits: “cheerfulness, optimism, decision-making ability, team spirit, communication, self-confidence, and self-starter skills” (p. 180). Southwest’s fun-loving approach is represented by their blog called Nuts about South- west (blogsouthwest.com). This blog, as well as social media like Twitter are monitored by Southwest and helped them respond to the viral storm of blogs and Tweets received when film director Kevin Smith was removed from a flight for being overweight (Brandel, 2010, p. 15) More on this incident in Chapter 6, p. 174.

In 2008, Southwest Airlines was chosen as the “Friendliest Airline” by Time. com, and in 2012, Fortune magazine selected Southwest as one of the 10 most admired companies in the world (World’s Most Admired Companies, 2012). Some of the unexpected but “fun” things customers have experienced with Southwest include a gate agent singing “Happy Birthday” over the public address system; flight attendants singing safety regulations to the tune of the William

The Human Relations Model in Brief

Landmark Books:

Mayo, The Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization (1933) and The Social Prob- lems of an Industrial Civilization (1945)

Barnard, The Functions of the Executive (1938)

Focus of Theory:

Social and psychological needs of employees.

View of Communication:

Downward supportive communication important; informal communication acknowledged.

CHAPTER 2 COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE 49

Tell Overture (the Lone Ranger theme song); impromptu pho- tos taken of passengers (copies sent by mail); boarding gates, as well as ramp agents decorated for Halloween; pilots pitching in to help at the boarding gate and ticket agents loading luggage; and CEO Kelly shaking hands with passengers as they board (“Halloween,” 2009; Gittell, 2003; Krames, 2003; O’Brian, 1992; Williams, 2007). If a problem does occur, Southwest em- ployees are empowered to solve it in the way they think best (Freiberg & Freiberg, 1996) and fits their mission statement: The mission of Southwest Airlines is dedication to the highest quality of Customer Service delivered with a sense of warmth, friendliness, individual pride, and Company Spirit (Customer Service Commitment, 2009). Not only does this keep happy customers, but it makes for confident, satisfied employees.

In addition to the fun-loving, family atmosphere, South- west’s human relations approach includes personal concern for its employees. Kelleher explains, “You have to recognize that people are still the most important. How you treat them deter- mines how they treat people on the outside” (Lancaster, 1999). This personal treatment includes a strong dedication to job se- curity. Even during the weeks following 9/11, Southwest con- tinued its no-layoff policy—although they were reportedly los- ing “millions of dollars per day” (Trottman, 2001). The reason for this action was given by the director of Southwest’s Office of Financial Analysis, who said, “It’s part of our culture. We’ve always said we’ll do whatever we can to take care of our people. So that’s what we’ve tried to do” (Gittell, 2003, p. 242). As a result, employees are dedicated, devoted, and loyal to Southwest, although some labor problems do surface occasionally.

Southwest was one of the few airlines that continued to make an impressive profit after 9/11. In 2003, even though they ranked fourth in size among U.S. airlines, their profits were “greater than the combined revenues of the largest three airlines” (Cravens & Piercy, 2003, p. 3). Although “Southwest still enjoys some of the lowest costs, the best balance sheet, and the highest profit margins in the industry,” they experienced a significant drop in earnings in 2006—possibly due to fuel costs and carry-on restrictions (Palmeri, 2006).

The Human Resources Model The human resources model grew out of the criticisms and problems of the human relations school, and by the late 1960s it had become a model in its own right. There is no clear-cut line between the human relations and hu- man resources models—only a gradual shift. Douglas McGregor (1960) and Rensis Likert (1961, 1967) started the transition by comparing traditional management with the human relations model and combining the best of both. Advocates of the human resources model liked it because it focused on both increased employee satisfaction and improved organizational deci- sion making. At the same time, the human resources model emphasized both

Chief Executive Officer of Southwest Airlines, Gary Kelly, entertaining employees while wear- ing his bathrobe at a “put it to bed” ceremony for Southwest’s last 737-200 aircraft. This is something you would not expect to see in a more traditional organization.

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50 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

relational communication (i.e., open, supportive, friendly) and command communication.

Raymond Miles (1965) may have been the first to use the term human re- sources. In an article titled “Keeping Informed—Human Relations or Human Resources?” he compared the two models. Table 2.2 lists some of the basic differ- ences. As the table indicates, the human resources model takes a more positive view of employee potential. Managers are encouraged to trust their employ- ees and permit them to participate in important decisions and in their own development.

Let’s take a look at one of the better-known human resource theorists and his best ways.

Which Organization Model Does W. L. Gore & Associates Use? The late Bill Gore was the founder of W. L. Gore & Associ- ates, a private company that makes over 1,000 innova- tive products. Three of them include: Gore-Tex fabric, which is used by soldiers, astronauts, and clothing designers because it has a transparent plastic coating that makes it windproof and waterproof but also breath- able (Gore-Tex® Fabrics, 2012); Medical products “such as heart patches and synthetic blood vessels [which] have been implanted in more than 7.5 million patients (Deutschman, 2004b, p. 54); and Elixir [acoustic] guitar strings, which last three to five times longer than normal strings” (p. 55).

Gore’s innovative leadership style was based on an epiphany he had one day that real communication hap- pens in a carpool because there is no chain of command; he also observed that people in a crisis solve problems faster and more creatively when they throw out the rules. Because he didn’t want to wait for a crisis, Gore “created a place with hardly any hierarchy and few ranks and titles. He insisted on direct, one-on-one communication; anyone in the company could speak to anyone else” (Deutschman, p. 55). Gore put salespeople, research and develop- ment, and production workers all in the same location so they could work readily together as needed for various projects. Although new employees in his corporation have a “sponsor” and are told to spend at least 10% of their time working on innovative ideas, they usually have a hard time grasping that there really isn’t a boss to keep

track of what they do. All employees are called associ- ates, and all employees are free to be leaders. If they have an idea, passion for the idea, and the ability to sell their idea to others, that is all that is needed for leader- ship. According to the current CEO, Terri Kelly, “We resist narrowly-defined titles, bureaucracy and formal chains of command. Instead, our culture is built on teamwork and direct communication, creating an environment ideal for creative collaboration”(Gore.com, 2012).

Gore’s leadership innovation didn’t stop there. He helped ensure successful collaboration and innovation by organizing his employees into buildings that housed no more than 150 people (Deutschman, p. 55). In the Tipping Point, Gladwell (2002) calls this “the Rule of 150”: Groups made up of smaller teams work well together as long as the number of group members remains below 150. As Gore discovered, however, “things get clumsy” with larger groups (p. 184). This principle is illustrated by the corpora- tion’s expansion policy: When an associate was asked how management knew it was time to build a new plant, the reply was simple: “When people start parking on the grass” (p. 185).

WHAT DO YOU THINK? Which organization model best describes Gore’s

method? What are some advantages and some disadvantages of

this method? Why do you think organizations that include more than

150 people have problems communicating?

IT REALLY WORKS

CHAPTER 2 COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE 51

Human Resources and McGregor’s Theory Y McGregor was critical of businesses following the traditional model. He felt that the traditional model significantly decreased employee performance. According to McGregor, when managers believe in the tradi- tional model (which McGregor called Theory X), the following communication behaviors occur (Goldhaber, 1993, p. 78):

Most messages flow downward from managers to subordi- nates. Information is often in- adequate for employee needs.

Upward communication is extremely limited (thus, the informal grapevine is very im- portant to employees).

Subordinates fear and distrust management.

Although McGregor was criti- cal of the traditional model of management, he wasn’t completely satisfied with the human relations model either because he felt it did not do enough to encourage employee potential. Therefore, he developed a se- ries of assumptions, which he called Theory Y. He felt they would produce the

The Human Resources Model encourages productivity through employee participa- tion in teamwork and problem solving.

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TABLE 2.2 COMPARISON OF HUMAN RELATIONS AND HUMAN RESOURCES MODELS

HUMAN RELATIONS HUMAN RESOURCES

People wish to be liked and respected. Most people desire a sense of accomplishment.

If their needs are met, employees will produce for the organization.

Most employees have untapped resources and are capable of more than most jobs allow.

Managers should convince workers that they are valuable team members.

Managers should tap and guide each employee’s hidden talents and creativity to harmonize with organizational goals.

Managers should allow employee participation in routine decision making.

Managers should allow (and encourage) employee participation in routine and impor- tant decision-making situations.

Sharing information with employees will in- crease their satisfaction, which will improve morale and reduce resistance to authority, thus improving productivity.

Employee satisfaction is a by-product of improved performance.

Source: Adapted from Raymond Miles (1965) “Keeping Informed—Human Relations or Human Resources?” Harvard Business Review, 43(4), pp. 148–163.

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52 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

best managers and inspire employee trust and openness. The following com- munication behaviors are common when managers adopt Theory Y (or human resources) beliefs (Goldhaber, 1993, p. 79):

Messages travel up, down, and across the organization. Decision making is spread throughout the organization. Even important

decisions involve input from employees at all levels. Because feedback is encouraged in an upward direction—and management

listens—no supplemental upward system is required. Frequent, honest interaction with employees takes place in an atmosphere of

confidence and trust. The flow of messages downward is usually sufficient to satisfy the needs of

employees. Decision making is based on messages from all levels of the organization,

and thus the accuracy and quality of the decisions are improved.

McGregor based his theories on Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (dis- cussed in Chapter 14). Theory X deals only with the physiological and safety needs of the hierarchy; Theory Y covers all five levels of needs (i.e., physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization). See Table 2.3 for a comparison of McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y.

TABLE 2.3 BELIEFS OF THEORY X AND THEORY Y MANAGERS

THEORY X (TRADITIONAL) THEORY Y (HUMAN RESOURCES)

1 The average person has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if possible.

1 The use of physical and mental energy in work is as natural as play or rest.

2 Most people will not strive to achieve organizational objectives unless they are coerced, controlled, directed, and threat- ened with punishment.

2 External control and threats are not the only ways to motivate workers to meet organiza- tional objectives. A person who is committed to the objectives will exercise self-direction and self-control.

3 The average person prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition, and wants security above all else.

3 Commitment to objectives is both a motivator and a function of the rewards of achievement.

4 Under proper conditions, workers learn not only to accept but also to seek responsibility.

5 The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of ingenuity and creativity is widely distributed in the population.

6 The intellectual potentialities of most people are only partially utilized in modern organizations.

Norma Carr-Ruffino (1985) The Promotable Woman: Becoming a Successful Manager (p. 230), Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Reprinted by permission of the author.

CHAPTER 2 COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE 53

The Human Resources Model in Today’s World The current application of the human resources model has a variety of names, such as quality-control circles (QCC) or quality circles (QCs), cross-functional teams, quality of work life (QWL) programs, total quality management (TQM), action labs, employ- ee participation groups, high-performance teams, self-directed teams, or sim- ply teams. Although the name and procedures may vary, essentially these are groups of employees who participate in generating ideas and decision making. Nonprofit organizations, for-profit businesses, educational groups, and govern- mental agencies all use participative employee involvement groups. Here are some examples:

Quality-control decisions made by employee groups at the Honeywell facility in Phoenix resulted in the following decreases: 70% in defects, 46% in required inventory, and 75% in customer lead times (Daft & Marcic, 2006, p. 564).

Federal Express has 4,000 Quality Action teams that are responsible for sig- nificant improvements in productivity, such as a 13% reduction in service errors in 1 year (Hackman & Johnson, 2000).

Procter & Gamble’s innovation panel was able to bring the Swiffer cleaning products to market in 10 months, half the normal P&G time (Cravens & Piercy, 2003, p. 241).

Cummins Engine Company used an action lab comprised of several teams to redesign a number of procedures that allowed a price reduction of 20 percent on their diesel engines (Greenberg, 2011, p. 579)

From 1999 to 2002, SSM Health Care improved patient survival well above national benchmark levels and lowered employee turnover rates from 21% to 13% by implementing 85 clinical collaborative teams (“SSM Health Care,” 2003).

Kodak “reduced its turnover rate to one-half of the industry’s average and improved its handling of incoming customer calls by 100 percent after reor- ganizing into work teams” (Eisenberg et al., 2010, p. 213).

Although quality circles and employee teams have been very successful in some companies, other companies have experienced a high failure rate (the company represented in the cartoon on page 56 may be one of them). The fol- lowing characteristics are considered necessary for team success (Conrad & Poole, 2012; Greenberg, 2011; Hitt et al., 2013; Preston, 2005; Williams, 2011):

1. Regular training in problem solving, technology use, and team work. 2. Horizontal communication among departments and flexibility within

departments. 3. Employees that have experience and/or knowledge needed in the topic being

discussed, are willing to work in teams, and are from diverse backgrounds with differing perspectives.

4. Managers willing to listen to employees, to give rapid responses, and to sup- port team recommendations.

5. Organizations open to change. 6. Cooperation between management and any unions.

54 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

The Systems/Contingency Model Although all the organizational theorists we have discussed so far have presented what they felt was the best way, each theory has fallen short in one or more areas. Current theories and the systems/contingency model contend that there is no best way. Joan Woodward’s seminal research (1965) supports this view. She decided to test important management principles to see whether successful companies applied these principles more often than did less successful companies. Initially, she found no relationship between any one type of management principle and organiza- tional effectiveness. However, upon reexamination of her data, she found that the effectiveness of certain management principles depended on the type of industry. “In other words, there seemed to be a best method of organizing to fit each type of technology. The firms that stayed close to this best approach for their technical system were the most effective (Sashkin & Morris, 1984, p. 348).

Thus, it would seem that no organizational model will fit all organizations. A look at systems theory and contingency theory may help explain why this is true. Both theories, as they ap- ply to organizations, grew out of general systems theory, which was introduced by a German biologist, Ludwig von Bertalanfy (1968). To summarize:

General systems theory rests on the idea that the whole is more than the sum of its parts; each part must be considered as it in-

teracts with, changes, and is changed by every other part within the system. The parts, or subsystems, of any given system are assumed to be interdependent, and it is primarily through communication that this interdependence is facilitated. (Andrews & Baird, 1999, p. 49)

Systems Theory The strengths of systems theory are that (a) it rec- ognizes the interdependence of all parts of an organization (what af- fects one part affects all parts), (b) it acknowledges both formal and in- formal communication as central to an organization’s success, and (c) it integrates the biases of the traditional and the human relations models and gives them equal weight. According to systems theory, “Questions of job duty, chain of command, span of con- trol, and decision making are equal in importance to questions of attitude, morale, behavior, role, and personal- ity” (Goldhaber, 1993, p. 47).

The Systems/Contingency Model encourages productivity through flexibility, shared culture, and awareness of internal and external factors.

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The Human Resources Model in Brief

Landmark Books & Articles:

McGregor, The Human Side of Enterprise (1960)

Likert, New Patterns of Management (1961)

Blake and Mouton, The Managerial Grid (1964; 1985)

Miles, “Keeping Informed: Human Rela- tions or Human Resources,” Harvard Business Review (1965) and Theories of Management (1975)

Focus of Theory:

Equal emphasis on workers and manage- ment—a team-based orientation.

View of Communication:

Openness and trust in upward, downward, and horizontal communication; informal communication encouraged.

CHAPTER 2 COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE 55

Applying the systems approach to organizations, Daniel Katz and Robert Kahn (1966) referred to organizations as “open systems.” An open system has flexible boundaries that allow communication to flow easily in and out of the or- ganization. The people who “link the organization with outsiders,” such as sales- people and purchasing agents, are boundary spanners. They gather useful outside information to help with decision making, they protect against external threats, they control the dissemination of information, and they present a good impres- sion to outsiders (Conrad & Poole, 2005, p. 124). From new hires to company CEO, “the most successful companies involve everyone in boundary-spanning activities” (Daft, 2008, p. 83).

Contingency Theory Like systems theory, contingency theory evolved from general systems theory. Whereas systems theory is fairly mature, con- tingency theory is still being developed. There are several versions of contin- gency theory, but all have the same basic belief: “No one type of organizational structure or leadership style is most appropriate for all situations” (Rogers & Agarwala-Rogers, 1976, p. 45; see Hitt et al., 2013, p. 333). Therefore, adaptabil- ity is required.

One of the best-known versions is Fred Fiedler’s contingency theory. From his research with bomber crews, high school basketball teams, foundry workers, and management groups, Fiedler came to the conclusion that “which management style will be the most effective in a particular situation depends on the degree to which the group situation enables the manager to exert influ- ence” (Carr-Ruffino, 1985, p. 277). Fiedler (1967) analyzes such contingent variables as leader–follower relations, position power, and task structure. For example, he found that a task or traditional orientation was most effective when (a) the manager was well liked and powerful and the tasks were well de- fined or (b) when the manager was disliked and had little power and the tasks were poorly defined. However, a human relations orientation was more effec- tive when the manager was moderately liked, had some power, and the tasks were moderately defined. Research by Fiedler, Chemers, and Mahar (1976) shows that managers can be trained to identify and modify various situations to better fit their own communication and leadership styles.

Another version of contingency theory is Robert House’s path–goal theory (1971). Instead of employees adapting to fit management style, House suggests that managers adapt to fit a given situation (House, 1971; House & Mitchell, 1974). Direction and structure are needed when the task is un- certain, the procedure is ambiguous, or the employee is new or unfamiliar with the task. Supportive, considerate leadership is needed when the task is highly structured, dull, and unsatisfying or when employees are unfamiliar with the task but capable of doing it. Neither directive nor supportive leader- ship will be effective unless employees perceive the leader as helping them achieve desired goals. Successful leaders make the path to these goals clear and attainable.

The Contingency Model in Today’s World Greenberg (2011) cites banks as a good example of the contingency model. Think of all the environmental forces operating on banks today: the economy with the subprime mortgage

56 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

crisis, changing interest rates, and government regu- lations; competition from other banks with different services and fees (such as ATM fees) and for trained personnel; and changes in equipment and technol- ogy (such as banking online). While banks provide a service, they also have shareholders pressing for higher dividends.

Theory Z, developed by William Ouchi (1981) as an alternative to Theories X and Y, is an appli- cation of contingency theory. According to Ouchi, successful organizations are those whose corporate culture reflects the values of their employees. In other words, instead of imposing its preferred man- agement style on employees, a Theory Z company adapts its management style to the existing employ- ee culture. Culture can be defined as the “patterns of beliefs and expectations shared by the organization’s members, which produce norms that shape the be-

havior of individuals and groups in the organization” (Schwartz & Davis, 1981, p. 30). Ouchi cites Hewlett-Packard, Dayton-Hudson Corporation, Rockwell In- ternational, Intel, and Eli Lilly as organizations with Theory Z cultures.

If used correctly, an organization’s culture has three specific advantages (Greenberg, 2011, p. 485):

1. It gives members a sense of identity. 2. It makes them feel a part of the whole and therefore more

committed to the organization and its goals. 3. It reinforces expected behaviors and helps perpetuate the

life of the culture.

Culture is transmitted in part by stories, symbols and slogans, jargon, ceremonies, and principle statements (Oat, 1989). For example, evidence of a culture at Disney World is seen through “shared things (wearing the Disney uniform to fit the attraction), shared sayings (a ‘Mickey’ is a compliment for doing a good job), shared behavior (smiling at customers and being polite), and shared feelings (taking pride in working at Disney)” (Ivancevich et al., 2011, p. 41). Once a culture is es- tablished (such as the U.S. Marine Corps’ “A few good men”; Ford’s “Quality is job 1”; Disney World’s “family feeling”), it tends to perpetuate itself. People who aren’t interested in a particular culture won’t want to work there, just as a stu- dent who wants to party won’t apply to a non-party college. Because a culture is an attitude shared by employees, it is not always easy to identify.

In a speech titled “Employee Involvement,” the senior vice president of operations for Miller Brewing Company verifies

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The Systems/Contingency Model in Brief Landmark Books & Articles:

Woodward, Industrial Organization: Theory and Practice (1965)

Katz and Kahn, The Social Psychology of Organizations (1966)

Fiedler, A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness (1967)

House, “A Path–Goal Theory of Leader Behavior,” Administrative Science Quarterly (1971).

Focus of Theory:

The organization as a whole.

View of Communication:

All types of communication and feedback essential—even one person can affect the entire organization; used to build and maintain corporate culture.

CHAPTER 2 COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE 57

the importance of culture and contingency systems:

We know that “Employee Involvement” is not a “corporate program” to be implemented “as is” at every Miller facility. We also know that how EI is implemented—the methods used and the timing—are going to vary with each different circumstance. Each of our plants is different. Each has its own culture, its own history, its own traditional way of doing things.

What works in New York might not work at our Fort Worth can plant. The methods used at Albany, Georgia, might not be the same meth- ods that will work out in Irwindale, California, or in Milwaukee. On the other hand, some might work with just a slight modification or alteration. And we encourage the sharing of ideas and projects in order to stimulate ideas that will work. (Schumer, 1988, p. 564)

The Transformational Model If you have looked at the business section in a bookstore recently, it may seem that the current organization model is “Management by Best Seller” (Kreitner & Cassidy, 2011 pp. 55–58). In Search of Excellence (Peters & Waterman, 1982) sold over 5 million copies in 5 years; sales of The One Minute Manager (Blanchard & Johnson, 1982) reached 7 million copies by 2004 (Kreitner & Cassidy, 2011, p. 56). More management books that are selling well include, First, Break All the Rules (Buckingham & Coffman, 1999), Jack: Straight from the Gut (Welch, 2001), The 360-Degree Leader (Maxwell, 2006), The Speed of Trust (Covey, 2006), Outliers: The Story of Success (Gladwell, 2008), and Great by Choice (Collins & Hansen, 2011).

However, the newest organiza- tion models are the transforma- tional models, which are the result of the problems that traditional models have experienced trying to survive in today’s business environ- ment. In fact, the very things that initially made traditional organi- zations so effective—direct super- vision, standardization, and large size—have created many of these problems. According to Busting Bu- reaucracy (Johnson, 1992), many bureaucratic companies found that their formal, centralized, and com- plex structures made competition almost impossible in today’s global market. Smaller, nonbureaucratic companies have proven better at in- novation, flexibility, and customer

The Transformational Model encourages productivity through information technology and decentralized structures.

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58 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

service—requirements for productivity and growth. The Wall Street Journal reported that “all growth in the 1990s occurred in companies with fewer than 500 employees, and the vast ma- jority of that occurred in firms with head counts of 20 or less” (Petzinger, 1999, p. R31). According to Wagner and Hollen- beck (2010), “Global competition, technological volatility, and trends toward the mass customization of products and services” require “the resources of a large organization, but the flexibility of a small one” (p. 279).

The new organizational models are known by several names. They are transformational because they have transformed models from the past into the new multiunit and virtual structures dis- cussed in the following paragraphs. They are postbureaucratic because to compete in global markets, they must have more flexibility than bureaucratic models can provide. Finally, they are technological (or networks) because they are made up of autonomous teams that “manage themselves” and “coordinate with one another by sharing information on computerized networks” (Wagner & Hollenbeck, 2010, p. 265; see also, Conrad & Poole, 2012). In

1997, Poole et al. identified two new transformational structures—the multiunit organization and the virtual organization—which are still growing strong.

The Multiunit Organization A multiunit organization is made up of separate, autonomous businesses under the same holding company. This decen- tralized structure allows the large parent company to operate with the flexibility of the much smaller businesses. In addition, say Wagner and Hollenbeck (2010):

Compared with other types of bureaucratic structures, multiunit structures are extremely decentralized. Unit managers several levels below the holding unit’s CEO have the authority to define their unit’s purpose and formulate its mission. At the same time, routine activities within each business unit are coordinated as much as possible by standardization . . . to control the costs of process loss. (p. 255)

Multiunit organizations are often created when large bureaucracies down- size and restructure. For example, General Electric eliminated close to 170,000 positions, cut several levels of management, and organized its company into several independent businesses of 500 or fewer employees (Tichy & Sherman, 1994). Johnson & Johnson, another multiunit organization, is comprised of over 250 different independent companies with most companies further divided into three segments: Consumer Health Care, Medical Devices & Diagnostics, and Pharmaceuticals (Company Structure, 2012). In Reengineering the Corporation, Hammer and Champy (1993) suggest that successful organizations focus team efforts on business processes instead of tasks or jobs. For example, Cisco Sys- tems, selected as number five of “The World’s 50 Most Innovative Companies” (2009) by Fast Company, formed an Emerging Technologies Group, which pro- duced eight products in three years “that are each expected to produce $1 billion in revenue” (p. 62).

The Transformational Model in Brief Landmark Article:

Poole, M., Putnam, L. & Seibold, D. (1997). Organizational Communication in the 21st Century. Management Communication Quarterly, 11(1), 127–138.

Focus of Theory:

Information technology and flexibility of decentralized structures.

View of Communication:

All communication important; horizon- tal communication and relationships essential.

CHAPTER 2 COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE 59

The Virtual Organization/Virtual Teams A virtual organization is generally a temporary venture among several companies, each with a special expertise or process specialty. For example, Oprah Winfrey’s Harpo Produc- tions formed a temporary alliance with Hearst Magazine to successfully launch her new magazine called O. According to Daft & Marcic (2013), “The combined resources and management talents of the partners contributed to the most suc- cessful start-up ever in the magazine publishing industry” (p. 69). General Electric has created a virtual organization called Wipro GE Medical Systems with Wipro, a global IT services company in Bangalore to improve patient care by merging information technologies and health-care services (Hamm, 2007). Deere and Company and Springfield Manufacturing Corporation joined to- gether in 1998 to produce a new company called ReGen Technologies LLC to remanufacture diesel engines for John Deere Agricultural Equipment and construction equipment. It is still going strong and will continue as long as its services are needed.

Virtual organizations use mutual adjustment as their primary means of coordination. Autonomous teams of employees communicate through the Internet and videoconferences and may never have any face-to-face meet- ings. For these teams to work effectively, they need trust and rapport and need to establish a type of virtual “water cooler” that allows for interper- sonal connection (Conrad & Poole, 2012, p. 217; Kostner, 2001). To provide a sense of “connectedness,” virtual organizations provide their teams use of social media “such as blogging, Twitter, instant messaging, wikis, smart phones, and organizational and individual Facebook technologies” (Kerfoot, 2010, p. 115).

These new organizational models normally do not promise long-term em- ployment. Instead, they use such terms as conditional employment and employ- ability, which basically mean “Do not expect lengthy careers in this organiza- tion but expect to have your skills tested, polished, and acknowledged such that you will continue to be valued in the labor market” (Kunda & Van Maanen, 1999, p. 12). Employees, who expect to change jobs fairly often, take an active role in managing their own careers. This model does not appear to be for the faint of heart.

The Transformational Model in Today’s World We have already dis- cussed two thriving multiunit organizations—General Electric and Johnson & Johnson—and six companies that successfully formed temporary virtual or- ganizations—Harpo Productions and Hearst Magazine, General Electric and Wipro, and Deere and Springfield Manufacturing. Cisco through its Global Partner Network is another example of an organization that has formed short-term alliances with such companies as IBM, Fujitsu, Intel, and Microsoft (Hitt et al., 2013).

Revisiting the Case Study... Which organization model does Chesapeake use, and how does it contribute to their problems?

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60 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Toys “R” Us and Amazon.com joined in 2000 to market toys through a “co- branded Web site” (Cravens & Piercy, 2003). Amazon.com has the Internet sales expertise, whereas Toys “R” Us has the warehousing and purchasing knowledge. Even the movie business is now using virtual organizations to pro- duce motion pictures, according to Greenberg (2011). James Cameron’s Avatar is a good example; for Avatar, “organizations with different areas of expertise (e.g., casting, sound recording, special effects, etc) join[ed] forces long enough to bring a final product to fruition” (p. 21).

The transformational model may be moving toward a blend of all models. In the multiunit and virtual alliances, all the following are important to organiza- tion and team success: structure, trust, strong relationships, team skills, flexibil- ity, cultural values, environmental awareness, global awareness, and participa- tive management. Stanley Deetz (1995, 2001) calls this approach the “multiple stakeholder model.” In this model, employees act like owners and profitability occurs when “every stakeholder becomes responsible for decision making and is accountable for the outcomes of those decisions both to the business and to society” (Eisenberg et al., 2010, p. 210).

Communication Differences in the Organization Models So far in this chapter, we have examined five organization models, as well as basic types of communication and methods of coordinating people in organizations. Now let’s look at the patterns of communication that typify each model.

Traditional Model Communication in traditional organizations is rational, task-oriented, formal, and usually written. It is mainly downward and used by supervisors and managers to clarify orders, rules, and tasks. The social side of communication is relatively unimportant. Traditional managers feel that em- ployees are happier and more productive when they know what topics are ap- propriate to discuss, what behaviors are expected, and with whom they may communicate directly. Formally structured roles define what is expected of em- ployees. In traditional models, employees are expected to fill predefined roles. Each position has its place in the chain of command and its set of expected behaviors. According to traditional managers, appropriate behavior and com- munication are determined by an employee’s position. Decision making is the responsibility of management. Because communication is mainly downward and minimal, employees may feel the need to supplement it with information from the grapevine.

Human Relations Model Although managers in human relations or- ganizations provide a friendly, relaxed work environment, they still view communication as a command tool for use by management. Therefore, com- munication is basically downward, although it is also supportive. Human re- lations managers are concerned with the social and psychological needs of

CHAPTER 2 COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE 61

employees mainly because they believe that employees who are treated with TLC are more satisfied and therefore more productive. Managers seek feed- back from employees and use the grapevine (informal network) to gauge em- ployee satisfaction. Employees are allowed to make routine decisions; as we shall see in Chapter 10, employees who are involved in making a decision are much more likely to abide by it than are employees who are not involved in the decision. Communication skills are important in developing and main- taining relationships.

Human Resources Model The human resources organization takes a team-oriented, or participative, approach to employee–management rela- tionships. Employees are expected to take an active role in all decisions, big and small. To facilitate creative ideas and decisions, information and feed- back flow freely up and down the organization; informal communication is encouraged; and the working environment is supportive, flexible, and trusting. For the information flow required in the human resources model, employees at all levels need to have the communication skills discussed in Chapter 1.

Systems/Contingency Model The systems/contingency model asserts that there is no single best way to manage, and there is no single best way to communicate. Both management styles and communication processes are in- fluenced by the particular situation and any number of internal and external factors—employees’ needs and abilities, managers’ personalities and communi- cation skills, customers’ expectations, and the economy. Communication flex- ibility is a must in the contingency organization and is valued even more than in the human resources organization. Therefore, communication skills are needed by employees at all levels.

Transformational Model Horizontal communication among team mem- bers and between teams is essential for the transformational model, although upward, downward, and informal communications are readily used when needed. Therefore, team members in both the multiunit and virtual organi- zations must be skilled communicators who are aware of frame-of-reference differences—especially when working with members located across the Unit- ed States and in different countries. In the virtual organization, much or all communication occurs electronically, and face-to-face communication may occur by videoconferencing or Skype. Because the nonverbal code is miss- ing, team members need to be especially skilled at communication, trust, and relationship-building. How to develop interpersonal relationships and trust will be covered in Chapter 3. For a discussion of technology used by virtual teams for communication, see the section on “Communication Technology” in Chapter 6.

Hill Street Studios/Blend Images/Jupiterimages

KEY TERMS bureaucratic managers (42) chain of command (44) culture (56) direct supervision (38) division of labor (44) downward communication (32) empowered teams (35) flat organization (45) Fiedler’s contingency theory (55) formal communication (32)

horizontal communication (35) House’s path–goal theory (55) human relations model (46) human resources model (49) informal communication (35) multiunit organization (58) mutual adjustment (38) organization models (39) organizational structure (44) scientific managers (42)

SUMMARY To be an effective communicator in an organization, you need to be aware of both formal and informal communication as well as how organizations coordinate employees through mutual adjust- ment, direct supervision, and standardization.

Understanding communication and coordination methods will help you identify which of five organization models a particular company follows. The traditional model can be scientific where each task and the selection of workers are carefully designed or bureaucratic where the efficiency of managers is formalizing by the chain of command, all decisions and actions are put in writing, and relationships with employees are kept detached. The human rela- tions model emphasizes employee–boss relationships and believes that giving employees TLC will result in greater productivity. The

human resources model focuses on employee–manager teamwork, built on both employee satisfaction and management control. The systems/contingency model tries to select the management style that best meets the needs, expectations, and culture of the em- ployees. And finally, the transformational model is a response to the constant change and the electronic media that characterize today’s workplace. Both the multiunit organization and the virtual organization are changing the way businesses operate.

Communication, feedback, and company expectations dif- fer significantly from model to model. We hope you can now feel more comfortable identifying and selecting a preferred work en- vironment as well as successfully communicating in any environ- ment in which you may find yourself.

CHAPTER REVIEW

Hill Street Studios/Blend Images/Jupiterimages

span of control (44) standardization (38) systems/contingency model (54) tall organization (45) theories x and y (51) theory z (56) traditional model (39) transformational model (57) upward communication (34) virtual organization (59)

will be to gather and condense information about the model in preparation for a later interview. Follow these steps as a guide:

a. Begin by getting two volunteers from your group. b. It will be the group’s duty to coach your volunteers in

exactly how a manager from your organization model would behave—allow 15 to 20 minutes.

c. During this time, compile a basic list of characteristics including at least four things people who follow your model could be expected to do or say and four things they probably would not do or say.

d. If time allows, consider what your volunteers would think about such things as structure and control, moti- vation of others, trust, productivity, employee feedback, personal problems, and technology.

e. When time is up, a volunteer from at least three dif- ferent models will move to the front of the room as though they are attending a press conference and being asked questions by employees. Each volunteer should have a place card stating his or her name and organization model. Make sure to ask opinion ques- tions and have all volunteers answer each ques- tion. Sample questions might be, “I hear through the grapevine that headquarters is planning on implementing a team approach when the new plant is completed. How do you think this will affect pro- ductively?” or “Do you really think that employees can be trusted enough to make important decisions that will affect the company?” The point of these questions is to see how managers from different or- ganization models respond differently. In addition to asking questions, group members should make sure that their volunteers are answering questions true to their organization model.

f. Change volunteers every 7 minutes until time is over or until all volunteers have participated.

4. In groups of three to five, complete the following about group culture:

a. Define what the group feels is a “party school”—list sev- eral specifics you would expect to find in a college or university labeled as a party school.

b. Make two lists of colleges/universities—one list should include known “party schools” and the other list should include “non-party schools.” If you aren’t sure, conduct some research.

c. One of the advantages for an organization that has an established “culture” is that it reinforces expected

Before continuing to the next chapter, check your understanding of Chapter 2 at the Speech Communication CourseMate for Com- municating for Results. CourseMate gives you quick and easy ac- cess to this text’s resources to help improve your communication skills and prepare you for quizzes and exams. These resources include: Study tools including the student companion workbook,

digital glossary, flashcards, and review quizzes. Activities and assignments including Awareness

Checks, Checkpoints, and Collaborative Learning Activities.

Media resources such as Web Links (explore communica- tion concepts); Speech Builder Express (develop your speech outlines); Interactive Video Activities (watch and critique videos of professional communication situations and sample speeches); and Speech Studio (upload your speech videos for peer reviewing and critique other students’ speeches).

For more information or to access this book’s online re- sources, visit cengagebrain.com.

Collaborative Learning Activities 1. In small groups of five to seven, show your understanding

of the informal communication network—the grapevine—by answering these questions (If your group can’t come to an agreement, do some additional research.):

a. What is the difference between gossip and rumors, and what role does gossip play in maintaining the grapevine, if any?

b. Who uses the grapevine most—men or women? c. How fast and accurate are messages carried by the

grapevine? d. How can you tell the health of your organization by lis-

tening to the company grapevine? 2. Career Activity: In small groups, discuss the five organiza-

tion models from your text and decide which model best fits the following organizations: Facebook, FedEx, Starbucks, JC Penney, Container Store, Farmers’ Insurance Group, and CiCi’s Pizza. Prepare to share your solutions with other groups—add two other organizations to your report as well. How do you know your decisions are correct? Be specific. End your report by identifying which organization models your group members most prefer and least prefer for their careers and why.

3. Career Activity: Assign each of the organization models to a small group of three to five members whose responsibility

COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS ONLINE

behaviors and perpetuates the culture—in other words, people who do not like what the culture implies, won’t even apply for a job with that organization. Discuss how this information applies to the two lists you prepared. Would it also determine the type professors who work at the universities and even their teaching styles?

d. If a known party school wanted to change their culture, what specific steps would you recommend be taken by the chancellor, board of regents, and faculty? How could news media and social media be implemented to help with this change? Be prepared to share your answers.

5. In small groups, select three to five businesses or nonprofit organizations in your local area that your group members would like to know more about. If the group members would prefer, include companies where members are currently working or companies where members have one or more

personal contacts. Find out as much as you can about each organization and their organization model by completing the following:

a. Send one group member out to interview someone in management—prepare questions ahead of time.

b. Send one group member out to interview an employee— prepare questions ahead of time.

6. In small groups, discuss the Dilemmas in Communication box on page 34 and answer the opening question: Why were Enron Employees afraid to question unethical practices? If time allows, watch either the 2005 documentary or the television movie (specifics listed at the bottom of the box) to give you more background on the rise and fall of Enron. What role do you think formal and informal communication played in the Enron workplace? Who was most to blame: management or the thousands of employees? Why? Be pre- pared to share your answers with other groups if asked.

3 IDENTIFY types of conflict and strategies for managing conflict in the workplace; explain when each strategy works best.

DEFINE individualistic and collectivistic cultures and low- context and high-context cultures; explain how different cultures view and react to conflict.

IDENTIFY the role that interpersonal relationships play in organizational success.

DETERMINE your personal communication style by taking the Survey of Communication Styles, both long and short forms, discussed in this chapter.

DEFINE the terms clear expectations, reciprocal relation- ships, self-fulfilling prophecy, and trust cycles, and explain what role each plays in developing and maintaining relationships.

LIST the four main communication styles typically used in the workplace and summarize tips for relating with people of different styles.

CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS

As you read chapter 3...

CASE STUDY False Information on Resume Brings Down CEO

Today is my last day at Goldman Sachs. After almost 12 years at the firm—first as a summer intern while at Stanford, then in New York for 10 years, and now in London—I believe I have worked here long enough to understand the trajectory of its culture, its people and its identity. And I can honestly say that the environment now is as toxic and destructive as I have ever seen it.

To put the problem in the simplest terms, the interests of the client continue to be sidelined in the way the firm oper- ates and thinks about making money. Goldman Sachs is one of the world’s largest and most important investment banks and it is too integral to global finance to continue to act this way. The firm has veered so far from the place I joined right out of college that I can no longer in good conscience say that I identify with what it stands for.

It might sound surprising to a skeptical public, but culture was always a vital part of Goldman Sachs’s success. It revolved around teamwork, integrity, a spirit of humil- ity, and always doing right by our clients. The culture was the secret sauce that made this place great and allowed us to earn our clients’ trust for 143 years. It wasn’t just about making money; this alone will not sustain a firm for so long. It had something to do with pride and belief in the organization. I am sad to say that I look around today and see virtually no trace of the culture that made me love working for this firm for many years. I no longer have the pride, or the belief.

But this was not always the case. For more than a decade I recruited and mentored candidates through our grueling interview process. I was selected as one of 10 people (out of a firm of more than 30,000) to appear on our recruiting video, which is played on every college campus we visit around the world. In 2006 I managed the summer intern program in sales and trading in New York for the 80 college students who made the cut, out of the thousands who applied.

I knew it was time to leave when I realized I could no longer look students in the eye and tell them what a great place this was to work. . . .

How did we get here? The firm changed the way it thought about leadership. Leadership used to be about ideas,

allllllsssssseeeeee IIIIInnnnnnffffffoooooorrrrrrmmmmmmaaaaaattttttiiiiioooooonnnnnn oooooonnnnnn RRRRRReeeeesssssuuuuuummmmmeeeeee BBBBBBrrrrrriiiiiinnnnnn ooooowwwwwwnnnnnn CCCCCCEEEEEEOOOOOOO Resignation Letter to Goldman Sachs*

setting an example, and doing the right thing. Today, if you make enough money for the firm (and are not currently an ax murderer) you will be promoted into a position of influence.

What are three quick ways to become a leader? a) Ex- ecute on the firm’s “axes,” which is Goldman-speak for persuading your clients to invest in the stocks or other products that we are trying to get rid of because they are not seen as having a lot of potential profit. b) “Hunt Elephants.” In English: get your clients—some of whom are sophisticated, and some of whom aren’t—to trade what- ever will bring the biggest profit to Goldman. Call me old- fashioned, but I don’t like selling my clients a product that is wrong for them. c) Find yourself sitting in a seat where your job is to trade any illiquid, opaque product with a three-letter acronym. . . .

It astounds me how little senior management gets a ba- sic truth: If clients don’t trust you they will eventually stop do- ing business with you. It doesn’t matter how smart you are. . . .

* This is a shortened version of the resignation letter by Sachs executive director Greg Smith that appeared on page A27 of the New York Times on March 14, 2012.

As you read this chapter... See if you can (a) assess the value of disclosing through the me- dia and why you think Smith chose such a public method, and (b) determine differing reactions to Smith’s letter from Sachs International employees located around the world. For more details on Goldman Sachs, go to their website at www.goldma- nsachs.com or to www.wsj.com or www.nytimes.com and search for “Goldman Sachs” or “Greg Smith.” If you’d like to read the remainder of Smith’s letter, go to www.nytimes.com and search for “Greg Smith” or the title of his letter: “Why I am leaving Goldman Sachs.” You can access these websites easily through the CourseMate website for Communicat- ing for Results.

” You can access these websites the

Daniel Acker/Bloomberg via Getty Images

Three areas of importance that affect organizations in the workplace, re-gardless of their size or the organization model they prefer, are conflict, cultural differences, and interpersonal relationships. Employees who han- dle conflict positively, realize that cultural differences add variety and depth to decisions and products, and develop and maintain strong interpersonal relation- ships with their bosses, coworkers, and customers are more productive and have a higher level of employee satisfaction. Lack of employee satisfaction was apparent from the resignation letter by Sachs executive director Greg Smith presented in this chapter’s case study. As we discuss tips for handling conflict, cultural differ- ences, and interpersonal relationships, see if you can apply them to the informa- tion presented in Smith’s letter as well as to your own personal work experiences.

MANAGING CONFLICTS IN THE WORKPLACE Conflict is impossible to avoid. Whenever we deal with individuals or teams for any length of time, some kind of conflict is sure to occur. According to a survey conducted in 2000, “handling conflicts and managing workplace relationships were the issues that most seriously threatened productivity” (Murtha, 2005, p. 42). Fortunately, if managed effectively, conflict can result in improved team relationships, communication, and productivity (Chen, Liu, & Tjosvold, 2005; Frantz & Jin, 1995). The discussion of conflict will begin by looking at two types of conflict, then move on to five conflict strategies and how to use each. To compare U.S. responses to conflict with strategy preferences of other coun- tries see the section on “Cultural Differences in the Workplace,” below.

Conflict Types Teams experience two basic types of conflict: A-type and C-type (Amason et al., 1995). A-type conflict is relationship conflict and sidetracks the team from the issues and creates defensiveness and anger; the A stands for affective (emotional). C-type conflict is task conflict and improves team productivity and relationships and creates a feeling of satisfaction; the C stands for cognitive. Although it seems obvious that teams should strive for C-type and avoid A-type, it’s not as easy as it sounds. If team members have a strong relationship and trust each other, C-type conflict works well. During cognitive conflict, team members are open to seri- ous debate and disagreement on the issues. They come prepared to support their

I hope this can be a wake-up call to the board of direc- tors. Make the client the focal point of your business again. Without clients you will not make money. In fact, you will not exist. Weed out the morally bankrupt people, no mat- ter how much money they make for the firm. And get the culture right again, so people want to work here for the

right reasons. People who care only about making money will not sustain this firm—or the trust of its clients—for very much longer.

Greg Smith is resigning today (March 14, 2012) as a Goldman Sachs executive director and head of the firm’s United States eq- uity derivatives business in Europe, the Middle East and Africa.

68 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

ideas with facts, experiences, and solutions but don’t take it personally when someone disagrees with them. A basic ground rule for successful C-type conflict is “ideas are separate from the person.” Another ground rule is that feedback that is often in the form of a question should be descriptive (tactfully honest and objective), not evaluative (judgmental and accusatory); see Chapter 1 for more details. Comments might include “How will this design work for someone in a wheelchair?” or “This idea is a good start to our problem; can it be designed to stay in our limited budget?” C-type groups can experience negative conflict oc- casionally; when this happens, one of the conflict strategies discussed in the next section can be used.

When team members do not have a strong relationship and trust is weak, A-type conflict will likely occur, especially when group members are emotionally attached to the topic. In affective conflict, members may

feel awkward giving and receiving feed- back, and disagreements often become personal with people getting angry or avoiding comments entirely. When an- ger occurs, it distracts us from “relevant cognitive processing” (Zillmann, 1994). And, of course, making no comments at all is nonproductive. Feedback in A-type conflict tends to be evaluative, and com- ments might include “You apparently have no compassion for people in wheel- chairs” or “You obviously haven’t looked at our budget carefully enough—that de- sign will be way too expensive!” or “No one likes my idea, as usual.”

Teams with A-type conflict spend most of their energy dealing with emo- tions instead of solving complex prob- lems and arriving at innovative ideas. Although the conflict strategies dis- cussed next might help, the chance that

A-type teams will be productive is slim unless definite steps are taken to provide change. Suggestions include bringing in a new leader from outside the team, replacing some of the members with people who work well with C-type conflict, or providing relationship and trust-building training for the team (the last one probably has the best chance of working). An excellent story of how this can be done is included in The Five Dysfunctions of a Team by Patrick Lencioni (2002).

Conflict Strategies Take a moment and think how you typically handle conflict. When conflict occurs, are you more likely to (a) withdraw from it, (b) give in to others’ wishes, (c) implement compromise, (d) convince others your way is best, or

Daniel Acker/Bloomberg via Getty Images

Revisiting the Case Study... What type of conflict strategy was Smith using when he took it upon himself to resign in such a public manner using a major newspaper’s opinion page? Especially since William Cohan, author of Money and Power: How Goldman Sachs Came to Rule the World, commented about Smith in an interview on Bloomberg.com that “He is completely toast in terms of Wall Street, no question about that” (Brennan, 2010).

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CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS 69

(e) search for a solution agreeable to all? Each of these methods of handling conflict is called a conflict strategy. Figure 3.1 illustrates these five strategies of avoidance, accommodation, compromise, competition, and collaboration (Kilmann & Thomas, 1975; Rahim & Magner, 1995; see also Thomas, 1992a, 1992b). Other researchers use slightly different terms. For example, in their well-known conflict grid, Robert Blake and Jane Mouton (1985) refer to the five strategies as withdrawal, smoothing, compromising, forcing, and problem solving. Compromise may be used by communicators of any style; the other four strategies correspond to specific communication styles to be discussed at the end of this chapter.

As Figure 3.1 illustrates, the way you deal with conflict depends on the ex- tent of your concern for self (low to high assertiveness) and for others (low to high cooperativeness). Which of the following methods of handling conflict best describes the way you typically resolve conflict? The way your manager, employ- ees, or team resolve conflict?

Avoiding/Withdrawal By employing the avoiding strategy, this person: ● Feels equally little concern for others and for self; places low value on both

assertiveness and cooperation. ● Maintains neutrality at all costs; views conflict as a worthless and punishing

experience. ● Removes self either physically or mentally from groups experiencing any

type of conflict; stays away from any situation that might possibly produce conflict.

FIGURE 3.1 Conflict styles Adapted from K. W. Thomas (1992). Conflict and Conflict Management: Reflections and Update. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13, pp. 265–274.

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70 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Accommodating/Smoothing By employing the accommodating strat- egy, this person:

● Feels a higher concern for others than for self and, therefore, values coopera- tion over assertiveness.

● Views open conflict as destructive; gives in to the will of others when necessary.

● Believes that surface harmony is important to maintain good relationships and receive personal acceptance; tries to smooth over or ignore conflicts in an attempt to keep everyone happy.

Compromising By employing the compromising strategy, this person: ● Takes a middle-of-the-road stance on assertiveness and cooperation and

believes that a high-quality solution is not as important as a workable or agreeable solution.

● Views conflict as solvable but uses voting and other methods of compromise as a way to avoid direct confrontation.

● Tries to find a solution that everyone can live with, although all parties must sacrifice something important to reach a compromise.

● Usually views compromise as a second, backup choice.

Competing/Forcing By employing the competing strategy, this person: ● Views personal goals as much more important than the goals of oth-

ers; therefore, values assertiveness (even force when necessary) over cooperation.

● Views conflict as a win–lose situation or as a contest of power: One person must fail so the other can succeed; compromise is not acceptable.

● Has great respect for power and will submit to arbitration only because the arbitrator’s power is greater.

Collaborating/Problem Solving By employing the collaborating strategy, this person:

● Gives equal consideration to others and self; values high cooperation and assertiveness.

● Views conflict as beneficial if handled openly; lays all cards on the table. ● Guides groups through the basic problem-solving procedure (see

Chapter 9). ● Attempts to reach a consensus; willing to spend a great deal of time and

effort to achieve consensus.

Although individuals (regardless of their cultural background) may use any of the preceding methods to resolve conflict, it is interesting to note that Western cultures (like the United States and Canada) often select strategies different from those of Eastern cultures (like Japan, China, and Taiwan) when solving conflict (Ting-Toomey et al., 1991). Ting-Toomey (1988) found that competition was preferred by Americans, accommodation by the Chinese, and avoidance by the Taiwanese.

CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS 71

Choosing the Best Conflict Strategies When selecting a conflict strategy for a specific situation, consider (a) the strat- egy you feel the most comfortable using, (b) the strategy your organization or team prefers, and (c) the advantages and disadvantages of each strategy. Each conflict strategy is productive in some cases and best avoided in others (Amason, 1996; Conrad & Poole, 2012; Thomas, 1992a, 1992b). In the words of Johnston and Gao (2009), “No one seems to benefit if they stick to one style” (p. 106)— meaning that to achieve the best results, different situations require different methods of conflict resolution.

Avoiding Avoiding (withdrawal) may be the best response to conflict when: ● The issue is trivial. ● Power relationships make successful resistance impossible. ● Parties lack the communication skills necessary to prevent destructive

escalations. ● Potential losses from an open conflict outweigh potential gains. ● There is insufficient time to gather needed information or to work through

the issue adequately (Conrad & Poole, 2012, p. 323).

The drawback to handling conflict by avoidance is that the confrontation is usu- ally only delayed or transferred to another issue.

Accommodating Accommodating (smoothing) may be the best response to conflict when:

● The issue is minor. ● The damage to the relationship would harm both parties. ● A temporary reduction in conflict is needed to give time for additional

research or information. ● Tempers are too hot for productive discussion.

The drawback to handling conflict by accommodation is that it solves the problem only temporarily; it’s like putting a bandage on a cut that requires stitches.

Competing Competing (forcing) may be the best response to conflict when: ● A decision or action must be immediate. ● The parties in the conflict expect and appreciate the force and power neces-

sary in a win–lose situation. ● The combatants recognize the power relationship between themselves.

The drawbacks to handling conflict by force are (a) the real cause of the conflict is usually not resolved, and (b) the solution may be only temporary; when the losers gain more power, they may reinstate the conflict.

Compromising Compromising may be the best response to conflict when: ● Both parties stand to gain. ● An “ideal” or “quality” solution is not required.

72 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

● Time is short. ● A temporary solution is needed for a com-

plex problem (with a problem-solving dis- cussion held later to determine the best so- lution).

● The parties in the conflict are equals.

The drawbacks to handling conflict by com- promise are that everyone loses something and the best solution is probably not reached.

Collaborating Collaborating (problem solv- ing) may be the best response to conflict when:

● Members are trained in problem solving. ● The parties have common goals that require

everyone’s cooperation. ● The conflict has arisen from misunderstandings or communication break-

down and parties are willing to reframe their conflict in a new manner. ● The conflict occurs during a crisis.

One drawback to collaboration is that it may not be successful when the par- ties have different values or goals. For example, a person who feels that conflict should be resolved in a competitive manner has goals and values completely opposed to the “everyone wins” view of the collaborator. Another drawback to the collaboration is that it usually takes longer to achieve than other strategies.

One final thought about choosing the best conflict strategy comes from Raymond Friedman and his colleagues (Friedman et al., 2000) whose research combined A-type (task) and C-type (affective or relationship) conflict with con- flict strategies. They found that:

● Collaborating reduces both C-type conflict and A-type conflict. However, because C-type conflict usually creates A-type conflict, it must be handled carefully. Simons and Peterson (2000) suggest that high levels of trust can keep A-type conflict from developing when group members are emotionally involved in the task outcome.

● Avoiding and competing increase C-type conflict, which almost always results in an increase in A-type conflict as well.

● Accommodating decreases A-type conflict and the stress that goes with it; however, because people who use this strategy do not assert their own needs, C-type conflict remains.

Reaching Consensus in Conflict Management The five conflict strategies discussed above can be divided among three catego- ries according to type of outcome (Gelfand, et al., 2010; Weaver, 1984):

● Win–lose. Only one party achieves objective. Competition and voting are examples of the win–lose category. Organizations that use these methods

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CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS 73

view conflict resolution as open confrontation in a setting resembling a bat- tle or war.

● Lose–lose. Neither party achieves their objective, or both get only a small part of what they wanted. Compromise, arbitration, accommodation, and avoidance are examples of the lose–lose category. Even in compro- mise situations, no one gets exactly what they wanted—therefore, every- one loses something. Organizations that use these methods view conflict as a dangerous thing and tend to avoid or ignore conflict when at all possible.

● Win–win. All parties receive acceptable gains. Collaboration and consensus are examples of the win–win category. Organizations that use these meth- ods view conflict resolution as a normal, collaborative procedure that occurs openly. Southwest Airlines uses collaboration and views it as a way to learn and build relationships (Gittell, 2005, p. 113).

Although all of these strategies can be used to handle conflict, the most productive and satisfying over the long run is usually collaboration (Friedman et al., 2000; Thomas, 1992b). The collaborating problem solver (who values both assertiveness and cooperation) helps the group reach a consensus; that is, all members agree to accept a specific decision even though some mem- bers originally preferred a different choice. They agree to this final decision either because they have come to like it better than their original choice or because they feel that their original choice, although not selected, was given a fair hearing.

Of course, sometimes it is impossible to reach a consensus. But keep in mind that settling for just any solution could be worse than reaching no solu- tion. If the group seems to have reached a stalemate—that is, if collaboration appears impossible—try the following procedure before yielding to compro- mise or force:

1. Clarify the situation. Include such comments as “We seem to have reached an impasse. Further discussion along the same lines would be a waste of time. Let’s try a new approach.”

2. Urge the person or group to set the two conflicting solutions aside temporarily and to pretend they do not exist.

3. Guide the person or group to seek new solutions through brainstorming or the two-step nominal group technique. (The rules for these procedures are cov- ered in Chapter 9.) Once a new list has been created, work with the person or group to evaluate these solutions and select the best one.

4. Finally, join the person or group in comparing the original two solutions with the new solution to see which of the three is now the best. Often, the new solution is more creative and effective than either of the original conflicting solutions and is selected as the new best solution.

This four-step procedure is not a compromise because no concessions are required to reach a consensus agreement. The discussants believe that the new solution is better than the original solutions and usually wonder why they didn’t think of it sooner. If a consensus is still not possible, the conflict will have to be resolved by another method—perhaps compromise, mediation, or even force.

74 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN THE WORKPLACE Tom Selleck’s character in the movie Mr. Baseball, is an excellent example of communication problems that can occur when different cultures with little understanding of the other try to interact. Selleck plays Jack Elliot—a base-

ball player with an attitude—who is unex- pectedly traded by the New York Yankees to a Japanese team, the Chunichi Dragons in Tokyo. Selleck shows up in Japan know- ing nothing about the Japanese culture; he is unaware of the ritual of exchanging busi- ness cards, shows no respect for elders, rebuffs attempts at friendship, and makes inappropriate jokes. He has no idea how to communicate with the Japanese players and, at first, doesn’t really care. Through many humorous situations, the movie shows how Selleck learns to understand and respect the Japanese culture while becoming a better player with a future in baseball. Two other movies with similar communication prob- lems are Gung Ho, in which the character played by Michael Keaton flies to Japan to try to persuade a Japanese company to in- vest in a joint venture to save a failing au- tomobile assembly factory in Pennsylvania. and Lost in Translation, in which the char- acter played by Bill Murray visits Tokyo to film a commercial and experiences a variety of communication problems.

Not all cultures view the conflict and conflict strategies discussed earlier in the same way. In fact, it’s probably safe to say that no two cultures (even those within our own country) are identical in how they view conflict and conflict resolution. Yet, understanding these differences, as well as similarities, is crucial to business and team success. It would be impossible to discuss every culture’s differences, but we can identify several similarities and differences by looking at three dimensions: individualistic–collectivistic cultures, low- context–high-context cultures, and monochromic–polychromic cultures.

Individualistic and Collectivistic Cultures Western cultures like the United States tend to be individualistic cultures because the individual and individual rights are valued more highly than group identity or group rights. Asian cultures like Japan tend to be collectivistic cultures because they put more value on group membership, group obligations, and group goals than on the individual. Individualistic cultures are problem-oriented; collectivistic cultures are more relationship-oriented. Individualistic cultures value autonomy,

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CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS 75

assertiveness, and democracy and prefer competing strategies (Croucher et al., 2012; Triandis, 1995), although they also use collaborating and compromising to solve problems. Collectivistic cultures value empathy and listening and prefer avoiding and accommodating strategies to preserve friendships and save face for themselves and others (Choi, 1991; Croucher et al., 2012; Morris, et al., 1994). Notice in Table 3.1 (which includes a list of countries and an individualistic score for each on a 100-point scale) that the United States, Australia, Great Britain, and Canada rank the highest on individualism while Venezuela, Colombia, Pakistan, and Peru rank the lowest and are, therefore, more collectivistic.

High- and Low-Context Cultures The second dimension that enriches our understanding of cultural differences deals with high and low context (Hall, 1976; Hall & Hall, 1990). Context does not refer to the words in a message; it is defined as “the information that sur- rounds an event” (Hall & Hall, 1990, p. 6). Ting-Toomey (2000) notes that peo- ple who communicate with low-context messages tend to come from individu- alistic cultures; people whose messages are high-context tend to come from collectivistic cultures. In low-context cultures, messages are clearly spelled out—that is, they are direct and explicit. It is the speaker’s responsibility to

TABLE 3.1 INDIVIDUALISTIC SCORES OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES*

COUNTRY SCORE COUNTRY SCORE

United States 91 India 48

Australia 90 Argentina 46

Great Britain 89 Japan 46

Canada 80 Iran 41

Netherlands 80 Brazil 38

New Zealand 79 Greece 35

Italy 76 Philippines 32

Denmark 74 Mexico 30

Sweden 71 Portugal 27

France 71 Hong Kong 25

Switzerland 68 Chile 23

Germany 67 Thailand 20

South Africa 65 Taiwan 17

Finland 63 Peru 16

Austria 55 Pakistan 14

Israel 54 Colombia 13

Spain 51 Venezuela 12

*Higher scores are more individualistic; lower scores are more collectivistic. Source: Geert Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede, Michael Minkov, Cultures and Organizations, Software of the Mind, Third Revised Edition, McGrawHill 2010, ISBN 0-07-166418-1. © Geert Hofstede B.V. quoted with permission.

76 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

make sure the meaning is provided by the words and to be well organized and structured. The person’s gestures, facial expressions, status, and so on may add subtle meaning but are not considered to be of major importance. On the oth- er hand, high-context cultures rely only minimally on spoken words that tend to be brief, indirect, and implicit. Words have the power to hurt, so they are used very carefully (Cohen, 1991). This is the reason high-context nations like Japan find it hard to say and receive a direct “no.” It seems like the person, not the idea, is being rejected (Stefani et al., 1997). Therefore, disagreeing publicly causes loss of face and is considered rude and immature. Instead of the speak- er, it is the receiver’s responsibility to determine the meaning—usually from the setting, the speaker’s face and nonverbal gestures, the speaker’s friends, family background, age, status, silence, and so on. High-context cultures are

homogeneous, tightly bound by experiences, family, and tradition; messages and responses are basi- cally consistent (Hofstede, 2001; Samovar & Porter, 2004).

Companies or individuals who design websites for international audiences should note the finding by Usunier and Roulin (2010), who analyzed 597 websites in 57 coun- tries: Global websites designed us- ing a high-context communication style were generally harder to locate using a search engine, were more difficult to navigate and read, pro- vided less information about prod- ucts and prices, were less effective when using colors and graphics, and

had fewer opportunities for interaction than low-context websites (pp. 214–217). Even so, websites designed from a low-content perspective still need to implement different-language versions “to make full use of the Internet as a global communi- cation tool for doing business worldwide” (p. 222).

Monochromic and Polychromic Cultures The third dimension that enriches our understanding of cultural differences deals with the time dimension called monochromic–polychromic. Monochromic (m-time) cultures, such as those in the United States, Switzerland, and Germany, view time as a “scarce resource which must be rationed and controlled through the use of schedules and appointments” (Smith & Bond, 1994, p. 149), “Saving” time is good; “wasting” time is not. When a business meeting is set for a specific time, people from m-time cultures will do their best to be “on time” and may even be early. They want to get right down to business and will likely view people who are “late” and/or want to socialize before beginning the meeting as “time wasters.” People from m-time cultures are likely to thank you for your “time” when you do a favor for them.

Daniel Acker/Bloomberg via Getty Images

Revisiting the Case Study... Indicate how businesspeople from a collectivistic/ high-context culture would likely react to Smith’s resignation letter. How would businesspeople from an individualistic/low-context culture likely react? Since Goldman Sachs is an international company, would it be safe to say that reactions might vary greatly from country to country? Run an Internet search for reactions and see if your answers were correct.

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CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS 77

On the other hand, polychromic (p-time) cultures, such as those in Af- rican, Arabic, Asian, and Latin American countries, see “the maintenance of harmonious relationships as the important thing, so that the use of time needs to be flexible in order that we do right by the various people to whom we have obligations” (Smith & Bond, 1994, p. 149). “Saving” time is not as important in these cultures, where arriving late is expected and rarely deserves an apology. P-time people generally feel the need to get to know you and even socialize before starting a meeting. M-time relates closely to low-context, individualis- tic cultures, whereas p-time corresponds more to high-context, collectivistic cultures. Of course, not everyone in a particular culture views time in the same way, which is probably a source of irritation to their colleagues and friends.

Cultural Differences and Conflict So, what do these three dimensions tell us about how different cultures handle conflict? The preceding information is summarized in Table 3.2, which includes important cultural assumptions about conflict. Research continues to support these assumptions. For example, research by Croucher et al. (2012) found that India and Thailand—both high-context countries—preferred handling conflict by withdrawing and accommodating whereas the United States and Ireland showed a preference for competing, collaborating, and compromising.

Remember that the information in this section should be used as a starting point only; behaviors vary greatly within each country. As more and more com- panies expand into other nations, we are likely to experience intercultural conflict. Individualistic, low-context team members need to be aware that solving intercul- tural conflicts requires some careful reframing such as, “It is not a conflict that is resolved but a relationship that is mended” (Cohen, 1991, p. 51). Collectivistic, high-context team members also need careful reframing, such as “It is not just a relationship that was mended but a conflict that was resolved.” Chen, Liu, and Tjosvold (2005) indicated that Chinese management teams, rather than avoiding

TABLE 3.2 CULTURAL ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT CONFLICT

INDIVIDUALISTIC–LOW-CONTEXT CULTURES

COLLECTIVISTIC–HIGH-CONTEXT CULTURE

Conflict viewed from “problem-solving” model. Conflict viewed from “face-maintenance” model.

Conflict can be functional or dysfunctional. Conflict is mainly dysfunctional.

Conflict is dysfunctional when not confronted openly.

Conflict shows lack of self-discipline and emotional immaturity and is cause for embarrassment and distress.

Conflict is functional and exciting when it provides open opportunity to solve problems.

Conflict, when forced upon one, provides testing ground for skillful “facework.”

Contextual and relational issues should be handled separately.

Contextual and relational face issues are intertwined.

Conflict should be handled openly and directly. Conflict should be handled discreetly and subtly.

Source: Ting-Toomey, S. (2000). Managing Intercultural Conflicts Effectively. In L. A. Samovar & R. E. Porter (Eds.), Intercultural Communication: A Reader (9th ed., pp. 388–400). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth; Stefani, L. A., Samovar, L. A., & Hellweg, S. A. (1997). “Culture and Its Impact on Negotiation.” In L. A. Samovar & R. E. Porter (Eds.), Inter- cultural Communication: A Reader (8th ed., pp. 307–317). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

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78 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

conflict as many collectivistic countries do, have learned to approach conflict in a cooperative manner.

Regardless of the culture, team members could improve communication by using the following tips from Hall (2002):

● Realize that there is more than one reasonable position in a conflict. ● Look for the “trigger” to the conflict (triggers are “small acts or comments

that push already difficult situations into open conflict,” p. 255). ● Use storytelling as a way to talk about conflict when a direct approach is

undesirable. ● Use a neutral third party to mediate really serious conflicts.

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS IN THE WORKPLACE Conflict and culture definitely affect the success of organizations in the work- place. But just as important to success are the development and maintenance of relationships, which are mutual liking and interests between people. Regardless of your status in it, your organization’s success is influenced by the quality of your relationships with your coworkers (Williams, 2011), supervisors, and customers. The quality of employee relationships affects (a) job satisfaction, (b) trust, (c) ability to meet others’ communication needs, (d) absenteeism and turnover, (e) creativity and innovation, (f) productivity, and (g) commitment to and knowledge of the organization (Conrad & Poole, 2012, pp. 142–146; Feeley et al., 2008; Yager, 1997).

The quality of supervisors’ relationships is equally important. Studies conclude that 40% of newly hired managers remain less than 18 months in their jobs mainly because of their “failure to build good relationships with peers and subordinates” (Fisher, 1998, p. 3). Managerial characteristics that are important to “high-quality” boss–subordinate relationships include praise, understanding, trust, friendliness, honesty, and openness to subordinates’ disagreement (Goldhaber, 1993, p. 11). The need for strong interpersonal relationships is especially important in the new organization models—the multiunit and the virtual organizations—in which elec- tronic commerce, globalization, cyberspace offices, and constant change can cause employees to feel both physically and emotionally isolated. In Organizational Communication, Eisenberg, Goodall, and Trethewey (2010) note the following:

It is highly likely that the development of virtual teams will increase exponen- tially with the development of more realistic telepresence and absorption of younger people into the workplace. . . . From an employee perspective, members of the “millennial” generation are much more comfortable than their predeces- sors with multitasking and multiple, mediated forms of communication. (p. 218)

Although technology-driven organizations often believe that the key to success is the number of messages sent, the key is actually using the media to build relationships and trust (Tapscott, Tiscoll, & Lowy, 2000), which in turn affects our work environments and may even influence our lives at home. Re- search analyzed up to 1991 concluded that job satisfaction spills over into life

CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS 79

satisfaction (Rain, Lane, & Steiner, 1991). Thus, you need to be careful in select- ing the organization for which you work because its atmosphere can directly affect your communication style, your relationships, and your communication behavior. Likewise, the organization must be careful about the type of person it hires because the way employees relate to others can affect the organization’s communication success and even its culture, as Southwest Airlines indicated in the discussion in Chapter 2.

Keys to Building and Maintaining Relationships The strong, lasting relationships that we develop with people at work (or any- where, for that matter) fulfill a need for us. As long as the relationships are mutually satisfying, they will endure; if not, they will deteriorate. In developing and maintaining relationships, it is important to keep in mind several relationship keys, which include expectations, the reciprocal nature of relationships, trust, and technology.

Make Expectations Clear Every person in a relationship has certain expectations of other people and the job. If employers, employees, and even customers make their expectations clear from the start, job satisfaction and quality relationships have a better chance of developing (Chell & Tracey, 2005). For example, if we join an organization expecting a warm, social working envi- ronment but find a task-oriented, no-talking environment, we are likely to re- act with frustration and anger, and the quality of our working relationships will deteriorate or never develop and we may leave the job or even get fired. This is illustrated by a UPS distribution center in Buffalo, New York, that had an unex- plained turnover rate of 50% until they discovered the problem and took steps to solve it. The job was part-time with almost no chance for full-time employ- ment, yet this information was not given to job candidates—most of whom were really looking for full-time employment. When they realized that their expec- tations couldn’t be met by the warehouse job, they quit—sometimes after only a few weeks. Once the job was offered to people who really wanted part-time work (like students and mothers), the turnover rate dropped to 6% (Daft, 2008). Apparently, most of our “expectations remain unspoken until they are violated” (Kreps, 1990, p. 150) because we assume that others know our expectations, as well as what is expected of them, without being told. Also according to Kreps, not only do most expectations remain unspoken until violated, but also our ex- pectations “continually change, making the potential for the fulfillment of these expectations less likely” (p. 150).

Making expectations clear is also important in virtual organizations, where virtual team members and telecommuters are physically isolated from others. Email, instant messaging (IM), blogs, teleconferencing, and social networking “enable ‘virtual coworkers’ to become ‘virtual friends’” (Sias et al., 2002, p. 634). One woman who works on a virtual team said the following:

“We’ve had more challenges than your typical office team. However, we’ve also had advantages over other teams, including improved relationships and the ability to avoid endless, pointless meetings.” (Carter-Jackson, n.d.)

80 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Make Use of the “Reciprocal Nature” of Relationships Interperson- al relationships are reciprocal—which means that a favor from one person is usually returned in kind. For example, if a coworker helps you with a problem, you will most likely “reciprocate” and help out the coworker at a later time. No one actually said, “If you help me, I’ll help you,” but because of the reciprocal nature of relationships, “people communicate with others in accord with the way they perceive these others communicating with them” (Kreps, 1990, p. 153). As long as we continue to reciprocate, the relationship will grow. On the other hand, if you do considerably more for me than I am able to do for you, the reciprocal quality of our relationship is out of balance, and the relationship will deteriorate or at least stagnate until the balance is restored.

Watch Out for Self-Fulfilling Prophecies When you predict that some- thing will happen and it actually occurs, we call it a self-fulfilling prophecy— our behavior helped ensure the outcome. For example, if a manager believes that a subordinate is dishonest or ineffective, the manager is likely to unknowingly communicate these feelings to the subordinate through verbal and nonverbal behaviors, such as unwarranted criticism, rejection of ideas, and unfriendly facial expressions. As a result, the subordinate picking up on these cues now realizes that the manager doesn’t trust or like him or her and, therefore, hesitates to present new ideas or disclose full and honest information. Seeing this hesi- tancy, the manager now feels justified in his or her previous assessment —thus, the manager’s expectations about the subordinate are fulfilled. Relationships are fragile enough without behaviors that contribute to self-fulfilling prophecies.

Maintain Mutual Trust and Respect Trust may be one of the most important results of manager–employee relationships (Hubbell & Chory- Assad, 2005). In their article, “Relationship Building in Small Firms,” Chell and Tracey (2005) found trust and mutual respect to be “an intangible bond that secures the relationship in the present and prospectively into the future” (p. 606). High trust levels can be developed without a long acquaintance if the participants believe that the other is trustworthy based on such things as group membership, reputation, or information gained from a brief interac- tion about the other’s intentions and motives (McKnight et al., 2006). This is fortunate because so many temporary and virtual teams must begin work im- mediately and have little time to spend developing trust. On the other hand, researchers have found that employees aren’t necessarily feeling trust for their employers. For example, Kanter and Mirvis (1990) reported that 72% of em- ployees felt their managers were taking advantage of them, and 66% believed their managers could not be trusted. To create trust in situations like this, relationship-building is a must.

Provide Feedback and Self-Disclosure When Appropriate Without feedback and disclosure, relationships would stagnate. Feedback includes the responses to others’ messages in the form of information, opinions, and feel- ings; self-disclosure includes voluntarily revealing information, opinions, and feelings to others that they would not know otherwise. Too much or too little

CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS 81

feedback can hurt communication and relationships, and too much or too little disclosure can hurt communication and relationships.

Guidelines for giving feedback to others as covered in Chapter 1 include that it should (a) be directed toward behavior rather than toward the person, (b) be descriptive rather than evaluative, (c) involve sharing ideas rather than giving advice, (d) include only as much information as the person can handle at one time, and (e) be well timed. Because an unusual interest in feedback may be viewed with suspicion by those who don’t know you, move slowly, identify the specific type of feedback you want, and tell them why you want it. Remember also that you must accept any feedback in a positive manner. A negative or de- fensive response will convince others that sharing ideas with you is dangerous.

Although for most people disclosure is more difficult to use effectively than feedback, there are three important guidelines to follow:

● First, disclosure should be mutually shared. All people involved in the rela- tionship must be willing to trust the others and to share openly with them. There is a reciprocal aspect to disclosure—the surest way to get others to disclose with you is to disclose with them. Disclosure normally results in trust and respect (Wheeless & Grotz, 1977), and people who trust each other are more likely to disclose (McAllister, 1980).

● Second, disclosure should be a gradual process. Most people don’t disclose too much, they just disclose too soon. To maintain a good image when you are the new member of a team, you should begin with conservative disclo- sures. Relationships do not happen overnight. A truly open relationship may take months or years to develop fully. It would be a mistake to open up suddenly and dump your feelings on someone; the other person would probably wonder what game you were playing. Be cautious—lead up to disclosure slowly (Miell & Duck, 1986). Pay attention to others’ nonverbal reactions. They will tell you if you are moving too fast or disclosing inap- propriate information. Wait for your disclosures to be reciprocated before you disclose more.

● Third, communication is generally best at a moderate level of disclosure. High lev- els of disclosure occur in relatively few communication transactions (Bochner, 1984) and even less in the business environment (Pearce & Sharp, 1973). Ac- cording to Gilbert (1976), the relationship between disclosure and satisfaction is a curvilinear relationship, meaning that satisfaction is low when disclo- sure is both low and high; it is best when disclosure is at a moderate level (Figure 3.2). Not all cultures view self-disclosure (even moderate disclosure) as a positive influence on relationships. For example, Chinese people tend to view disclosure as rude or in poor taste, whereas Japanese people often prefer to “put on a ‘good face’” rather than risk displeasing another and may actually say yes when they really mean no (Caputo et al., 2000, p. 108).

Use Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) Carefully Information and communication technologies (ICTs) have changed the way people “foster relationships in organizations” (Conrad & Poole, 2012, p. 140). Not only are personal relationships formed by using ICTs such as email, blogs,

82 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Disclosure

S a ti

sf a ct

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None

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M od

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Moderate High

FIGURE 3.2 Curvilinear relationship between satisfaction and disclosure

and social media, but in savvy organizations, employee-to-employee and employee-to-customer relationships are formed and maintained as well. Al- though ICTs will be discussed in detail in Chapter 6, it’s important to mention here that using technology requires care. As mentioned earlier, online messages are generally less “rich” than messages sent face to face. Although “the infor- mation exchanged via electronic media does not seem to be any more or less accurate than information exchanged through other media” (Conrad & Poole, p. 140), it is easy to misinterpret the intent and tone of online messages. Also, online relationships take longer to develop than most face-to-face relationships, so be patient.

Communication Styles and Business Relationships Strong interpersonal relationships are not only the heart of a successful organization but they are also the foundation of our own business successes. To make relation- ships work, we need to understand our communication styles. Our communica- tion styles affect relationships with bosses, coworkers, teams, and customers. Each of us has a distinct communication style that we feel the most comfortable using. Many professions and businesses also seem to have preferred communication styles. The strategies we use to solve conflict also depend on our communication styles.

In this section, we will look at four styles that managers, employees, and cus- tomers typically use when communicating: the private, dominant, sociable, and open styles. Few people are ever completely one style. Although a person may have some characteristics of all four styles, most people have one or sometimes two central styles they typically use when things are going well and another style (or styles) they use under stress. None of these styles is totally good or totally bad; each has its “best” and “worst” side.

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To communicate more successfully and establish more meaningful working relationships, employees need to (a) determine their personal communication styles, (b) understand the strength and weaknesses of each style, and (c) learn how to communicate effectively with people using styles different from their own (whether they are supervisors, coworkers, or customers).

You should realize that this classification system of four styles is not intended to serve as a method for stereotyping people but as a practical way of understand- ing your own and others’ frames of reference. You will note that these styles are

Elder Relationships A poll by “PBS NewsHour” found that 43% of Americans considered living in a nursing home “totally unacceptable” for themselves, and 45% felt that elders are actually worse off after moving into a nursing home (Dentzer, 2002). According to William Thomas, physician, author (1999 and 2004), and creator of Eden Alternative—the typical nurs- ing home is “utterly devoid of hope, love, humor, [and] meaning” (Salter, 2002, para. 2). He claims that America’s institutionalized elders who live in nursing homes resemble convicted criminals who live in our prisons (Bell, 2002, para. 4).

What’s the answer? “Relationships are the foundation of good health care,” says Thomas (Bell, 2002). For relationships to flourish, elders need a sanctuary that feels like home—a place that is warm, uses smart technology, is connected with a green environment (Thomas, 2004, p. 221), and has a staff interested in relationships. Over 300 nursing homes and 15,000 care providers are now associated with Thomas’s Garden of Eden approach, which includes well-treated, empowered staff who work in teams, elders who participate in personal and nursing-home operations when able, an environment that looks and smells like home (with personal furniture, home-baked bread, pets and children from the on- site day-care center), and an inviting garden full of flower and vegetable beds, benches, and shade trees (Bell, 2002; Eden Alternative, 2012; Thomas, 2004). Eden Alternative nursing homes provide an environment that encourages relationships.

Does this approach work? Residents bloom in the new homes (all the homes have long waiting lists), and research shows significant drops in the overall number of drug prescriptions, infection rates, pressure sores, behavioral incidents, bedfast residents, and mortality rates (NCAOn- line.org, 2006; Eden Alternative, 2012; Thomas, 2004).

Employees, who traditionally have been encouraged not to develop relationships with the residents, are also happy, as indicated by the staff motto at a home in South Bend, Indi- ana: “Our elders do not live in our facility. We work in their home” (EdenAlt.com, 2006). One staff member expressed the value of relationships this way:

Today I had fried chicken and macaroni and cheese for lunch. It made me miss my friend Foby. She almost made it to her 99th birthday, missing it by only five days. . . . When I held her hand in the hos- pital bed that last day, I thought how lucky I was to have known her. Five years ago, I would have never thought that I would so dearly love this woman who stuck out her tongue when you walked by and would never let anyone sit with her. Oh, what I would have lost out on. And maybe, just maybe, I gave a little back to her. (CultureChangeNow.com, 2006, para. 9)

Not only are good relationships the foundation of good health care, but they are also good for business. A registered Eden home in Michigan reported staff turnover and absenteeism drops of 75% and 60%, respectively, re- sulting in savings of approximately $100,000 (Steiner, 2004; Thomas, 2004). Although change is slow and a great deal of work remains, Eden homes seem to be a good alternative.

WHAT DO YOU THINK? How does the success experienced by the Eden Alterna-

tive nursing homes relate to the quality of communica- tion between the elders and the employees who care for them?

In general, which communication style should the employees use to communicate with the elderly patients receiving nursing home care? Why?

IT REALLY WORKS

84 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

very closely aligned with the organization models discussed in Chapter 2. As you read the following sections, remember that the descriptions of these styles are not perfect or even complete; rather, they describe tendencies. As such, I hope you will find them as helpful in your daily business and professional careers as my many students and business seminar participants have over the years.

Note that these four styles are a composite of several different styles ap- proaches as listed in the footnote1 and do not mirror any of them exactly. I have attempted to alter any criticisms or weaknesses of these approaches and have developed a survey located at the end of this chapter to help you determine your main styles used as an employee and your main styles used as a manager. Waldherr and Muck (2011) conducted a literature review of research on com- munication styles and concluded that two reliable dimensions stand out in the research so far—high and low assertiveness and high and low responsiveness. Although the dimensions used in the Survey of Communication Styles—Long Form use different terms—disclosure and feedback—they are similar in mean- ing. People who are high in assertiveness are more likely to disclose information and feelings, while people who are high in responsiveness are more likely to seek and reply to the feedback of others. The disclosure/assertiveness and the feed- back/responsiveness dimensions have been combined in this edition as you can see in Figure 3.3.

When you complete the Survey of Communication Styles, you may find that you use the same style as an employee as you do as a manager, or you may

1The manager, employee, and customer styles presented in this section are a composite of Luft and Ingham’s (Luft, 1969) “JoHari window” concept; J. A. Hall’s (1975) “interpersonal styles and managerial impacts;” Lefton’s (Lefton, Buzzotta, Sherberg, & Karraker, 1980) “management systems approach;” Bradford and Cohen’s (1984) “manager-as-conductor” and “manager-as-developer” middle manager style;” and Merrill & Reid’s (1981) “Social Style Model” (SSM). The final result is my own product and, therefore, does not parallel any of the other approaches exactly.

Low Disclosure/Assertiveness

Private Sociable

Dominant Open

Low Feedback/ Responsiveness

High Feedback/ Responsiveness

High Disclosure/Assertiveness

FIGURE 3.3 Feedback/responsiveness and disclosure/assertiveness dimensions with communication styles

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NOTE Before reading further in this chapter, complete the following two surveys:

1. The Styles Survey— Short Form on page 85.

2. The Survey of Communi- cation Styles (both the Manager and Employee sections) located at the end of this chapter and online at the Course- Mate website for Com- municating for Results was first created in 1981 and last updated in May 2011. When you take the survey, it will be automatically scored and plotted for you and will include the option to e-mail the results to your instructor.

CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS 85

discover that you use a different style for each. This survey is especially helpful for teams and provides some excellent feedback that you can use to improve your communication with each other. You may want to ask your colleagues, boss, or team members to take the Survey of Communication Styles—Long Form located at the end of this chapter. It can also provide some interesting feedback for spouses, significant others, or family members as well.

When you complete the Long Form survey please note:

1. Your largest total (or two totals if the totals are only one or two points apart) represents the style(s) that you typically use when things are running smoothly.

2. The next largest total (or two if the totals are only one or two points apart) represents the style(s) you use under stress.

3. You will have a set of totals for both the MTI (Manager Tendency Indicator) and the ETI (Employee Tendency Indicator).

Which style is the most effective in a particular situation depends on (a) which styles you can use comfortably, (b) with which styles you could best handle the conflict or problem, and (c) which styles are preferred by your team,

Styles Survey—Short Form Take this styles survey and compare your results with the results you get when you take the Survey of Communication Styles—Long Form. You can take both surveys online. Go to cengagebrain.com to access your Speech Communication Course- Mate for Communicating for Results.

DIRECTIONS: Answer each of the following questions by writing on the line a number from 1 to 10 that represents how true or false each statement is to you: completely false = 1; completely true = 10. This number represents your points for that question.

POINTS:

________ 1. I feel more comfortable around things than around people. ________ 2. To keep the peace, I usually give in. ________ 3. I find that I’m usually right on most issues. ________ 4. I make sure that my opinions are known. ________ 5. It’s important to me that people like me; if they don’t, I feel very uncomfortable. ________ 6. I usually withhold my opinions until I know what other people think. ________ 7. I like most people I meet. ________ 8. Working on teams is enjoyable and is a productive way to solve problems.

SCORING: Add the points from questions 7 and 8: total = Open Style. Add the points from questions 5 and 6: total = Sociable Style. Add the points from questions 3 and 4: total = Dominant Style. Add the points from questions 1 and 2: total = Private Style.

Your largest total represents the communication style you use when things are going smoothly. The next largest total (or two totals if the scores are very close) is the style or styles you jump back to under stress.

AWARENESS CHECK

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86 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Rarely discloses

Rarely seeks

feedback

Seeks excessive feedback

Discloses excessively

PRIVATE

FIGURE 3.4 The private communication style

TABLE 3.3 PRIVATE—STYLE MANAGER

1. Key word:

2. Motivation for being closed:

3. Communicates expectations?:

4. Handles conflict:

5. Handles employee appraisals:

6. Motivates employees by:

7. Organization models used:

Fill in the blanks while reading.

supervisor/employees, coworkers, or customers. Knowing the strengths and weaknesses of each style can help you adjust your own style and adapt to the styles of others.

The Private Style If you had the choice of a job in a room with five or six other people whom you would work with each day or a job in a room by yourself, working with a machine that only one person could operate at a time, which would you choose? If you selected to work alone, you probably have strong private tendencies. Private-style communicators simply feel more comfortable working with things than with people—does this seem like you? For example, a private-style employee might do well working at restocking items or finding glitches in a software program but be inefficient when handling customers at a complaint window or working in a group. A private-style manager may enjoy inventory control, ordering supplies, and detail work but be less successful dealing with employees and employee problems.

As Figure 3.4 indicates, private-style communicators seek little feed- back, which makes them low on the responsiveness continuum, and dis- close little information, which also makes them low on the assertiveness continuum. In other words, they are noncommunicators, who not only feel uncomfortable around people, they may actually fear them.

Because private-style people find it difficult to communicate their expectations to others, they are often disappointed by and disappointing to those around them. For example, the boss who expects private-style employees to ac- tively participate in group meetings and decision making will be disappointed. Asking their opinion in meetings does not make it easier for them to participate; instead, it increases their anxiety. Private-style customers are often disappointed by salespeople (they really want to be led by the hand but are afraid to ask). If the product or service recommended by the salesperson turns out to be poor, rarely will private-style customers openly complain. Instead, they may change stores without letting the store or letting the salesperson know why.

Private-style people spend much of their energy in seeking safety to keep from looking like fools, being blamed for something, or even losing their jobs. They try to avoid conflict and avoid making decisions. When decisions have to be made,

they use safe procedures such as “going by the book,” following tradition, and treating everyone alike. Actions taken by private-style managers in an attempt to remain safe include treating all employees the same re- gardless of their performance, giving only brief, superficial employee ap- praisals (and then only when absolutely necessary), and never initiating upward communication.

Private-style people can be quite productive as long as only minimal interaction with others is required. However, because of their commu- nication anxiety, relationships with private-style people are difficult— especially in the work environment. As a result, creative employees and employees who need guidance often become frustrated with the private- style manager. On the other hand, other private-style employees and highly trained and motivated employees who like to make their own

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decisions appreciate the private-style manager, who stays out of their way and concentrates on computers, equipment, and other “things.”

To summarize, the private style is most successful when little interper- sonal interaction is required for the job, when going by the book is the pre- ferred company stance, when subordinates are professionals who need little supervision, and when others in the department are private or prefer things to people. The private style is less successful when the job requires a high level of interpersonal interaction; when the organization is in a high-risk profes- sion with creative, high-strung individuals; when subordinates need or want guidance; and when the profession or business is productivity-oriented.

The Dominant Style If you are looking for someone you can de- pend on to get the job done, someone to train a group of overconfident new hires, someone with the self-assurance to troubleshoot a problem department, or someone who can command authority in a crisis, you couldn’t do better than to hire a dominant-style communicator. Whereas private-style communicators would experience disabling anxiety in these situations, dominant-style communicators thrive in situations in which they can demonstrate their expertise and experience—does this sound like you?

As Figure 3.5 indicates, dominant-style communicators tend to fall on the low-feedback/responsiveness and high-disclosure/assertiveness ends of the two continuums, which causes others to view them as authori- tarian. As with private-style people, dominant-style communicators seldom ask for feedback, and yet they are the opposite of private communicators in several ways. Instead of having a low self-image, dominant-style communica- tors tend to be very confident (even overly confident) and are not afraid to express their views, expectations, or needs. People know where they stand with a dominant-style communicator. Dominant communicators don’t ask for feedback from others because they don’t feel they need it; they already know what’s best. Instead of avoiding others, dominant-style communicators tend to overuse disclosure, telling others their opinions, how things should be done, and what others are doing wrong, even when their advice may not be wanted. For example, it’s very difficult for dominant-style managers to delegate re- sponsibility. They want employees to do the work but to do it the way they themselves would do it. Private and dominant communicators also differ in the way they handle conflict. Instead of ignoring con- flict, dominant communicators jump right in and solve the problem their way, using force if necessary. Often, dominant-style managers solve conflicts without asking for employee agreement or input.

Actually, dominant-style communicators are often right when they say their ideas are better. They are usually experienced and very knowledgeable on the topic. But when people are not allowed to give feedback, to try things their way, or to make mistakes, they can’t devel- op their potential. Therefore, even though dominant-style managers are good trainers, they don’t allow their employees the freedom to develop to the point at which they can take over for the boss. When the manager is

TABLE 3.4 DOMINANT—STYLE MANAGER

1. Key word:

2. Motivation for being blind:

3. Communicates expectations?:

4. Handles conflict:

5. Handles employee appraisals:

6. Motivates employees by:

7. Organization models used:

Fill in the blanks while reading.

Rarely discloses

Rarely seeks

feedback

Seeks excessive feedback

Discloses excessively

DOMINANT

FIGURE 3.5 The dominant communication style

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88 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

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Dominant-style communicators are seen as very critical and demanding. For example, al- though dominant-style managers mention em- ployee strengths in appraisal sessions, they spend the majority of the time on weaknesses. Their comments probably don’t include “face support- ive” communication (Carson & Cupach, 2000)— comments and nonverbal gestures designed to show employee approval and give the employee some choices. In the same way, dominant-style employees (feeling that their ideas are better than those of their bosses) are argumentative and have problems gracefully receiving criticism or orders. Even dominant-style customers are very critical (often knowing more about a product than the salesperson) and are usually the first to tell their

friends when they are unhappy with a particular organization. Vocal unhappi- ness like Kevin Smith posted on Facebook and Twitter when he was removed from a Southwest flight for being overweight (see Chapter 6) can reduce a company’s business (Finkelman & Goland, 1990).

If you have dominant-style tendencies, you have probably discovered that most people are not interested in the perfect way to do things. Most people want the job completed but are not impressed by all the hard work that “per- fection” requires. If you often feel dismayed by the quality of others’ ideas and think to yourself, “If I want something done right, I’ve got to do it myself,” you are exhibiting dominant-style tendencies as are often found in the traditional organization.

Occasionally, a person who appears to be dominant is really a very inse- cure, private-style person who notices that dominant communicators get more desired results (such as more job promotions) than private ones and decides to try the dominant style. Therefore, these people—we’ll call them neurotic dominant communicators—hide their insecurity behind an authoritarian mask. Instead of the constructive criticism given by a dominant manager, the neurotic dominant manager’s criticism is angry and includes unrealistic personal attacks. To hide the fact that they feel threatened by knowledgeable, hardworking employees, neurotic dominant managers find a minor employee weakness and blow it out of proportion—often in front of other employees. Therefore, don’t confuse the true dominant communicator with the neurotic dominant communicator. Dominant-style communicators may be critical and demanding, but they appreciate quality work; neurotic dominant communica- tors feel threatened by quality and are impossible to please.

To summarize, the dominant style is most successful when untrained sub- ordinates need their expertise, during a crisis or time of organizational change, or when an immediate decision is needed. The dominant style is less successful when the organization has many personnel problems, when subordinates are

CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS 89

professional people who expect to make their own decisions, or when creativity and risk taking are critical to the organization’s success.

The Sociable Style If you had to choose between an efficient, highly productive office in which people were friendly but not social, or a less efficient but social environment in which birthdays were cel- ebrated, employees freely chatted while working, and everyone was treated as a family member, which would you pick? People with so- ciable tendencies prefer a social environment and want to be friendly with everyone as is found in the human relations model. Sociable- style communicators are interested in people, are good listeners, and are generally well liked. It’s very important to them that everyone gets along and that conflicts are avoided. However, sociable-style commu- nicators may limit what they choose to share and may hide their “true” feelings and knowledge from others.

As Figure 3.6 indicates, sociable-style communicators fall on the low-disclosure/assertiveness, high-feedback/responsiveness ends of the two continuums. Although they like social environments, they find it dif- ficult to disclose their opinions and expectations to others. For example, a sociable-style boss may cover only strengths in an employee appraisal and skip over weaknesses; a sociable-style employee may be unable to disagree with an unfair comment from the boss during an appraisal; and a sociable-style customer may agree with a salesperson’s suggestions even if they don’t reflect what the customer prefers.

Don’t confuse the sociable communicator with the private communicator. Sociable communicators are not afraid of people, and they don’t hide from them like the private-style communicator does. They do listen carefully to others and ask them how they feel, but they tend to keep their own opinions and feelings private—does this sound like you?

Why do sociable-style people hide their opinions and feelings from others? They are motivated by mistrust of people or by the desire for social acceptance—or even both. Sociable people who tend to mistrust others feel more comfortable when they know what people are up to; they want to find out what is going on and to get feedback—someone is bound to let something slip. For example, a sociable- style customer who is motivated by mistrust will be suspicious that the salesperson is taking advantage in some way and will try to confirm these suspicions by asking questions.

Sociable-style people who are motivated by the desire for social acceptance want, above all, to please others. For example, sociable- style managers feel that keeping people happy is more important than productivity. After all, employee complaints can get you fired; moderate productivity usually doesn’t. Sociable-style customers who are motivated by a desire for social acceptance would rather deal with friendly, sociable salespeople even if they have to pay more for the product.

Sociable-style people often appear to be sharing because they ask questions and stimulate others to share, thereby disguising their lack of

TABLE 3.5 SOCIABLE—STYLE MANAGER

1. Key word:

2. Motivation for being hidden:

3. Communicates expectations?:

4. Handles conflict:

5. Handles employee appraisals:

6. Motivates employees by:

7. Organization models used:

Fill in the blanks while reading.

Rarely discloses

Rarely seeks

feedback

Seeks excessive feedback

Discloses excessively

SOCIABLE

FIGURE 3.6 The sociable communication style

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90 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Rarely discloses

Rarely seeks

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Seeks excessive feedback

Discloses excessively

OPEN

FIGURE 3.7 The open communi- cation style

TABLE 3.6 OPEN-STYLE MANAGER

1. Key word:

2. Motivation for being open:

3. Communicates expectations?:

4. Handles conflict:

5. Handles employee appraisals:

6. Motivates employees by:

7. Organization models used:

Fill in the blanks while reading.

disclosure. Sociable people disclose only on impersonal, safe topics and don’t disagree with others. Sociable-style employees often appear overly friendly and eager to please (“yes” people). Sociable-style managers cre- ate the facade of being open in meetings when important decisions are to be made, but they usually speak up only after the majority opinion is clear or the top bosses’ views are known. Sociable people fear conflict and disagreement and try to smooth over any discord.

As you can see, relationships with sociable-style people are basically one-way; they do most of the listening, while others do most of the shar- ing. Often, when others realize this, they withdraw their trust or at least stop confiding as much to the sociable-style person.

To summarize, the sociable style is most successful when a social environment is expected; when the climate of the organization makes caution and political maneuvering necessary; when teamwork is a so- cial occasion and rarely involves problem solving; and when adequate performance is all that is expected. The sociable style is less success- ful when the climate is more work-oriented than social; when tasks require a high degree of trust among workers; when tasks are complex and involve team problem solving; and when excellent performance is expected.

The Open Style Open-style communicators tend to use both disclosure and feedback and are equally interested in people’s needs and company pro- ductivity. Of the four styles, open-style communicators are the ones who most appreciate other people (private communicators are nervous around people, dominant communicators tend to view others as relatively unimportant, and so- ciable communicators don’t always trust people). As Figure 3.7 indicates, open- style communicators fall on the high-disclosure/assertiveness, high-feedback/ responsiveness ends of the two continuums. In fact, they may disclose too much too often and may ask for too much feedback. This type of forward commu- nication makes many people uncomfortable—like the stranger sitting next to you on an airplane who tells you all about his or her family, latest surgery, and marital affair.

For most open-style people, the problem is not that they are too open but that they are too open too soon. In The Open Organization, Steele (1975) warns that the order in which we disclose different aspects of ourselves will determine

how others react to us. For instance, new members of a group should first show their responsible, concerned side. When this stance results in their acceptance, then they can start to show their less perfect aspects and even make a critical observation. These same aspects or observa- tions could get a nonmember rejected out of hand. For example, men- tioning a problem you observed to your colleagues when you are a new hire of less than a week would likely get more of a negative response than if you had worked for the company for 2 to 3 months. In new environments, open-style employees need to listen and observe others to determine the openness of the climate. Openness is most effective when it produces a gradual sharing with others.

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Open-style people are generally sensitive to the needs of others and real- ize that conflict can be productive. Open-style managers are more likely to em- power employees to take active roles in the affairs of the organization. These empowered employees usually develop quality relationships and increase pro- ductivity. Generally, “employees in open, supportive communication climates are satisfied employees” (Conrad & Poole, 2012, p. 143; see also Daft & Marcic, 2013, Chapter 12).

Do not assume from what has been said so far that the open style is ad- vocated in all situations. If the organization’s climate is open, if upper man- agement favors the open style, if employees and managers are basically open, and if customers appreciate an open style, then the open style is appropriate. Within reason, the more open we are, the better communicators we are likely to be because we are better able to share our frames of reference and expecta- tions with others. Many organizations, however, do not have an open climate. Upper management may not approve of open-style managers and may fail to promote them. Some employees may be uncomfortable around open manag- ers and consider their requests for employee input as proof that they cannot make decisions. Some customers consider open-style salespeople as pushy or even nosy. But keep in mind that what is too open for one group may be just right for another.

In general, a moderately open style is most successful when employee in- volvement in decision making is desired; when change is welcomed as a new opportunity; when tasks are complex and require teamwork; when quality work is expected; and when the organization is involved in global communication us- ing one of the transformational models. The open style is less successful when upper managers or workers view the open style negatively; when tasks are ex- tremely simple and require no teamwork; and when an immediate decision is needed.

Final Tips Your communication success and your ability to establish and maintain rela- tionships both at home and in the workplace depends on realizing two impor- tant facts about communication styles. First, all communication styles have strengths and all have weaknesses. Realizing this simple fact indicates to all communicators that we should analyze our own strengths and weaknesses to see whether any changes are needed. This knowledge also indicates the need for flexibility when dealing with other people who also have styles with strengths and weaknesses. Second, successful relationships depend on our knowing how to relate to people of different styles. Therefore, this section includes both the best and worst of each style as well as some suggested ways to relate to people in our lives who use different communication styles.

The chances are that you have a boss, a coworker, or a customer with whom you have some difficulty communicating. If their communication style differs from yours, your expectations are probably different, which makes the relationship difficult to develop and maintain and negative

92 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

self-fulfilling prophecies more likely. This section offers some advice on how to communicate with people who have different styles—for additional advice, see the CourseMate website for Com- municating for Results. Remember, no one person exemplifies any one style perfectly; therefore, the advice should be taken as a guide to understanding, not as the complete answer to communication problems. Private Communication Style

● How to communicate with private-style managers: Take care—don’t threaten them or increase their insecurity. Avoid asking questions—better to ask other

employees or make the decision yourself if you can do so quietly. Don’t make waves—better to downplay new procedures you develop. Don’t expect any praise, guidance, criticism, or help from the boss—better to provide these for yourself.

● How to communicate with private-style employees: Put closed employees in environments that feel safe—that require little interaction with others. Give specific instructions about how, what, when, and where. Make the

chain of command clear—to whom are they responsible? Limit criticism—they are overcritical of themselves already. Don’t expect their participation in meet- ings or appraisal interviews. ● How to communicate with private-

style customers: Don’t expect them to openly express what they really want— you must search for it. Help them make good choices and you could have a customer for life. Avoid techni- cal jargon—they may be overwhelmed by it. A flip chart presentation may give them a sense of security—avoid a team presentation—it may increase their insecurity. Treat them with respect.

Dominant Communication Style

● How to communicate with dominant- style managers: Take their criticism well and expect to learn from them. Meet the blind manager’s expectations.

Private-Style Communicators . . . At their best are: Productive as long as they can work in an environment free of

interpersonal demands. Seen as reserved. Considered similar to the laissez-faire leader, who lets employees

do whatever they want. At their worst are: Likely to spend most of their energy looking for security; there-

fore, productivity is fairly low. Seen as difficult to get to know and unresponsive to needs of

others. Thought to be aloof and noncommunicative.

REMEMBER

Dominant-Style Communicators . . . At their best are: Clear on what they want and where you stand with them—not

afraid to exercise authority. Usually very loyal, organized, and dependable; others know the

job will get done. Very helpful to those who want to learn as long as the help is

appreciated. At their worst are: Unable to delegate effectively. Very demanding and impatient; insist their way is best. Quick to offer advice and criticism to others but unable to take it. By choice, in control at all times. Liable to stifle growth and creativity of others by making most of

the decisions. Predisposed to expect others to mess things up (“To get things

done right, do them yourself”). Apt to punish failure and mistakes. Often poor listeners.

REMEMBER

CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS 93

Accept that your proposals will be changed by the boss. Ask questions to see what information the boss has assumed you already know and to determine whether the boss already has a “correct” solution in mind. If the boss is a neurotic blind type (a closed boss pretending to be blind), expect personal attacks on your ego.

● How to communicate with dominate-style employees: Expect that blind employees are very self-assured, often argumentative, and usually not team players but know the rules of the game and can play when it is to their advantage. Encourage blind employees to deal with others more flexibly because these employees could well become managers in the fu- ture. Show them that you will reward team involvement. Let them see that you are in charge but that you appreciate the skills and knowledge of others.

● How to communicate with dominate-style customers: Give a polished, well-supported sales presentation—avoid reading a canned flip chart presentation. A team approach, if professional, will probably impress them. Be prepared for suggestions on how to improve your selling tech- nique. Dominant customers like to feel in control; let them feel that they negotiated an exceptional deal (they probably did). Don’t keep them waiting.

Communicator Styles

To check your knowledge of the four communicator styles, take the following quiz. Compare your answers to those at the back of this book. You can also take this quiz online. Go to cengagebrain.com to access your Speech Communication Course- Mate for Communicating for Results.

DIRECTIONS: Identify the communicator style each question describes: (A) private, (B) dominant, (C) sociable, or (D) open.

________ 1. Which style employee prefers not to take any part in office discussions?

________ 2. Which style employee has trouble accepting criticism and is usually argumentative?

________ 3. Which style communicator may make others feel uncomfortable by using too much feedback and too much disclosure?

________ 4. Which style customer prefers to deal with sociable salespeople even at the risk of paying more for the product?

________ 5. Which style person more likely communicates expectations to others?

________ 6. Which style communicator is motivated by mistrust of others?

________ 7. Which style communicator uses low feedback/responsiveness and high disclosure/assertiveness?

________ 8. Which style communicator is more likely to take responsibility for his or her mistakes?

________ 9. Which style manager tends to concentrate more on an employee’s strengths than on weaknesses during an appraisal session?

________ 10. Which style communicator prefers working with things to working with people?

AWARENESS CHECK ©

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94 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Sociable Communication Style

● How to communicate with sociable- style managers: If you are too knowl- edgeable or have come from another department, you may be considered a spy. You will not always know where you stand. Don’t expect the boss to dis- close fully—watch for nonverbal signs that the boss could say more. Show how your work or ideas will bring rec- ognition to the department and thus to the boss, who wants social acceptance. Don’t be afraid to use tactful confronta- tion; the boss will often back down.

● How to communicate with sociable employees motivated by desire for so-

cial acceptance: Expect these employees to be “yes” people because they believe that pleasing you and others is the way to success. Motivate them by public praise (but criticism given in private), posting their names on a wall chart, asking them to give special talks, and other actions that will enhance their social acceptance. Show that you feel positive toward them.

● How to communicate with sociable employees motivated by lack of trust: Realize that sociable-style employees are hard to spot because they have learned how to play the game. Demonstrate (by promotions and performance appraisals) that honest team cooperation is the way to get ahead. Establish a climate in which differing opinions will not be

penalized. Expect your comments to be searched for a double meaning. Be specific, use examples, don’t assume meanings are clear.

● How to communicate with sociable- style customers: Spend time establish- ing a friendly feeling before giving your pitch. Use referral—they are more likely to buy if they feel that others they re- spect are sold on the idea, product, or service. Listen carefully and keep your opinions out of the picture (at least un- til the client’s views are known) because hidden customers may say they agree even if they don’t.

Open Communication Style

● How to communicate with open man- agers: Be honest and open, but use tact. Look at all sides of a problem. Don’t

Sociable-Style Communicators . . . At their best are: Well liked, fun to be around, organizers of social events. Concerned with people and willing to listen. Busy smoothing over minor conflicts and keeping a happy office. At their worst are: Suspicious of the motives of others. Not really interested in quality; adequate performance accepted. “Yes” people; pretend to agree to be liked. Unable to disclose opinions and ideas that might be rejected. Not always loyal and appear to be two-faced.

REMEMBER

Open-Style Communicators . . . At their best are: Flexible in meeting needs and using communication styles. Able to give and receive both praise and criticism. Considered genuine and good listeners. Seen as trusting, friendly, and dependable. Willing to share feelings, as well as knowledge. Productive. Able to empower others through team decisions and feedback. At their worst are: Seen as ineffective managers, especially by blind bosses. Frustrated by lack of creative opportunities under nonopen

bosses. Impatient with the time needed to implement organizational

changes. So open that others feel uncomfortable around them. Open at inappropriate times.

REMEMBER

CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS 95

Should CFO Be Fired for What He Tweeted?

Using Facebook, blogging, and Tweeting are some of the ways that people use technology to create relation- ships. According to PewInternet.org (2012), 80% of American adults (18 or older) use the Internet, 66% use social networking sites, 14% maintain a personal journal or blog online (although 32% post comments on other people’s blogs), and 12% use Twitter.

Although sharing information about the company, personal experiences, and personal lives with others helps relationships grow in the workplace, there is a limit to what should be shared—as indicated in the Zit’s cartoon below. As the number of people using social networking sites and blogs grows, so does the number of people getting fired for the information they post—for example, approximately 10% of companies surveyed have fired at least one employee for comments made on a blog (Singel, 2007). Take for example Mark Jen, a new Google employee, who decided to chronicle his experiences, posting both the good and the not so good. He even discussed Google’s health benefits package, which he said wasn’t as good as Microsoft’s—he was fired (Palan, 2008). Or Peter Whitney who worked as an administrative assistant for a brokerage owned by Wells

Fargo and wrote about personal and work-related issues on his blog. One thing he remembers including is his un- happiness about being asked to contribute to a birthday card for a manager he disliked—he was fired (Wallack, 2005). Even Gene Morphis, CFO of fashion retailer Francesca’s Holdings Corp. was fired for comments about company matters he posted online. He had a blog called “Morph’s View,” a Twitter account with “theoldcfo” as his handle, and a Facebook profile viewable by the public (Silverman, 2012).

Most individuals are surprised when their blogs are discovered—thinking that only family and friends read them. The Pew/Internet survey by Lenhart and Fox found that 49% of bloggers “believe that their blog readership is mostly made up of people they personally know” (p. 19). How to Blog Safely (2005) warns that the people who find your site “may be the people you’d least want or expect. These include potential or current employers, coworkers, and professional colleagues; your neighbors; your spouse or partner; your family; and anyone else cu- rious enough to type your name, e-mail address or screen name into Google or Feedster and click a few links.” Because only 55% of bloggers use a pseudonym (Lenhart & Fox, 2006, p. 10), more firings are sure to occur.

DILEMMAS IN COMMUNICATION:

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QUESTIONS What about the decision to fire these employees? Was their desire to relate with others by sharing information

by blog a breach of ethics? If so, did it warrant such drastic action? If not, what action would you recommend and why?

96 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

hesitate to share job feelings, doubts, or concerns. Share part of your per- sonal life; follow the boss’s lead. Accept shared responsibility and power.

● How to communicate with open employees: Share confidences—open em- ployees respond well. Place them in an environment in which some friend- ships can develop. Give them constructive criticism—they usually want to improve and are the first to sign up for special courses offered by the com- pany. Employees who are too open may talk too much, but don’t assume that people can’t talk and work at the same time—some talkative employees are more productive than quiet ones.

● How to communicate with open customers: Don’t be pushy or manipulative. Listen carefully to their needs and wants—they are usually able to articulate them well. Build your persuasive appeals around these needs. Treat them as equals—don’t talk down or defer to them. Canned flip chart presentations may be tolerated but are normally not impressive. Open customers are less im- pressed by flashiness and more impressed by facts—brief demonstrations can work well.

Becoming Flexible in Use of Styles Is your communication style (or styles) and the way you typically manage conflict appropriate to your work environment? (If you have not yet done so, take the Survey of Communication Styles discussed on page 100.) As a result of your self-analysis, you may have found some discrepancies between your style and your work environment—in other words, some communica- tion problems. The key to good communication is flexibility of styles. There is a big difference between being private, dominant, sociable, or open because that is the style we generally use and deliberately choosing a certain style because it best suits the needs of the individual or group with whom we are dealing.

If you discovered some discrepancies, you may be down to two choices: either change your job (remember, we tend to become like the environment in which we spend our time) or adapt your style. The latter is a good choice even if a job change is in order; flexibility may well be your key to effec- tive communication wherever you work. However, I don’t recommend that you try a complete style change, at least not all at once. Before making any change, you should get enough feedback to be sure that a change is warranted and then start gradually. Adapt some of your responses to mirror those used by a person with a different style. When you feel comfortable with that new behavior, try another one. Communication behaviors can be changed, but not without hard work and patience. Few people find it easy to break an old habit. For example, a person with strong dominant tendencies can learn to communicate in an open style and even solve conflict in a collaborative man- ner but will normally retain some dominant-style behaviors, especially in times of stress.

CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS 97

Adapting or changing a style will require changes in your use of feedback, disclosure, or both:

● The person with dominant tendencies needs to ask for more feedback from others to discover areas needing change.

● The person with sociable tendencies needs to disclose more and should slow- ly begin to share more information, opinions, and feelings with others.

● People with private or open styles need to work equally on both feedback and disclosure; the private person to use more of each, and the overly open person to use less of each.

KEY TERMS accommodating strategy (70) A-type conflict (67) avoiding strategy (69) collaborating strategy (70) collectivistic cultures (74) communication styles (82) competing strategy (70) compromising strategy (70) conflict strategy (69) consensus (73) context (75) C-type conflict (67) curvilinear relationship (81)

dominant-style communicator (87) expectations (79) feedback/responsiveness (80) flexibility (96) high-context cultures (76) individualistic cultures (74) information and communication

technologies (ICTs) (81) lose–lose (73) low-context cultures (75) monochromic (m-time) (76) mutual respect (80)

neurotic dominant communicator (88) open-style communicator (90) polychromic (p-time) (77) private-style communicator (86) reciprocal (80) relationships (78) self-disclosure (80) self-fulfilling prophecy (80) sociable-style communicator (89) trust (80) win–lose (72) win–win (73)

CHAPTER REVIEW3 Chris Gardner/Associated Press

SUMMARY Conflict is impossible to avoid, but we will do a better job of han- dling it if we can identify the two basic types of conflict: A-type and C-type. People using A-type are more affective and emotional; peo- ple using C-type view conflict more cognitively and objectively. It is also important to know the five strategies of dealing with conflict— avoiding, accommodating, compromising, competing, and collabo- rating as well as who uses them most and when each is successful.

Culture also plays an important role in successful communi- cation in the workplace. It is important to compare and contrast the individualistic versus collectivistic cultures; the low-context versus the high-context cultures; and the monochromic (m-time) versus the polychromic (p-time) cultures. These three cultural di- mensions help show why people behave the way they do and how to communicate successfully with people from different cultures.

Building and maintaining relationships in the workplace are also important. Several tips were presented in this chapter. It is easier to communicate successfully with our bosses, employees,

customers, and colleagues if we understand their frames of ref- erence. One way to do this is to determine their style of com- munication. Do they tend to be more private, dominant, sociable, or open? And which is our preferred communication style? Are the styles compatible? Each style varies in the amount of feed- back and responsiveness to the feedback obtained from others and disclosure and assertiveness volunteered to others. We need to realize that there is no perfect style. Each style has its own strengths and weaknesses; each style is effective in some situations and less so in other situations. If you are interested in changing your style or becoming more flexible in style use, carefully monitor your feedback and disclosure and plan to make minor changes in how you use them as needed for specific situ- ations. It is not recommended that you make a drastic change in your communication style; it’s better to know your style’s best and worst sides and then build on your strengths and minimize your weaknesses.

Before continuing to the next chapter, check your understanding of Chapter 3 at the Speech Communication CourseMate for Com- municating for Results. CourseMate gives you quick and easy ac- cess to this text’s resources to help improve your communication skills and prepare you for quizzes and exams. These resources include: ● Study tools including the student companion workbook,

digital glossary, flashcards, and review quizzes. ● Activities and assignments including Awareness Checks,

Checkpoints, and Collaborative Learning Activities. ● Media resources such as Web Links (explore communica-

tion concepts); Speech Builder Express (develop your speech outlines); Interactive Video Activities (watch and critique videos of professional communication situations and sample speeches); and Speech Studio (upload your speech videos for peer reviewing and critique other students’ speeches).

For more information or to access this book’s online resources, visit cengagebrain.com.

Collaborative Learning Activities 1. Go to the Communication Situation, “Hasty Resignation,” at

the end of Chapter 6. Read the situation or watch a video of it at the CourseMate website for Communicating for Re- sults. Then in small groups, discuss the situation, looking

for the communication style (i.e., open, dominant, sociable, or private) that seems to most closely describe police chief James Ferguson and the style that best describes police sergeant Cal Richards. Make a list of all the specific events that convince you that your style choice is correct. As a group, be prepared to share your ideas with other groups.

2. In groups of three to five, discuss and select a character from a current or well-known movie that clearly illustrates each communication style. Some movies to consider in- clude No Reservations (2008), The Devil Wears Prada (2006), Ambulance Girl (2005), Crash (2005), 50 First Dates (2004), Lost in Translation (2003), My Big Fat Greek Wedding (2002), Jerry Maguire (1996), Groundhog Day (1993), and Mr. Baseball (1992). Search for the movie trail- ers on YouTube.com.

3. In small groups, share the way conflict was handled when you were growing up—was it considered beneficial or something to be ignored? Was conflict usually A-type or C-type? What is your main conflict strategy today: avoiding, accommodat- ing, compromising, competing, or collaboration, and how has it changed since you were a child? Now that you know the various conflict styles you have in this small group, how ef- fective would this group be as a problem-solving team? Give specific reasons to support your position.

4. Career Activity: In small groups, compare the four commu- nication styles used by individuals with the five organization

COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS ONLINE

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models discussed in Chapter 2. Which styles would likely feel the most and least comfortable working in or with each or- ganization model (e.g., would the private employee/manager/ customer feel more comfortable in the traditional or the hu- man resources models?) Give reasons for your answers.

5. Read the Goldman Sachs opening case study for this chap- ter. In small groups, complete the “Revisiting the Case Study” questions on page 76 taking either the perspective of a collectivistic, high-context culture or an individualistic/ low-context culture. Share your answers when finished.

6. After reading the cultural differences discussed in this chapter, is it any wonder that people from different coun- tries find it difficult to get along. Communication problems are especially likely when it comes to allowing people to save face. In small groups, assume that you are from an indi- vidualistic country and that your company plans to conduct business with an organization from a collectivistic country. Complete the following:

a. Define the role that face and face saving plays in col- lectivistic and individualistic cultures. What are the dif- ferences? What are the similarities?

b. Make a list of specific suggestions that your colleagues could follow that would allow people to save face while still solving group problems. For example, one sugges- tion might be to avoid complimenting individuals while directing any complements to the group.

c. Check your text for suggestions, use your personal ex- periences, and conduct research using the terms “saving face” and “facework.”

d. Discuss your list and highlight the two most valuable suggestions—be sure to get group agreement.

e. Be prepared to share your list of suggestions with other groups.

7. Career Activity: Complete the Survey of Communication Styles—Long Form either here using the Awareness Check on pages 100–107 or online at the CourseMate website for Communicating for Results. In groups of five to seven, com- plete the following:

a. Determine the largest MTI and ETI totals for each group member (the largest score indicates the communication style you likely use when things are going smoothly). If the group is hesitant to disclose their scores, have each member write their MTI style and ETI style on a piece of paper and place it in a cup. Shake them up and then write the styles on a flip chart, markerboard or chalk board.

b. Determine the next largest MTI and ETI totals for each group member—or sometimes two scores if they are one or two points apart (the second largest score indicates the style you typically use when under stress). Follow the same procedure as above.

c. Based on the discussion of each style earlier in this chapter, what strengths and weaknesses could your group expect if involved in a team project togeth- er? Keep in mind that all styles have strengths and weaknesses—the situation will determine specific style needs.

100 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Survey of Communication Styles— Long Form The Survey of Communication Styles includes two parts: (1) the Manager Tendency Indicator (MTI) and (2) the Employee Tendency Indicator (ETI). Each part is designed to give you an indication of the style you tend to use when communicating with others.

Everyone should take both the MTI and the ETI. If you are, or have been, a manager (at any level), take the MTI first and the ETI second. If you have never been a manager, take the ETI first; then, when you take the MTI, assume that you are a manager and answer the questions the way you would most likely respond as a manager.

You can complete this survey online. Go to cen- gagebrain.com to access your Speech Communication CourseMate for Communicating for Results.

Survey of Communication Styles* Directions: Read each question carefully: First put an 8 in the answer box in front of the answer that most closely represents your feelings and the way you would react in the situation described. Next, put a 1 in front of the answer that least closely represents your feelings or the way you would react to the situation. Finally, for the two remaining answers, select the one that is most like what you would do and place a 4 in its answer box; put a 2 in the answer box for the last answer. In other words:

8 means that the answer to the question is most like you 4 is moderately like you 2 is barely like you 1 is least or not at all like you

You may not like any of the answers, or you may like all of the answers. Regardless, you may not assign any question all 8s, all 4s, all 2s, or all 1s. In other words, each question has four answers; one question must receive 8 points (most like you); one question must receive 4 points (moderately like you); one question must receive 2 points (barely like you); and one question must receive 1 point (least or not at all like you).

Be careful not to answer what you wish you would do or what most people would do. Instead, select the

AWARENESS CHECK answers that most clearly represent what you would likely do in the situation described.

Manager Tendency Indicator 1. A new procedure is implemented by upper manage-

ment. All supervisors are requested to monitor the success of the procedure and to let management know if any problems result. Your response:

____ a. Wait until a direct order for information is re- ceived before making any response. The wise person never volunteers information upward— it isn’t safe. What is said is often distorted in some way.

____ b. If the new procedure is working well, don’t wait for a direct request—send the report now. Promptness makes you look efficient. If the procedure isn’t working, be very careful how the message is worded. There is no sense in upsetting the big bosses. Edit and word the report in such a way that any negative aspects are minimized.

____ c. If the procedure works, there would be no reason to report. However, if the procedure doesn’t work, tell them about it. After all, they were the ones who suggested the idea. If it doesn’t work, it should be dropped and replaced with something better.

____ d. It is best to send regular reports to upper management regardless of the success of the new procedure. Reports should include successes, failures, and attempts to solve problems. Even when a report contains infor- mation that may disappoint management, be complete and truthful.

2. Your employees have become lax on a few of the company’s minor restrictions. Your response:

____ a. No regulation or rule should be inflexible. Discuss the problem with the employees to see whether they have valid reasons for their disapproval. If so, work with the group to determine an alternative. However, until the change is implemented, request the employ- ees to abide by the regulation.

*The Survey of Communication Styles was developed by Cheryl Hamilton in 1981 and last revised in May 2011.

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CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS 101

____ b. Strict rules and regulations are essential in well-run organizations. If employees are allowed to ignore some regulations, they may also begin to ignore others. No exceptions should be allowed.

____ c. Informality and harmony among employees is more important than a few minor regulations. If necessary to keep employees satisfied, overlook their behavior as long as possible.

____ d. The only way to stay out of trouble is to hope your employees follow the organization’s policies and procedures. If they complain, simply tell them the truth—the company made the rule, not you. Neither you nor they have any choice in the matter if you all want to keep your jobs.

3. The company has asked for your suggestions on how to motivate employees. Your response:

____ a. People are definitely motivated by praise and rewards—so use them often. Avoid criticism and punishment because they harm relation- ships and create bad feelings.

____ b. Praise makes people think they are better than they really are. Therefore, the best way to motivate employees is through criticism. The best criticism occurs immediately after an employee makes a mistake.

____ c. Praise and reward are good motivators when given to employees who deserve them. Other employees are then inspired to strive for similar rewards. There are times, however, when criticism and punishment are the best motivators depending on the employee.

____ d. Employees rarely change no matter what the boss does or what motivational techniques are used. Therefore, the safest thing is to avoid trying to motivate others.

4. A serious conflict has arisen among several employ- ees in your department. Your response:

____ a. Because conflict among employees disrupts work and decreases productivity, immedi- ate action is necessary. Listen carefully to all sides and then tell them how you have decided the problem will be solved.

____ b. Conflict can be productive when handled cor- rectly. Therefore, if the problem doesn’t solve

itself fairly quickly, gather those involved in the dispute and encourage them to express their complaints openly. When conflicts are examined openly, a workable solution can usually be found. If not, you may have to arbitrate a solution.

____ c. First of all, try to make sure that serious conflicts between employees never occur. Such conflicts only draw unwanted attention to the department. However, when conflict does occur, try to stay out of it. After all, it’s their problem, so they should solve it.

____ d. Because conflict can permanently damage the friendly working environment of a de- partment, smooth over the situation as soon as possible. If necessary, distract employees from the conflict by sponsoring a social or athletic event.

5. One of your colleagues feels that managers not only should relate to employees in a friendly manner but also should share personal information with them. Your response:

____ a. I disagree. Smart managers keep their distance from employees. All employees should be treated in the same general man- ner. No employee should be given special consideration.

____ b. I disagree. The best way to handle employees is to be firm yet impersonal with them. They will respect you more that way.

____ c. I agree. Employees react best when managers share experiences and feelings with them. People who are friendly work together better. Being friendly with employees doesn’t have to harm the boss–employee relationship.

____ d. I agree in part. Managers should be friends with their employees. Employees will produce more if they think you like them. Ask them about their families and so on, but keep fairly quiet about yourself. Personal information could be used against you in some way.

6. It is time for your company’s annual performance appraisals of all employees. Your method of han- dling employee evaluations:

____ a. Performance appraisals are basically a waste of time—employees never seem to change.

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102 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Therefore, if you are required to conduct appraisals, keep them short and general and keep as few records as possible. Also, since employees talk, give the same basic evalua- tion to all.

____ b. Performance appraisals are an excellent time for evaluating the employee’s past performance and setting new goals for the future. Both strengths and weaknesses should be considered. Get the employee actively involved in the evaluation so that the final appraisal will be agreeable to both of you.

____ c. Criticism serves only to hurt people’s feel- ings, and few people can be objective when discussing their weaknesses. Appraisals are more productive when you concentrate on the employee’s strengths and make them happy.

____ d. Employee appraisals are quite valuable when used to instruct the employee on how to im- prove. Although some managers tend to beat around the bush, the direct approach works best. If they have done something wrong, tell them.

7. How much individual responsibility for decision making should employees be given? Your response:

____ a. After careful training, employees should be given as much individual responsibility as they can handle and want. To be effective, they must be free to implement their decisions but must be accountable for them as well. The manager serves in an advisory capacity.

____ b. Although some employees have enough train- ing to take responsibility and make decisions, it is important to monitor them carefully. When given a free hand, employees often make decisions for their personal gain rather than for the good of the company. Watch for abuses.

____ c. Employees should be responsible for tasks assigned to them. However, because manag- ers know more about employee jobs than employees do, any decisions made must re- ceive man ager approval. Of course, important decisions should be made by management.

____ d. Employees can make personal decisions as long as they keep a low profile. Their actions

should not draw attention to themselves or the department and should not require time, money, or attention from management.

8. Which approach to management actually works best? Your response:

____ a. Firm control at all times is the best approach to management. Getting suggestions from employees usually results in a needless waste of time. It is the manager’s responsibility to make the necessary decisions.

____ b. Teamwork is the best approach to manage- ment. When managers and employees work together as a team and when all members make suggestions and feel free to agree or disagree, better solutions are reached.

____ c. Management works best when managers stay out of the way of employees and concentrate on physical items like quality office supplies, computers, and furniture. Avoid interpersonal issues.

____ d. One of the most important things a man- ager can do is keep harmony in the office. Employees turn out more work when they feel friendly with each other.

9. As a manager, how do you view the company grape- vine? Your response:

____ a. The grapevine is an excellent way to discover what employees are up to and what they are hiding from their manager.

____ b. Listening to the grapevine allows managers to determine areas of misunderstanding that need to be corrected, and leaking information into the grapevine is a good way to test ideas by judging employee reactions.

____ c. The grapevine is full of misinformation and should be ignored.

____ d. Listening to the grapevine helps managers maintain control over their employees.

10. One of your employees is having a personal problem that is beginning to interfere with quality work. Your response:

____ a. When managers try to get involved in the personal problems of employees, new (and sometimes worse) problems result. There- fore, ignore the situation as long as possible; hopefully it will resolve itself.

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CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS 103

____ b. Let the employee know that regardless of the reason for the lack of productivity, certain standards must be met. If immediate improve- ment does not occur, the employee should be terminated.

____ c. It is important for managers to show they care by listening to and consoling the em- ployee with problems. However, make sure the employee isn’t taking advantage of you.

____ d. As much as possible, managers need to meet the needs of employees. Listen to the employee’s problem and share experiences and possible solutions. See if either you or the company can do anything to help the employee solve his or her problem in a timely manner.

11. During a meeting with your employees, you are explaining each person’s role in a forthcoming depart mental task. Several employees express unhappiness with their assignments. Your response:

____ a. To avoid conflict, blame upper management for the assignments and tell the employees that the department’s standing depends on how well they complete their tasks.

____ b. Tell the employees that the assignments have been given and that no changes will be made.

____ c. Listen to all the arguments and then make whatever changes are necessary to keep group harmony.

____ d. Listen to all the arguments and work with the group in determining what, if any, changes should be made.

12. Your department is assigned an important task. Unintentionally, you give your people the wrong instructions. Work is well underway when you discover the error. Your response:

____ a. Admit the mistake and request their best efforts to complete the new assignment on schedule.

____ b. At the next meeting, revise the instructions and make a joke of the mistake.

____ c. Explain that upper management has issued new guidelines that will require a change in previous instructions.

____ d. Tell the employees that they apparently misunderstood the previous instructions. Ask them to listen more closely this time.

Employee Tendency Indicator 1. From your experience, what is the only realistic

way to deal with fellow workers? ____ a. To get ahead, you must actively compete with

other employees. Try to stay one step ahead of everyone.

____ b. You can’t be too careful. People will stab you in the back if it helps them get ahead. Keep your tasks to yourself and avoid group projects.

____ c. A friendly approach is best even if your personal opinions make it necessary for you to pretend friendship.

____ d. A friendly but truthful approach works best. However, when a misunderstanding occurs, it is important to express your true feelings.

2. While your boss is giving you instructions on how to complete a particular task, you realize that the instructions are wrong. What would you do?

____ a. Question the boss to make sure you didn’t misunderstand the instructions. Then explain why you are confused and ask if another procedure might work better.

____ b. Errors such as this are typical, because a good employee usually knows twice as much as the boss. Press your advantage by pointing out the error.

____ c. Pointing out an error to the boss is a good way to lose your job. Do whatever the boss tells you, regardless of what it is.

____ d. If you point out the error, it could make the boss feel uncomfortable and even ruin your standing with the boss. Therefore, complete the task correctly, but say nothing.

3. During your employee appraisal, your boss criticizes you for something you feel is unfair. How would you respond?

____ a. Accept the criticism quietly. Any comment on your part will only prolong the interview.

____ b. Unless it is a big issue, keep quiet about it. Otherwise, briefly disagree in a good-natured way; then drop it.

____ c. Defend yourself. Let the boss know you think you are being treated unfairly. Insist that a different evaluation be submitted.

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104 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Supervisors respect you more when you stand up for what you believe.

____ d. Paraphrase the boss’s view to verify what you heard. Then offer your own opinion, sup- ported with facts and data.

4. After receiving a detailed explanation of a new job from your supervisor, you still aren’t clear on some of the instructions. What would you do?

____ a. If you are good at your job, you should be able to figure out what to do as you go along. There’s probably a better way to complete the task anyway.

____ b. Never ask questions. You only look stupid. If necessary, get help from a coworker.

____ c. Ask questions of your boss any time you aren’t completely sure about an assignment.

____ d. If your boss believes that asking questions shows employee interest, ask for clarification. If not, pretend you understand and find out the missing information in some other way.

5. Your supervisor calls a meeting to evaluate the success of a new procedure and asks for everyone’s opinion. How would you respond?

____ a. Listen carefully to everyone’s comments. Openly agree with people when possible. How- ever, if your experiences with the procedure differ from those being expressed, keep them to yourself.

____ b. Inform those present about the success you’ve had in implementing the procedure and recommend that your method be adopted by the group.

____ c. Don’t volunteer any comments. Let the others do the talking. If the supervisor specifically asks for your opinion, keep your answer gen- eral so you won’t have any reason to regret what you have said.

____ d. Participate actively in the discussion. Don’t hesitate to express your experiences (both positive and negative) even if they differ from the experiences of the other employees.

6. Almost by accident, you discover an easier and faster way to perform one of your daily tasks. As a result, you can finish the other duties of the day in a more relaxed manner. Would you tell anyone else of your discovery?

____ a. Employees who can perform their duties better than others are the ones who get the raises and promotions. Therefore, the only way to get ahead is to keep such discoveries to yourself.

____ b. If the boss knew that a task could be completed in less time, you and your fellow employees would be given an additional job to do, and the smooth pattern of office life would be disrupted. Therefore, say nothing.

____ c. Because it is everyone’s responsibility to share job-related discoveries with one another, offer to do so. Then, if they are interested, give them specifics.

____ d. A discovery such as this gives you the perfect opportunity to prove that you are more capable than your fellow workers. If you can impress your boss during a departmental meeting by presenting your new discovery, then do so.

7. In a last-minute check of a rush job that is due immediately in the boss’ office, you discover a minor mistake that you have made. How would you handle it?

____ a. If the error is small enough to pass by without notice, keep the problem to yourself. However, if the error is sure to be noticed and could hurt your relationship with the boss, mention the error in a joking manner and ask for extra time to correct it.

____ b. Immediately phone or go see the boss and explain that you have discovered an error in your work and will need to postpone delivery of the project until it is corrected.

____ c. The best defense is a good offense. Because you did what the boss told you to do, the mistake is obviously the result of the boss’ instructions. Point this out when you deliver the project.

____ d. Keep quiet about the error and hope it passes unnoticed.

8. You are aware of a situation that has the potential for creating a serious problem for your department or even for the company. What would you do?

____ a. It is management’s responsibility to be aware of potential problems. As an employee, it

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CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS 105

is not your responsibility to report on such things. Unless you could benefit by discussing your observations, keep quiet.

____ b. Meddling in things that are none of your busi- ness is a good way to lose your job. So keep quiet.

____ c. Because management depends on and should appreciate the input and observations of em- ployees, mention your observations to your boss, but do it privately.

____ d. No one wants to hear negative things. Point- ing out the problem to management will only cause trouble and make people unhappy. Also, if your observation is wrong, you will look like a fool. Therefore, just keep the information to yourself.

9. A serious conflict has arisen between you and another worker in your department. How would you handle it?

____ a. If you give in, the other person will lose respect for you, so try to win the argument. If no decision can be reached, select a person (such as your boss) to serve as an arbitrator.

____ b. Discuss the conflict in detail, making sure both of you get a chance to express your feelings. Honest discussion usually leads to a mutual agreement and an end to hostilities. In some cases, it may be necessary to compromise.

____ c. Continuing the conflict will only bring you unwanted attention from other employees and even the boss. If necessary to end the conflict, give in.

____ d. Continuing the conflict could permanently damage your friendship with this employee. Do your best to smooth over the argument and regain a friendly footing with the person.

10. Your immediate work group has failed to complete its assignment on time for three of the last four projects. The boss is starting to put pressure on your group and wants to know who’s causing the slowdown. You know who the person is. What would you do?

____ a. Suggest that all members of the group meet to discuss the problem. If you find that the problem is caused by an unfair load distribution or some other group-related cause, try to find a workable answer.

____ b. Blaming the individual either personally or in front of others only creates a strain on the relationships in the group. The best thing to do is to blame circumstances, such as the in- structions weren’t clear, there wasn’t enough time, or someone outside the group was slow in supplying information.

____ c. Nothing is gained by keeping quiet. A single individual is making you and the entire group look bad. Put pressure on the person to admit causing the delays. If that doesn’t work, tell the boss yourself.

____ d. Do nothing. It is not wise to volunteer this type of information.

11. While working on a project, a highly unusual prob- lem arises that is not covered in your department’s procedures manual. Even your boss is uncertain about it. What would you do?

____ a. Postpone making a decision. If you put the decision off long enough, someone else will probably make it and any mistakes will be their responsibility.

____ b. Discuss the problem with your boss, your coworkers, and even knowledgeable people outside your department. Okay your final de- cision with your boss before making it official.

____ c. Ask your boss and your fellow workers to see what they would do. Base your decision on the majority opinion. That way no one can put the blame on you.

____ d. This is a chance to prove your ability. You don’t need anyone else’s opinion if you are a good employee. Make the decision yourself.

12. How important is your boss to your individual success?

____ a. Except for a few years, you are as knowledge- able as or more knowledgeable than the boss. Therefore, the boss plays only a minor role in your success.

____ b. Extremely important. Without the boss to tell you what to do, there could be no success.

____ c. Success depends on how happy the boss is with what you do and how well the boss likes you. If the boss is satisfied, you will be successful.

____ d. You and the boss work as a team. Both are equally necessary for success.

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106 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Survey of Communication Styles Score Sheets

Scoring Directions: Copy the scores you selected for answers a, b, c, and d for each of the 12 questions onto the score sheets below. Notice that each score sheet puts your answers in an order different from the way you answered them on the surveys. Total the numbers in each column; plot your totals on the following graph.

Plotting Directions: Plot your four MTI and four ETI totals onto the graph below. Use a dashed arc to indicate each MTI score and a solid arc to indicate each ETI score. Note that the graph is divided into four sections by a vertical and horizontal line— each section is a different communication style. To plot

each score, begin at the zero in the center of the graph and locate and mark the score on both the vertical and horizontal lines running on each side of the proper style. Connect the two marks with a solid or dashed arc that is curved like 1/4 of a circle or a pie-shaped wedge. When finished, each section of the graph will contain both a solid and a dashed arc. With just a glance, you can tell which styles represent you.

Score Evaluation: The two highest scores on either the MTI or the ETI are probably the most descriptive of your commu- nication behavior. The highest score represents the communication style you typically use when things are going well. The next highest score (or perhaps

MANAGER TENDENCY INDICATOR SCORE SHEET:

EMPLOYEE TENDENCY INDICATOR SCORE SHEET:

I II III IV I II III IV

1. d [ ] c [ ] b [ ] a [ ] 1. d [ ] a [ ] c [ ] b [ ]

2. a [ ] b [ ] c [ ] d [ ] 2. a [ ] b [ ] d [ ] c [ ]

3. c [ ] b [ ] a [ ] d [ ] 3. d [ ] c [ ] b [ ] a [ ]

4. b [ ] a [ ] d [ ] c [ ] 4. c [ ] a [ ] d [ ] b [ ]

5. c [ ] b [ ] d [ ] a [ ] 5. d [ ] b [ ] a [ ] c [ ]

6. b [ ] d [ ] c [ ] a [ ] 6. c [ ] d [ ] b [ ] a [ ]

7. a [ ] c [ ] b [ ] d [ ] 7. b [ ] c [ ] a [ ] d [ ]

8. b [ ] a [ ] d [ ] c [ ] 8. c [ ] a [ ] d [ ] b [ ]

9. b [ ] d [ ] a [ ] c [ ] 9. b [ ] a [ ] d [ ] c [ ]

10. d [ ] b [ ] c [ ] a [ ] 10. a [ ] c [ ] b [ ] d [ ]

11. d [ ] b [ ] c [ ] a [ ] 11. b [ ] d [ ] c [ ] a [ ]

12. a [ ] d [ ] b [ ] c [ ] 12. d [ ] a [ ] c [ ] b [ ]

Totals [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] Totals [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

Open Dominate Sociable Private Open Dominate Sociable Private

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CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS 107

Low Disclosure/Assertiveness

12 12 0

24 36 48 60 72 84 96

96 84 72 60 48 36 24 12

24 36 48 60 72 84 96

96 84 72 60 48 36 24 12

Private Sociable

Dominant Open

Low Feedback/ Responsiveness

High Feedback/ Responsiveness

High Disclosure/Assertiveness

two scores if they are very close in size) represents the style you use under stress. Remember that these tests are not infallible and should be considered only

indicators of tendencies in your communication be- havior. Each communication style is explained in detail in Chapter 3.

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LIST at least two practical tips for improving your listen- ing skills with each of the following groups: custom- ers, employees, supervisors, and coworkers.

IDENTIFY and briefly describe the signs of poor listening.

DISTINGUISH among the main barriers to good listening and determine which of these barriers cause you the most problems.

DISCUSS several guidelines for improving your listening and the payoffs for using them correctly.

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EFFECTIVE LISTENING

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As you read chapter 4...

CASE STUDY False Information on Resume Brings

Problems are often discovered and solved through listening. A fascinating problem with the 59-story Citigroup Center tower in New York City (formerly the Citicorp Center) came to light when a nationally known structural engineer, William J. LeMessurier, listened to a student’s concerns about the strength of the col- umns that support the building. Although the student’s concerns proved to be unfounded, as a result of the call, LeMessurier discovered a much more serious problem with the structural integrity of the building. The following story was adapted from “The Fifty-Nine-Story Crisis” by Joe Morgenstern (1995).

The beautiful Citigroup tower was designed by architect Hugh Stubbins, Jr., but it was engineered by LeMessurier and his firm. There were several design “firsts” in this proj- ect. One innovation was the wind braces hidden inside the structural skin—instead of one piece, two pieces coming from opposing sides if soldered together in the center would be as strong as a single brace. The second was the “tuned mass damper” (TMD)—a 400-pound block of concrete located near the top of the building that was designed to greatly reduce the natural sway of such a tall building. The third innovation of LeMessurier’s was the placement of the four columns on which the building rested. These massive, nine-story stilt-like columns were located at the center of each side of the build- ing instead of at the corners. This made the building appear to “float” over the church, shops, and plaza underneath it. The student’s questions were about these columns.

LeMessurier was very proud of this building, which had won much engineering praise. He patiently explained to the student, who was writing a paper on the building, that the placement of the columns was exactly correct to “resist what sailors call quartering winds—those which come from a diago- nal and, by flowing across two sides of a building at once, in- crease the forces on both” (p. 6). Because LeMessurier was teaching a structural engineering class at Harvard, the stu- dent’s call reminded him that his own students would benefit from this information on quartering winds, as well as the new wind braces he had had installed in the columns to resist strong winds. Although New York building code required that such braces pass only perpendicular wind tests, as background for his lecture, he calculated the strength of the braces when hit by quartering winds. To his surprise, he found that these winds would increase the strain on several of the braces by 40% and

109

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would increase the strain on the joints of the columns by 160%. Even this increase would be no problem for soldered joints (but a few weeks before, LeMessurier had discovered that the steel company who built Citicorp tower had decided to use bolted joints—which in most cases would cost less yet be just as safe).

LeMessurier still was not overly worried because “a margin of safety is built into the standard formulas for calcu- lating how strong a joint must be” in structural columns. How- ever, when he discovered that the building team had defined the braces as “trusses” and not as “columns,” he became very worried. Because trusses are exempt from the extra safety margin, LeMessurier knew that there would be too few bolts in these joints for safety under the force of quartering winds even with the TMD designed to reduce building sway.

LeMessurier decided to ask the labs of Canada’s Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel Laboratory to run some wind tunnel tests. The results were not encouraging. After work- ing through each floor and each joint, LeMessurier determined that the thirtieth floor had the weakest joint: “If that one gave way, catastrophic failure of the whole structure would follow” (p. 22). The likelihood of a storm serious enough to create this disaster was calculated to be once every 16 years; with the

As you read this chapter... See if you can (a) evaluate LeMessurier’s listening skills on a scale of 1 (poor) to 5 (excellent), (b) determine whether he was guilty of any signs of poor listening and why, and (c) decide whether it was ethical for LeMessurier and others involved in the crisis to withhold this information from the public for 20 years (until Morgenstern’s 1995 article).

For more details on this story, go to the website of the Online Eth- ics Center for Engineering and Sci- ence at www.onlineethics.org and search on “LeMessurier.” You can ac- cess this site through the CourseMate website for Communicating for Results.

for LeMessurier and

- i- nd ac- ate ults.

TMD calculated in, it dropped to once every 55 years. However, the TMD required electricity, which would likely fail in this type of storm. By now it was the end of July, and hurricane season was rapidly approaching. His worry now escalated to panic.

There was a way to correct the problem: A heavy steel plate could be welded around each of the 200 bolted joints like a “giant Band-Aid.” The joints were readily accessible by simply removing the carpet and sheetrock that covered them. This fix would raise the safety of the building to a once-in- every-700-years storm. However, as Morgenstern noted, “To

avert disaster, LeMessurier would have to blow the whistle quickly on himself. That meant facing the pain of possible pro- tracted litigation, probable bankruptcy, and professional dis- grace” (p. 24). This would be in addition to the cost of repairs (which would be at least $1 million), the problem of evacuating thousands of people, and the panic all of this would create. Al- though the student had been wrong about the exact problem, his concern had uncovered a serious structural weakness.

To see how LeMessurier handled the crisis, read the summary for this chapter.

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Are you a good listener? Most of us assume we are. We take for granted that listening just comes naturally, when in fact, effective listening requires as much skill as the other forms of communication: reading, writing, and speaking. But unlike writing, reading, and especially speaking, few overt motor skills are necessary to engage in listening. The effort involved in listening is pri- marily mental, and this may account for deceiving ourselves that listening is easy.

Why is listening so important? ● First, because we do so much of it. Until recently, researchers reported that we

spend at least 50% of our waking hours listening: in 1975, Werner reported that we spent 55% of our time listening; in 1980, Barker et al. reported 53%; and in 1999, Bohlken reported 53%. However, with the use of cell phones, email, social networking sites, and text messaging, using two or more media simultaneously is increasing (Wallis, 2006) and face-to-face listening seems to be decreasing. Janusik and Wolvin (2009) conducted research on college students indicating that college students spend 48% of their time commu- nicating but only 24% of that time listening (p. 113). The remaining time is spent speaking (20%), using the Internet (13%), writing (9%), reading and television (8% each), telephone (7%), email (5%), CD/tapes (4%), and radio (2%). Note that even though the time spent listening has dropped from ear- lier years, it is still the most frequently used communication skill.

● Second, because the business world has observed it firsthand. For example, one study estimated that 60% of worker errors is due to poor listening (Cooper, 1997). In another study, 80% of the executives ranked listening as the most important workplace skill. At the same time, 28% of them also ranked listen- ing as the skill most lacking in the workplace (Salopek, 1999). In addition, studies confirm that good listeners make good managers (Ramsey & Sohi, 1997; Weitz et al., 2008); that good listening is essential for business suc- cess (Goby & Lewis, 2000); that failure to listen is one of the main reasons salespeople are unsuccessful (Ingram et al., 1992); and that customers rate listening as the most important skill a salesperson can possess (Boyle, 1999; Moore et al., 1986).

Indeed, most working professionals recognize that listening is a skill that can and should be improved. According to Bernard Ferrari, author of Power Lis- tening (2012), “If you aspire to be better at your job, no matter what it is, listening may be the most powerful tool at your disposal” (p. 2).

CHAPTER 4 EFFECTIVE LISTENING 111

EFFECTIVE LISTENING IN THE WORKPLACE Most of us consider listening important when we know that the information we are receiving can benefit us in some way. At other times, we may feel that care- ful listening is a waste of time. But there is no guarantee that what we ignore is unimportant. How will we know unless we listen? An attitude of “I already know what they’re going to say” can make us miss important information. In the work- ing world, most of us will need to listen to four groups of people: customers, employees, supervisors, and coworkers.

Listening to Customers Several popular business-related books, such as The 8th Habit: From Effective- ness to Greatness (Covey, 2005), The Speed of Trust (Covey, 2006), Customers

Listening Skills Do your listening skills need improvement? To check your listening effectiveness, take the following quiz. Compare your answers with the Assessment guide. You can also take this quiz and assess your answers online. Go to cengagebrain.com to access your Speech Communication CourseMate for Communicating for Results.

DIRECTIONS: For each of these statements about your listening skills, select one of the following: Y = yes, S = sometimes, or N = no.

________ 1. I feel uncomfortable when listening to or responding to my supervisor. ________ 2. When I disagree with a person, I pretend to listen to what they are saying. ________ 3. I usually focus on facts when people are speaking. ________ 4. I have difficulty concentrating on the instructions that others give me. ________ 5. When speakers say something that makes me mad, I usually tune them out. ________ 6. I seldom seek out the opportunity to listen to new ideas. ________ 7. I find myself daydreaming when others seem to ramble on. ________ 8. I often argue mentally or aloud with what someone is saying even before he or she finishes. ________ 9. I find that others are always repeating things to me. ________ 10. When listening to speakers, I often concentrate on what they are wearing or on their mannerisms.

SCORING: Number of times you answered Y ________ Number of times you answered S ________ Number of times you answered N ________

ASSESSMENT Add together the times you answered Y and S. If your total equals 1 or 2, you perceive yourself to be an excellent listener; if your total equals 3 to 5, you are a good listener; if your total equals 6 or 7 you are a fair listener, with definite room for improvement; if your total equals 8 or more, immediate improvement is suggested—read this chapter carefully and work to improve your skills.

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112 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

for Life (Sewell & Brown, 2002), The Lost Art of Listening (Nichols, 2009), What the Best CEOs Know (Krames, 2005), and Power Listening: Mastering the Most Critical Business Skill of all (Ferrari, 2012) contend that the best-run compa- nies in the United States actively listen to what their customers are saying. By listening to customers, companies learn objective information about their products and services, learn how they relate to the competition, and learn what customers want.

However, the problem is that in the past few years, the “customer” has radi- cally changed along with the changes in technology. Take a look at Table 4.1 and see if you fit today’s customer profile and decide which organization models from Chapter 2 are more likely to relate/listen to today’s customer. Fortunately, there are many companies that really listen to their customers (see the “It Really Works” Nike example later in this chapter).

When customers perceive that a salesperson or company is listening to them, they are more likely to trust, are more satisfied with, and more likely to do future business with that salesperson or company (Aggarwal et al., 2005; Bergeron & Laroche, 2009). This is also true of medical patients: They want their doctors and nurses to listen to them; if they do, the patients feel much more satisfied (Frankel, 1995; Perry, 1994).

TABLE 4.1 CUSTOMERS IN TODAY’S WORLD

WHAT THEY ARE DOING WHAT THEY WANT WHAT THEY DISLIKE

1. They are online, checking out competitors’ websites.

1. They want purchasing to be easy.

1. They distrust institutions they used to hold sacred.

2. They are socializing using all types of social media and sharing experiences.

2. They want a relationship with salespeople and companies.

2. They dislike offshore call centers, erroneously called ‘‘help desks’’.

3. They are using mobile devices to do almost everything.

3. They want to understood and to feel sincere concern from salespeople.

3. They dislike salespeople who are not as computer-literate as they are.

4. They are WiFi-ing in hotel rooms, on planes, at Starbucks, and at home.

4. They need help and expect advice—want ideas not answers.

4. They are sick of recorded hold messages that say how important the call is.

5. They are blogging about their purchasing experi- ences (good and bad).

5. They expect honestly and will check out prices and facts instantly online to verify.

5. They dislike companies without online video testimonials—wiil go to Angie’s list, Craigslist,or Google.

6. They make purchases after midnight. By the billions.

6. They want great service even after the sale.

6. They dislike not being able to purchase and pay online.

7. They know more about com- peting products than many salespeople.

7. They want someone to answer the phone who can actually help.

7. They dislike waiting for anything or anyone.

Source: Adapted from Gitomer, J. (2009, August 17). Where is the new customer? He’s in the new world—are you? The Enterprise/Salt Lake City, 39(8), 8. Jeffery Gitomer has a website at www.gitomer.com

CHAPTER 4 EFFECTIVE LISTENING 113

Listening to Employees In The Change Masters, Rosabeth Moss Kanter (1983) tells of a textile com- pany that had a high frequency of yarn breakage for years. Management con- sidered the breakage an unavoidable business expense until a new manager, who listened to the employees, discovered a worker with an idea about how to modify the machines to greatly reduce the breakage. The new manager “was shocked to learn that the man had wondered about the machine modification for 32 years. ‘Why didn’t you say something before?’ the manager asked. The reply: ‘My su- pervisor wasn’t interested, and I had no one else to tell it to’” (p. 70).

Management can’t afford not to listen to employees. Michael Nichols, in The Lost Art of Listening (2009), warns that people who aren’t listened to feel unap- preciated and assume that neither they nor their ideas matter. Listening to em- ployees is a way of showing support. Therefore, to show that they are listening, managers’ responses must communicate acceptance of the person (Conrad & Poole, 2012, p. 136). If you are a supervisor, check your usual responses against the list of nonacceptance responses in Table 4.2. If you are not a supervisor, see whether you recognize your boss’s typical responses. Do they make you feel like no one supports or listens to you?

Employees in organizations that have recently been downsized, merged, or reengineered because of recent economic downturns are especially likely to

Nike Listens to Customers Many companies both large and small have found how important it is to listen to their customers. Some companies understand that today’s customers want more than to be listened to—they want a two-way relationship with compa- nies and salespeople. Nike uses a variety of social media to develop these relationships (Shaw, 2012). A few of its strategies include: Connecting to multiple communities—through their

website, Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube. They include links to all types of sports, interest groups such as Nike Women, products like the Nike+FuelBand, and the newest shoes on the market to name just a few.

Encouraging sharing and relationships. For example, #GAMEONWORLD allows people to post/tweet their successes by attaching images and videos of themselves in action.

Acknowledging the growing coupon movement. Offering discounts, coupons, and active Promo codes through a popular couponing site—CouponCodes4u.com/exclusive and click on Nike (Shaw, 2012).

Allowing customer reviews. Nike (like Amazon, QVC, and Pets Smart) allows customers to rate products and to write reviews whether positive or negative. On NikeStore.com, a five-star approach with an overall rating is used for products. As Table 4.1 indicates, today’s customer is involved in comparison shopping and expects to see a rating/review system of some sort in place.

Customization of products through NIKEiD. For example, people who wish to have a unique shoe can customize such items as the outsole, colors, weather protection, and cushioning. Customization can be done on sports clothing as well.

WHAT DO YOU THINK? What is it about these strategies that makes customers

and potential customers feel that Nike is listening to them?

Have you used social media to communicate with Nike employees? If so, did you feel that they are listening to customers?

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114 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

be insecure and feel that their ideas don’t matter. Can Hewlett-Packard down- size by laying off 27,000 (8%) of its employees, as stated by CEO Meg Whitman (Worthen, 2012), and not have a negative impact on employee morale? It is im- portant for employees to know that management will be honest and open with them about both the good and the bad news. (See Appendix: Written Commu- nication for how to send bad news by email).

Listening is the key to communicating with and understanding employ- ees. For example, managers and supervisors can ask hard-hitting opinion questions of groups or teams of employees and then answer and discuss the employee responses in an open and direct manner. Questions that ask employees if they have the tools, feedback, and respect needed to excel at their jobs can be real eye-openers for management. The Gallup Organiza- tion has developed 12 questions that relate to employee morale and engage- ment that they call Q12. The questions are answered on a 1- to 5-point scale, with 5 being most positive, and compiled into a total score that predicts em- ployee performance. Gallup results show that companies in the top quartile based on employee scores have “engaged” employees who feel an emotional attachment with the company. Top quartile companies experience from 12 to 18% higher customer loyalty, higher productivity, and higher profit- ability; companies in the lower quartile “have 51% more shrinkage, 31 to

TABLE 4.2 RESPONSES THAT CAN COMMUNICATE NONACCEPTANCE

LISTENER’S RESPONSE IMPLIED MESSAGE

Ordering, demanding: “You must try . . .,” “You have to stop. . . .”

Don’t feel, act, or think that way; do it my way.

Criticizing, blaming, disagreeing: “You aren’t thinking about this properly. . . .

You are wrong if you feel, act, or think that way.

Advising, giving answers: “Why don’t you . . .,” “Let me suggest. . . .”

Here’s a solution so you won’t feel, act, or think that way.

Praising, agreeing: “But you’ve done such a good job . . .,” “I approve of. . . .”

Your feelings, actions, and opinions are subject to my approval.

Reassuring, sympathizing: “Don’t worry . . .,” “You’ll feel better. . . .”

You don’t need to feel, act, or think that way.

Interpreting, diagnosing: “What you need is . . .,” “Your problem is. . . .”

Here’s the reason you have for feeling, acting, or thinking that way.

Diverting, avoiding: “We can discuss it later . . .,” “That reminds me of. . . .”

Your feelings, actions, and opinions aren’t worthy of discussion.

Kidding, using sarcasm: “That will be the day!” “Bring out the violins. . . .”

You’re silly if you persist in feeling, acting, or thinking that way.

Source: From Norma Carr-Ruffino (1985) The Promotable Woman: Becoming a Successful Manager (rev. ed., p. 230), Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Reprinted by permission of the author.

CHAPTER 4 EFFECTIVE LISTENING 115

51% more employee turnover, and 62% more accidents than business units in the top quartile” (Robinson, 2009, p. 2).

One company that successfully listens to employees is Procter & Gamble (P & G), who in 2000 had half of its “top 15 brands . . . losing market share,” as well as demoralized, unhappy employees (Stengel et al., 2003, p. 107). The feed- back they received from listening to employees through surveys, focus groups, email, and interviews allowed them to make dramatic design changes that re- sulted in growth in 19 of the top 20 brands and an increase in employee confi- dence from 26 to 56% in less than 2 years (p. 116).

Listening and participating in company blogs is another effective way to see what employees are thinking and saying. Proctor & Gamble (P&G) uses a plat- form called PeopleConnect, which is similar to Facebook; employees “use it to form and join groups and to interact through blogs, wikis, forums and docu- ments stores” (Swanborg, 2009, par. 3). This is especially helpful when employ- ees are located around the globe. For example, one disbursed work group of 150 members managed to organize in two months rather than the typical six to 12 months required by most groups (para. 5). Monster.com is an excellent example of a company that uses its employees as its blogging voice (Wright, 2006, p. 60), as does Nike, which is discussed in the “It Really Works” box on page 113.

Listening to Supervisors Although it is obvious that employees should listen to their bosses, many employ- ees are unaware of how important it is to show that they are listening. Of course, giving the appearance of listening without actually listening is unwise, but effective listening requires not only good listening skills but also an indication that listening is taking place. Listeners can show that they are sensing what the speaker is saying by maintaining good eye contact (Yrle & Galle, 1993) and can show interest by other nonverbal behaviors: maintaining a relaxed posture, shaking the head, and making responsive sounds like “really” or “uh huh” (Stewart & Logan, 1999).

Too often, when managers give instructions, they must guess whether the employee is processing the information. Managers who don’t see an appropriate listening response are likely to suspect that the information was not received correctly and repeat themselves, ask for feedback, or become frustrated. All of these alternatives are time-consuming and could hurt the career of the employee who appears not to be listening.

Effective listening can help you improve your relationship with your boss by helping you understand the boss’s expectations and frame of reference. Here are some suggestions for listening and responding to your supervisors (Brownell, 2013, pp. 311–312; Glatthorn & Adams, 1983, pp. 71–74; LeMay & Schwamberger, 2007):

● Listen to know your supervisors and their instructions. Listen for both content and tone and observe any nonverbal behaviors. Ask open-ended questions if you’re not sure you understand. It’s also a good idea to learn when they are the most receptive to bad news. In Episode 2, Season 1 of The Apprentice, Donald Trump advised his contestants to “deal directly with the boss” because it establishes a working relationship and you avoid the “go-between who may not have your passion or knowledge” (Kinnick & Parton, 2005).

116 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

● Use that knowledge to guide your general interactions with your supervisors. Frame bad news in the manner that they find most acceptable. If they prefer certain jargon terms, such as “team player,” use these terms in your comments when appropriate. Give feedback to let your supervisors know that you were listening. Do your best to meet their expectations.

● Develop the expertise your supervisors value. Without competing with them, build your knowledge and expertise in needed areas (preferably in areas in which a supervisor is weak). Make yourself valuable.

● Be wary of giving advice. If you are right, the supervisor may resent it; if you are wrong, you may be blamed. Instead, serve as a sounding board for your super- visors. Ask questions and paraphrase in an attempt to help them think through the problem. When presenting a problem, have a possible solution ready.

● Build off your supervisors’ ideas. Don’t make counter suggestions; instead, piggyback your ideas off the supervisor’s. For example,

Your supervisor says, “We could increase sales if we changed our advertising agency.” You think the packaging is the problem. So you say, “That sounds good. That would give us a shot in the arm, and if we did that, we could have them take a look at the way we package the product. There are probably some other ways they could help us as well. What do you think?” (Glatthorn & Adams, 1983, pp. 72–73)

● Know how to praise appropriately. “Your praise is one of the few rewards you have for your boss” (Glatthorn & Adams, 1983, p. 73). Avoid extravagant or insincere praise. Use tact; be subtle.

● Don’t criticize your superiors. Behind-the-back criticism has a way of travel- ing through the grapevine back to them. Direct criticism, even when sought, may not be appreciated. Be gentle and use tact.

Effective listening involves more than actual listening; the listener must also appear to be listening.

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Listening to Coworkers Businesses depend on strong interpersonal relationships among coworkers, as discussed in Chapter 3. Relationship development depends on careful listen- ing to coworkers. According to Purdy (2003), “Listening creates community” (p. 1). Brownell (2013, p. 264) suggests that effective listening with peers is improved when we are aware of which listening method is needed: comprehen- sion (questions asked to clarify areas of confusion), therapeutic (supportive responses given), or critical (objective assessment of facts and ideas needed).

If your company is a global one, you may find yourself a part of a cross- functional or virtual team in which “listening” to coworkers is made more difficult and stressful by technology, cultural differences, or lack of personal knowledge about team members. On the other hand, technology, especially email and instant messaging (IM), can improve communication. As Brownell (2013) emphasizes, “Just as poor listening is costly in your personal encoun- ters, the consequences of not listening well in global business environments are equally significant” (p. 314). If you are part of a global organization, you may find the following global listening tips helpful (Boland & Hoffman, 1983; Brownell, 2013; Ferraro, 1998; Hall, 2002; Reisner, 1993; Varner & Beamer, 1995):

● Use humor as a morale booster as long as members’ cultural differences are respected.

● Learn to tolerate ambiguity—be open to many differing viewpoints. Listen not only to accomplish the task, but also to appreciate another culture’s view of the world.

● Explain your ideas completely and explicitly when members have few shared ex- periences. In this situation, member communication will be low context—the situation or context provides only minimal information, so the majority of meaning must come from explicit content cues. This approach may need team discussion because cultures that are high context, such as those in Japan and Saudi Arabia, believe it is the listener’s responsibility to understand and may feel insulted if too much information is given. Low-context cultures such as the United States and Canada feel that listener understanding is the responsi- bility of the speaker and feel frustrated if messages are too brief or vague.

● Show you are “listening” by answering email as soon as possible, showing interest in the ideas of others, making occasional personal inquiries, and including some personal comments and data.

● Concentrate more on information gathering and sharing rather than persuasion. Avoid using words that may be considered arrogant or pushy such as should, must, ought, or have to, and use we instead of I when possible to show team membership.

SIGNS OF POOR LISTENING Regardless of how you previously perceived yourself, after reading this far you may be wondering, “How good a listener am I?” Fortunately, there are certain signs that can alert you to poor listening skills on the job (Horton, 1983). Be- cause most people will not tell you that you are a poor listener, you have to

118 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

monitor your own habits. By watching for these signs, you may be able to detect whether poor listening is affecting your performance on the job.

Breaking the Chain of Command As a manager, one of the surest signs of poor listening is that employees go around you or over your head to talk to others. This breaking of the chain of command— frustrating for both the manager and the employee—results when the manager’s poor listening leaves the employee with no alternative. To carry out their respon- sibilities effectively, employees must have someone in authority who will listen to them. The following example illustrates this sign of poor listening:

Jim was the shift supervisor and Bob’s boss at a chemical plant. Jim and Bob had worked together for over a year when Jim began to notice that Bob had quit discussing safety problems with him. Jim was glad because he re- ally felt that Bob was somewhat paranoid and cried wolf much too often. Recently, however, the operations vice president called Jim and demanded to know why Jim was unaware of or unconcerned with the safety problems in the plant. Obviously, Bob had been discussing safety problems with the vice president. When confronted by Jim about his discussions, Bob replied, “Safe- ty is too important not to have someone listen to the problems in this plant!”

If you find that others are going around you or over your head to talk about issues that are really your business, it may indicate (as it did to Jim) that you have demonstrated poor listening skills.

Learning about Events Too Late Another sign of a manager’s poor listening is learning about important events too late. In many organizations, oral messages are not always followed up by written memos or letters. Managers are expected to act on information without having it repeated. When important events occur without your knowledge or participation, poor listening may be the culprit. A manager in the corporate of- fice of a restaurant chain related the following story:

I arrived at work one day and was surprised to find that all of my colleagues were missing. I asked one of the secretaries where everyone was and was shocked by her reply: “All of the corporate managers are in a special meet- ing with our public relations firm. Aren’t you supposed to be there?” When the special meeting was over, I asked one of my colleagues when the meet- ing was called, and he replied that it was announced in our weekly meeting with the president. I was at that meeting, but never heard [listened to] the announcement.

If you find that you must rely on others or on memos to ensure that you are on top of important events, or if these events pass you by, you can take this as a sign of poor listening.

CHAPTER 4 EFFECTIVE LISTENING 119

Always Putting Out Fires If a manager is always putting out fires or having to handle prob- lems after they have reached cri- sis proportions, this too could be a sign of poor listening. Most warnings that a problem is im- minent are direct, but sometimes they are not, such as “I’m not sure I can handle this alone” or “We may want to consider replacing it soon.” It is important to pick up on these indirect warnings to head off problems before they get out of control. Listening for these indirect com- ments takes special effort, but one of the fundamentals of good management practice is spotting problems before they reach the crisis stage.

Information Must Be Repeated As an employee, if you find that your supervisor or coworker has to repeat information to you constantly, it is probably a sign of poor listening. Repeti- tion is costly for the manager, for you, and for the organization. Every time information must be repeated, time is wasted. Just as important is the harm that this repetition does to perceptions of your abilities and your chances for promotion. A supervisor may say, “I cannot recommend Tom for promotion because he doesn’t seem to catch on very fast. I always have to repeat instruc- tions for him.” In most cases, the truth is not that people don’t catch on very fast, but that they do not use listening skills to their advantage (Tannen, 1994, p. 26).

Tasks Given to Others Tasks once entrusted to you and now being given to others may be another sign of poor listening. Su- pervisors may be communicating that they do not trust your listening skills when they avoid delegat- ing complicated responsibilities to you. Clearly, your career advancement is threatened: Promotions and raises often are based on one’s ability to take on com- plex tasks.

Increase in Written Communication Another sign of poor listening is receiving an unusual amount of written communication (i.e., memos, let- ters, email, or faxes) when oral communication (i.e., face to face, telephone) would be a more appropriate

Revisiting the Case Study... Although he seemed to be a good listener, could LeMessurier’s learning about important details so late be considered a sign of poor listening?

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120 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

channel. Oral communication is often the better method (assuming the receiv- er’s listening skills are good) because it is more rapid and allows for instant feedback. When the message is lengthy or complicated, however, senders may feel that in writing you will not misunderstand it. Those who choose to write memos or letters to you may be aware that your listening skills are not what they should be.

Increase in Poor Listening Habits Ralph Nichols, one of the first researchers to concentrate on listening, iden- tified several bad habits that people develop (Wolff et al., 1983). Using three or more of these habits is a sign of poor listening. Fortunately, these habits can be corrected with effort. Poor listening habits include:

● Calling the topic boring. Many poor listeners justify their inattention by de- claring the speaker’s topic to be uninteresting. Good listeners try to find some fact or idea that they can use in the future even if the presentation isn’t as interesting as they had hoped.

● Criticizing the speaker’s delivery. Poor listeners make a game of criticiz- ing speakers, including their walk, clothes, mannerisms, voice, gram- mar, and dialect instead of listening to the message. In contrast, good listeners may notice the speaker’s faults but concentrate on the message anyway.

● Orally or mentally interrupting to disagree. Poor listeners are easily provoked to disagree. Instead of listening, they are planning a rebuttal. Good listeners pay attention to the entire idea before deciding whether they agree or dis- agree with the speaker.

● Listening only for facts. The best way to remember facts is to relate them to a theme, principle, or concept. Facts are more meaningful when the feelings behind them are clear. Good listeners make sure they understand not only the speaker’s facts and feelings, but also any principles to which they relate.

● Takes detailed notes of everything. Poor listeners become so involved in taking notes that they are not really listening. The best notes are brief key words and phrases that will later refresh the listener’s memory. They do not have to be in outline form; many speakers don’t even follow an outline.

● Pretending to listen. Poor listeners pretend to listen (by staring at the speaker and appropriately nodding from time to time) while really thinking about something else. Good listeners look like they are listening because they re- ally are listening.

● Tolerating or creating distractions. People conversing while a speaker is talking is very distracting to those sitting near the conversationalists and can be distracting to the speaker and a sure sign of poor listening. Allow- ing these distractions to continue is just as bad as creating them. Good listeners will either ask the conversationalists to be quiet or ask the speaker to talk louder.

● Avoiding difficult material. When the topic is complicated or includes tech- nical terms, many poor listeners immediately tune out. Periodically, we all

CHAPTER 4 EFFECTIVE LISTENING 121

should attend professional training sessions or watch challenging TV pro- grams to practice our listening skills.

● Reacting emotionally and tuning out the speaker. Sometimes a speaker will use a word that is emotionally charged for some listeners. Good listeners may not care for certain words, but they do not let their reactions block what the speaker is saying.

● Daydreaming during longer presentations. Poor listeners become so en- grossed in their own thoughts that they forget to tune in the speaker. Good listeners use “spare” time to ponder the speaker’s ideas, to evaluate the qual- ity of evidence, and to commit important ideas to memory.

In addition to being aware of poor listening signs, it is important to know the main barriers to poor listening. Understanding them will allow you to plan ways to minimize potential problems.

BARRIERS TO GOOD LISTENING People are not born with the ability to listen effectively; the signs of poor listen- ing we just discussed must be learned. In addition to these bad signs and habits, which we have some power to change, four other barriers to effective listening should be recognized: physical, personal, gender, semantic, and technology bar- riers (Callarman & McCartney, 1995).

Physical Barriers Most physical barriers to effective listening are not directly under our con- trol. For example, a hearing disability, noisy office equipment, or a loud con- versation could prevent us from hearing an important message. According to the American Hearing Research Foundation (2008), any prolonged noise over 85 decibels can cause hearing loss (e.g., a normal conversation and key- board clicks produce 60 decibels). Visual distractions also pose barriers to effective listening. For instance, during a conversation with your boss, you see someone make an obvious filing mistake; while a subordinate is deliver- ing a report, you are watching birds land on the ledge outside your window; or while listening to a technician’s report, you can’t help but be distracted by his inappropriate three-piece suit. (See the section on clothing and personal appearance in Chapter 5.)

Because we cannot control or eliminate many physical barriers, we have to control ourselves when these distractions are present. It may be difficult to de- vote our entire mental effort to the message we are supposed to be receiving, but it is necessary for effective listening.

Personal Barriers We might assume that it is easier to control the personal barriers to effective listening because we create them ourselves. This is not always true, especially if they are subconscious aspects of our personalities. The first step is learning to recognize them.

122 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Obviously, our physical well-being affects the listening process. Illness, fa- tigue, and discomfort make us unable to concentrate. Our main concern is relief of our aches and pains. When we go to work ill, we jeopardize the opportunity to listen well.

Psychological distractions are another type of personal barrier. Psychologi- cal distractions can arise from almost any source. Personal problems such as finances, buying a house, or the behavior of a spouse or children could all be psy- chologically distracting. Distractions can also originate in events or conditions at work. We may be worried, for example, that our idea will not be received favorably.

Attitudinal biases against the speaker are still another personal barrier to lis- tening. We tend to attribute or explain people’s behavior after looking at only a “thin slice” (brief samples) of their behavior (Ambady et al., 1999). Often we are fairly accurate, but just as often our judgments are biased and overgeneralized. In any case, our listening is affected by these attributions. For example, honestly answer the following questions (Glatthorn & Adams, 1983, p. 9):

● Do you have trouble listening to a colleague of the opposite gender? ● Do you have trouble listening to coworkers from different ethnic groups? ● Do you have trouble listening to someone much older, or much younger,

than you? ● Do you have trouble listening to coworkers with whom you feel competitive? ● Do you have trouble listening to someone whose manner or personal ap-

pearance displeases you? ● Do you have trouble listening to coworkers whom you judge to be less com-

petent than you?

You probably answered yes to at least one of these questions. Everyone has some biases. As the workforce becomes more socially and culturally diverse (Simon, 1991), it will be even more important for communicators to acknowledge attitudinal biases and try to minimize their effect. For example, “I know I have a problem listening to that young know-it-all engineer—I’ll watch it in tomorrow’s meeting.” Personal bar- riers are a natural human tendency, but it is critical to put aside physical, psychologi- cal, and attitudinal distractions and concentrate on listening effectively.

Gender Barriers If we are not careful, gender differences can cause gender barriers to listening. Gender refers to the traditional masculine and feminine characteristics and be- haviors that are influenced by culture and society. The influx of women into oc- cupations and positions traditionally held by men—the number of female man- agers continues to rise from 29.3% in 1990 to 39.5% in 2008 (U.S. Department of Labor, 2009); executive positions from 4.8% in 1992 (Fisher, 1992) to 14.1% in 2011 (Women in U.S. Management, 2012)—and the movement of some men into traditionally female occupations, such as nursing and office jobs, have in- creased the likelihood of gender-related barriers.

Complete the following Awareness Check to see whether your perception of gender listening differences agrees with research findings.

CHAPTER 4 EFFECTIVE LISTENING 123

To summarize the Awareness Check answers (available at the end of the text), women typically are better at decoding nonverbal cues in messages, view communication as a cooperative tool, and work harder to maintain discus- sions by initiating topics and by making supportive responses. Men, on the other hand, talk more often and longer, view communication as a competitive tool, and tend to interrupt more often. At the same time, they give minimal response cues during conversations and are less likely to ask questions. Both men and women (especially in power positions) tend to use tag questions (such as “Isn’t it?”) at the end of comments. However, women tend to be more tentative when the topic is masculine; men are more tentative when the topic is feminine; little difference appears when topics are gender-neutral.

Are differences in the way men and women listen due to real, biological dif- ferences between the sexes, or are they learned behaviors that correspond to so- cial stereotypes? In general, men are seen as more task-oriented, whereas women are seen as more supportive. However, reviewing the statistical procedures used in gender research, Thorne and colleagues (1983) concluded that “very few expected sex differences have been firmly substantiated by empirical studies of isolated variables” (p. 13), and Wilkins and Andersen (1991) found that sex dif- ferences between male and female managers accounted for only 0.5% of the vari- ance and was basically insignificant.

Perhaps the business communicator of the future will be more androgynous. The term androgynous comes from the Greek words for “male” and “female”; it denotes the integration of both masculine and feminine characteristics (Quackenbush, 1987; Wood, 2013). Already, Geddes (1992) reports that union

Gender Barriers How accurate are you in determining gender differences? To find out, take the following quiz and check your answers against those in the back of this book. You can also take this quiz and view the answers online. Go to cengagebrain.com to access your Speech Communication CourseMate for Communicating for Results.

DIRECTIONS: For each question, write M if you think the answer is men; W if you think it is women; and S if you think it is the same for both men and women. Then compare your responses with the answers and explanations drawn from the latest research (questions adapted from Rozema and Gray, 1989, and updated from current research).

________ 1. In office discussions, who usually talks more often? ________ 2. Who is better at interpreting nonverbal cues while listening? ________ 3. When speaking to others, who tends to attach more tag questions (such as “Don’t you agree?” and “Right?”) to

statements? ________ 4. Who is more likely to view a conversation in a competitive rather than cooperative manner? ________ 5. In office discussions, who usually works harder to keep the conversation going? ________ 6. During a conversation, who tends to interrupt more often? ________ 7. While listening, who is less likely to ask questions, especially if asking will reveal a lack of knowledge? ________ 8. Who do colleagues consider the better listener?

Source: Questions adapted from Rozema and Gray, 1989, and updated from current research.

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members judged the androgynous manager (whether male or female) as the most effective and satisfying manager, and Heath (1991) found that androgynous peo- ple are generally more successful at work and at home.

More research on listening and gender differences needs to be conducted before we can confidently answer whether gender differences are due to biologi- cal traits or to social role expectations. Both probably play a part, but many of the gender-related differences will likely disappear as more women move up in their organizations and women managers become commonplace. Conrad and Poole (2012) explain that:

in Western societies men often do not learn to listen at the emotional and relational levels. . . [which can lead to] misunderstandings, frustrations, and communication breakdowns. In contrast, Western women often learn to focus on the relational level of meaning and to respond by expressing un- derstanding, sympathy, and emotional support. . . [which also can lead to] misunderstanding and frustration. (p. 261)

In the meantime, the most effective listeners of both sexes will be those who un- derstand the communication principles discussed throughout this text and who apply them in a considerate and flexible manner.

Semantic Barriers The word semantic refers to the meaning of words. How often have you dis- agreed with someone over the meaning of a message simply because the two of you had different frames of reference and interpreted the words differently? Many ideas, objects, and actions can be referred to by more than one word. In addition, many words have several different meanings (referents). Consider the following example:

A woman called the help desk at her company completely upset. “It’s just not here,” she complained. “I’ve spent over an hour looking, and it’s just not here! Can you help me?” “What’s not there?” asked the technician, thinking this might finally be a problem worth his time. The woman said, “The program says to press any key and there simply is no Any Key on my keyboard!”

Even the sounds of words can be the same but have entirely different mean- ings (red, read). Semantic barriers can be frustrating because the problem stems from oddities of language, not from the listeners’ lack of effort.

Technology Barriers As noted earlier, face-to-face listening has decreased since the use of technology barriers such as smart phones, text messaging, social media, videos, and iPads (to name a few) has expanded so rapidly. Yet we are still listening, it is just a dif- ferent type of listening. The question is, does constant “listening” to technology

CHAPTER 4 EFFECTIVE LISTENING 125

affect our face-to-face listening? Researchers are beginning to think that the answer is “yes.” Some findings include:

● Constant checking email and being exposed to a “deluge of data” creates a condition in which we crave constant stimulation and feel lost without it (Richtel, 2010). Can you imagine going on a vacation or even to work or out shopping without taking your cell phone?

● This need for constant stimulation “can cause us to become more impatient, impulsive, forgetful and even more narcissistic” [thinking that everyone wants to hear all the details of our day] (Parker-Pope, 2010). When you Tweet or post on Facebook, do you give detailed personal information about yourself?

● Being surrounded by devices limits “our true engagement with other peo- ple” (Brownell, 2013, p. 345). When your family or friends go out to a res- taurant, how many of you are constantly checking your email or answering or sending messages?

● Not surprisingly, using technology to text, check email or play games while listening to a lecture significantly decreases what we remember of its content (Hembrooke & Gay, 2003). Even if you were looking up information that related to the lecture topic, researchers are finding that the mental interrup- tions block memory formation (Trafton & Monk, 2008). So, although you may think that you are good at multitasking, when listening to the boss or professor, you’d better stick to the old-fashioned style of listening.

LISTENING SKILLS: IMPROVEMENTS LEAD TO PAYOFFS In the previous section, we made several suggestions for correcting bad listen- ing habits and overcoming listening barriers. This section explores strategies for strengthening listening skills.

Understanding the Stages of Listening One way to improve your listening skills is to understand the listening process. The basic stages of listening (as shown in Figure 4.1) are sensing, interpreting, evaluating, responding, and, if those steps are completed correctly, storing in our memory what we hear (Steil et al., 1983).

Sensing Stage In the sensing stage, listeners select or ignore one or more stimuli from the multitude of stimuli that bombard us continually. It’s impos- sible to notice every sound, every sight, and every smell, or to acknowledge every feeling that occurs around us. We have learned to become highly selective. We pay attention to things that are important to us or of interest to us; the other things we essentially tune out. Arthur K. Robertson (1994), in his book Listen for Success, illustrates the sensing stage with this example:

A zoologist [is] walking down a busy city street with a friend amid honking horns and screeching tires. He says to his friend, “Listen to that cricket!” The

126 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

friend looks at him with astonishment. “You hear a cricket in the middle of all this noise?” The zoologist takes out a coin and flips it into the air. As it clinks to the sidewalk a dozen heads turn in response. The zoologist says quietly, “We hear what we listen for.” (p. 45)

In addition to needs and interests, listeners’ sensing abilities are also affected by gender, age, cultural background, bias, emotion, and environmental distrac- tions. For communication to really be effective, of course, you must not only look like you are listening, but you must be genuinely concerned with what is being communicated (Comer & Drollinger, 1999).

Interpreting Stage In the interpreting stage, listeners assign meaning to the messages that they have seen, heard, and felt in the sensing stage. In other words, they attempt to decode what the speaker really means. The difficulty is that we often have different meanings for the same word. As a result, some of the most serious listening problems occur in the interpreting stage. Many of these problems are explained by attribution theory, which describes how the average person processes information and uses it to explain the behav- ior of others and self (Littlejohn & Foss, 2011). Sometimes these problems occur because of semantic barriers (recall the woman we mentioned previ- ously who tried to find the key called Any Key on her keyboard). Sometimes they occur because listeners assume that they understand and don’t bother with questions or paraphrasing (summarizing the speaker’s ideas in their

own words). Sometimes listening problems result from jumping to conclusions or from fatigue or in- formation overload. And many in- terpreting problems arise because both speakers and listeners believe in the communication fallacy dis- cussed in Chapter 1—that is, that 100% understanding is possible as long as the speaker is clear and the listener is paying attention. Brody (1994) found that customers felt

positively toward salespeople during this stage of listening if the salesperson listened without interrupting, tried hard to understand by paraphrasing the customers’ questions, and asked for more details when needed.

MEMORY

R E S P O N D I NG

V A L

U A T I N G

I N

T E R P R E T I N

S E N S I N G Hearing what is important.

Assigning meaning to what is seen, heard, and felt.

Determining speaker credibility and message importance.

Reacting to speech—usually nonverbally.

Retaining parts of message in memory.

FIGURE 4.1 Stages of listening

Revisiting the Case Study... What role did attribution theory play in the Citicorp tower crisis, if any?

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Evaluating Stage In the evaluating stage, listeners “think about the mes- sage, make more extensive inferences, evaluate and judge the speaker and the message” (Goss, 1982, p. 306). In assigning a value judgment to what they have sensed and understood, listeners must decide whether the speaker is qualified, the information and evidence are accurate, and the comments are relevant and worth the time.

Listeners’ evaluations are often affected by their attitude toward the speak- er. Imagine yourself speaking before business colleagues who think you are too young, doubt you because of your gender or ethnicity, or mistrust the de- partment you represent. Listeners’ evaluations are also affected by previous experiences, expectations, and even their beliefs and emotions. As a result, listeners sometimes make evaluations based on assumptions without having all the facts. A rescue squad member related this incident about a call for help the squad received from a patrolman:

A 38-year-old man had pulled off the road and hit an obstruction. [After call- ing the rescue squad, the] patrolman had called back: “Cancel the call. The man is not really injured. He’s just complaining of chest pains and probably bumped into the steering wheel.” The squad went out anyway. When they arrived they could see immediately that the man was having a heart attack. “What happened,” he told them between gasps, “was that I had this chest pain and went off the road.” And with that he passed out. We got to work on him right away and got him to a hospital, but it was too late. Now he had told the patrolman the same thing he had told us—“I had this chest pain and went off the road.” The patrolman heard him, perhaps understood him, but despite his knowledge and experience did not evaluate what he heard and in this case not evaluating correctly was fatal. I never forgot that. (Steil et al., 1984, pp. 27–28)

When speaking to others, remember that they are evaluating your message based not only on the words you use (language code), but also on the quality of your speaking voice (paralanguage code) and your appearance, gestures, and visual aids (nonverbal code)—as we saw in Chapter 1.

Attribution Theory

Original Theorist: Fritz Heider, The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations, 1958. Definition: The process of drawing inferences or how people process information and

use it to explain the behavior of others and self. Involves a Three-Step Process: (a) Perceive an action, (b) judge intent of action, and

the person’s character and underestimate the role that the situation has on behavior (i.e., we usually assume that the things that happen to people are a result of something they did).

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Responding Stage When listeners have sensed, interpreted, and evalu- ated you and your ideas, they are ready for the responding stage. This stage is very important because, without feedback, speakers can only assume that they have communicated. Listeners won’t always agree, but their responses show whether they were listening and whether they understood. Listener responses can take many forms. Ideally, listeners will verbally indicate their understand- ing (i.e., agreement, disagreement, or confusion). If not, watch for nonverbal facial expressions (such as frowning or head nodding). Although accurately in- terpreting nonverbal responses can be difficult, Chapter 5 will discuss specific nonverbal cues that may be helpful. Also, don’t forget that listeners sometimes fake attention. Attentive posture and constant eye contact do not necessarily equal listening. People who are listening attentively may shift in their seats, doodle on their papers, cough, glance at the clock, and look at the floor. It’s usually the people who sit perfectly still who are mentally somewhere else.

Memory Stage The memory stage is the final stage of effective listening. Lis- teners (assuming that they completed the sensing, interpreting, evaluating, and responding stages) decide what parts, if any, of your message to retain and then at- tempt to store them in memory. Unfortunately, no matter how brilliant the speak- er’s ideas, or how intently people listen, most of us will remember only about 10 to 25% of a presentation the next day, week, or month (Wolff et al., 1983).

Much of this problem occurs because listeners fail to transfer what they have just heard from their short-term memory into their long-term memory (Schab & Crowder, 1989). In addition, Miller (1994) warns that our short-term memory holds only about seven “bits” of information, plus or minus two bits (in other words, five to nine bits). Cowan’s more recent research (2001) suggests

What value judgment do you think the listeners in this picture are making?

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that many of us can retain no more than four bits of information in our short- term memories. A sound, letter, word, sentence, or even an idea is considered to be a bit of information. More than four to nine bits and we start to forget, unless we take notes or rehearse in some way in 30 seconds or less (Kosslyn & Rosenberg, 2006). Actually, some of us can forget even one bit of information if we don’t rehearse. For example, have you ever left your office for the workroom to pick up some items, but forgot what you needed by the time you got there? Frus- trating isn’t it?

Speakers should know that listeners are more likely to remember information that is organized, effectively delivered, repeated, related to their backgrounds and interests, and accompanied by pro- fessional-looking visual aids. The power of visual aids cannot be overstated. Au- dience retention and comprehension are definitely increased when visual and ver- bal communication channels are prop- erly teamed. (Chapter 13 discusses the benefits and power of using visual aids.) The Improving Your Listening—Key Points section that follows gives specifics on transferring information from short- term memory into long-term memory. As listeners, pay particular attention to these three points: (a) listen for key words, (b) write down the key words, and (c) constantly summarize/rehearse the key points in your mind.

Improving Your Listening— Key Points Instead of daydreaming or allowing yourself to get distracted, improve your listening by following these simple guidelines:

● Identify the speaker’s main points with a key word or phrase. Key words and short phrases are easier

How Good Are You at Listening to People from Other Generations?

In today’s workplace, you are likely working side-by-side with three generations. By 2020, there will be at least four generations in the workplace with the Millennial generation representing 50% of the workforce (Meister & Willard, 2010, p. 44). We all need to brush up on our communication skills with all generations, be they colleagues, boss- es, or customers (see Table 4.1 for information on today’s customer). As you use these characteristics to improve your understanding and com- munication, realize that you may have some characteristics from sev- eral generation groups—there are definite overlaps (Biro, 2012; Conrad & Poole, 2012, pp.14-17; Meister & Willyerd, 2010, pp. 43–68; Shan, 2011):

Traditionalists (born before 1946): Key trait is loyalty. Raised with shortages and minimal finances, emphasis on commu-

nity and religious values. Influencing events included stock market crash of 1929, attack on

Pearl Harbor, World War II, Cold War, and Korean War. Technology was applied mainly to war efforts. Possible problem areas: Traditionalists believe in loyalty and respect

authority; they dislike people who feel entitled and waste time— especially when playing computer games.

Baby Boomers (born between 1946 and 1964): Key trait is competition. Raised in post–World War II stability, general prosperity, low divorce

rate, job security but hard work and long hours expected; usually single-earner households, with male and female roles clearly set.

Influencing events included Woodstock, Vietnam War, Watergate, women’s rights, and the assassination of JFK.

Technology inventions included television (1 million homes had black- and-white TV in 1948) and the personal computer.

Possible problem areas: Boomers expect to take charge and have others appreciate their experience and knowledge; they believe that if you work hard enough and are patient, you will achieve.

Generation X (born between 1965 and 1979): Key trait is self-reliance. Raised in two-career families—both parents worked to make ends

meet, and daycare facilities and latch-key environments after school were the norm.

Influencing events included downsizing, which affected more than half of all families, causing feelings of insecurity, AIDS, moon landing, Gulf War, and the fall of the Berlin Wall.

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Technology included growth of television programming, MTV, and the invention of the mobile phone.

Possible problem areas: Xers don’t plan to spend years working to get promoted—they want to start out in a good position and retire early; they feel that performance, not seniority should determine rewards; they are not afraid to ask questions or disagree with supervisors; their communication is blunt and to the point.

Millennials (born between 1980 and 2002: Key trait is immediacy. Raised with material possessions and “disposable income,” partici-

pated in group activities where they learned to trust interpersonal relationships, played with children of various races and cultural groups, engaged in volunteer work.

Influencing events included the 9-11 terrorist attacks, Oklahoma City bombings, Columbine school massacre, corporate scandals in 2000 and the collapse of the financial industry in 2008 (both resulting in a poor a job market), and the election of the first black president.

Technology included the Internet, Google, and the introduction of social media like Facebook.

Possible problem areas: Millennials show real attachment to smart phones and use them to talk, text message, shop, or play games at work and almost everyplace; people view them as having a short attention span and not always being accountable; they negotiate assignments and ask for exceptions; they are committed to learning and training but want it to have social capability; they expect their jobs to provide challenge, relation- ships, innovation, and personal fulfillment. See how closely you fit in this generate by taking the “How Millennial Are You?” quiz (Pew Research Center, 2012) at http://pewresearch.org /millennials/quiz/index.php

QUESTIONS Find the generational group to which you belong. Do you agree with the possible problems listed? If not, what would you add or remove and why? What topic areas do you think would cause the most prob- lems when listening to multiple generations in the workplace? Which organization model from Chapter 2 would best accommodate multiple generations?

to remember than complete sen- tences. Recalling a key word will trigger your mind to recall related facts as well.

● Take brief notes while you listen. Writ- ing down phrases or key words will help reinforce your memory. Then review your notes. Studies show that people who take notes while listening but never review their notes retain no more than people who listen without taking notes (Kiewra et al., 1991). It’s best to review while listening and not wait until later (Stettner, 1998).

● Therefore, constantly summarize the speaker’s previous points by repeating the key words in your mind. Refer to your notes any time you are uncertain. With practice, you should be able to summa- rize a list of 10 items and still not miss anything the speaker says. This type of constant summary can increase the length of time ideas are held in short-term memory and may actually transfer them into long-term memory (Kiewra, 1985). (Note: These first three guidelines—key word, brief notes, and constant summary—work together as key points in improving memory. Prac- tice them when listening to speakers.)

● Listen for the facts, as well as, the feel- ings behind the facts. If there is an emo- tional tone to the message, listening for facts alone will result in an incom- plete message.

● Relate information to current policies and procedures. When listening to information about the organization, good listeners associate what is said with current policies and procedures. Associated information is easier to understand and remember.

● Avoid prejudice. We all have prejudices, and we need to remember that they affect the information we process. Good listeners listen to information objectively first and then evaluate it according to their beliefs. Allowing prejudice to intrude during the listening process distorts the meaning of the message.

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PAYOFFS OF EFFECTIVE LISTENING When we listen more effectively, we gain several advantages. The following list is not exhaustive, but it does suggest payoffs most people can obtain through more effective listening (Robinett, 1982). Your own personal payoffs will be even more numerous!

● Effective listeners discover the values, needs, expectations, and goals of those with whom they work. When listening is effective, we get a better under- standing of what motivates our superiors, colleagues, and subordinates. We recognize that their values and expectations are either similar to or different from our own, and this information facilitates our own and the organiza- tion’s goals. The following comments from two business managers illustrate this payoff of effective listening:

It wasn’t until management and the labor union at my plant really started listening to one another that we realized that both parties in the labor dispute were trying to attain the same goal: job security for the workers.

For several years I became quite angry with several of my subordinates when they would gripe, “We are not appreciated around here.” Their discon- tent was not reduced by several pay raises, which were quite generous. It was not until I really listened to their complaints that I found money was not the appreciation they desired. Verbal recognition was the answer. I now praise my employees each time they do a good job. They seem much happier and more motivated, and I am saving the company money, which would have been spent on excessive salaries.

● Better management–employee relations develop. When employees feel that their managers are really listening and responding appropriately to their messages, good relationships will develop (as we saw in Chapter 3 on in- terpersonal relationships). Even when a manager is not able to grant em- ployees’ requests or take their suggestions, employees are much more likely to accept the decision and respect the manager if they know that they have been heard, and if the manager explains the reasons for the decision. In making decisions, good managers take employee concerns into consider- ation by listening to them and understanding them.

● Better decisions are made in emergency situations. For example, many people ignore safety briefings given by airline attendants because they feel they’ve heard it all before. Yet studies show that people who listen to these briefings are more likely to get through an emergency on an airline safely than those who don’t listen. In an effort to encourage passengers to listen more to the safety instructions, Northwest Airlines (which has now merged with Delta Airlines) found that while only 45% of passengers watched live safety pre- sentations, 70% watched video briefings (“Listen Up,” 2001).

● We learn from others’ experience. Managers and employees who listen effec- tively realize that other members of the organization experience many of the same problems that they do. By listening carefully, we can learn from others’ successes and avoid their mistakes.

KEY TERMS attribution theory (126) brief notes (130) constant summary (130) evaluating stage (127) gender barriers (122) high context (117)

interpreting stage (126) key word (129) listening (110) low context (117) memory stage (128) nonacceptance responses (113)

personal barriers (121) physical barriers (121) responding stage (128) semantic barriers (124) sensing stage (125) technology barriers (124)

SUMMARY Effective listening is not passive. It takes a great deal of effort and motivation to become an effective listener. Good listening is a prerequisite for success in business and the professions. Although effective listening is certainly not the answer to all business problems, it is one of the first steps leading to solu- tions. Organizational effectiveness is hampered by employees and managers who do not listen well. Individual career advance- ment also can be hindered by poor listening. Unfortunately, poor listening is often more apparent to others than it is to the poor listener.

The suggestions in this chapter about breaking bad listen- ing habits and improving listening skills should be used as a guide. Some suggestions may be more beneficial than others. It is up to you to try them and monitor how they are working.

Becoming an effective listener takes a great deal of work, but the payoffs are worth the effort. Few people are effective lis- teners. Once you attain this skill, you will be in an elite group indeed.

To conclude this chapter, let’s take a look at how our case study crisis ended: Once LeMessurier realized how serious the danger could be from a rare quartering wind, he took imme- diate action and notified the lawyers, the architect, and the top brass at Citicorp. After discussions, the following steps were taken: Emergency generators for the TMD were set up; contracting engineers inspected an exposed joint on an un- used floor and agreed that LeMessurier’s steel Band-Aid idea was feasible; a number of constantly monitored strain gauges were attached to the building; an advisory group of weather

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experts were gathered to provide wind alerts; an evacuation plan for the building and surrounding area was planned by Cit- icorp and the American Red Cross’s director of disaster ser- vices; the building commissioner and nine city officials were briefed about the danger and proposed actions; and a short, fairly vague press release was sent out. Anticipation was high. To minimize concern, welding occurred only at night and was cleaned up before office workers arrived each morning. By the time Hurricane Ella headed for New York, repairs to the most serious joints had been completed, and with the TMD operating, the building could withstand a 200-year storm (fortunately,

the hurricane veered out to sea). Another fortunate thing was that the city newspapers were on strike during the re- pairs, so no citizen awareness or panic occurred. Although Citicorp filed a claim against LeMessurier and the architect, they agreed to accept the insurance company’s payment of $2 million and dropped the suit. Robertson, the structural expert brought into the case by Citicorp, had this to say: “I have a lot of admiration for Bill, because he was very forthcom- ing. While we say that all engineers would behave as he did, I carry in my mind some skepticism about that” (Morgenstern, 2005, p. 69).

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Before continuing to the next chapter, check your understanding of Chapter 4 at the Speech Communication CourseMate for Commu- nicating for Results. CourseMate gives you quick and easy access to this text’s resources to help improve your communication skills and prepare you for quizzes and exams. These resources include: ● Study tools including the student companion workbook,

digital glossary, flashcards, and review quizzes. ● Activities and assignments including Awareness Checks,

Checkpoints, and Collaborative Learning Activities. ● Media resources such as Web Links (explore communica-

For more information or to access this book’s online resources, visit www.cengage.com/login.

Collaborative Learning Activities 1. Complete the questions about gender barriers in the Aware-

ness Check on p. 123. Check your answers against the correct answers located in the back of the text. In groups of five to seven, compare answers and discuss any that were missed by group members. If your group disagrees with the answer key, be prepared to explain your group’s preferred answer to other groups or the entire class if asked. Provide an example to support your answer.

2. Career Activity: In small groups, discuss the “It Really Works” essay about Nike and Nike’s use of social media to establish a two-way interaction with consumers. Check them out on Facebook, Twitter, or other social media. Com- pare the various ways that Nike relates to customers with

the information on what today’s customers want listed in Table 4.1. How does this table explain Nike’s success? Be prepared to share your answers with other groups.

3. Summarize the main points in the Citigroup case study at the beginning of the chapter—see the conclusion of the situ- ation in the chapter summary. In groups of three to seven come to an agreement on what the chapter has to say about the following questions:

a. Evaluate LeMessurier’s listening skills on a scale of 1 (poor) to 5 (excellent) and explain why you gave him the score that you did;

b. Determine whether he was guilty of any signs of poor listening and why, and

c. Decide whether it was ethical for LeMessurier and oth- ers involved in the crisis to withhold this information from the public for 20 years.

4. Career Activity: Check which of the 10 poor listening habits listed on pages 120–121 cause you problems? Then get into groups of 3 to 5 and share lists and answer the following:

a. Which three habits received the most checks? Why? Give personal examples.

b. Which of these habits cause the most problems in the workplace?

c. What solutions does your group recommend to help the problem(s)?

5. Look at the “Dilemmas in Communication” box on page 129. Form into small groups and discuss the characteristics of each generational group. Are there any characteristics you think should be added or removed? Which characteristics do you think are more likely to cause problems when listening to multiple generations in the workplace? For fun, have each group member take the “How Millennial Are You?” quiz (see p. 130 for the website). Discuss your quiz results and what they mean for communication.

COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS ONLINE

Communication Method

Amount of Time Spent (in hours)

Writing

Reading

Speaking

Listening

Telephone

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6. Select a day for all team members to complete the Listening Survey below. After team members all take the survey, com- bine results for a team total. Are the results as expected? Why, or why not?

Listening Survey Instructions a. Estimate the total amount of time you spend in school or

doing schoolwork on your assigned day.

b. Now estimate the amount of time you spend in each communication method on your assigned day, doing things other than class work. Note: Your total plus time studying plus sleeping should add up to 24 hours.

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DEFINE the term nonverbal communication, and explain how it differs in each of the three cultural levels: technical, formal, and informal.

LIST the major types of nonverbal communication in the workplace, and discuss the cultural differences found for each type.

DESCRIBE the role that nonverbal symbols and culture shock play in international business transactions and what can be done to minimize any negative effects.

IDENTIFY how to improve your nonverbal skills through imme- diacy behaviors, expectancy violations theory, and effective habits.

As you read chapter 5...

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

5 © Wavebreakmedia Ltd/DDDreD amstime.com

CASE STUDY Hook ’em Horns Gesture Causes Problems at 2005 Inauguration Communication misunderstandings caused by nonverbal messages and gestures can be especially serious when multiple countries and cultures are involved. In January 2005 at his second inauguration, George W. Bush along with his wife and daughters flashed several hook ’em horns hand gestures as the University of Texas Longhorn Band marched by them during the inaugural parade. This cer- tainly wasn’t the first time President Bush had used this gesture, nor was it the first time that a student from the University of Texas had received negative press overseas for using the hook ’em horns gesture (Douglas, 2005). However, the heavy media coverage of the inauguration, which was shown around the world, led to more people and countries taking notice and many of them expressed shock and anger.

The hook ’em horns hand gesture began at the Univer- sity of Texas in 1955 to represent their mascot, the Texas longhorn, which is a breed of cattle known for its unusu- ally long horns (Douglas, 2005). The hand sign representing the longhorn is made with the two middle fingers pressed against the palm of the hand and the other two fingers point- ing upward like cattle horns. The hook ’em horns sign looks similar to the American Sign Language sign for “I love you,” which you may have seen on an American postage stamp ex- cept that the thumb is extended in the “I love you” sign but crosses the middle fingers in the hook ’em gesture. The palm and fingers generally face away from the body in both signs.

The hook ’em horns gesture is used by University of Texas alumni, students, faculty, and cheerleaders as a greeting and as a sign of respect during sporting events. For example, during football games, use of the sign begins when the Longhorn Band runs onto the field at home games “in its burnt orange uniforms, hands raised with ‘hook ’em’ signs. Fans leap to their feet, and soon ‘hook ’em’ signs fill the stadium to its farthest reaches” (“Showband of the South- west,” 2002). Because Bush had been governor of Texas and his wife and daughters have degrees from the University of Texas, the entire family feels a close connection to the uni- versity and its mascot.

The problem with the hook ’em horns hand ges- ture, as well as other gestures used around the world is

that they don’t mean the same thing to all people in all countries. According to David Thomas (2008) in his book

Cross-Cultural Management, “trying to learn all the hand gestures that exist across cultures would be virtually im- possible” (p. 135). However, in President Bush’s case, the gesture he and his family used has different meanings in other countries that are serious enough that he probably should have saved the gesture for a more private time. For example, in Nordic countries, the sign is viewed as a salute to Satan or devil worship. Italians use the sign to mean that a wife is cheating on her spouse. Some Africans interpret the sign to mean that a curse is being placed on the one to whom the gesture is made, and some Mediter- ranean countries consider the sign to be an insult similar to the single middle finger sign used in the United States (Axtell, 2007). Although there are many other meanings for the hook ’em horn sign that do not have a negative meaning—such as in baseball, where the sign is used to mean “you have two outs,” you can see why some inter- national viewers felt both shock and confusion seeing the president of the United States portraying such a sign, smiling all the while.

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As you read this chapter... See whether you can determine, (a) who is the most responsi- ble for the misunderstanding—Bush, his advisors, or the people from other countries—and why, (b) which of the four types of gestures would best describe the hook ’em horns sign, and (c) how important a role a nonverbal misunder- standing such as this one typi- cally plays in creating an inter- national incident; can you think of other national or international examples?

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Managers, employees, and team members constantly send messages to those around them. Some of these messages are sent intentionally, but many are sent unconsciously. Managers at all levels send silent messages with their clothes; the size and location of their offices; the arrangement of their of- fice furniture; their facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, and posture; and even the way they decorate their desks. The success of communication in an organiza- tion often depends on how well managers, employees, and teams can read these silent messages—especially in today’s global economy, in which organizations rep- resent a variety of cultures that have different views of individualism and context (see Chapter 3 for a review).

Recall from our discussion in Chapter 1 that nonverbal code (including paralanguage) is responsible for more than half of the meaning of a sender’s to- tal message and that when the language, paralanguage, and nonverbal codes send conflicting messages, people tend to pay even more attention to the nonverbal code (Burgoon et al., 2010). Therefore, we shouldn’t be surprised that successful use of nonverbal communication helps in establishing and maintaining necessary inter- personal relationships (Burgoon et al., 1996). According to Barnlund (1989), there is a reciprocal quality to nonverbal communication: “The habits of posture, ges- ture, and touch of one person tend to prompt similar acts from the other” (p. 127), thereby improving rapport and decreasing awkwardness. Effective use of nonver- bal communication also improves the likelihood that others will comply with our requests (Gladwell, 2002; Segrin, 1993). The impact of nonverbal communication on your success in business cannot be overemphasized. For example, research indi- cates that 60 to 70% of the interpersonal communication involved in effective sales is nonverbal (Dimmick, 1995; Fill, 1995). This chapter, therefore, concentrates on improving your skill in understanding, detecting, and sending nonverbal messages.

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION: DEFINITION, CULTURE, AND PRINCIPLES Although the term can be defined in several different ways, this text defines non- verbal communication as all intentional and unintentional messages that are not written, spoken, or sounded. Although many texts include paralanguage (vocal sounds) as part of nonverbal communication, this definition omits it because the three codes (language, paralanguage, and nonverbal) are easier to understand when each is considered separately. (See Chapter 1 for a discussion of paralanguage and Chapter 11 for a discussion of language, paralanguage and cultural differences.)

To accurately determine the meaning of a nonverbal (silent) message in a busi- ness or professional setting, you must know the sender’s personal frame of reference and cultural background, as well as the specific situation. Although facial expressions for such emotions as happiness, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger, and fear are fairly universal (Ekman, 1994, 2003; Ekman et al., 1987), the meaning of most nonverbal messages depends on the culture in which they occur. For example, in the United States nodding your head usually means agreement; in Japan nodding the head means only that the message was received (James, 1989); and in Bulgaria nodding the head shows disagreement (Axtell, 2007). Another example of cultural differences

138 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

is illustrated by the gesture made by forming a circle with the thumb and forefinger: In the United States this gesture means “A-OK”; in Japan and Korea it refers to money; in France it means zero or worthless; in Australia, Brazil, Germany, and Tunisia it is consid- ered an obscene or violent gesture (Hansson, 1999; Samovar et al., 2013).

One way to enrich our understand- ing of culture and nonverbal behaviors is to view it through several dimensions. Recall that three important dimensions of culture were discussed in Chapter 3: individual- istic–collectivistic, low-context–high-context, and monochromic–polychromic cultures. If you recall, collectivistic cultures value group membership, empathy, and listening, where- as individualistic cultures value individual rights more highly than group member- ship, and telling it like it is more than em- pathy and listening. Low-context cultures are direct and explicit and consider clear communication to be the responsibility of the sender, who provides meaning primarily through words; high-context cultures prefer

a more indirect route and consider clear communication to be the responsibility of the receiver, who gets the meaning from context and careful observation of non- verbal messages. Monochromic (m-time) cultures view time as a scarce resource that can be wasted, saved, and even sold; they are often viewed as being in a hurry. Polychromic (p-time) cultures take a more laid back approach to time and consider relationships much more important than time; they are often viewed as having little regard for time. See Chapter 3 for a more detailed discussion.

A fourth way to understand the relationship between culture and nonverbal messages is through the dimension of the technical–formal–informal levels of culture (Hall, 1973).

At the technical level, the rules for cultural and nonverbal behaviors are openly known and easily stated by most citizens of a particular culture. These rules, as well as the reasons for the rules, are deliberately taught, such as in a new- employee orientation session, during which various procedures, techniques (correct use of a machine or computer program), regulations, and behaviors (greeting a customer) are taught. When a technical rule or behavior is broken unintentionally, very little emotion is involved; the mistake is pointed out and a correction is made. Of course, people who deliberately choose to ignore a com- pany’s technical rules will likely find themselves out of a job.

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Formal Level At the formal level, the rules for behavior are clearly stated, but the reasons for the rules are not. They are simply accepted without question by most people. Some generally accepted workplace examples of the formal level include typical office hours in the United States (9 to 5 with lunch from 12 to 1), arrive on time or early, and the boss sits at the head of the table. Formal rules that include ritu- als, traditions, and etiquette are considered extremely important, and violations of them cause a strong emotional response. People who question these rules are not viewed as team players and are told, “That’s just the way things are.” Compared with many other countries, the United States has few formal rules. Furthermore, many of these formal rules allow for a fairly wide range of variation before the rule is considered to be violated. Formal rules based on tradition change slowly, but they do change—for example, “Male managers should wear ties and white shirts.”

Informal Level At the informal level of culture, neither the rules for behavior nor the reason for the rules are taught; they are unconsciously learned by imitation (mod- eling ourselves after others). The informal level includes rules for nonver- bal behaviors, such as gestures, eye contact, status, office size, arrival time for appointments, and the proper physical distance for conversations. Once the behaviors of the informal level are learned, they usually become auto- matic and are taken for granted. We are often unaware that these behaviors are dictated by rules. However, when someone breaks one of these unstated rules (e.g., staring at us longer than we feel is polite or standing too close in an elevator), we may become uncomfortable and even withdraw from the situation.

There are many different cultures and subcultures in the United States, so it is dangerous to make assumptions about nonverbal meanings— especially because what is a formal rule in one culture may be a technical or informal rule in another. Nevertheless, the majority of our business- related nonverbal behaviors are governed by informal-level rules. Because we are generally not consciously aware of these rules, it is no wonder that so many people overlook the importance of nonverbal messages for successful communication.

TYPES OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION AND THEIR EFFECTS ON BUSINESS COMMUNICATION The types of nonverbal communication are almost limitless. However, in this chapter, we cover only those types that are most applicable to business com- munications: facial expressions and eye contact, body movements and gestures, touch, clothing and personal appearance, distance and personal space, physical environment, and time.

140 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Facial Expressions and Eye Contact Use of the face, which is responsible for most of the meaning in nonverbal mes- sages, to communicate is referred to as kinesics by researchers. Although basic facial expressions (such as happiness, surprise, fear, and anger) are fairly uni- versal, the subtle and spontaneous expressions we encounter at work each day are more difficult to interpret (Ekman, 1994; Motley, 1993) and differ across cultures. For example, although facial expressions are fairly open in the United States, Asian countries are more likely to suppress facial expressions (Andersen & Wang, 2009). Nevertheless, expressions like raised or lowered eyebrows, nervous tics, clenched teeth, or tensed, pursed lips give clues to a person’s feelings, thus enabling us to improve communication.

The eyes are the most expressive part of the face and have considerable ef- fect on communication. In U.S. culture, eye contact performs several functions.

Eye Contact Shows Interest and Attentiveness In U.S. culture, peo- ple in business or the professions expect those to whom they are speaking to look at them. A listener’s lack of eye contact is interpreted as disinterest or even disrespect. At the same time, a speaker’s lack of eye contact may cause the lis- tener to interpret the message less favorably (Knapp & Hall, 2010). Check out the three facial expressions shown below to see if you can readily identify them.

The informal rules do not call for constant or prolonged eye contact (except in cases of extreme anger or intimacy). In the United States, people tend to look at others more while listening than while speaking. Speakers tend to look away at the beginning of an utterance (perhaps to plan what to say), look back occa- sionally to check the listener’s response, and look again at the end to signal that feedback is expected (Knapp & Hall, 2010; Malandro et al., 1989).

In general, two people conversing will maintain mutual eye contact only 31% of the time; the average length of a mutual gaze is only 1.18 seconds (Harper et al., 1978; Knapp & Hall, 2010). When the gaze is not mutual (e.g., when the listener looks at the speaker, who has glanced away), it lasts an av- erage of only 2.95 seconds (Argyle & Ingham, 1972). When people maintain eye contact for longer than the expected lengths—as Arabs, Latinos, Indians, and Pakistanis do—North Americans become uncomfortable, whereas some Africans and East Asians view it “as conveying anger or insubordination” (Thomas, 2008, p. 137).

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Eye Contact Signals a Wish to Participate People who want to interact usually make eye contact and smile (Burgoon & Hoobler, 2002). The following example illustrates how eye contact can be read as an indication of the desire to participate.

Tonya, a young nurse at a large hospital, complained that in the 6 months she had been working at the hospital, she had been appointed to four com- mittees even though she hadn’t volunteered for any of them. Each time one of the head nurses asked for volunteers, Tonya sat quietly and said noth- ing. What the young nurse did not realize was that whenever the head nurse said, “We need one more volunteer,” Tonya looked directly at the head nurse, nonverbally signaling “I volunteer,” and thus prompting the request, “Tonya, how about you?” Her nonverbal volunteering was just as loud as the verbal assents given by other nurses. Nurses who did not wish to volun- teer most likely looked down and refused to meet the searching eyes of the head nurse.

You have probably had a similar experience when your boss asked the group a question. The moment you made eye contact with the person, you knew that you were going to be called on—and you were, weren’t you? The opposite is also true: Avoiding eye contact can signal a desire to be left alone.

Eye Contact Controls and Persuades Others In U.S. culture, eye con- tact signals others that it is okay to talk. Consider, for example, the project direc- tor who, after explaining the project, asked for individual responses from the group but looked directly at Joe. Even though Joe was looking down and missed the signal, no one else spoke; they had not received permission yet. Only when the director glanced across the group with slightly raised eyebrows did some- one else speak. Because response to eye contact is at the informal level, quite possibly neither the director nor the members were consciously aware of what had happened. Other people use it deliberately, such as withholding eye contact from a person they are unhappy with while making direct eye contact with ev- eryone else. If a supervisor does this, it sends a strong message: “I’m displeased” (Reardon, 2000, p. 87).

Lack of eye contact can also control the flow of communication by signaling that it is time for a conversation to end. Suppose, for example, that you are busy on an important task when a colleague stops by and asks whether you have a minute to discuss a problem. You reply that you are busy but can spare 5 minutes or so. At the end of 5 (or maybe even 10) minutes, when the visitor shows no signs of leaving, you can either tell the person that you must get back to work or terminate the conversation nonverbally by breaking eye contact and glancing down at the papers on your desk. If you choose the latter course, in most cases the person will automatically end the conversation, thank you for your help, and leave without being consciously aware of the role that eye contact played.

In the food service industry, eye contact is a valuable way to move custom- ers rapidly while still giving them the feeling that they are receiving personal service. In line at a cafeteria one day, we observed a food server who would say, “May I help you with a meat dish?” but would look at the food while speaking.

142 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

When no one replied, he would repeat the question several times and finally look up in exasperation. At that point, the person he made eye contact with would say, “Oh, I’ll have the. . . .” That server must have been exhausted by the end of the day! The salad server had much more success simply by making direct eye contact with each customer and raising her eyebrows slightly.

Eye contact and facial expressions also play a role in persuasion. A study conducted by Mullen and colleagues (1986) and discussed in Gladwell (2002) took place during the presidential campaign between Walter Mondale and Ronald Reagan. All ABC, NBC, and CBS nightly newscasts were videotaped for 8 days prior to the election. All references to the candidates were organized into 37 segments, each approximately 2.5 seconds long with no sound. Sub- jects were asked to watch each segment by each newscaster (Peter Jennings at ABC, Tom Brokaw at NBC, and Dan Rather at CBS) and score the facial expressions on a 21-point scale from 1, “extremely negative,” to 21, “extremely positive.” The results indicated that Brokaw and Rather used practically the same expressions for both candidates (scores averaged in the 10s for Rather and 11s for Brokaw), but Jennings had a 13.38 when talking about Mondale and a 17.44 when discussing Reagan. When regular watchers of each program were called and asked whom they voted for, those who watched ABC voted for Reagan significantly more often than those who watched the other two stations, even though additional research showed that ABC was the “most hos- tile to Reagan” (Gladwell, 2002, p. 76). The study was repeated in the Michael Dukakis–George H. W. Bush campaign with the same results. The researchers concluded that it was a subtle nonverbal bias showing in Jennings’s face that influenced the viewers.

Eye Contact and Other Cultures Because nonverbal expressions have dif- ferent meanings in various cultures, be careful about assigning your culture’s meanings for eye behavior to all people. For example, in some parts of the coun- try Brazilians tend to avoid eye contact with people of different status or ages, with the younger person generally looking down (Axtell, 2007); yet Americans working overseas report that the eye contact used by Brazilians is so intense that it appears to be rude even to Americans, who generally appreciate direct eye contact (Wood, 2012, p. 129). In the United States, the informal rules governing eye contact for blacks and Hispanics differ somewhat from those for whites. The following example illustrates this point:

A New York department store manager fired a young Hispanic clerk suspect- ed of pilfering. “She wouldn’t meet my eyes when I questioned her,” he told a union representative. “I knew she was lying.”

The union representative, himself Hispanic, explained, “What you don’t understand is that a well-bred Hispanic girl will not make eye contact with a man who is not a relative. It’s just considered too bold. . . . She’ll look away or drop her eyes.” (Fast, 1991, p. 29)

What other cultural differences dealing with facial expressions and eye con- tact have you observed in your part of the country? As we learned in Chapter 1,

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assuming that you and another person have identical frames of reference usually leads to misunderstanding.

Body Movements, Posture, and Gestures Body movements, posture, and gestures, also known as kinesics, are even more closely tied to culture than are facial expressions and eye contact. Therefore, it is extremely misleading to isolate a single body movement (such as crossing the legs) and give it a universal meaning, as do many popular body language books. Keep in mind, however, that others may attribute specific meanings to your body movements and gestures regardless of your intentions. For example, poor posture during an interview may be interpreted as disrespect, lack of en- thusiasm, or indicative of poor work habits. Audiences may consider speakers’ poor posture and nervous movements as proof that they are insincere or even inept. In one-to-one or small-group situations, posture can indicate like or dis- like: Leaning forward signals a positive feeling toward others; leaning backward, a negative feeling (Mehrabian, 1969). The way a person stands may indicate self- confidence, status, friendliness, or mood. For more on body movements and posture that create either signs of power or signs of weakness, see the section on “Status Symbols,” later in this chapter.

Gestures and body movements can be divided into four categories: emblems, illustrators, regulators, and adaptors (Ekman, 1992, 2003; Ekman & Friesen, 1969).

● Emblems are intentional body movements and gestures that carry an exact verbal meaning (Ekman, 1992). For example, even if no words accompanied an obscene gesture, the chances are good that you would understand its mean- ing. Different cultures might interpret emblems differently. For a discussion of emblems used around the world, see Axtell (2007) and Kendon (1994).

● Illustrators are intentional movements or gestures that add to or clarify verbal meaning—for example, pointing in the correct direction while explaining how to get to the mall or turning your hands palm up as you say, “Now this is my point.”

● Regulators control the flow of a conver- sation. For example, the interviewer who breaks off eye contact with the interviewee may be signaling that it’s time to wrap up the discussion; the listener who nods her head several times while saying, “Yeah, yeah, right” is probably signaling that it’s time to switch speakers.

● Adaptors are habitual gestures and move- ments we use in times of discomfort. Flipping your hair behind your ear, scratching your nose or cheek, or rubbing the back of your neck while giving a presentation are examples of adaptors (Cooper, 1987). Adaptors often

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144 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

contradict the message we wish to send. Suppose you are a customer trying to negotiate a price reduction. Any nonverbal adaptors the salesperson displays indicate to you that he or she is weakening, and you renew your efforts to re- duce the price. According to Navarro and Karlins (2008), adaptors are clues that a person is experiencing or has experienced an uncomfortable situation. People use these adaptors, what Navarro and Karlins call pacifying behaviors, as a way to calm themselves by stimulating nerve endings. In addition to the examples given, playing with a necklace or tie stimulates the neck below the Adam’s ap- ple, rubbing the head or neck with your fingers or the inside of the mouth with the tongue stimulates nerves, and so does rubbing the tops of your legs with the palms of your hands.

As a business or professional person, you can improve your communication tech- niques by monitoring your conscious and unconscious body movements, posture, gestures, and pacifying behaviors. Ask colleagues and family for feedback and review a videotape of yourself (taped during a meeting, interview, or oral presentation).

Touch As indicated in the Ethical/Cultural Dilemma box involving Michelle Obama and Queen Elizabeth, touch—often called haptics by researchers—definitely communi- cates. However, people from different cultures use touch quite differently. In a study of how often adult couples in coffee shops touch, Jourard (1968) found that couples in San Juan, Puerto Rico, touched 180 times per hour; couples in Paris, France, touched 110 times per hour; couples in Gainesville, Florida, touched only 2 times per hour; and in London, England, couples touched 1 time per hour. Notice that the couples that used high touch were from collectivistic/high-context countries; the couples that touched seldom were from individualistic/low-context countries.

Most greetings require some form of touching. Consider the handshake used as a greeting in the United States—it takes several different forms as indi- cated in Figure 5.1. Which type of handshake do you typically give? Overall, a firm handshake (known as the continental grab) makes the best impression in the United States (Chaplin et al., 2000) for both men and women. Ninety percent of the personnel managers from 30 companies considered a firm handshake by the applicant in an interview to be important (Harris, 1993). Businesswomen generally dislike the limp, “early-grab” handshake that some men reserve for their female colleagues. In fact, most Americans react negatively to a flaccid, or “dead-fish,” handshake (Nierenberg & Calero, 1973). The “over-confident” handshake (also called the “politician’s handshake”) involves shaking with the

The early grab The over-confident The continental grab

FIGURE 5.1 Typical handshakes—which do you prefer? dislike?

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right hand while placing the left hand on the “wrist or forearm” of the voter or employee to “convey intensity and emotional closeness” (Calero, 2005, p. 20). If this handshake is prolonged, it more likely indicates a show of power.

Not all countries greet with a hand- shake, but they typically touch in some way (Horvat, 2012; Samovar et al., 2013):

● Arab men often greet by kissing (pressing the lips) on both cheeks.

● French men and women greet oth- ers by “kissing” both cheeks but they press the cheeks and make a kissing sound without actually touching the lips to the cheeks.

● In Mexico, men and women often embrace as a greeting by putting their arms around the person and giving two or three hardy back pats.

Although shaking hands is becom- ing more of an international business greeting, some countries greet without actually touching:

● In Japan, people greet by bowing with a small nod or a deeper bow, both bending slightly forward from the waist. There are many meanings and types of bows depending on the status of the persons involved and the purpose for the bow—“hello,” “I’m sorry,” “thank you,” and many others. In business settings, after a brief bow, Japanese also exchange business cards (meishi). The cards (which should be turned so they can be read) must be offered and re- ceived with both hands, viewed long enough to show respect, then placed in a meishi case before a final brief bow is given.

● Thais bow slightly by placing their palms together with the finger tips almost touching the chin. This bow (called a wai) is used when saying “hello,” “good-bye,” and “thank you.”

Did the First Lady Really Touch the Queen? International protocol and rituals often take visitors from other countries and cultures by surprise. Take for example the ancient Arabian coffee- making ritual with all of its subtle nonverbal messages (Darweesh, 2010) such as: The host serves the coffee (not the hostess); if the cup is filled to the brim, you have just been insulted; you must drink at least two cups to show your appreciation, but more than three is rude; and so on. Another ex- ample is the Japanese ritual of exchanging business cards that is discussed on this page; recall that accepting a card without taking the time to examine it carefully is extremely rude. Great Britain also has strict protocols, especially when the Royal Family is involved. One protocol followed for over 80 years is “Don’t touch the Queen.” In fact, Harry Calero in his book, The Power of Nonverbal Communication (2005), notes that “No one in the world is entitled to touch the queen in public, not even her husband” (p. 18). Of course, if the Queen offers her hand, you may touch it but don’t give a firm shake (Chua-Eoan, 2009). In the past, people who even looked like they were about to touch the Queen were severely criticized. So, it must have been quite a dilemma for First Lady Michelle Obama in April 2009, when dur- ing a reception where she and the Queen were talking, that the Queen put her arm around Michelle touching the small of her back. The First Lady immedi- ately returned the gesture by putting her arm across the Queen’s back and rubbing her shoulder. When they pulled apart, the ladies continued chatting in a relaxed manner. The entire hug only lasted approximately 10 seconds, but as the Houston Chronicle noted (Morago, 2009), it “was the touch heard ‘round the world,’ rehashed and analyzed on television and the Internet as both a major breach of protocol and a kindly, inoffensive act.” The Daily Mail reported that a spokesman for Buckingham Palace called it, “a mutual and spontaneous display of affection and appreciation” (Thornton, updated 2012).

QUESTIONS: Do you think that the First Lady had been briefed on the “no-touch” protocol? Do you think she did the right thing? Why, or why not? What other action, if any, could she have taken?

DILEMMAS IN COMMUNICATION

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146 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Clothing and Personal Appearance Clothing and personal appearance—sometimes referred to as objectives by researchers—also communicate nonverbal messages. In fact, people use your clothing and appearance to determine your status, credibility, and persuasive- ness (Benson et al., 1975; Knapp & Hall, 2010; Michelsen, 1993). Think how often you judge people by their appearance. When a presenter or professor walks in front of an audience, most people have already decided what kind of person and speaker he or she is before a word is spoken just by what is seen nonverbally. Researchers Judy Burgoon and colleagues (2010) point out that one reason that we may pay more attention to nonverbal cues than to verbal ones is because non- verbal cues “‘get in the first word,’ so to speak” (p. 7). We “see” before we “hear” and have already formed a perception.

Businesses and professions have learned from experience that the public’s perception of their organization depends in part on the appearance and dress of their personnel. For this reason, many companies require uniforms and most others have a dress code. UPS, BankOne, and Sears are just a few of the com- panies that specify the career apparel employees can wear (Jones, 2003; Merx, 2003). Even the Mayo Clinic requires business attire in place of casual dress or white coats for its more than 2,800 staff physicians when they are not in surgical scrubs (Berry & Bendapudi, 2003). And the White House under President Barack Obama’s leadership is moving from traditional business dress to a more casual approach (Stolberg, 2009).

Your company may be like IBM and many others that have relaxed their strict business dress codes and now allow employees to dress in a business casual manner. But you may be as confused as others about what business casual really means. Image consultant Sherry Maysonave (1999) calls this confusion casual confusion syndrome (CCS) and says that it leads to people wearing inappropriate casual attire. “The business-casual trend has created entire companies of people who are unsure of what to put on in the morning,” says Christina Binkley in an article for the Wall Street Journal (2008, p. D1). She notes that in most cases, business casual is more formal than “casual” and does not include jeans, shorts, t-shirts, or halter-tops. Maysonave (1999, p. 79) offers these business causal basics: dark colors (for contrast mix with a white or light-hue blouse or shirt); simple, classic lines; long sleeves and quality fabrics; high-quality shoes in immaculate condition—all-leather tie shoes for men and classic closed-toes with moderate heels for women; clean, shiny hair, professionally cut; and simple, high-quality jewelry kept to a minimum. According to New York psychologist Jon-Scott Turco, you may be judged more when wearing business casual than when wearing tradi- tional business attire because people “assume they’re seeing the real person” (Binkley, 2008, p. D1).

If you are uncertain about what clothing is appropriate, take your lead from what managers are wearing and keep these pointers in mind:

● The most basic business colors are navy, gray, and neutrals such as tan or beige; business casual also includes green, gold, and black (Damhorst & Fiore, 2000).

CHAPTER 5 NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION 147

● Color shows status in business offices just as clearly as uniforms show rank in the military (Greenleaf, 1998). The darker the color, the high- er the rank and the more authority it communicates. Researchers have consistently found that interviewers tend to rate applicants dressed in darker colors as more competent than applicants dressed in lighter col- ors (Damhorst & Reed, 1986; Forsythe, 1990). This holds true even in sports organizations. Researchers found that football and hockey players who wear black uniforms are perceived by fans as being rougher and more aggressive and even receive more penalties from referees (Frank & Gilovich, 1988).

● Sport coats or jackets for men and women and a tie for men continue to be important in the business wardrobe—keep these handy to put on when needed. Keltner and Holsey (1982) suggest that wearing a jacket is important to the female manager because it allows her to look like part of the team. Jackets are also a great equalizer between men and women. For men, al- though a tie is normally not a requirement for business casual, nothing says authority more than a tie, especially when no jacket is worn.

● Color and style are equally im- portant for job interviews because the first impressions created by clothing and personal appearance impact hiring decisions (Rowe, 1989). Patrick Dailey, director of business HR for Nokia Corporation says the dress code for men “re- mains a dark suit, a light or white shirt and a bright-colored but so- phisticated tie” (“Business Casual Can Be Confusing,” 2006). Although attractive pantsuits work for women, when asked to select the best from 100 photos of women’s business attire, both men and women preferred skirted suits that had visual symmetry, skirts below the knee, conser- vative colors, and light-colored shirts with round necks (Damhorst & Fiore, 2000).

● On the job and in interviews, don’t overlook the importance of profes- sional demeanor, which includes direct eye contact and pleasant social in- teraction. It may be as important as or even more important than what you wear. Researchers report that physical appearance (especially grooming and neatness) has “some effect” on hiring decisions but that professional demeanor has “a marked influence” on them (Boor et al., 1983; Mack & Rainey, 1990).

● For specific information on how to dress for an interview be sure to read the section on “Impression Management” in Chapter 8.

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148 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Distance and Personal Space The informal distance rules for conversing in various situations—called proxe- mics by researchers—differ from culture to culture, family to family, and person to person. When you violate an individual’s personal space requirements, that person becomes uncomfortable and will move away to correct the distance. Many people are completely unaware of their personal distance requirements but in general collectivistic cultures need less space while individualistic cultures want more space (Wood, 2012, p. 132.).

Careful observation of business and professional people in the United States led one well-known anthropologist (Hall, 1973) to divide personal reactions to distance into four categories (Figure 5.2). Except for comforting gestures (such as an arm around the shoulder) or greetings between close friends or loved ones, most Americans reserve the intimate distance (from touching to 18 inches) for private use. Personal distance (from 18 inches to 4 feet) is used by close friends or colleagues as they eat lunch together or stand around the coffeepot during a break. How closely they sit or stand within the personal distance range depends

Nonverbal Imagery: What Does “Sapworth” Convey to You? Take a look at the word Sapworth. What sorts of nonverbal images do you take from a word like that? It’s not very hearty or strong, is it? Admiral Elmo “Bud” Zumwalt, Jr., certainly knew the power an image can create in the minds of team members—even early in his career.

Zumwalt was born in 1920, served in the U.S. Navy from 1939 to 1974, and was promoted on a fairly consistent basis until—as the youngest man ever to do so—he reached the rank of Chief of Naval Operations in 1970 (Zumwalt, 2006). So powerful and positive was his influence—in part due to his excellent communication skills—that the Navy has named a ship after him (The Waterline, 2006).

Earlier in his career, upon taking command of the Arnold J. Isbell, Zumwalt learned that the crew’s morale was considerably lower than that of other ships’ crews. In addition to various other communication issues, he discovered that the voice call sign, a sort of nickname for naval ships, was “Sapworth.” In his own words, “When in company with such stalwarts as ‘FIREBALL,’ ‘VIPER,’ and others, it is somewhat embarrassing and completely out of keeping with the quality of the sailormen aboard to be identified by the relatively ignominious title ‘SAPWORTH’” (Zumwalt, 1976, p. 187). So, realizing that Sapworth did not

make for an exciting T-shirt and recognizing the nonverbal effects on his crew, Zumwalt decided to make a change. No longer would the Isbell be subject to the scorn—real or imagined—associated with Sapworth, for the ship would now be called “Hellcat.”

Though a small word change, Zumwalt’s use of the Hellcat image proved successful. “Arnold J. Isbell’s officers and men proudly wore sleeve patches and baseball cap patches showing a black cat with a forked tail stepping out of the flames of hell and breaking a submarine with its paws. The impact on morale was remarkable” (Zumwalt, 1976, p. 189). Nonverbal communication expressed by his crew gave him exactly the results he wanted, and all because of a simple switch in image.

WHAT DO YOU THINK? A company’s image is so important that image consul-

tants are often hired. How does this compare with the action taken by Zumwalt to change Isbell’s call sign?

Research discussed in this chapter found that football and hockey players who wear black uniforms receive more penalties from referees. Discuss why the Isbell’s sailors with the new call name might be perceived by others and even themselves as more aggressive and dangerous.

IT REALLY WORKS

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on their own personal space requirements, the environment, and how much they like one another. Most business transactions are conducted within the so- cial distance (from 4 to 12 feet). People attending a social function after work, or people who normally work together or meet to solve problems, converse ap- proximately 4 to 7 feet apart. Distances of 7 to 12 feet are reserved for formal business transactions with strangers. Finally, public distance (from 12 to 15 feet or farther) is maintained between a speaker and a large group of listeners.

Knowledge of these distances is important to your business or professional success. Although there may be times when you wish to deliberately ignore the unwritten rules of appropriate distances (e.g., to demonstrate power or status), in general, you will want to improve communication by ensuring that everyone feels comfortable (Burgoon et al., 2010; Burgoon & LePoire, 1993). Be aware of any nonverbal reactions that signal discomfort. The following example demonstrates the problem:

A dispatcher at a trucking company had a habit that routinely annoyed all the truckers. Several truckers would be standing at a personal distance, drinking coffee and relaxing after making their deliveries. The minute the dis- patcher received a delivery request from headquarters, he would, according to instructions, present the request to the appropriate trucker. The problem was

Intimate distance (contact to 18 inches)

Personal distance (18 inches to 4 feet)

Social distance (4 feet to 12 feet)

Public distance (12 feet or more)

FIGURE 5.2 Distance categories in the United States ©

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150 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

that instead of calling to the trucker, or joining the group by also adopting a personal distance, he would walk between two truckers to present the mes- sage, thus violating the intimate space of both people.

When the truckers complained to the supervisor, they could not verbal- ize exactly what the dispatcher did that irritated them. All they could say was that he seemed rude and unfriendly. Although he had never noticed the dispatcher behaving rudely, the supervisor was forced to replace him after several truckers threatened to quit.

If the supervisor or any of the employees had been aware of the importance of personal distance requirements, the problem might have been solved.

Distance and personal space are also important in selecting the seating arrangements for various tasks. Some of the most helpful research findings are diagrammed in Figure 5.3 (Cook, 1970; Hall, 1983; Mehrabian, 1980; Sommer, 1967). Why are these research findings on seating arrangements important to you? Regardless of who you are or what job you hold, an indi- vidual will usually be more comfortable talking with you if you are not sepa- rated completely by a desk. However, if the individual is positioned at any angle to you narrower than 45 degrees, he or she may become nervous. Also, if you are conducting a meeting, you can control the amount of discussion by the seating arrangement you select. To keep discussion to a minimum, arrange the chairs in straight rows; to encourage discussion, try circular seating. You may want to designate individual seats (e.g., by place cards) to control interaction.

Physical Environment Have you ever noticed how some rooms and offices seem friendly and inviting, whereas other rooms (or buildings) seem cold and unfriendly and seem to create a feeling of stress? Do you feel uncomfortable talking to your boss (or instructor) in his or her office? Your reaction may be caused by the room itself.

Physical environments—related to proxemics—reveal characteristics of the owner of the territory; they also affect how people communicate. One prominent psychologist (Mehrabian, 1980) noted that for each person, the environment produces an emotional response, with “approach” (positive) or “avoidance” (negative) behaviors. Various research studies, summarized by Knapp and Hall (2002), have found that when participants perform tasks in “ugly” rooms, they experience “monotony, fatigue, headache, discontent, sleepiness, irritability, and hostility”; when performing tasks in “attractive” rooms, they experience “feelings of pleasure, comfort, enjoyment, impor- tance, energy, and desire to continue the activity” (p. 123). In an attempt to decrease stress, convey caring, and promote healing, the Mayo Clinic has de- signed its buildings “to create open, welcoming spaces with soft, natural light” that include gardens, fountains, and even piano music (Berry & Bendapudi, 2003, p. 105). New York City cut the crime and vandalism in the subway sys- tem by getting rid of all graffiti, broken windows, trash, and the smallest in- dications of violence, signaling to everyone that this was a safe, pleasant place to be (Gladwell, 2002).

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Color also affects our emotional response and is a determining factor in whether an environment is judged as attractive or not. For example, one re- searcher (Ketcham, 1968) found that students in schoolrooms painted yellow, rose, blue, or green showed more improvement than students in a room painted

People (whether in a doctor’s office, in the boss’s office, or at home) are more comfortable conducting conversation when they are at right angles (90° or 45°) and no more than 4 feet apart.

When working closely together, cooperating on a task, people prefer corner seating or side-by- side seating.

When people are working on different tasks, co-acting, but need to be in close proximity to each other, they prefer more distant seating, facing opposite each other.

Competing people also prefer to sit opposite each other, with more distance between them.

People sitting side by side (on a sofa, for example) rarely con- verse with each other, preferring to converse with those across or at right angles to them.

Individuals in a group are more likely to participate if the group is seated in a circular pattern rather than in a rectangular pattern or in straight rows.

When a group sits in a circle, individuals are more likely to ask questions of or make comments to the persons directly across from them. Again, they are less likely to communicate with those sitting closest to them.

FIGURE 5.3 Seating arrangements

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152 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

buff or white (the more common colors used in schools). Similarly, restaurant proprietors who want customers to eat and leave quickly may choose red and orange for their restaurant decor. Hospitals use colors instead of white walls so patients will relax more (Fishback & Krewson, 1981; Karlin & Zeiss, 2006). Color can even impact the public’s buying habits, as illustrated below.

One detergent manufacturer sprinkled red granules throughout his white soap powder, and housewives subsequently complained that the detergent was too rough on their hands. He changed the color to yellow, and women said it was easier on their hands but that the clothes were not as clean. Finally, he changed the granules to a blue color, and the women said it was just right. Nothing had changed but the color of the granules. (Malandro et al., 1989, p. 157)

Lighting and room size also alter communication. Soft lighting causes people to speak more softly and sit closer together than in brightly lit rooms (Meer, 1985). A lighting design expert tells us that “most offices are generally overlit with often twice as much light as they need. . . . The result can be inefficiency, fatigue and perhaps a sense of dislocation” (Kowinski, 1975, p. 46). Room size works much the same way. The size of a room can also affect listener attitudes toward the event or the speaker—an audience completely filling a small room gives the appearance of a well-attended event; the same size audience in a much larger room gives the appearance of a poorly attended event. Management con- sultant Ken Cooper (1987) says, “I always avoid a small classroom in my train- ing sessions because the audience is much more argumentative and hard to con- trol. The same holds true for a business meeting. . . . However, if you want to hold an efficient, spirited meeting, keep the space tight” (pp. 19–20).

Odor, too, communicates non- verbally, especially in a dental or medical office where chemicals and disinfectants stir up unpleasant memories and increase already existing anxiety. Noise level, heat, ventilation, lack of windows, and furniture arrangements (which will be discussed in detail in this chap- ter) are other environmental fac- tors that can nonverbally affect communication.

Time Time, another nonverbal communication factor in the business world, is re- ferred to as chronemics by researchers. Refer to Chapter 3 in the section on “Cultural Differences in Conflict Management” for a discussion of m-time and p-time as they relate to culture.

Although American reactions to time occur at all three levels of culture, business life is generally regulated on the informal level. For example, the con- sequences of arriving late for an appointment often depend on whether you are

Revisiting the Case Study... What specific types of nonverbal com- munication could have helped President Bush and government officials defuse the misunderstanding over Bush’s use of the hook ’em horns gesture?

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meeting someone of equal rank, someone more important, or someone less im- portant (Richmond & McCroskey, 2003). Also, anyone who is consistently late for appointments or in completing work assignments may be deemed inconsid- erate or undependable. These informal aspects of time in business are manifest in the use of as soon as possible (ASAP), in a while, and other similarly vague terms. The amount of time an important person spends with us also has infor- mal significance. For example, an employment interview that lasts longer than 30 minutes may mean that the interviewee’s chances of getting the job are good (Hall, 1973). And the amount of time that a physician spends with a patient may tell the patient how much the physician cares (Gladwell, 2005; Roter et al., 1997).

Reactions to these types of time behaviors may vary depending on where we were raised and our cultural background. For example, a woman, born and reared in the North who moved to the South, found it frustrating to adjust to what she called the “Southern concept” of appointments: The cable TV rep- resentative refused to give her an exact appointment time other than “some- time during the morning,” and the plumber who promised to show up at 1:00 finally arrived at 6:00, just as she was leaving for the evening. In contrast, when a Southern family moved to the North, they were just as frustrated by what they considered the hectic pace set by Northerners. Expecting a repairman to arrive late, they went shopping only to return and find they had missed him and he would be unable to return for at least a week!

Although cultural and regional differences do add some confusion to the nonverbal aspect of time, when we deal with people from other nations, we all become American in our view of time. As a Japanese businessman told us, “If you keep Americans waiting long enough, they will agree to anything.”

STATUS SYMBOLS Clothes are a nonverbal status symbol. As we’ve already seen in the discussion of clothing, darker colors signal higher status. In addition, Molloy (1988) tells us that “the tie is probably the single most important denominator of social status for a man in the United States today. Show me a man’s ties and I will tell you who he is or who he is trying to be” (p. 93). Researchers also have found that people are more likely to take orders from and follow the lead of people, even strangers, who are dressed in high-status clothing (Levine et al., 1998; Segrin, 1993).

Although dressing for the job you want is important, overdressing can lead to failure. For example, a three-piece suit is normally worn only by those in authority. Golden (1986) warns, “If you wear high-authority symbols on a low- authority job, managers may consider you foolish and your coworkers may feel threatened. You may lose the trust you’ve worked hard to gain” (p. 41).

Other important nonverbal status symbols are the location and size of a person’s office (Remland, 1981). The following observations on office status are adapted from Michael Korda’s (1991, pp. 75, 79–80) popular book on power:

● Because corner offices are usually larger and have more windows, corner offices carry more status; therefore, “offices in the middle of a row are less powerful than the ones at either end of it.”

154 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

● Offices that are out of the traffic mainstream confer more power than do others. However, a secretary gains power by having a view of as many direc- tions as possible.

● In most cases, power diminishes with distance. Put someone’s assistant next to his superior’s office, and he benefits from being close to the source of power. Promote the assistant to a larger office that is farther away, and his power is likely to decrease. Only if he is given a title and a job that allows him to create his own power base can he benefit from moving.

Along with size and location, the interior arrangement of an office conveys the personality of its owner. Which office arrangement shown in Figure 5.4 conveys the most authority? Conveys a relaxed environment? Offers the most flexibility? Other office amenities that lend a person status are solid-wood furniture, green plants, and quality artwork. And, of course, it doesn’t hurt to have a personal secretary!

Time—at least, how it is handled—is another nonverbal indicator of status. For example, your boss may call a meeting at a specific time. The boss is allowed to arrive late, but you are not. A job interview that lasts 45 minutes or longer usually conveys the prospective employer’s interest, whereas a 10-minute inter- view may indicate disinterest. If you wish to talk with your supervisor, you are expected to make an appointment; however, your supervisor may stop by your office without giving you any prior notice.

A male executive can nonverbally indicate that he is more powerful than female executives or even other male executives by putting a comfort- ing arm around them or always opening the door for them (Korda, 1991). Of course, these gestures may have other meanings, but the recipients of such ges- tures need to be aware of their possible status implications. One way to counter- act them as status symbols is simply to use similar gestures yourself.

There are many other nonverbal ways to convey status (Andersen, 1999, Chapter 12; Burgoon et al., 2010; Edinger & Patterson, 1983; Remland, 2000). For instance, a person with high status is more likely to have a preferred park- ing space, to demand (nonverbally or verbally) direct eye contact from others, to violate subordinates’ personal space by touching or closeness, to arrive late to appointments, to fail to acknowledge others with a greeting, and to be allowed more space by lower-status people.

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FIGURE 5.4 Possible office arrangements

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Norma Carr-Ruffino (2004, p. 246) lists the following strong and weak nonverbal behaviors for both men and women in the United States (also see Calero, 2005, p. 291): Signs of Power

● Expansive, confident movements. ● Tall, upright standing posture; arms at sides; feet placed slightly apart. ● Relaxed, affable, familiar behavior. ● Ability to turn one’s back on another to get an object. ● Comfortable, relaxed, seated positions: legs crossed, arms asymmetrically

placed, body leaning sideways and reclining slightly.

Signs of Weakness

● Small, controlled movements. ● Any form of bowing or bowed posture; using hand to cover face. ● Tenseness, vigilance. ● Hesitantly standing or sitting forward attentively with feet together on the

floor, with arms in lap or in another balanced position. ● Playing with an object or nervous shaking of foot or leg.

Signs of power are more often used by bosses, whereas signs of weakness are more often displayed by subordinates. Even if we don’t know the two people in- volved in a face-to-face discussion, their nonverbal body behaviors will usually clearly signal the status of each (Cashdan, 1998; Remland, 1981).

If you feel you aren’t taken seriously by your coworkers or boss, or think that others see you as having low status or power, practice using more powerful behaviors such as the following (adapted from Carr-Ruffino, 2004, pp. 245–249):

● Be pleasant, but smile less often. ● Lower the pitch of your voice, and speak with firmness. ● Use steady, relaxed, frequent eye contact. ● Keep head straight and still (avoid tilting to side). ● Maintain a relaxed yet tall and strong stance (not stooped); walk in unhur-

ried fashion using smooth movements. ● Occasionally, turn your back on others when

reaching for an item; move casually around the room while speaking.

● Use strong, definite movements (avoid nervous movements such as shaking leg, tapping foot, or clasping hands).

● Try using the steepling gesture (with hands point- ing upward, place fingertips together).

● Initiate brief firm handshakes (continental grab). ● Videotape yourself using these power behav-

iors, or practice them in front of a full-length mirror.

● Create a mental picture of yourself as a powerful, relaxed person. Some of you, especially those just beginning in a

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156 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

ridiculous. I don’t want to play these games. I can work well in extremely casual clothes, and where my desk or office is located makes no difference to my perfor- mance.” And you may very well be right. Many companies have tried to down- play status differences. However, recall the first principle of communication: The message that counts is the one received. People are receiving nonverbal messages about you regardless of whether you intend to send them or not. Although you are capable of handling a particular job, you will not be assigned that job unless other people (especially your boss) think you are capable of doing it. Their per- ceptions of you are probably colored by their opinions of your clothing, office, and other nonverbal messages. Even if no one has a private office, the people closest to the boss are perceived as having higher status; if personnel are required to wear the same uniforms, status will be determined by some other indicator, such as an expensive watch, fountain pen, or leather clipboard (Janus et al., 2000, p. 267). Look around you. What are the most successful managers wearing? How are their offices arranged? Imitate people in the positions you desire to achieve.

NONVERBAL MESSAGES AND INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS TRANSACTIONS The nonverbal symbols and gestures discussed in this chapter are understood by most people in the United States. However, people of other countries and cultures have different nonverbal symbols and meanings for each level of culture, espe- cially the informal level. For example, people from different cultures use their legs differently. In Thailand and the Moslem world, the foot is considered an unclean part of the body, so crossing your legs showing the sole of the shoe is not done—it would be considered an insult to anyone near. On the other hand, businessmen in the United States often cross their legs and display the sole of a shoe, not real- izing that they may be sending an unintended message (Calero, 2005, p. 110). It is just as difficult for businesspeople from other countries to accurately interpret the nonverbal communication used in the United States. In fact, an informal rule in the United States may even be a formal or technical rule in another nation.

Mistakes and Culture Shock When a company sends representatives abroad to conduct business or to man- age or work in a plant whose employees are primarily from the host country, two mistakes are often made. The first mistake is the company’s. American companies, for example, seldom give their representatives (expatriates) much training in the language and customs of the country they will visit. Hogan and Goodson (1990) report two seemingly related facts: (a) 65% of companies fail to provide cultural training for employees going abroad, and (b) 40% of managers return home from overseas assignments before completing them. Apparently, companies assume that employees will cope. But without training, how would you know that the Japanese nod to acknowledge hearing rather than agreement? What if, while visiting Taiwan, you and several Taiwanese colleagues go to a

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restaurant and you take the “wrong” seat? Without training, how would you know that the host, the person who is paying the bill, always sits facing the door? If you were supposed to pay the bill but chose the wrong seat, or if you were not the host but sat facing the door, the group would likely become upset. Business relations would be strained.

The second mistake is made by the visiting employees, who assume the people in the foreign country will behave basically the same as Americans. When the na- tives do not react as expected, the expatriates experience culture shock, or confu- sion because they cannot understand or be understood by the people of their host country. The visitors may negatively stereotype the people of the host country and withdraw from personal contacts. Marx (2001) found that the average length of time managers experience culture shock in overseas assignments is 7 weeks.

To become culturally sensitive, Americans need to be aware of the effects of culture shock in the workplace and realize how people from other countries view us. Here are some comments made by foreigners while visiting the United States (Adler & Gundersen, 2008, p. 83). Do you think these observations are accurate? If so, how would you explain them?

India: “Americans seem to be in a perpetual hurry. Just watch the way they walk down the street. They never allow themselves the leisure to enjoy life; there are too many things to do.”

Vietnam: “Americans are handy people. They do almost everything in the house by themselves, from painting walls and doors to putting glass in their windows . . .”

Turkey: “Once we were out in a rural area in the middle of nowhere and saw an American come to a stop sign. Though he could see in both direc- tions for miles and no traffic was coming, he still stopped!”

Japan: “Americans seem to feel that they have to say something instead of having silence—even when what they say is so well known that it sounds stupid. . . .”

Columbia: “I was surprised to see so many young people who were not living with their parents, although they were not married. Also, I was surprised to see so many single people of all ages living alone, eating alone, and walking the streets alone. The United States must be the loneliest country in the world.”

Iran: “The first time . . . my [American] professor told me, ‘I don’t know the answer; I will have to look it up,’ I was shocked. I asked myself, ‘Why is he teaching me?’ In my country a professor would give the wrong answer rather than admit ignorance.”

Complete the Awareness Check on page 158 to see if you would experience cul- ture shock in a couple of hypothetical situations. Compare your responses with those of a colleague from a different culture.

To minimize culture shock, the following guidelines are suggested (Gonzalez, 2006; Marx, 2001; Overman, 2004): Learn the language as much as possible; ask for cross-cultural training or take a continuing education course at a local college; keep a sense of humor; get plenty of rest; listen with an open mind; ask for a family sponsor or company mentor to serve as a “cultural translator” or make a friend in the host country to help you; keep a positive attitude and view the visit as a “great adventure”; and realize that just because things are done differently, doesn’t mean they are wrong.

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Nonverbal Symbols across Cultures How aware are you of the nonverbal symbols and meanings used by people from other countries in their everyday lives? Check your knowledge by selecting the best response to each of the following hypothetical situations.* Then check your answers against those in the back of this book. You can also complete this activity online. Go to cengagebrain.com to access your Speech Communication CourseMate for Communicating for Results.

Situation 1: You volunteer for assignment at your company’s plant in a West African country. You are aware of how difficult it is to step into a manager’s position where the majority of the managers are not of your nationality. To get to know the other managers better, you host several informal cocktail parties in your home. None of your guests reciprocates by inviting you to a party at their homes, and several of them failed to attend your last party. What could be the reason for this behavior?

________ a. Informal parties in West Africa are only for family; business parties are expected to be formal affairs. ________ b. Many of your African associates can only afford to entertain on a much smaller scale, and they are not sure you

would be interested in their parties. ________ c. Your guests think you are cheap and probably feel insulted because you served no food at your parties. ________ d. Africans generally are not a social, party-loving people. No insult is intended.

Situation 2: You are excited that you have been selected to travel to England to help solve a technical problem at your com- pany’s English manufacturing plant. You have always wanted to visit London. The visit is very pleasant until you actually begin discussions with the English management. The managers continually stare at you and blink their eyes as though bored. This behavior on their part is very distracting. What nonverbal meaning, if any, can be drawn from their behavior?

________ a. The managers resent the fact that a U.S. outsider, especially a mere technician, was sent to handle such a major problem. They are nonverbally communicating to you their unhappiness.

________ b. The English smog is so bad that most British have eye irritations. Just ignore the behavior. ________ c. In England, eye blinking is a sign that people are listening. No disrespect is meant. ________ d. In England, eye blinking indicates confusion. Somehow, you are not getting through to them.

* These situations are based on the authors’ personal experiences or adapted from R. W. Axtell. (1998 & 2007). Gestures: The do’s and taboos of body language around the world (1st & 3rd eds.). New York: Wiley; E. T. Hall. (1969). The hidden dimension. Garden City, NY: Anchor; Hall, E. T. (1973). The silent language. Garden City, NY: Anchor; E. T. Hall, & W. F. Whyte. (1960, Spring). Intercultural communication: A guide to men in action. Human Organization, 19, 5–12.

AWARENESS CHECK

IMPROVING NONVERBAL SKILLS In The Secret Handshake, Reardon (2000), is quite blunt about the importance of nonverbal communication when she says, “People who can’t read these subtle and not-so-subtle messages don’t last long at companies. They keep making the same mistakes” (p. 87). If you are serious about improving your skills in sending and in- terpreting nonverbal messages, pay attention to expectancy violations theory, learn to use immediacy behaviors, and work to adopt more effective nonverbal habits.

Expectancy Violations Theory We all have expectations about others’ nonverbal behaviors, but these behaviors are not always met, as our discussion of culture shock shows. When our expec- tations are met, we judge the person favorably; if they are not met or violated, we judge the person unfavorably. Expectancy violations theory, developed by

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Judee Burgoon (1983, 1993), deals with how people respond when their nonverbal expecta- tions are not met. Nonverbal expectations can involve any of the nonverbal behaviors men- tioned in this chapter, such as eye contact, distance, gestures, personal appearance, and even immediacy behaviors covered (discussed below). It’s easier to have our expectations violated when the person or persons involved come from another culture and our expec- tations are based on incomplete information or stereotypes.

Immediacy Behaviors With specific nonverbal, vocal, and verbal behaviors, you can promote a sense of closeness with business colleagues and customers; this interaction is re- ferred to as immediacy behaviors. Research has found that students learn signif- icantly more and have an improved attitude toward the classroom experience when instructors use immediacy behaviors (Mottet et al., 2007). Employees also express significant increase in liking and satisfaction with supervisors who engage in immediacy behaviors (Teven, 2010). The greater the group size, the more distant people feel unless the person in charge uses immediacy behaviors (Gorham, 1988). For example, because of his use of verbal and vo- cal immediacy behaviors during his radio “fireside chats,” President Franklin D. Roosevelt made Americans feel like he was speaking to them personally, as individuals (Ryfe, 1999). Immediacy behaviors include the following:

● Verbal behaviors (language). Using humor sensitively; citing personal ex- periences during conversations; using we and our when speaking with colleagues or employees about company projects; praising others for their work, actions, or comments; referring to people by name; asking for opinions and questions; and conversing with others before and after meetings.

● Vocal behaviors (paralanguage). Being vocally expressive when speaking—that is, using good volume, pitch, emphasis, and rate (see the sections on “Delivery” and “Voice” in Chapter 11).

● Visual behaviors (nonverbal). Making eye contact, smiling appropriately at individuals as well as the whole group, keeping a relaxed posture, gestur- ing naturally, and moving around rather than staying behind a barrier such as a desk.

Creating Effective Habits In addition to learning to use immediacy behaviors, you can improve your non- verbal communication by adopting more effective habits. A good place to begin

Revisiting the Case Study... What role did expectancy violations theory play in the shock and confusion experienced in other countries over Bush’s use of hook ’em horns, if any?

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160 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

is with these steps: 1. Develop awareness of nonverbal differences. 2. Do not judge others according to your own nonverbal meanings. 3. Do not assign nonverbal meanings out of context. 4. Observe your nonverbal behavior on videotape or ask others for feedback.

The first step in using nonverbal communication effectively is to be aware that differences in nonverbal symbols and meanings exist on the technical, formal, and informal levels. You have to be extremely observant to perceive even a few of these dif- ferences. Unobtrusively observe the nonverbal behaviors of your family, friends, and coworkers and even strangers. And, of course, be aware of your own nonverbal reac- tions in various situations and what those reactions are saying about you to others.

Second, when you observe nonverbal behaviors, don’t be too hasty to assign meaning. Judging others according to your own nonverbal system is a natural reac- tion, but it can lead to errors. A perfect example of snap judgments based on non- verbal cues occurred in Glasgow on the evening of April 11, 2009 at Britain’s Got Talent auditions. When Susan Boyle walked out on the stage saying that she was 47 and from Blackburn in West Lothian, both the judges and audience members looked skeptical. When she replied to Simon’s questions that she wanted to be a pro- fessional singer like Elaine Paige and was going to sing “I Dreamed a Dream” from Les Miserables there was snickering and open guffawing from the audience and eye- rolling from the judges. Piers Morgan—one of the judges—noted that “Susan burst into a stunning rendition of the famous West End anthem, and made us judges and the skeptical audience distinctly uncomfortable. . . . We’d committed the oldest sin in the talent show book—judging a book by its cover” (Morgan, 2009). According to Oprah.com (2010), “Her showstopping performance, which has been viewed more

than 120 million times on YouTube, captured people’s hearts and cata- pulted her to stardom.” So be careful about jumping to conclusions.

Third, do not assign meanings to nonverbal behaviors out of context. Consider the specific situation, environment, cultural background, and personal frame of reference. No nonverbal be- havior has the same exact meaning in all situations. To understand the meaning of a nonverbal behavior, you must know its context.

A fourth suggestion for improving your nonverbal skills is to watch yourself on videotape and observe your nonverbal behav- iors. Participate in a small-group discussion of job-related prob- lems and record the session on videotape. Analysis of the videotape should indicate both positive and negative nonverbal behaviors. If videotaping is not possible, ask for specific feedback on your use of nonverbal communication from the other group members.

A final way to observe your nonverbal skills is to role-play us- ing hypothetical situations. For example, you might play the role of an employer who is interviewing an unfriendly or shy job ap- plicant, played by a colleague. Again, videotapes of these sessions can be quite revealing. Simulated pressure situations like this give participants insight into the effects of their own and others’ non- verbal (and verbal) behavior.

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COMMUNICATION SITUATION Touch Apprehension Carolyn, a professional lawyer, is a touch-apprehensive person; she prefers not to be touched. People who touch and like to be touched don’t understand why Carolyn and people like her respond as they do. To give you new insight, Carolyn will briefly explain her touch preference and then il- lustrate it with six examples—only four are included below. You can go to the CourseMate website for Communicating for Results to watch a video clip of this Communication Situation, view all six examples involving touch and relate them with information on touch presented in this chapter, and if request- ed, email your responses to your instructor. Carolyn: Welcome to an average day in the life of a touch- apprehensive person. It may seem silly to some people, but just like everybody else in the world, who you touch is a per- sonal preference. Just like some people enjoy fruit and cereal for breakfast and others prefer a bagel and coffee. And I want to be clear from the start that I’m not afraid of people I know well touching me. I do enjoy things like hugs with friends and family—just like anybody else.

You may think that this wouldn’t be much of a problem but you’d be surprised how often touch comes into play in an average day for most people—it’s just that most people don’t think about it all that much. The thing is, I prefer not to touch people I don’t know all that well.

Example #1 Carolyn: (Edging her way into a crowded elevator, touching shoulders with peo- ple but smiling) Excuse me. (She waits in silence with everyone else until the door opens and someone touches her shoulder as they move past her off the elevator. She rides one more floor and then edges out again)

Example #2 (Carolyn is sitting at her desk, typing, with her back to the door. Her co-worker Lillie comes up behind her and playfully grabs at her shoulders, shocking her. She jumps and spins around quickly). Carolyn: (A little flustered but laughs politely) Ooh! Lillie! Geez, hi. Lillie: Oh, I’m sorry I startled you Carolyn. Carolyn: (Carolyn smiles) No problem, what’s up? Lillie: I just wanted to check and make sure you got the files on the Abrams case?

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Carolyn: Yep, I got them about an hour ago – everything looks great. Lillie: Fantastic. I’ll let you get back to work and try not to startle you again (laughs). Carolyn: Ha, thanks!

Example #3 (Carolyn is making copies when Peter comes in). See this example on the video found on CourseMate.

Example #4 (Carolyn is listening to a story being told by her co-worker, Alice). See this ex- ample on the video found on CourseMate.

Example #5 Ellen: Hi Carolyn, do you have a second to sign these papers? Carolyn: Sure. Ellen: Ooh! What a beautiful ring! (She reaches out to grab Carolyn’s hand again to get a better look at it) Carolyn: (Uncomfortable) Oh, thank you, I… (She tries to pull her hand back) Ellen: Where on earth did you get it? (She pulls Carolyn’s hand closer to her face) Carolyn: (She pulls her hand away firmly, but leaves her hand out to display the ring) It was a gift from a friend. Ellen: Oh, how nice. (Carolyn hands back the papers). Thank you.

Example #6 (The doorbell rings and Carolyn moves to answer it. She opens it and a couple, Jane and Alex, are standing outside) Carolyn: Hey you two! (She moves to hug each of them as they come through the door) Jane: (As they hug) Hi! So great to see you! Alex: (As they hug) Hey there, it’s been too long! Carolyn: (Stops hugging but puts her hands on Alex and Jane’s backs as she leads the two into the house) It really has been too long—it’s so good to see you. Ben is just in the kitchen finishing up the sauce, he’s going to be really excited that you’re here… (She leads them out of the scene)

Final thoughts Carolyn: Well, it’s been a busy day, full of expected and unexpected touches. Time for a good dinner and good company!

KEY TERMS adaptors (143) business casual (146) casual confusion syndrome (CCS) (146) chronemics (152) culture shock (157) emblems (143) expectancy violation theory (158) formal level (139) haptics (144)

illustrators (143) immediacy behaviors (159) informal level (139) intimate distance (148) kinesics (140) monochromic time (m-time) (138) nonverbal communication (137) objectives (146) pacifying behaviors (144)

personal distance (148) polychromic time (p-time) (138) proxemics (148) public distance (149) regulators (143) social distance (149) technical level (138)

SUMMARY The relationship between culture and nonverbal communica- tion can be understood by examining the three levels of cul- ture: technical, formal, and informal. In the United States, most nonverbal behaviors are governed by the informal level, where the rules for behavior are unstated and most people use them unconsciously. When an informal rule is violated, people may become extremely uncomfortable, and even angry, without knowing why.

To make you more aware of these unconscious rules, we covered the types of nonverbal communication most applicable to business life: facial expressions and eye contact; body move- ments, posture, and gestures; touch; clothing and personal ap- pearance; distance and personal space; physical environment;

and time. Nonverbal status symbols in business, such as cloth- ing, office size, and the manipulation of time, strongly influence how others perceive us and thus are key factors in career ad- vancement. For success in international business dealings, we must be aware of differences between our nonverbal messages and those of other countries.

Although knowledge of nonverbal communication can be a powerful tool for the business and professional communicator, a little bit of knowledge can be dangerous. Use caution when inter- preting others’ nonverbal behaviors. Don’t jump to conclusions, and don’t read nonexistent meanings into simple gestures. Over- reacting to nonverbal messages will cause just as many misun- derstandings as ignoring them.

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Before continuing to the next chapter, check your understanding of Chapter 5 at the Speech Communication CourseMate for Com- municating for Results. CourseMate gives you quick and easy ac- cess to this text’s resources to help improve your communication skills and prepare you for quizzes and exams. These resources include: Study tools including the student companion workbook,

digital glossary, flashcards, and review quizzes. Activities and assignments including Awareness Checks,

Checkpoints, and Collaborative Learning Activities. Media resources such as Web Links (explore communica-

For more information or to access this book’s online resources, visit cengagebrain.com.

Collaborative Learning Activities 1. In small groups of three to seven, make a list of the major

gestures used as emblems in the United States. Then us- ing Google, research databases available through college and city libraries, or books such as Gestures: The Do’s and Taboos of Body Language Around the World by Roger Ax- tell (2007) or What Every BODY Is Saying by Navarro and Karlins (2008), determine as many different meanings for each gesture both in the United States and abroad as possible. Which 10 gestures would your team select as the most likely to cause international incidents and the most important to be avoided by the current and future U.S. presidents as well as businesspeople? Specify reasons for your choices.

2. Career Activity: In groups of two to five, do some extra re- search on business casual dress in the workplace. Find at least three articles from a Google search and a search of library and college databases such as EBSCOhost and see what specific clothing suggestions you can find. Also, inter- view people at several businesses in your area to see how they interpret business casual and what specific clothing dos and don’ts they suggest. Compare what you find with the information in this chapter and be prepared to share it with other individuals or groups.

3. In pairs or small groups consider the answers to the follow- ing questions and be prepared to share them:

a. List the nonverbal behaviors you consider to be the most valuable in the college classroom? Share personal experiences;

b. List the nonverbal behaviors you think would be inap- propriate in the college classroom? Share personal experiences;

c. Which behaviors from your lists also relate to the work- place as well? Be prepared to share your lists and the reasons behind them.

4. Career Activity: In groups of two to four people, take another look at the information given in this chapter for greeting and sharing business cards in Japan. Search You- Tube for a video of the proper way to share cards and/or conduct a brief Internet search for additional information. Then, in groups of two, practice the ritual; if there are other members in your group, ask them to offer suggestions. If possible, invite a Japanese businessperson to observe your group’s efforts. Practice until you look comfortable and professional.

5. Career Activity: The first impressions you make when in- terviewing for a job are based mainly on nonverbal com- munication. Before meeting in small groups of three to five, take the First Impressions Quiz from Quintessential Careers (quintcareers.com) at http://www.quintcareers .com/first_impressions_quiz.html. When finished, meet as a group and complete the following:

a. Make a list of the nonverbal items that play a role in creating a good first impression—narrow them to the top five. Now make a list of nonverbal items that could cause a poor first impression—narrow them to the top five.

b. Refer to the First Impressions Quiz. If your group feels comfortable sharing results, identify how many scores were in the great, average, or needs work categories (above 80 is great; below 60 needs work). Or, have each person write his/her score on a piece of paper along with the nonverbal item that gives him/her the most trouble and put it into an envelope. Mix up the papers and then arrange them into categories.

c. Discuss the nonverbal items that give group members problems and see whether your text or group member has suggestions for how to improve. Refer to Chapter 8 for additional information. Be prepared to share your lists with other groups.

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IDENTIFY specific ways that technology has changed the way we communicate, and list tips for successfully communi- cating using different types of technology.

DEFINE the terms situational anxiety and trait anxiety, and list several specific tips for managing each type of anxiety.

BRIEFLY DESCRIBE each of the following obstacles to communication, and list at least two practical tips to correct each obstacle: inadequate preparation, vague instructions, jumping to conclusions, and bypassing.

DEFINE the term sexual harassment, and specify how the courts use the reasonable person rule in deciding sexual harassment cases.

As you read chapter 6...

OVERCOMING OBSTACLES TO COMMUNICATION IN THE ELECTRONIC AGE

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CASE STUDY Technology, a Songwriter, and United Airlines Technology has given customers powerful ways to retaliate if they are ignored or mistreated. Take for example, Canadian mu- sician and songwriter Dave Carroll, whose guitar was broken by United Airlines luggage handlers on his way to a performance in March 2008. After 9 months of getting the runaround by offi- cials at United, Carroll took matters into his own hands by writ- ing and recording an entertaining musical video called “United Breaks Guitars,” which he posted on YouTube on July 6, 2009 (Mutzabaugh, 2009). In the video, Carroll (accompanied by his band, Sons of Maxwell) sings of how his guitar was smashed and of his frustrations in dealing with United Airline employees.

The facts of the story according to Carroll (2009; 2012) include the following: Prior to deplaning in Chicago for the last leg of a trip to Omaha from Halifax, a passenger sitting behind Carroll noticed that the baggage handlers were throw- ing guitars, which just happened to belong to Carroll and his band. He tried to complain to three different United flight at- tendants before leaving Chicago, with no success, and when they arrived in Omaha at 12:30 a.m., there were no employees available at all. Early the next morning, after being picked up by the tour manager, he discovered his $3,500 Taylor guitar was broken into two pieces. As frustrating as this was, it didn’t compare with the frustration of trying to file a claim and con- tact the “correct” person to discuss reimbursement for his guitar; at various times he was told to talk to all the following: the ground crew in Omaha, the airport where the trip began (Halifax), the airport where the damage occurred (Chicago), United’s 1-800 number in India, and Central Baggage in New York. Carroll notes that “The system is designed to frustrate affected customers into giving up their claims and United is very good at it.” The last person he spoke with, Ms. Irlweg, told him nothing could be done even after he offered to settle for payment of $1,200 in flight vouchers to reimburse having the guitar repaired. He gave up after telling her that he would write three songs about his experiences with United in video form, offer them as a free download online, and ask viewers to vote on their favorite song. His goal, he told her, was “to get one million hits in one year”—a modest goal as it turned out.

“United Breaks Guitars” was posted on Monday, July 6, and by Thursday, July 9, it had 400,000 hits and, according to Benet Wilson in her blog post titled “United Airlines Sees Power of Viral PR Up Close and Personal” (2009), Carroll’s video already had

over 100 news stories and 2,000 blogs written about it, including multiple television network reports. Even United Airlines was on Twitter explaining its actions and making apologies. On July 10, United posted on Twitter that following Dave’s request, they had donated $3,000 to the Thelonius Monk Institute of Jazz. A spokeswoman for United told the Chicago Sun Times that they were interested in using the video “for training purposes to en- sure that all customers receive better service from us” (Jackson, 2009). By evening on Sunday, just 6 days after the video was posted, more than 2.4 million viewers had listened to it. In addi- tion to making a point, and getting the attention of United, Carroll and his band were a hit! The song was clever, the video funny, and the music really enjoyable. Carroll (2009) ended his background on the incident with this statement:

I should thank United. They’ve given me a creative outlet that has brought people together from around the world. We had a pile of laughs making the recording and the video while the images are spin- ning on how to make “United: Song 2” even better than the first. So, thanks, United! If my guitar had to be smashed due to extreme negligence, I’m glad it was you that did it. Now sit back and enjoy the show.

AP Photo/The Canadian Press, Andrew Vaughan

As you read this chapter... (a) decide whether the action taken by United Airlines to repair the damage done by Carroll’s video was adequate, (b) discuss the actions that United should take to prevent future customer service incidents, and (c) determine whether technology is more of an advantage or more of a obstacle to effective communication in today’s society. For the complete story, go to www.davecarollmusic .com, and click on “News” and then “United Breaks Guitars” or check out Dave’s new book, United Breaks Guitars: The Power of one voice in the age of social media (2012).

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CHAPTER 6 OVERCOMING OBSTACLES TO COMMUNICATION IN THE ELECTRONIC AGE 167

Regardless of your business or professional position, you have probably acquired a few poor habits that create obstacles to communication. Al-though these obstacles can be avoided with patience and practice, it is important to realize that the recent surge in technology has altered things dra- matically. Not only have the obstacles changed, making them more difficult to recognize, but also the way to manage or avoid each obstacle has altered as well. Therefore, this chapter will begin by looking at various technologies that are making the most dramatic effects on communication in organizations. Next, we will look at specific obstacles to communication and how to manage or avoid each one in the current electronic age. As you read this chapter, determine how skilled you are at recognizing and avoiding each obstacle.

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY Technology is changing so rapidly in today’s electronic age that it is easy to feel overwhelmed. In fact, by the time this edition of Communicating for Results is published, new technology will likely be available. Of course, it is the Internet that is the catalyst for most of these changes. In 2006, the United States was the number one Internet user in the world; however, by 2012 (Figure 6.1) the United States ranked second behind China followed in order by India, Japan, Brazil, Germany, Russia, Indonesia, Great Britain, and France (Top 20 Internet Countries, 2012).

Based on the statistics cited in Figure 6.1, more than 82% of American adults use the Internet (Trend Data-Adults, 2012). Also in 2012, U.S. adults owned the following (Zickuhr & Smith, 2012, p. 14): Cell phones (88%); Laptops (57%); e-Book readers (19%); and Tablet computers (19%).

It’s not only the Internet that has caused a rapid change in technology, it is how and when people now use the Internet. How people use the Internet: Not only do people conduct online shopping, banking, reading/answering messages on email and social networking sites, and searching online for numerous types of information and services, also “about six in ten adults (63%) go online wirelessly” (Zickuhr & Smith, 2012, p. 14) using their smart phones. In fact, since the iPhone hit the market in 2007, mobile phone use of the Internet grew from zero to more than 55% or 110 million U.S. consumers in 2012 (Getting Smart, 2012; LaFrance, 2012). When people use the Internet: Basically, people access the Internet all day long from the moment they wake in the morning until they fall asleep at night. They even access the Internet for personal use while at work. Although total usage is un- known, the 2012 Ethics Resource Center reports that “11% of employ- ees who engage in social network- ing are ‘active’” (p. 30) and that these active networkers spend as much as 30% of their workday online.

China – 513.1m U.S. – 245.2m India – 121.0m Japan – 101.2m Brazil – 81.8m Germany – 67.4m Russia – 61.5m Indonesia – 55.0m United Kingdom – 52.7m France – 50.3m

Source: Adapted from: Top 20 Internet Countries. (2012). Internet World Stats.com. Retrieved from http://www.internetworldstats.com/top20.htm

FIGURE 6.1 Top ten internet-using countries - 2012 q1

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Blogs (web logs) are gaining in business use—as we will see in the “It Re- ally Works” feature on page 171. Commenting on its website traffic, WordPress .com which houses more blogs than any other site reported these stats: “325 million people view more than 2.5 billion pages each month”; also “500,000 new posts and 400,000 new comments” are posted on an average day on WordPress (Sites in the World, 2012). (Of all the Internet activities, email is used most often—91% of U.S. adults online send or read email (“Internet Activities,” 2011). Social media like Facebook and LinkedIn are close behind email in popularity. According to Blogherald.com (2012) in February, Facebook had 845 million ac- tive users around the world; also, in February, 66% of U.S. Internet users signed on to Facebook, LinkedIn, or Google Plus (Trend Data (Adults), 2012). A rela- tively new web attraction is Twitter.com, with 15% of U.S. adults using Twitter in February 2012 (Smith & Brenner, 2012). Instant messaging has also gained multiple users—and not just teenagers and college students, although 75% of young adults use instant messaging (Nadler, 2008). In 2010, 46% of U.S. adults used instant messaging (Trend Data (Adults), 2012). In 2005, 26 percent of U.S. businesses used IM as an official communication tool (Primeauz, 2005). And of course, there is the ever popular smart phone, used by 110 million consumers in July 2012, up from 9 million in 2007 (Getting Smart, 2012).

Employees and managers who know how to effectively harness the power of technology in the technology age without letting it become an obstacle, have an edge on the competition. According to Li and Bernoff in their bestseller Ground- swell: Winning in a World Transformed by Social Technologies (2011), the success- ful users of technology “concentrate on the relationships, not the technologies” (p. 18). Let’s look at several of these types of technologies in more detail, along with their advantages and disadvantages and how they create relationships.

Email There are some definite advantages to using email in an organization—which probably accounts for its high rate of usage (over 91%). Fast retrieval of infor- mation is one important advantage. For example, Manistique Papers, Inc., was having a problem in their recycling plant; when ink was removed from old mag- azines, the paper wasn’t white enough. They contacted Buckman Labs, which “immediately posted a message on their Internet discussion board.” Within less than 48 hours the answer came from employees in Finland and Belgium: A rare bacterium was breaking down the peroxide; fortunately, an antidote was avail- able (Cravens & Piercy, 2003, p. 164).

Another advantage to email may actually be the social uses, such as hob- bies and recreational activities. A study conducted by Xerox Corporation supported their belief that their employees’ social use of email outweighed the costs. They found that social use of email had the following advantages (Steinfield, 1990):

● Employees learned to use the system more rapidly. ● Social contacts often became valuable in later work tasks. ● Quality of work life improved for some employees. ● Creativity was enhanced.

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On the other hand, there are a number of dis- advantages to using email. For one thing, email messages are not private and may live as long as “five years in someone’s backup file or memory bank” (Haddock, 1996, pp. 148–149). For exam- ple, as part of the settlement with Enron, “com- pany email used as evidence was published on the web. Also published were thousands of email messages unrelated to the case, both business- related and personal, sent by Enron employees during the period under investigation” (Young, 2006, p. 123). This probably occurred because according to the Electronic Communications Privacy Act (Fraser, 1999), it is legal to view or disclose personal electronic communication if it is “readily accessible” to the public—which most email is. It is also legal for employers to inspect employee email on the company intranet, so it’s never a good idea to send any email that you wouldn’t want on the front page of the local paper.

Another disadvantage is that, because email messages are usually brief and informal, senders often do not give them the same care they would give to a letter or memo. Always read your message at least twice before sending to check for punctuation, spelling, tone, and clarity; use bulleted lists to make your ideas stand out. If you aren’t sure, don’t send it. If you are replying to or forwarding an email message, be sure to change the subject line to reflect the new content.

The main disadvantage of using email as expressed by Friedman and Currall (2003) in their article Conflict Escalation is how easily the “tone” of an email message can cause anger. If you have ever received an email that made you instantly angry, you have experienced this phenomenon they call DEME (the dispute-exacerbating model of email). Basically, because messages sent by email have no vocal or nonverbal cues to meaning, and because people tend to read them more than once, even messages that aren’t intended as critical “can be easily misinterpreted as being more aggressive than intended” (p. 1342). Therefore, it is important to read your email from the receiver’s viewpoint and edit it carefully listening for tone and possible interpretation. Be ready to apol- ogize if the reaction you receive is negative—even if you don’t think it is your fault. For specifics on writing successful email, see Chapter 14 on Polishing Your Written Communication.

Blogs The use of personal blogs is growing rapidly right along with corporate use— 22% of Fortune 500 companies have one or more active blogs (Rosenthal, 2011) which is up from 5.8% in 2006 (Belcher, 2006, p. 1). Although some companies like General Motors have one large blog (see the “It Really Works” feature in this

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chapter for details), other companies like HP have multiple blogs depending on their product lines. HP has more than “80 executive blogs, on topics from stor- age and mobility to small businesses” (Li & Bernoff, 2011, p. 109).

As more companies realize the benefits of having a company blog, the number of corporate blogs will continue to grow (Belcher, 2006). One of these advantages is that blogs allow companies to develop relationships with the blogosphere. Li & Bernoff (Groundswell, 2011) explain what the blogosphere is and how it works:

The authors of blogs read and comment on others’ blogs. They also cite each other, adding links to other blogs from their own posts. This interlink- ing creates relationships between the blogs and their authors and forms the blogosphere (p. 19).

E-commerce, which is another benefit of blogs, is growing by 33% each year (Ingram et al., 2008). ComScore, Inc. reported that retail e-commerce spending in the first quarter of 2012 reached $44.3 billion which is up 17% from the same quarter in 2011 (Lipsman, 2012). Of course, you don’t have to be a company to sell products online—individuals worldwide have found that the Internet and blogging have leveled the playing field for communica- tion and sales. Blogs are better than one-way communication, says Jeremy Wright in Blog Marketing (2006), because with blogs, “you’re engaging with your customers, as every reader is reading your blog by choice, every reader is choosing to interact with your business, and every reader wants to hear more from you” (p. 56).

Whether you are a large or small company or an individual, the suggestions for using blogs offered by General Motors in the “It Really Works” section in this chapter are good. At the same time, be aware of the power of technology. As United Airlines found out in our chapter opener, technology like YouTube and the comments people make on blogs can be quite persuasive. RadioShack’s past CEO, Dave Edmondson, resigned in part because of blogger comments about him and the company. When inaccuracies in Edmondson’s resume were made known but the company’s response was slow, trust was lost and bloggers created what Hewitt (2005) calls a “blog swarm,” which is “an early indicator of an opinion storm brewing, which, when it breaks, will fundamentally alter the general public’s understanding of a person, place, product, or phenomenon” (p. 2). RadioShack didn’t have a company blog at that time, but that didn’t keep them from being hit by a blog swarm, as they discovered; so having a blog and managing the blog may be the way to go. A word of warning to employees who have their own blogs: Don’t think that your blog goes no further than family and friends. There have been many reported cases of employees being fired because of blog content (see the Dilemmas in Communication feature in Chapter 3 for examples). Management may have found these job-related comments by using Technorati.com, a search engine for blogs or Google.com or Google Blog Search (http://blogsearch.google.com) or Nielsen Buzzmetrics that gathers information from social media and Twitter, blogs, and message boards (Cravens & Piercy, 2013).

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Instant Messages (IM) There are some definite advantages to using instant messages (IMs) in an organization. Increased access to and faster retrieval of information, avoiding playing phone tag, and communicating with several people at the same time has made IMs a regular business tool. In fact, a 2011 study of 1,400 CEOs found that 54% of them predicted that IM will overtake email “within the next five years” (Using Instant Messaging, 2012). Here are some examples of companies that use or provide instant messaging:

● The military: The U.S. Army used IM technology “to transmit communica- tions about weather conditions and the latest intelligence on the insurgency

Blogging In the beginning, blogs—short for web logs—were used mostly by students to express opinions on everything from politics to what kind of wine goes best with a meal. Today, however, there are several million blogs in existence, both personal and corporate.

One company that realizes the value of blogging is General Motors—both before and after their bankruptcy. When General Motors began their company blog in 2004, GM FastLane.com (fastlane.gmblogs.com), vice chairman Bob Lutz used the blog to allow “customers to engage with him directly about products, services, and the future of the company” (Wright, 2006, p. 73). At the time, GM was having real problems communicating with customers and auto critics about the new line of cars. There wasn’t much time before the January 2005 auto show when Lutz decided to try something new—start a blog. From the time he made the deci- sion until the blog went live was less than three weeks and his first post received 121 comments (Li & Bernoff, p. 14). Blog comments ranged from cheerleading to useful critiques to vocal criticism. After declaring bankruptcy on June 1, 2009, GM used their company blog to communicate with employees and consumers about their financial situation and downsizing of plant facilities, car brands, dealerships, and employees. For example, on July 13, Lutz hosted a live web chat to answer questions about his new role as GM Vice-Chairman “respon- sible for all creative elements of products and customer relationships.” One blogger asked: “Bob, will we see improve- ments in GM commercials now that you are in charge of them? The new Buick commercial is very embarrassing. . . .”

Lutz gave this reply: “Let me put it this way: That Buick com- mercial tested very well, which is not the same as saying that it’s an effective ad. I think you will very quickly see a drastic change in the tone and content of our advertising. And if you don’t, it will mean that I have failed” (Lutz, 2009).

From their experience with blogs, General Motors sug- gests the following (Wright, 2006):

Be honest (negative comments don’t go away by ignoring them, but tackling them can create reader trust); use blogrolls (links to other quality blogs); ask people for their thoughts; be passionate; be fair to your competition; and have a genuine voice (speak like a real person so people can relate to you). (pp. 76–77)

Although Lutz retired in 2010, the site is still active and is used as “a forum for GM executives to talk about GM’s current and future products and services” (About GM Fastlane, 2012). GM reacts to “news items, criticisms, and even recalls. It can float test balloons about new car ideas and see what the reaction is. And even better, every posting gets hundreds of comments, which generate new ideas for the company” (Li & Bernoff, p. 15).

WHAT DO YOU THINK? What do you think about the advice from General Mo-

tors’ past vice chairman, Bob Lutz, for effective use and maintenance of a blog?

What advantages and disadvantages do blogs offer when communicating with customers and coworkers?

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172 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

to lieutenants in the field in Afghanistan and Iraq” and the U.S. Navy uses IM “to communicate within ships, across Navy divisions, and even back to the Pentagon in Washington” (Daft & Marcic, 2013, p. 533).

● Basketball CEO: Instant messages are important to Brett Yormark, the Na- tional Basketball Association’s youngest CEO of the New Jersey Nets. He “typically responds to about 60 messages before he even shaves and dresses for the day” (Daft & Marcic, p. 17).

● IBM employees: Over six million instant messages are sent by IBM employ- ees around the world each day (McGarvey, 2008). IBM uses an in-house IM program called Sametime. According to Karen Lilla, IBM manager, instant messaging has “replaced virtually all voicemail” (Using Instant Messaging, 2012) which has saved IBM $18 million per year in telephone expenses (McGarvey, 2008).

● Skype IM: In addition to these free software programs such as Google Chat, AIM, MSN Messenger, and Yahoo, Skype now has a feature that allows for instant messages.

There are some disadvantages of using IM including the expectation of an instantaneous reply, errors due to casual and short messages, vulnerability to viruses and loss of confidentiality, and the lack of records kept for later use. Just like email (McGarvey, 2008; Using Instant Messaging, 2012). When business-related, effective users of IMs give each one a careful check before sending.

Facebook and Twitter As discussed in the Chapter 1 case study, Facebook has grown at a phenomenal rate from 200 million active users in 2009 to 845 million active users in February 2012 (Hodgson, 2012). Twitter’s growth is just as amazing with 15 % of U.S. adults using Twitter in February 2012 (Smith & Brenner, 2012). Both Facebook and Twitter were the social media of choice at the 2012 Olympics in London—150 million tweets were sent about the Olympics (Bennett, 2012); London had an official Facebook page as did Olympic athletics, teams and sports; over 105,000 people used the NBC Olympics app; more than 650 million photos were posted with the #olympics hashtag (Laird, 2012).

The newest information about Facebook and Twitter is how they are being used as communication tools by organizations for marketing and relationship-building, by police departments posting warnings and searching for criminals, and by companies searching for potential employees. The 2012 Olympics offered an excellent opportunity for marketing using Facebook, Twitter, and iPhones—Coca-Cola Co. was one of nine large corporations to pay $957 million for marketing rights in the 2012 summer Olympics in London and the 2010 winter Olympics in Vancouver (Esterl, 2012). According to Esterl, Coke provided a “Move to the Beat” app on its Facebook page to let “smartphone users remix its commissioned Olympics song, ‘Anywhere in the World,’ which is sung by Katy B and uses rhythms from athletes” (p. B8)— there is also software for laptop users with images of fans holding bottles and cans of Coke or fans can upload their own images. The remixes can be

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loaded and tweeted to fans’ personal pages or to Coke’s Facebook page. Esterl notes that even before the summer Olympics began, over 3 million remixed videos had been posted.

Police departments have also found Facebook and Twitter to be useful two-way communication tools allowing them to communicate with citizens; share important information; and request tips leading to arrests (Walker, 2012). In addition, a special social media tool for law enforcement used by over 6,000 agencies called Nixie has proven to be successful—an armed rob- bery suspect was caught in Fayetteville, N.C., “soon after a Nixie alert was sent to residents” (Collins, 2012). Arlington, Texas tried a successful virtual ride-along using a “tweetalong” hashtag where a city manager accompanied a “drunken-driving task force patrol shift” and tweeted events (Walker, 2012, p. 14A). Many departments have discovered the importance of having a social media policy to guide tweets/posts as well as special staff assigned to handle use of social media (Collom, 2012). As many businesses that use and regularly update social media sites know, the process takes time and can get out of hand unless care is taken.

As you will read in Chapter 8 on Employment Interviewing, social media has changed the way people search for jobs and send resumes. It has also changed the way companies search for potential job applicants. A Jobvite survey of U.S. human-resources and recruiting professionals published in The Wall Street Journal (Raice, 2011) states that 80% of companies used social media to recruit in 2011, up from 68% in 2009; and that 64% of companies have hired using social media, up from 58% in 2010 (p. R7). According to Raice, recruiters who are successful at us- ing Facebook and Twitter (as well as LinkedIn) know the importance of relation- ships and word of mouth. As a result, these recruiters are not afraid to ask their current employees for names of social media friends that they think would make good job candidates. However, in order for this process to be successful, two things need to happen says Dan Finnigan, chief executive of Jobvite. First, employ- ees who provide new tal- ent should get more than a thank you—they should be rewarded with money. Sec- ond, employees should be allowed and encouraged to build professional connec- tions using Facebook and other social media while at work—within limits, of course (p. R7).

Electronic Meetings In today’s era of global involvement, telecommuting, and virtual offices, elec- tronic meetings (such as teleconferences and videoconferences) are important

AP Photo/The Canadian Press, Andrew Vaughan

Revisiting the Case Study... In discussing the smashed-guitar incident, what did Benet Wilson (2009) mean when she said: “The lesson here is we now live in a world where anyone can use free social media tools to get situations resolved when companies won’t listen?” Do you agree with her? Why, or why not?

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174 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

communication avenues. Davenport and Pearlson (1998) found that “despite email, fax machines, cell phones, and pagers, workers do not communicate as well with one another in virtual environments as they do in the traditional office” (p. 58). A study of telecommuters (workers who complete tasks off site) found that many “felt a profound sense of loss akin to grief at job loss” (Hylmö & Buzzanell, 2002, p. 349). Not only do these work- ers need information, but they also need involvement to feel more a part of the company. At the same time, there are advantages to telecommuting such as flexibility, less travel-time hassle and expenses, less money spent on work- place clothing and meals, more bal- ance between home and work to name a few (Greenberg, 2011, pp. 21–23). Although 23% of U.S. workers “work at least some hours at home each week,” research reported in the Monthly Labor Review (Noonan & Glass, 2012) indi- cates that 50–67% of telecommuting hours “essentially occur as overtime work” (pp. 38 & 45). Perhaps a way to build on the strengths of telecommuting while lessening the weaknesses would be to encourage occasional face-to-face or electronic meetings.

Videoconferencing is used by multiple-location companies to com- municate with their employees—for training, for business updates, to in- troduce new products or procedural changes, or just to keep employees from feeling isolated (“Video-conferencing,” 1995). As the chapter-opening photo shows, videoconferencing is also used regularly by medical personnel as a con- sulting tool. In one instance, 20 doctors from three Mayo Clinic locations spent 1.5 hours discussing a risky skin cancer case. They arrived at “a course of treat- ment, including specific recommenda- tions on how aggressively to sample the

When an Event Goes Viral: Southwest Airlines Social Media is all about relationships. Companies such as Southwest Airlines with over a million followers on Twitter have to continue building relationships even while handling negative or misleading posts. When some- thing negative that affects a company occurs on social media, a company response needs to come at least within 24 hours—real-time is better– otherwise “tweets become blog posts, YouTube videos or articles” and the incident “enters the mainstream” and becomes a viral blogswarm (Brandel, 2010). Let’s look at how Southwest handled one incident that was reported by gawker.com (Kamer, 2010) to be “of epic proportions.”

On Saturday, February 13, 2010, Kevin Smith, who usually purchased two seats when flying on Southwest Airlines due to his size, decided to go standby for an earlier flight from Oakland to Burbank. There was only one seat remaining and Smith was allowed to board. Although the exact events are not clear, it makes sense that in the last-minute rush to complete boarding, the agent failed to realize that two seats were needed instead of one. When the error was discovered, although Smith was already buckled in his seat, one of the flight at- tendants asked him to deplane (for the comfort and safety of the other passengers). Saying that this request angered Smith is an understate- ment. He instantly began tweeting his feelings which created a PR nightmare for Southwest Airlines.

Other than being an embarrassment for both parties, why was this incident a PR nightmare? First, any customer that is unhappy is a concern for customer-conscious companies like Southwest—most air- lines offer flight vouchers and verbal apologies when problems occur. Second, personal weight is a topic that requires extreme sensitivity which may not have been handled correctly in this incident. Third, Kevin Smith happens to be a “loudmouthed and outspoken public figure” who is a filmmaker (Clerks, Chasing Amy, Jersey Girl, and Cop Out) with 1.5 million Twitter followers (McCarthy, 2010). Definitely a PR nightmare.

Southwest uses Radian6 Technologies Inc. software to track posts on various social media and was aware of and responded to Smith’s tweets and blogs from the beginning (Brandel, 2010). Their tweets included an apology and an offer to make things right. However, Smith who posted dozens of tweets, many with profane language, refused to accept Southwest’s apology or travel voucher even though he boarded a later flight to Burbank. Thousands of comments and “likes” were posted to Smith’s tweets until finally one person tweeted: “‘Give it a rest, I understand @southwest was bad to you.’ Fair enough. No more SWA-talk ‘til SModcast tomorrow night” (Kamer, 2010)—one of Smith’s tweets said that he was recording a special episode of SModcast—“all for you.” Southwest managed to keep the incident from becoming a blogswarm,

DILEMMAS IN COMMUNICATION

CHAPTER 6 OVERCOMING OBSTACLES TO COMMUNICATION IN THE ELECTRONIC AGE 175

patient’s lymph nodes and how best to construct the surgical wound” (Berry & Bendapudi, 2003, p. 104). Design consul- tants help businesses (such as Computer Sciences Corporation) design conferenc- ing quarters, with suggestions such as to make the ceilings 13 feet high to “wash the boundary walls with light” and “pro- vide full-frequency absorption”; keep the doors “out of the line of the camera” so latecomers won’t be on film; and mini- mize camera movement because “it can cause a slower frame rate” (Lawlor, 1998; Sommerhoff, 1998, p. 52).

A summary of research includes the following characteristics of videoconferencing as compared with face-to-face meetings (Fulk & Collins- Jarvis, 2001):

● Discussants show less emotion and experience less conflict during meetings. ● Participation is more organized and orderly, which may account for shorter

meetings. ● Decision-making quality is generally equal to face-to-face groups, except

when bargaining or negotiation is required. ● Participation is more equal (status differences are less noticeable and less

threatening). ● Discussants find videoconferencing less satisfying than face-to-face meetings.

Electronic meetings can also benefit from conferencing tools on company intranets, videoconferencing software (such as NetMeeting by Microsoft or Google Plus), and Skype, discussed in Chapter 9.

An executive briefing room like this one often features a large multipurpose screen used for video presentations, videoteleconferences, and viewing of the Internet and intranet.

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but still experienced a possible loss of credibility and even customers. Hopefully, they researched to make sure no similar dilemmas ever occur in the future.

QUESTIONS Will offering Wi-Fi for in-flight use be a good idea? What possible prob- lems do you see? Could it be that Southwest’s posts and blogs need to sound more sincere? How do you think an apology should begin?

176 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Videoconferencing is not for everyone. How and when to use video- conferences depends on the communication needs and capabilities of the participants and planners. In Chapter 1, we said that memos are best used to follow up a face-to-face meeting; in some cases, this may be true of videoconferences as well. Technological innovations can become obstacles to communication unless we consider them as just another resource to im- prove communication.

COMMUNICATOR ANXIETY Whether you are expressing your ideas to a colleague, giving instructions or information to your employees, participating in a group discussion, interviewing or being interviewed, or giving a presentation, communicator anxiety can definitely be an obstacle to effective communication in the work environment. The technology age is playing a conflicting role in communica- tion anxiety. On the one hand, when they are online, people feel less anxiety about sharing personal information that they would rarely share face-to- face. On the other hand, so much online communicating is giving people less practice communicating face-to-face and creating, for some, even more communicator anxiety.

According to research, the higher a supervisor’s anxiety, the less potentially important information employees receive (Bartoo & Sias, 2004). Research also indicates that people who experience a high level of communication anxiety are at a disadvantage as compared with more talkative, outgoing employees. For example, people with high anxiety are perceived as less competent, are less likely to be offered an interview, make a poorer impression during interviews, typically hold lower-status and lower-paying positions, experience less job sat- isfaction, and are less likely to be promoted to supervisory positions (Richmond & McCroskey, 1998). In fact, Richmond and McCroskey reported that approxi- mately 95% of those surveyed in the United States have some degree of com- munication anxiety.

Hearing-impaired people experience communication anxiety as well (Booth-Butterfield & Booth-Butterfield, 1994). Not all cultures express the same levels of communicator anxiety, possibly due in part to the low-context collectivistic nature of their culture, as discussed in Chapter 3. For example, researchers found that the Chinese (Zhang et al., 1996) and Chinese in Taiwan (Hsu, 2004) are more apprehensive about communication than Americans, but Puerto Ricans are much less apprehensive than Americans, unless they are asked to communicate in English (McCroskey et al., 1985).

Before you can manage your anxiety, you need to know what kind of anxiety you have. There are two types of communication anxiety: situational and trait. Situational anxiety—often referred to as state anxiety (Booth- Butterfield & Booth-Butterfield, 1992; Motley, 1995)—is anxiety caused by factors in a specific situation, such as speaking for the first time before an audience, speaking in front of the boss, and being critiqued while speaking. Trait anxiety (Beatty et al., 1989; Daly & Friedrich, 1981) is the internal anxiety an individual brings to the speaking situation, such as feelings of

NOTE To help you determine which type of anxiety you have, take the PRCA-24 (Richmond & McCroskey, 1998), accessible through the CourseMate website for Communicating for Results. A total score of 80 or above or 24 or above on any subscore indicates some trait anxi- ety. A total score of 65 or above or 18 or above on any subscore indicates some situational anxiety.

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inadequacy or fear of looking like a fool in front of others. In other words, situational anxiety is caused by a new or different situation, and trait anxiety is caused by the speaker’s internal apprehensions and feelings regardless of the situation. Your own anxiety may be situational, trait, or a combination of the two.

Situational Anxiety Feeling nervous prior to a new communication situation is perfectly normal. Firing a troublesome employee, being interviewed for a job, presenting a contro- versial idea to your team leader or supervisor, selling a product to a new client, and approaching a banker for a loan are all situations that could cause a nervous, butterflies-in-the-stomach feeling in just about anyone. Anytime we become anxious, afraid, or excited, our body’s nervous system prepares us for action with a big shot of adrenaline, which accelerates the heart rate; sends extra oxygen to the central nervous system, heart, and muscles; dilates the eyes; raises the blood sugar level; and causes perspiration.

Actually, we should be grateful for this boost from our nervous system. Can you imagine a runner at an Olympic competition with absolutely no anxiety? The runner’s performance would no doubt fall far short of real po- tential. People who view increased heart rate, dry mouth, and sweaty palms as normal excitement necessary for a dynamic job of communicating find that their anxiety becomes manageable and often disappears completely once they begin speaking. Poor communicators, who tend to view physical reac- tions to situational anxiety with fear and as further proof that they are poor speakers, often find that their anxiety becomes worse as the presentation proceeds.

Even very experienced speakers—like Katie Couric previously with The Today Show on NBC, later anchor for the CBS Evening News, and more recently a talk show host on ABC—experience speaker anxiety. Accept the fact that al- most every speaking situation will produce that sinking feeling in the pit of your stomach. According to Edward R. Murrow, a great journalist of the past, “The only difference between the pros and the novices is that the pros have trained their butterflies to fly in formation” (Bostrom, 1988, p. 57). The following advice will help you stay in control during situational anxiety.

Prepare and Practice! Nothing will make you more nervous than knowing you are not adequately prepared. After all, isn’t your nervousness really fear that you will make mistakes or be humiliated in front of your colleagues, boss, or customers (Bippus & Daly, 1999)? Lack of preparation makes a poor presentation much more likely. Sometimes—perhaps because they feel overwhelmed—anxious people prepare less instead of practic- ing more thoroughly (Daly et al., 1995). However, Lilly Walters (1993), a speech consultant and author of Secrets of Successful Speakers, estimates that careful preparation can reduce anxiety by as much as 75%! Preparation is essential—tackle one small step at a time. Helpful guidelines on preparing

178 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

your presentation (i.e., analyzing the audience, selecting and researching the topic, organizing, choosing interesting supports, and preparing visual aids) are covered in Chapters 11 to 14.

Once you have prepared your presentation, make easy-to-follow notes and practice your presentation three or more times from beginning to end, speak- ing aloud. Mentally rehearsing your speech is not the same as practicing aloud. The environment you practice in should be as close as possible to the actual speaking environment. If you will be standing during your presentation, stand while practicing; if you will be using visual aids, practice presenting them as well. Once you begin to feel comfortable with the flow of the presentation, it is time to get some feedback on any needed changes either by taping yourself, speaking in front of a mirror, speaking before an audience of friends and fam- ily, or all three. Researchers have found that both taping yourself and speaking in front of a mirror provide valuable feedback, but that practicing in front of an audience is even better (Smith & Frymier, 2006). In fact, these same researchers found that students who practiced in front of an audience made better grades than students who practiced alone. Even one audience member was better than none, but four or more was best. Time yourself to see whether you need to shorten or lengthen the presentation. Finally, anticipate possible audience questions, and prepare to answer them. Knowing that you are well prepared will help ease much of your anxiety (Behnke & Sawyer, 1999).

Warm Up Prior to giving your presentation, stretch your neck and arm muscles and warm up your voice. Sing up and down the musical scale, as singers do before a concert; read aloud a memo or page from a book, varying your volume, pitch, emphasis, and rate; do several stretching exercises such as touching your toes and rolling your head from side to side; practice vari- ous gestures such as pointing, pounding your fist, or shrugging your shoul- ders. Speakers are no different from singers who warm up their voices or athletes who warm up their muscles before a performance. Warm-up helps you relax and ensures that you are ready to perform at your best (Richmond & McCroskey, 1998).

Use Deep Breathing One quick way to calm your butterflies is to use deep breathing; take a deep breath (through your nose), hold it while you count to five, and then slowly exhale (through your mouth). As you exhale, feel your stress and tension slowly draining down your arms and out your fingertips, down your body and legs, and out your toes. Do the same thing a second or third time, if needed. You can do this quietly so that no one even notices. Deep breathing slows the heartbeat and lowers the tension, making us feel more in control (Pletcher, 2000). One researcher (Hamilton, 2000) found that using deep breathing can lower your feeling of anxiety by up to 15%. A good time to use deep breathing is right before you go to the front of the audience to begin your presentation.

Use an Introduction That Will Relax You Most speakers find that once they get a favorable audience reaction, they relax. This is one reason

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why so many speakers start with humor; it relaxes them as well as their lis- teners. If a humorous introduction is inappropriate or you are not comfort- able with humor, perhaps relating a personal experience, some interesting statistics, or using a dynamic quotation would relax you and get the attention of the audience. Whatever your preference, make your introduction work to put you at ease.

Concentrate on Communicating Your Meaning Instead of worrying about how you look or how you sound, center your energy on getting your meaning across to your listeners. Don’t think of your speech as a performance; instead think of your speech as a way to provide valuable information to others. Pay close attention to their nonverbal reactions. If they look confused, explain the idea again or add another example. A speaker who is really concentrating on the listeners soon forgets about being nervous.

Use Visual Aids Some speakers do not know what to do with their hands. Using visual aids, such as transparencies or flip charts, not only adds eye-catching movement to your presentation but also keeps you so busy there is no time to worry about hand gestures. Visuals also make it almost impossible to forget a point or idea; if you forget, simply move to the next visual. Chapter 13 gives specific advice on preparing and using visual aids.

Trait Anxiety Whereas nearly everyone experiences situational anxiety, fewer people experi- ence trait anxiety, known as communication apprehension—a personal, internal feeling that you may experience regardless of the situation. For example, if you feel like you are a poor speaker, it won’t matter whether you are speaking to a large or small audience; if you feel you are unskilled at interviewing, it won’t matter whether the interviewer is someone you know or a stranger. The situa- tion isn’t the main cause of the anxiety—you brought the anxiety with you to the situation.

Researchers now feel that trait anxiety is both learned and inborn. In this chapter we are especially interested in speaking situations. If your anxiety about speaking is learned, you may experience two or more of these characteristics: (a) feel that you are different from and less effective than most other speakers, (b) have a history of negative speaking experiences, and (c) consider yourself inferior to others (Beatty, 1988; McCroskey & Beatty, 1998). In other words there is a good chance that you have learned trait anxiety if you feel you are more nervous than anyone else in your group, if you have had several negative speak- ing experiences in the past, and if you are worried that your audience will know more about your topic than you do.

Trait anxiety may be an inborn trait for some people as well. Research- ers who believe that communication anxiety is primarily an inborn or ge- netically caused behavior use the term communibiology (Beatty et al., 1998; McCroskey & Beatty, 2000). Other researchers, such as Conditt (2000)

180 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

disagree; they feel that biology is only one of several factors causing anxiety and that anxious individuals can learn to control their anxiety with effort. In fact, biopsychologists, view behavior as the interaction of three factors: (a) our genetic endowment, (b) our experiences, and (c) how we see our current situation (Kimble, 1989; Pinel, 2006, p. 23). Each of these factors influences and is influenced by the others.

Regardless of the cause, there are many techniques used to manage trait anxiety (Booth-Butterfield & Booth-Butterfield, 1992), although most of them require professional assistance. One successful technique that you can do by yourself is positive imagery. Research has found that positive imagery helps with both situational and trait anxiety, has a long-term effect, and is easy to use (Ayres, et al, 1997; Bourhis & Allen, 1992; Zagacki et al., 1992). Using posi- tive imagery (also called visualization) requires using your imagination in a positive way. Instead of thinking of all the things you will do wrong and how nervous you will feel when you speak, create a detailed, positive, and vivid men- tal image of yourself confidently preparing for and giving a successful presenta- tion. In other words, instead of imagining failure—as most speakers with trait anxiety do—imagine success.

Psychologists tell us that we act as the person we “see” ourselves to be (Maltz, 1960). If we say to others and ourselves such things as “I don’t see myself ever becoming a professional speaker,” then we won’t. No amount of encouragement or practice will make us a confident professional speaker as long as we believe ourselves to be an ineffective speaker. Therefore, to change your negative pictures of your speaking ability into positive ones, try positive imagery (Porter, 2003; Porter & Foster, 1986; Tice, 1980). First, look 2 or 3 months into your future and picture yourself as the speaker you would like to be. Write down the specific characteristics you want to develop. Now, close your eyes and mentally picture this “ideal you” on the day of your speech, feeling confident and giving a great presentation. Make this mental picture as detailed and vivid as possible (Ayres et al., 1994; Marks, 1999). For example, see yourself walking confidently up to the front of a group; see how professionally you are dressed; see yourself giving a clear, well-organized, and entertaining talk; feel yourself enjoying the talk; feel relaxed and warm; notice the direct eye contact you use and the way you retain your composure when a latecomer slams the door; hear yourself giving a great finish to the presentation and the audience applauding as you walk proudly back to your seat. Say to yourself, “I am a good speaker,” and say it with conviction. As you picture yourself being successful, don’t forget to feel successful. Words + vivid mental pictures + feelings = confidence. You need to say it, see it, and feel it if you want to change a negative mental picture into a positive one (Zagacki et al., 1992). Each time you vividly imagine yourself giving a successful presentation, your confidence will grow just as it would if you had actually given a successful presentation.

Positive imagery has been used in athletic programs for years. Sports psy- chologist Jim Loehr (1989) says that 80 to 85% of the top athletes use positive imagery in their training. For example, basketball great Michael Jordan, golfer Tiger Woods, swimmer Michael Phelps, and gymnast Nastia Liukin regularly

CHAPTER 6 OVERCOMING OBSTACLES TO COMMUNICATION IN THE ELECTRONIC AGE 181

use mental imagery. Says Nastia when asked about her Olympic secrets that led to winning a gold medal in all-around gymnastics, “I visualize all of my routines before I compete on each event” (“Graceful Competitor,” 2008).

Houston (1997) reports that “numerous studies have confirmed the fact that vividly ex- perienced imagery, imagery that is both seen and felt, can substantially affect brain waves, blood flow, heart rate, skin temperature, gastric secre- tions, and immune response” (p. 11). In other words, just imagining yourself being attacked while walking to your car creates many of the same physiological responses as actually being attacked. In fact, neuroscientists using brain imaging technology on athletes have found that athletes who imagine a movement activate the same areas in the brain as athletes who actually perform the movement (Kosslyn et al., 1999; Stephan et al., 1995). Imagining yourself speaking also creates responses similar to actually speaking. Researchers (Wise et al., 1991) have found that imagined and spoken words activate both the prefrontal and the premotor areas of the brain. Although top performers obviously use both their muscles and their minds when practicing, these findings do show the value of using positive imagery.

The Awareness Check on page 182 is a positive imagery exercise written by a seminar participant in an attempt to overcome her speaking anxiety. You may want to write and practice your own imagery exercise and include the specific speaker qualities of interest to you. As you complete this exercise, imagine that you are the person being described.

How did you do? Could you see yourself? If not, don’t be concerned. Visual- izing is easier for some people than for others (Issac & Marks, 1994). If you are used to picturing your speaking abilities negatively, trying to see yourself in a positive light may feel not only phony but almost impossible. But if we can’t even imagine ourselves giving a confident presentation, how can we expect to actually give one? Gail Dusa, past president of the National Council for Self-Esteem, says the following:

Visualization, in many ways, is nothing more complicated than involv- ing your imagination in goal-setting. It’s not hocus-pocus or magic. When you use your imagination to enhance goal-setting, you get fired up, excited. This enthusiasm equips you with more mental energy to put into the task. (McGarvey, 1990, p. 35)

To become confident speakers, we must think of ourselves as confident. Studies support that speakers who use a visualization script only once have less communication anxiety than speakers who do not use it or who use some other anxiety-reduction technique (Ayres & Hopf, 1995). You may need to

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182 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

practice positive imagery for up to 4 weeks before you begin to feel comfort- able with the new you.

Don’t forget that positive imagery can be used to manage more than just speaker anxiety: It can help us control our anxiety in employment interviews, problem-solving discussions, meetings with angry customers, or any situation in which our confidence needs a boost.

Once you have mastered positive imagery, you may wish to try other anxiety-reduction techniques. In addition to visualization, colleges often offer courses or workshops in one or a combination of these other techniques: re- laxation with deep breathing (also called systematic desensitization), cogni- tive restructuring of self-talk (also called cognitive modification), and skills training (Figure 6.2).

Positive Imagery DIRECTIONS: For the best effect, have someone read the following visualization to you, or tape it and then listen to it. You can also complete this activity online. Go to cengagebrain.com to access your Speech Communication CourseMate for Communicating for Results.

It is important to get in the mood to visualize. Close your eyes and get as comfortable as you can. Remember to keep an open body posture, with your feet flat on the floor and your arms resting comfortably but not touching. Now, slowly take a deep breath . . . hold it . . . and exhale slowly. As you exhale, feel the tension draining away. Take another deep breath . . . hold it . . . and slowly exhale through your mouth. Now one more time, breathe deeply . . . hold it . . . slowly exhale and begin normal breathing. Imagine yourself as the “I” in the following visualization:

I am leaning toward the mirror in my bathroom so I can get a good look at my face. Suddenly, the mirror clouds over. When it clears, I am looking at myself sitting in my speech seminar on the day of my first speech. It is my turn to speak.

As I rise from my seat, I direct the butterflies of excitement in my stomach into positive energy. I can do this because I have practiced carefully and know I am well prepared. As I turn to face my colleagues, I draw in a deep breath, stand up straight, and begin to speak. An aura of confidence radiates from within as I speak. My body is relaxed and calm. My breathing is paced. My motions are fluid, and my gestures are graceful. My shoulders stay relaxed and down. My voice remains strong and steady. It is pitched low and is well modulated and easy for everyone to hear. My eyes scan from person to person, drawing their complete attention. My mind is rested and calm, allowing my words to flow evenly and to be clear and concise.

As I speak, I easily remember each point of my speech. I can see the outline of my speech clearly in my mind and refer to my notes only briefly. I make use of dramatic pauses to stress important points within the speech. It is obvious that the audience understands what I am saying and that they are enjoying my speech. My words continue to flow smoothly and my transitions are especially good. Each idea is spoken clearly and confidently. There are no mistakes.

As the speech winds down, my words are chosen carefully and powerfully. The audience is paying complete at- tention. I end with a bang! I know from the enthusiastic applause and positive comments that my speech has been a total success! I feel proud as I gather my visuals and walk to my seat. The mirror clouds over again, and I am back in my bathroom. I feel confident and happy. I am looking forward to giving my speech. I begin to dress for the day.

Now take a deep breath . . . hold it . . . and slowly let it out. Do this several more times and slowly return your awareness to the room.

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CHAPTER 6 OVERCOMING OBSTACLES TO COMMUNICATION IN THE ELECTRONIC AGE 183

According to researchers, “the widest possible combination of methods” is often the most effective in reducing communication apprehension (Bodie, 2010, p. 91; see also, Dwyer, 2000; Kelly & Keaten, 2000). Therefore, when using positive imagery, which many people really find helpful, you would also add at least one of the other methods for reducing anxiety shown in Figure 6.2. Actu- ally, by taking a course in communication, you are already involved in skills training that researchers’ claim is often as successful as other forms of treatment in reducing speaker anxiety (Duff et al., 2007; Bodie, 2010). Also keep in mind that if you have high communication apprehension (total scores higher than 80 on the PRCA), and because a part of this apprehension is likely influenced by genetics, learning to handle your anxiety won’t happen overnight. Awareness or perception of your anxiety and its effect on you and others around you is a definite beginning.

Anxious people do not have to take a back seat to more confident people. Taking control of nervousness and anxiety is much easier once we identify it and take steps to manage it. Positive imagery is one step, thorough preparation is a second, and giving yourself time to change is another.

VAGUE INSTRUCTIONS Giving and receiving instructions are weaknesses in many organizations. Take, for example, medical professions in which the instructions given by the nurse or doctor are misunderstood; the results can result in minor to serious physi- cal harm and possibly even death (Green-Hernandez et al., 2004). However, if you are thinking that the ability to give instructions is no longer important in the electronic age, you would be wrong. With so many different technologies to use in communicating, skill in giving instructions is even more important.

Relaxation with deep breathing

Cognitive restructuring of self-talk

Skills training

Learning to relax using deep muscle relaxation and breathing, and

(a)

(b)

(a)

(b) (c)

(a) (b)

(c)

Learning to remain relaxed while visualizing a series of communication situations progressing from low to high anxiety (Richmond and McCroskey, 1998).

Identifying irrational self-talk that produces speaker anxiety. Developing alternative coping statements, and Practicing the coping statements in stressful situations (Ellis, 2004).

Identifying reasonable speaking goals, Determining behaviours or skills needed to achieve each goal, and Developing procedures for judging the success of each goal (Duff, et al, 2007). Taking this course is a form of skills training.

FIGURE 6.2 Other anxiety reduction methods

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We can’t expect the same approach to work in all the following situations: face-to-face, paper, email, cell phone, text messages, Twitter, and so on (Powers & Sawyer, 2011). Communication fidelity or accuracy is difficult under the best conditions (Stephens et al., 2010).

People who give effective instructions follow nine rules (based on work by Stewart, 1973). Let’s take a careful look at each of the nine rules. Although you probably don’t instruct people at work on how to draw geometric shapes (such as those shown in Figure 6.3), we are using such tasks to clarify certain rules. The principles for giving instructions are the same whether you are explaining how to boot a new computer, how to assemble a piece of machinery, or what work must be completed by your employees before noon.

Rule 1: Begin with an overall picture. The first step in giving instructions of any kind is to give a brief, but vivid, mental picture of the task. In other words, give a frame of reference from which the person can interpret your instructions. For example, the overall picture for geometric shape a in Figure 6.3 might include the following information:

Before we begin with specifics, let me give you a brief overview. This draw- ing includes three squares that are 1 inch on each side. They resemble a child’s stack of building blocks that is beginning to topple to the left. Be- cause each square on your graph paper is 1/4-inch wide, each building block you draw will be four graph squares high and four graph squares wide. Only one corner of each square touches the one below it; they do not overlap. I will begin my instructions with the top square and work downward. Okay . . . now draw a 1-inch square in the top left portion of your paper. . . .

This overall picture will give the listeners a mental image of the drawing, which should make it easier for them to follow your subsequent instructions accurately.

1. Begin with an overall picture.

2. Keep words to a minimum.

3. Use easy to understand words.

4. Be specific. 5. Use simple comparisons. 6. Use repetition. 7. Number objects or

steps. 8. Use good delivery. 9. End with a summary.

Nine rules for clear instructions:

FIGURE 6.3 Geometric shapes

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To make accurate decisions, employees must also be aware of all relevant information. Therefore, an overview could include such information as the im- portance of the assignment, management’s ideas about the task, the importance of completing the task by a certain time, and reasons why past attempts at com- pleting the task failed.

Rule 2: Use a minimum number of words. The more words you use, the more likely you are to cause confusion. If you are prepared and know what you want to say, you should be able to convey your message in as few words as possible. For example, compare “Draw a 1-inch square in the center of your paper” with the following wordy instructions:

About half an inch above the center of your paper draw a 1-inch line that is parallel with the top of the paper. Now go to the right end of that line and draw a 1-inch line downward that is parallel to the right side of the paper. Next, go to the left end of the original line and draw another 1-inch line downward. You should have three sides of a square. Complete the square by connecting the bottom points of the two vertical lines.

Although these instructions are fairly clear, such a detailed explanation of how to draw a square is unnecessary and a waste of time.

Rule 3: Use simple, easily understood words. In giving instructions, you should not be trying to impress people with your vocabulary. Do not assume that everyone knows jargon or technical terms. The skilled communicator uses terms that fit into everyone’s frame of reference. For example, suppose you were explaining how to draw the second square in geometric shape a in Figure 6.3. You might give the following instructions:

Go to the bottom right corner of your first square and draw a half-inch line at a 45-degree angle toward the northeast corner of your paper. Then go back to the same point and extend that line half an inch downward toward the southwest corner of your paper.

Most adults should know what a 45-degree angle is and where the north, east, south, and west sides of the paper are located. They should also know the meanings of such words as perpendicular, tangent, parallel, horizontal, vertical, diameter, and circumference. Unfortunately, however, many do not. Even for jargon or technical terms used regularly in your business, you should briefly define their meaning to make sure that all people have the same frame of refer- ence. Using simple words increases the likelihood that your instructions will be accurately followed. It also reduces the risk that you will misuse a term (such as saying horizontal when you mean vertical).

Rule 4: Be specific. In addition to using few words and simple words, you must also be as specific as possible. For example, how would you give a specific yet simple explanation of how to position the second square in geometric shape a (Figure 6.3)? One way to be specific is to label corners as shown in Figure 6.4. Remember, no one gets upset when instructions are specific; they do get upset when instructions are vague and confusing.

186 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Rule 5: Use simple comparisons. People learn more easily when they can compare or contrast a new task with an old one. Mentioning that today’s task is identical to yesterday’s except for one additional step makes today’s task much easier. To make sure that your comparisons fit into the frames of ref- erence of those who are to follow your instructions, keep all comparisons simple. For example, look again at the shapes in Figure 6.3. You might say that geometric shape a resembles a stack of three building blocks toppling to the left or that shape c looks like a large ball wedged between two triangular bookends. What does shape b look like to you—what comparison could you make to clarify its shape?

Rule 6: Use repetition. Most people need information repeated before they completely understand it. When giving instructions, repeat each set of instructions or steps. If the instructions are especially long or complicated, give a brief summary after explaining several steps. Finally, after you’ve given all instructions, review the entire procedure. Some managers eliminate the final summary because they are rushed, but the final summary often clarifies

FIGURE 6.4 Instructions for second square of shape a in figure 6.3

1. Draw a one-inch square in the upper left-hand portion of your paper.

2. Now in pencil, or in your mind, label the upper left-hand corner “a,” the upper right-hand corner “b,” the lower right-hand corner “c,” and the lower left-hand corner “d.”

3. Picture the second square in your mind. The second square is identical to the first in size and has the same lettered corners, but will be rotated so that corner “a” points toward the top of the paper, corner “c” toward the bottom of the paper, corner “b” toward the right of the pa- per, and corner “d” toward the left.

4. Point “c” of square 1 will touch the center of line “da” on square 2. Now draw square 2.

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a confusing item or points out an area of possible misunderstanding. The final summary also gives you a chance to ensure that all necessary instructions were given correctly.

Rule 7: Number (or “signpost”) objects or steps. Instead of saying “And the next step . . . ,” say “The third step. . . .” Instead of saying “When you finish that, I want you to . . . ” say “The third thing I want you to do before noon is. . . .” This makes it easier for everyone to keep track of the instructions. Also, when possible use mnemonic devices (i.e., memory formulas such as acronyms, rhymes, and acrostics) to simplify encoding of your instructions (Bellezza, 1982; Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1998). Some common mnemonic devices are the rhyme “Thirty days hath September . . .,” used to remember the number of days in each month; the acronym HOMES, to remember the names of the five Great Lakes; and the acrostic “Every good boy does fine,” to remember that the lines on the treble clef are for the notes EGBDF. Make it as easy as possible for your listeners to remember your key ideas.

Rule 8: Use good delivery techniques. Glance at each of your listeners while you are speaking, and watch for nonverbal indicators of confusion (such as a frown or raised eyebrows). Look and sound confident. If you don’t appear to have confidence in your instructions, why should others? And of course, make sure you speak loudly enough to be heard easily.

Rule 9: End with a summary. Give your listeners a chance to correct any mis- understandings by ending with a final summary. Ending with a summary also gives you a chance to make sure you didn’t leave out any important instructions.

If you follow these nine rules, your instructions will be understood. Don’t assume, however, that you have communicated what you meant. Listeners often think they understand completely when they do not. Therefore, when possible, ask them to rephrase your instructions in their own words, encourage them to ask for clarification of any confusing points, and supply a written copy of your instructions for further clarification.

JUMPING TO CONCLUSIONS When we fail to distinguish between what we observed firsthand and what we only inferred or assumed, inference–observation confusion (better known as jumping to conclusions) has occurred. With the short messages sent by text mes- saging and social media like Twitter, jumping to conclusions happens fairly often in the technology age.

Of course, we all make assumptions. It is quite possible that your job requires you to make a certain number of inferences or assumptions, and sometimes you may also need to act on those inferences. However, in such cases, you are aware that you are making an inference and you also know that there is a certain amount of risk involved. In other words, you are tak- ing a calculated risk. Problems are more likely to arise when people are unaware that they have made any inferences and think, instead, that their inferences are facts. When these inferences include other workers, manage- ment, job assignments, and interests of clients or customers, communication breakdown is likely to occur. How often do you jump to conclusions in your

188 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

communication with others? Your score on the Awareness Check above will give you an indication.

BYPASSING Another kind of assumption that occurs regularly in the technology age is called bypassing, which happens when we assume that a word has the same meaning for other people that it does for us.

Managers and employees often have different meanings for the same words. When a boss tells an employee that a raise is “likely”—which to the boss means a 51% chance but to the employee means an 85 to 95% chance—misunderstanding and disappointment are sure to arise.

To further your understanding of bypassing, select three people with whom you regularly communicate and ask them each to take the test in the Awareness

Facts Versus Inferences DIRECTIONS: How skilled are you at distinguishing facts from inferences? To check your effectiveness, carefully read the following story* and answer the statements by writing T (definitely true), F (definitely false), or ? (not stated in the story) in the blanks. Check your answers against those in the back of this book. You can also complete this activity online. Go to cengagebrain.com to access your Speech Communication CourseMate for Communicating for Results.

J.R. Ramos is V.P. of Development at an international game-development company. A Skype meeting with four of J.R.’s managers revealed a serious scheduling problem at the Taiwan manufacturing plant. Nguyen is dispatched with a translator to “assist” Barkley who is on site. One manager was tasked with monitoring the work and reporting daily to J.R.

STATEMENTS

________ 1. The manufacturing problem is in Vietnam.

________ 2. Nguyen was authorized to fire Barkley if appropriate.

________ 3. Barkley was part of the Skype meeting.

________ 4. Three managers are men.

________ 5. JR found out about the problem during a meeting.

________ 6. Barkley is in Taiwan.

________ 7. J.R. sent his manager to Taiwan.

________ 8. The person responsible for reporting daily to J.R. was a supervisor.

________ 9. The problem was related to scheduling.

________ 10. The company produces online games.

________ 11. Barkley is one of the managers.

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CHAPTER 6 OVERCOMING OBSTACLES TO COMMUNICATION IN THE ELECTRONIC AGE 189

Check on this page without looking at the others’ answers. See how closely all of you agree on meanings. Which terms could cause misunderstandings among your group—especially when using technology?

Vague phrases such as good job, as soon as possible, and in a couple of minutes are sure to have different meanings for different people and will cause misunderstandings if we are not careful. Even emoticons like ;-) or IBTD used as shorthand on email, blogs, text messages, and social media can cause misunderstandings.

Cultural differences also cause bypassing problems. Here is one example:

Mr. Sato, manager for Kumitomo America, told Jane Brady to ship any lots of more than 25 units to the parent corporation in Japan immediately. Jane assured him that she would “get right on it.” Six weeks later she was sum- moned by an unhappy boss wanting to know why she had not shipped the lots as requested.

“Sir,” replied Jane, “I shipped every lot more than 25. Those were my orders, and I carried them out.”

Mr. Sato shouted, “I checked this morning. We have 40 lots of more than 25 units each.”

Meanings of Terms DIRECTIONS: Decide what percentage of certainty (from 0 to 100%) is implied when you use each of the following terms*— for example, if you tell someone that your attendance at the staff party is likely, do you mean there is an 85% chance of being there, a 30% chance, or what? Write the percentage that expresses your usual meaning next to each term. Ask three other people to do the same thing, and compare answers. You can also complete this activity online. Go to cengagebrain.com to access your Speech Communication CourseMate for Communicating for Results.

TERMS COMMONLY USED IN BUSINESS

________ 1. absolute ________ 2. certain

________ 3. a cinch

________ 4. indefinite

________ 5. open to question

________ 6. possible

________ 7. probable

________ 8. risky

________ 9. settled

________ 10. a sure thing

________ 11. a toss-up

*Adapted from Schneider, A. E., Donaghy, W. C., & Newman, P. J. (1975). Organizational Communication (pp. 22—23). New York: McGraw-Hill.

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190 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

“That’s not so. We don’t.” “We do!”

“No, we don’t!” Finally they agreed to go and look. When they counted the first lot, it con-

tained 25 units. Each looked at the other triumphantly. To Mr. Sato, “more than 25” always included 25. To Miss Brady, “more than 25” began with 26. (Adapted from Sullivan & Kamda, 1991, pp. 1–2)

Now that so many companies have plants around the globe, cultural bypass- ing is sure to cause many costly misunderstandings.

Another way bypassing happens is when people have different words for the same meaning. For example, an American motorist made the following observa- tions about the meaning of British road signs:

If we saw a sign ROADUP, we came to learn that it meant “Road Taken Up” or “Road Repairs Ahead.” Near Chepstow we were asked to detour (the British call it DIVERSION) because, said the man who directed us, there had been a BUMP down the road. We could see two cars locked together in a collision. Near London, you may find a warning DUAL CARRIAGE WAY, meaning “Divided Highway.” Instead of “No Passing” the sign reads NO OVERTAKING.

When the danger zone is passed, you come to END OF PROHIBITION! You are told not to “Stop” but HALT at highway intersections. If you try to park in a no parking area, you find a sign NO WAITING. (Haney, 1973, pp. 259–260)

To prevent bypassing, both managers and employees should ask for feed- back from one another to determine what each really means. Assuming that the listener’s frame of reference is the same as yours can only lead to misun- derstanding. Refer to Chapter 1 for additional examples of frame-of-reference differences that can cause bypassing. Frame of reference also plays a role in our next obstacle, sexual harassment.

SEXUAL HARASSMENT One of the surest obstacles to communication in the workplace is sexual harass- ment. In the technology age, sexual harassment has moved online as well. Both face-to-face and online sexual harassment will be discussed. First, let’s begin with face-to-face harassment.

Sexual Harassment—Face-to-Face We would like to think that sexual harassment occurs rarely, but in 2011 over 11,300 sexual harassment charges were filed with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC); 12,571 cases were resolved resulting in $52.3 million in benefits paid (U.S. EEOC, 2011). According to the U.S. EEOC (2009),

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Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature constitute sexual harassment when this conduct explicitly or implicitly affects an individual’s employment, unreason- ably interferes with an individual’s work performance, or creates an intimi- dating, hostile, or offensive work environment.

The definition of sexual harassment includes two basic concepts:

1. Quid pro quo (“something for something”)—Includes the promise of rewards for sexual favors (such as job promotion or perks) or the threat of punishment for rejection of sexual overtures (such as loss of promo- tion or job).

2. Hostile work environment—Occurs when conditions are sexually “intimi- dating, hostile, or offensive” and interfere with performance on the job. A one-time vulgar remark does not constitute sexual harassment; however, re- peated verbal or nonverbal behaviors, which affect work performance and morale would be considered sexual harassment.

Since the Civil Rights Act of 1964, it has been unlawful in the United States to discriminate in hiring on the basis of sex. In 1980, sexual harassment became a violation of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act; in 1991, an amendment to Title VII entitled employees to monetary damages; in 1998, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that same-sex harassment is governed by Title VI; and in 2000, educational institutions became liable for sexual harassment of students (Conrad & Poole, 2012).

Sexual harassment can occur in many circumstances, including the follow- ing (U.S. EEOC, Sexual Harassment, 2012):

● The victim, as well as the harasser may be a woman or a man. The victim does not have to be of the opposite sex.

● The harasser can be the victim’s supervisor, an agent of the employer, a su- pervisor in another area, a coworker, or a non-employee (such as a client or customer).

● The victim does not have to be the person harassed but could be anyone af- fected by the offensive conduct.

● Unlawful sexual harassment can include offensive comments made about a person’s sex (i.e., about women in general).

● Unlawful sexual harassment may occur without economic injury to or dis- charge of the victim.

● The harasser’s conduct must be unwelcome.

Harassment is judged by its effects on the recipient, not by the intentions of the harasser. Because some people may regard a particular behavior as offen- sive and others may not, the courts use what is called the reasonable person rule to determine whether a “reasonable person” would find the behavior in question offensive. There has been a gender problem in applying this rule to sexual harassment because “a reasonable woman and a reasonable man are likely to differ in their judgments of what is offensive” (Riger, 1991; Sandler,

192 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

1996; Solomon & Williams, 1997). Although both women and men consider blatant behaviors, such as sexual bribery or sexual assault, to be harassment, they disagree in other areas. For example, women are more likely to consider gestures, stares, and teasing as harassment (Deutschman, 1991; Kirk, 1988); men do not typically consider these behaviors harassment (Konrad & Gutek, 1986; Powell, 1986). Women tend to view sexual overtures from men at work to be insulting, whereas men often view similar overtures to be flattering (Diehl, 1996; Gutek, 1985). Because of the differences in the way men and women perceive words or behaviors relating to a sexual nature, some courts use the reasonable woman rule in place of the reasonable person rule (Adler & Peirce, 1993).

Sexual Harassment and Email Our ever-changing, high-tech society has brought about a new form of sexual harassment: sexual harassment through email (Volokh, 2000). Email harass- ment can include distributing photographs, cartoons, or jokes, and in some cases, surfing the Internet and viewing offensive websites in the presence of co- workers. For example, the following litigation was reported by the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (2003):

In this Title VII lawsuit, the Los Angeles District Office alleged that defendant subjected four current and two former female employees at its manufacturing plant in Henderson, Nevada to a sexually hostile working environment and retaliated against some of the women for complaining about the harassment. The harassment included groping and sexual advances by male supervisors and coworkers and the circulation of pornographic pictures, dirty jokes, and emails. The case was resolved through a settlement agreement which provides for a total payment of $217,500.

Organizations need to prepare themselves for potential problems by developing strong policies and procedures regarding use of email and the Internet, as well as dealing with sexual harassment (Ingram et al., 2004). It is the responsibility of the employer to provide a safe workplace, free of sexual harassment, to all employees. Fortunately, most companies have thor- ough policies that cover these issues and clearly state how offenses will be handled. But having procedures in place isn’t always enough, as Wal-Mart discovered when it settled two sexual harassment suits for $315,000 because although Wal-Mart did have a written harassment policy in place, the staff in charge “failed to take appropriate corrective action” (U.S. Equal Employ- ment Opportunity Commission, 2006). Wal-Mart also agreed to provide yearly sexual harassment training for its managers and to be monitored by the EEOC for 3 years.

Effective company sexual harassment policies ensure confidentiality, free- dom from retaliation, prompt investigation, and punishment for offenders. If you become aware of sexual harassment within your organization, or you believe that you are a victim of sexual harassment, you should do the following (Bruce,

CHAPTER 6 OVERCOMING OBSTACLES TO COMMUNICATION IN THE ELECTRONIC AGE 193

2011; Tamaki, 1991; Carr-Ruffino, 2004): ● Review the organization’s policies on harassment. ● Project a confident, professional image of a person who won’t put up with

harassment—remain calm but project the seriousness of the situation. ● Confront your harasser in an assertive manner, using strong body language,

strong tone of voice, and direct eye contact. ● State the behavior, what is wrong with it, and what you expect to happen. For

example, “Do not touch me on the neck–that is sexual harassment. The next time you come in my office, stay on the other side of my desk.”

● Document the incidents of harassment. ● Report the incidents to an immediate supervisor or the human resources

department. ● Weigh the consequences of further action; the company should handle the

complaint based on their sexual harassment policy.

When individuals and organizations become more sensitive to individual rights and differences, we will all benefit.

COMMUNICATION SITUATION Hasty Resignation Directions: The following conversation between Chief Ferguson and Sergeant Richards results in Richards’s resignation. Both men contributed to the problem. Referring to the first six chapters in this text, what specific things did each do wrong? You can use the CourseMate website for Communicating for Results to watch a video clip of this Communication Situation and answer this question and, if requested, email your responses to your instructor. You can also further critique the interaction between Chief Ferguson and his employee and access Checkpoint 6.4 to see a similar communication situation and sample answers to analysis questions.

Communication Situation* James Ferguson was a dedicated and able police chief who had worked hard since taking over as chief 6 months previ- ously. Long before Ferguson was hired, a new manufacturing plant had moved into the area, causing the city to double its population in 5 years. The city council had not been prepared for such rapid growth, and when Ferguson was hired, the po- lice force was quite understaffed. The city council claimed that there wasn’t enough money to hire more police officers. It had taken Ferguson hours of time spent with community members and the city council before the police

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194 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

force was increased. The pay was still below the state level, however, and many officers were grumbling about the low pay and the extra long shifts they were required to work. Silently, Chief Ferguson agreed with the officers.

Even with all the problems, the department had greatly improved in the past 6 months and the chief was pleased. He was especially pleased about the young police sergeant he had recently hired. Cal Richards had gradu- ated from the state academy with highest honors, and Ferguson hoped to groom him to take over direction of the local police academy when its current director, William Newsom, retired next year. Newsom was very conservative in his concept of what should be taught in the academy, and the chief was looking forward to the new techniques and approaches sure to be instituted by Sergeant Richards. He was even letting him make some minor changes now.

Things were moving along very well until the city newspaper broke a sto- ry with the front page headline “Local Police Instructed to Shoot to Kill Re- gardless of the Offense!” The story was written by a reporter who had been invited by Sergeant Richards to sit in on a class at the academy as a public relations gesture. When Chief Ferguson came to work the next morning, an angry group of senior officers led by William Newsom was waiting in his of- fice. According to Newsom, the new sergeant had invited the reporter with- out letting anyone else know he was coming—and this was after Newsom had voiced his doubt to Richards about the possibility of such an event. The reporter had arrived unannounced during the middle of a class discussion, and no one had seen him enter. Newsom took Richards’s actions as a direct attempt to undermine his efforts. The chance of the city council appropriat- ing additional money for new uniforms now seemed certainly doomed. The chief was visibly disappointed in Richards’s behavior and promised the men he would speak to him that day.

Later that morning, the chief was in his outer office discussing with his sec- retary an irritating problem relating to the cancellation of an order for some much needed supplies, when Richards stepped into the doorway with a cheerful greeting. The chief looked up with a frown. Seeing Richards, he was forcibly reminded of the unpleasant task that lay before him, and in characteristic fash- ion decided to handle it immediately. “Hello, Cal,” he said. “Could you step in a minute?”

Richards caught something of the chief ’s discomfort from his voice and no- ticed the frown on his face. He felt a moment of panic. Something serious had happened. “Sure, Chief,” he said. “I’ve got a minute.”

The two men went into the office and the chief closed the door. Richards noticed the move, which was somewhat unusual, and again thought that some- thing was up for sure. He searched his mind for a problem or crisis that might have upset the chief, but he could think of nothing.

Ferguson took a deep breath and cast about for some way to begin. To Ferguson the pause seemed short, whereas to Richards it seemed very long. “As you know, Sergeant,” the chief began, “I have had great hopes for you in this de- partment and have given you basically a free hand to try new things.”

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CHAPTER 6 OVERCOMING OBSTACLES TO COMMUNICATION IN THE ELECTRONIC AGE 195

Richards felt a wave of relief and relaxed. “Yes, thank you very much, Chief.” He felt good about his performance in the department. His colleagues seemed to respect him and several council members had even compliment- ed him on his concern for the community. Probably the chief was going to compliment him on getting the press and the academy together. And heaven knew how difficult that had been! He had been unable to attend the final meeting because of an accident at the plant but had left Newsom a message on his desk earlier the same morning warning him to call the reporter if his visit was inconvenient.

“Introducing new ideas can be very difficult, of course,” the chief said, drum- ming his fingers on a newspaper.

“That’s true,” Richards said, somewhat puzzled because the chief was still noncommittal. He noticed the newspaper on the chief ’s desk. Perhaps the article had already been published.

Ferguson was proceeding slowly, trying to find precisely the right words. Suddenly Richards realized that something was going wrong. He was not going to get a compliment.

The chief was upset about something. “Of course,” said the chief, “newspapers do tend to sensationalize. . . . Hell, I

thought you could handle the position!” “What do you mean?” an angry Richards asked, standing up and putting his

hands flat on the chief ’s desk. The chief felt uncomfortable looking up at the sergeant, yet he did not

want to stand. The temperature of the meeting was rising too fast for him. “Newsom and some of the older men feel that you mishandled the reporter situation.”

“Are they questioning my competence to handle the position?” “No, no, it’s nothing like that, but. . . .” Ferguson wasn’t sure what he wanted

to say. Things weren’t going as he would have liked. “What would you say, then? Dammit, Chief, I like to have all the cards on

the table!” “All right.” The chief stood up. “You disappointed me in how you handled

Newsom and the reporter situation. I guess you’re still a little too impetuous to take over as director of the academy. You’re going to have to learn. . . .”

“If you think I’m incompetent, why don’t you fire me?” “Now, wait a minute,” said Ferguson. “Don’t take that tone with me.” “Either I’m incompetent and you ought to fire me or I’m not and you have

no right to take potshots at my attempt to get good P.R. for the department.” “Just a minute. . . .” “Do you think it was correct or not?” Richards asked. The chief lost his temper. “No, I think it was poorly handled!” “All right, you can have my resignation as of right now!” “Good. I accept it.” Richards threw open the door and left the room. The chief had some so-

ber second thoughts. It had never occurred to him that the end result of the

196 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

KEY TERMS blogs (168) blogosphere (170) bypassing (188) cognitive restructuring (182) communibiology (179) deep breathing (178) email (168)

inference–observation confusion (187) instant messages (171) positive imagery (180) reasonable person rule (191) sexual harassment (191) situational anxiety (176) skills training (182)

social media (168) systematic desensitization (182) telecommuters (174) trait anxiety (176) videoconferencing (174) visualization (180)

SUMMARY Communication obstacles can create problems for managers and employees. Communicator anxiety (both situational and trait) is an obstacle to communication success in one-to-one,

group, interview, and public-speaking situations. Positive imag- ery is one method of managing such anxiety. Inadequate prepa- ration is another obstacle; preparation is necessary not only

conference would be Richards’s resignation. Richards was also sorry about his hasty decision, but both were proud men and neither would back down, so Richards was terminated. The chief had lost an extremely valuable man, one that he might be unable to replace adequately. Richards had lost an excellent position with a place of distinction in his profession. What had gone wrong?

*Some of the dialogue adapted from Howell, W., & Bormann, E. G. (1971). Presentational speaking for busi- ness and professions (pp. 152–153). New York: Harper & Row.

CHAPTER REVIEW

Charlie Schuck/Photodisc/Jupiterimages

for public speaking but also for many business interactions. The experiment with Project F demonstrated how to overcome the third obstacle: vague instructions. The fourth obstacle, jumping to conclusions, occurs when we fail to distinguish between what we observed firsthand and what we inferred. Bypassing, the fifth obstacle, is caused by the multiple meanings of words—either we have different meanings for the same word or we use different words for the same meaning; asking for feedback can prevent

bypassing. The sixth obstacle, sexual harassment, causes loss of human dignity and decreased productivity in the workplace. And finally, even technological advances in communication can create obstacles to understanding if not used with care.

Successful communication is a result of constant effort. If you are willing to work at avoiding communication obsta- cles, your communication and your business success should improve.

Before continuing to the next chapter, check your understanding of Chapter 6 at the Speech Communication CourseMate for Commu- nicating for Results. CourseMate gives you quick and easy access to this text’s resources to help improve your communication skills and prepare you for quizzes and exams. These resources include: ● Study tools including the student companion workbook,

digital glossary, flashcards, and review quizzes. ● Activities and assignments including Awareness

Checks, Checkpoints, and Collaborative Learning Activities.

● Media resources such as Web Links (explore communica- tion concepts); and Speech Builder Express (develop your speech outlines); Interactive Video Activities (watch and critique videos of professional communication situations and sample speeches); and Speech Studio (upload your speech videos for peer reviewing and critique other students’ speeches.

For more information or to access this book’s online re- sources, visit cengagebrain.com.

Collaborative Learning Activities 1. In groups of five to seven people, make a list of all the

technology (such as social networks, YouTube, and email) that people in your group use to communicate (a) with friends and family, (b) in class and training situations, and (c) in the workplace. As a group, rank the communi- cation effectiveness of each technology on your list us- ing a scale from 1 (extremely ineffective) to 7 (extremely effective). Select the most successful and least success- ful technology in each of the three situations and share specific problems and successes using them. Was there an overlap of most and least effective technologies across the three areas? Why, or why not? Select one of the in- effective technologies and discuss ways that communica- tion could be improved using it. Be prepared to share your conclusions with other groups.

2. Career Activity: Watch the video for the Communication Situation: Hasty Resignation and read the text of the situ- ation on pages 193–196. In groups, discuss answers to the following questions:

a. What specific things did Chief Ferguson do that contrib- uted to the communication breakdown?

b. What specific things did Sergeant Richards do that con- tributed to the communication breakdown?

In deciding on your answers, refer to the information in Chapters 1 to 6 of your textbook. Be specific and use termi- nology. Discuss any areas of disagreement. Conclude your evaluation by summarizing what each should have done in the first place. When you have finished, compare your an- swers with other groups.

3. Career Activity: In small groups, use graph paper to draw two creative geometric shapes equal in difficulty to those found in Figure 6.3. Your task is to use the rules for giving effective instructions presented in this chapter to explain how to draw each shape in 5 minutes or less. Practice on each other until you think you have the clearest, fastest in- structions then complete the following: ● Each group member should present the directions

at a later time to at least three people one at a time—make sure that these volunteers are family, friends, or work colleagues but not classmates. Remember that participants can’t ask you questions once the instructions begin; you may watch their faces, but should not see what they are actually doing; begin with an overall picture and end with a complete summary. When the 5 minutes are over (or sooner, if the participant is finished), show the correct answer and ask for suggestions on how to make your instructions even better. Revise your instructions and try them on the next person.

● Return to class and share your successes and failures. As a group, discuss your answers to

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these questions: (a) what did you learn about the way you give instructions? (b) what did you learn about the way others follow instructions? and (c) how do your experiences relate to the workplace?

4. Sexual harassment and bullying can occur by email and by social networking sites. In small groups of three to five, share cases of electronic harassment or bullying of which you are aware. Using the suggestions for handling such problems that are listed in this chapter and by doing a quick Internet search, select two methods you think are the most helpful and two methods that you don’t think will work. Be prepared to present your lists and the reasons and exam- ples behind them.

5. To improve your speaker confidence using positive imagery, divide into small groups and complete the following:

a. Based on the chapter information on situational and trait anxiety, have each member write 3 to 5 positive statements that relate to speaking skills or any personal behaviors or habits you would like to see changed—interviewing anxiety, math anxiety, test anxiety, negative self-talk, or even smoking.

b. Remember that these statements should sound like the behavior mentioned is already true (even though you know it is not true yet). Therefore, avoid using want, will, or hope in your statements. For example, say “I enjoy giving presentations.” Not, I hope to learn to en- joy speaking; or I want to enjoy speaking, or even, I will

enjoy giving presentations. Make the statement sound like it is already happening and is already true about you. Also, avoid anything that sounds negative. For ex- ample, instead of saying, “My voice does not shake,” say, “When I speak, my voice is strong and steady.”

c. Compile all your statements into one list. Read and edit the list for needed changes. Be prepared to share your list with other groups.

d. To be effective, these statements and any personal ones you add to the list, should be read twice a day. As you read them, imagine yourself successfully completing each one while feeling confident. In other words, read it, see it, and feel it as you work to improve your confi- dence.

e. As group members, practice reading the statements making them sound like they are true and that the group members really mean them.

6. In groups of four or five, write a positive imagery exercise using the one on page 182 as a guide. Begin by reading the exercise out loud. Next, make a list of the elements of giv- ing a presentation that usually cause your group members the most anxiety, such as eye contact, gestures, transitions, or good volume. Next, incorporate the items from your list into your positive imagery exercise. Once written, have one member read it while the other group members close their eyes and picture themselves following instructions. Decide if you want to revise or add information. Be prepared to ex- change copies of your exercise with other groups.

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DEFINE the term interview; list the 10 most common types of interviews; and suggest at least two guidelines for effective use of each.

IDENTIFY and briefly describe the three phases of an effective interview.

BRIEFLY LIST the types of questions used in an interview and where each fits on a continuum from “interviewer control” to “interviewee control.”

BRIEFLY SUMMARIZE the methods for organizing interview questions and when each is most effective: the funnel, inverted funnel, hourglass, and diamond sequences.

LIST at least five tips on how to answer questions effectively during an interview.

As you read chapter 7...

BASIC INFORMATION FOR ALL TYPES OF INTERVIEWS

7 © iStockphoto.com/James Tutor

CASE STUDY A True Tale of a Case Interview Gone Bad A job-seeker’s true story. . . . The following is the sad-but-true story of what can go wrong in a case interview. The narrator was a liberal arts graduate in political science who worked for a short and unhappy time after graduation as a financial consultant and aspired to a position in management consult- ing. He interviewed at McKinsey and Company. The names in the story have been changed:

I scrambled in the mist from my parking lot to the third tallest building in Atlanta, and headed for the top floor. As I was greeted by the re- cruiter, I had condensation or perspiration—I’m not sure which—trickling down my temple. She led me back to an area with two sofas already accommodating three other interviewees. That caught me off guard slightly. For some reason I figured I’d be alone since it was the end of recruiting season. Seating myself, I realized I hadn’t really had a chance to contemplate what to expect. I waited there in the morgue.

Finally, I was greeted by a young woman in her late 20s and pregnant. I’ll call her Mandy for the sake of this anecdote. She was welcoming, and we chatted as she led me to a narrow little station where we could talk. I found Mandy to be warm, per- sonable, and helpful. She put me at ease in what I realized was a completely unknown environment. She asked me several “interview-type” questions, but her tone was always helpful and inquisitive.

I think I made three mistakes during this in- terview: (1) I felt as though I was always trying to give some nebulous right answer and falling short. I had difficulty being concise because my nerves were so shot, and I think my stammering didn’t help. (2) When she asked a question about where I saw myself in ten years, I gave a very honest and unusual answer about how people create stress for themselves trying to plan and not being able to be flexible. I instead gave goals but probably wasn’t as concrete as I should have been. I won- dered if my honesty was appreciated less than a strong goal-oriented statement. (3) Although I was vaguely familiar with case questions, I wasn’t well

versed or practiced. . . . Had I been more practiced, I could have been more systematic in my approach and then stuck to my answer instead of feeling the need to add something I may have left out.

When my final inquisitor—I’ll call him Ken— finally arrived, I heard the hammer hit the nail. . . . Nothing Ken did or said put me at ease or made me feel like the interview was anything other than adversarial. I also knew that the moment I became confrontational, I would lose. He started out with a series of questions that were harmless enough, but sent me scrounging.

“What was your most rewarding leadership experience?” I told him about how I started at the age of 15 playing hockey, without knowing which way to hold my stick or how to skate back- wards, and the next year was chosen captain, and the next again when I led our team to the play- offs. Ken’s enthusiastic response, “That’s nice, but how about something you did?”

Maybe I chose the wrong thing by giving a heartfelt answer as opposed to an ideal answer, or perhaps I just wasn’t clear in my point of lead- ership by example. Either way, I felt his response to be colder than the February air.

200

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As you read this chapter... See if you can (a) identify which type of questions Mandy and Ken asked in the interviews described in this case study, and (b) assess the quality of the job can- didate’s answers compared with the advice given in the last sec- tion of this chapter, “Be Prepared to Answer Questions Effectively.” You can find even more information about job interviews by searching on “interview” at quintcareer.com. You can find easy access to this link at the CourseMate website for Communicat- ing for Results.

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He then asked me a case question: “How much does a Boeing 757 weigh?”

Again, I knew he was less concerned about the number I came up with as opposed to my process, but he was no help. I asked him all sorts of questions, and he just shrugged his shoulders and sat tight-lipped until after the fifth attempt he finally said, “To answer your one question, you can assume that the seats are empty and the tank is full.”

He corrected me a few times, too. “Now I heard recently that the Concorde that they mounted atop a building near Times Square weighs 25,000 tons. . . .”

“Tons or pounds?” asks Ken. “I thought tons . . . right???” I asked as I

felt the last bead of self-esteem trickle down the small of my back.

“I don’t know,” helped Ken smugly. Well I figure the Concorde seats about 300 peo-

ple, so the 757 probably somewhere around 350–375. “Actually, it’s more like 500,” helped Ken

again, “and you have two more minutes.”

Copyright by Quintessential Careers. The original article can be found at http://www.quintcareers.com/bad_case_interview.html. Reprinted with permission.

Whether you are a production worker, supervisor, teacher, police of-ficer, or executive or are self-employed, you will spend much of your business time involved in various types of interviews. The term interview refers to all types of planned, face-to-face encounters in which at least one of the participants has a specific objective in mind. According to this defini- tion, interviewing includes gathering information, appraising employee perfor- mance, settling grievances, and many other interactions. In this chapter, we’ll discuss 10 of the most common types of interviews, the basic organization of an interview, and effective questions and answers. Because interviewing is a form of communication, all the communication theories, skills, and obstacles discussed in previous chapters are important for interviewing success. Also remember that interviewing is a reciprocal process: Interviewees as well as interviewers should actively question, paraphrase, and add information.

TYPES OF INTERVIEWS Although there are dozens of types of interviews, an understanding of the 10 most common types can easily be transferred to other interview situations that you may encounter (Allen, 2009; Stewart & Cash, 2011; Still, 2011). For ease of reference, we will list the types in alphabetical order.

Counseling Interview The intent of the counseling interview is to help the interviewee uncover and solve “career-related personal or interpersonal problems” (Bell, 1989, p. 169). Counseling interviews may deal with job-related problems such as stress, a job change, or relationships with a boss or coworker or they may deal with personal problems such as alcoholism, smoking, drug abuse, or family discord. Although counseling interviews are not used by all organizations, the “best” companies try to meet all the needs of their employees.

Because the interviewee may be emotional or defensive, communication skills such as empathetic listening, nonevaluative feedback, careful paraphrasing,

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202 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

and sympathetic nonverbal responses are impor- tant to establish the needed climate of trust. In some cases, a directive approach, in which the interviewer takes complete control works best; in other situations, a nondirective approach in which the interviewer is merely a facilitator is needed, and occasionally, a combined approach may be best (Arkowitz et al., 2008; Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2012; Stewart & Cash, 2011).

Employment Interview The employment interview is one of the most impor- tant types because in it some of the most critical orga- nizational and personal decisions are made (Stewart & Cash, 2011; Still, 2011). The ultimate productivity of an organization depends on the ability of its man- agement to recruit and select the best personnel. Al-

though the predictability of employee success from a single interview is often low, using multiple assessment techniques, including personal history data, im- proves accuracy (Cascio & Aguinis, 2011; Jason & Stoop, 2001). Interviews can discover information not available from other sources, such as “employee ‘fit,’ communication skills, job motivation, and work-related values” (Kirkwood & Ralston, 1999, p. 55).

Typically, the employment interview involves one prospective employee and one prospective employer. However, some companies use various group approach- es, which will be discussed in this chapter. Although the prospective employer usu- ally takes the lead during the interview, the person seeking employment should also ask questions of the employer. Chapter 8 offers information and advice to both interviewers and interviewees who wish to improve the employment interview.

Exit Interview Whether an employee was laid off, fired, or simply quit, it can be to the orga- nization’s benefit to discover the perceptions of this employee who has “noth- ing to lose.” Company problems can be identified and corrected while they are still small (Bruce, 1988). Exit interviews require careful listening and reading between the lines because many people will only hint at their real reason for leaving—never saying, for example, that the boss was impossible to work with. The exit interview is also a good way to create goodwill for the organization. Thanking the employee for services rendered is a good place to begin and of- fering outplacement counseling to help employees find and qualify for new jobs also creates goodwill (Buhler, 2011).

Grievance, or Confrontation, Interview The grievance interview (or confrontation interview) is any type of one-to- one encounter involving conflict and its resolution. Situations leading to this

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CHAPTER 7 BASIC INFORMATION FOR ALL TYPES OF INTERVIEWS 203

type of interview include employer–employee disputes over working hours or wages, customer–salesperson conflicts, and teacher–student conflicts. Although emotions may run high, it is very important that participants express their feel- ings honestly and remain cooperative (Greenberg & Baron, 2010). The inter- viewer in a grievance interview must be both a good listener and a problem solver. The basic problem-solving procedure discussed in Chapter 9 is an effec- tive way to organize the interview.

Group Interview Although interviews with one interviewer and one interviewee are the most common, group interviews (such as panel and board interviews) are gaining in popularity (Drake, 1998; Edmunds, 2000). When there are more interviewees than interviewers, the interview is called a panel interview. Product researchers use panel interviews, often called “focus groups,” as a quick, inexpensive way to sample customers’ opinions about a product. Psychologists and health care pro- fessionals use the panel interview as a counseling and diagnostic tool. Employ- ment personnel in both profit and nonprofit organizations use panel interviews as a way to save time and to observe leadership and communication skills. For example, American Airlines uses panel interviews extensively for reservation clerks and flight attendants.

When there are more interviewers than interviewees, the interview is called a board interview. Board interviews are used by nonprofit, public, educational, and business organizations. Most hearings conducted by the U.S. Senate are board interviews. Other examples include parole board hearings, graduate stu- dent oral examinations, and selection interviews (such as those used by educa- tional institutions, government agencies, and even museums). Board interviews allow interviewers to share responsibility and expertise and to check interviewee answers under stress. For example, 1-800-GOT-JUNK.com is a national junk re- moval company that uses board interviews. Each applicant “is interviewed by a group of eight people with eight different areas of expertise. Together they assess the candidate immediately following the interview” (Williams, 2011, p. 183). Williams notes that the company accredits their low turnover rate of 1.4% to the board interview process.

Because group interviews can catch you off guard, here are a few suggestions to keep in mind if you are the interviewee (Drake, 1998; Edmunds, 2000):

General Suggestions for Group Interviewees

● Be prepared for confusion and noise. Don’t let them make you rush your an- swers or feel pressured.

● If possible, learn who the panelists are ahead of time. Find out their names, who is in charge, and who has the most clout.

● If possible, determine why a group interview is being used. Is it merely con- venience, to create stress, or to save the interviewer time and money? This information may indicate how to focus your answers.

204 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

● Appear confident and in control. Keep a relaxed posture, including open body with chin down, direct eye contact, appropriate dress, and natural ges- tures to convey a positive attitude.

● Make your answers direct, brief, honest, and sincere.

Specific Suggestions for Panel Interviewees

● Speak to everyone, not just the interviewer. The interviewer is probably inter- ested in how you interact with a group, so think of the other applicants as your friends. If the interviewer asks all interviewees to direct their answers to the group, consider the interviewer as part of the group and speak to everyone.

● Take an active role but don’t always speak first. If the group is asked to solve a problem, listen carefully, draw in nontalkers, help structure the process, and use other good leadership skills discussed in Chapter 10.

Specific Suggestions for Board Interviewees

● Try not to be one of the first applicants interviewed. It may take several interviews before board members become organized and feel comfortable with one another.

● If possible, sit where you won’t have to constantly move your head back and forth to see all the interviewers.

● Make eye contact with all interviewers and not just the person who asks a question. Be sure to speak to those both on your right and on your left.

● Stick by your answers. If challenged, “defend your view or just acknowledge that there are several ways to look at it and you subscribe to one particular view” (Bamford, 1986, p. 191).

A board interview occurs when there are more interviewers than interviewees, as is the case in this Chicago city council meeting, during which a local alderman is being inter- viewed about a local “living wage” issue.

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Informational Interview Informational interviews give or seek information. In an information- giving interview, the interviewer wants to impart important information. Examples include a dental hygienist advising a client on how to brush teeth, an automobile salesperson demonstrating for a customer the correct opera- tion of the cruise control, or a supervisor informing an employee about a new company policy.

In an information-seeking interview, the interviewer wants information from the interviewee. Examples include a lawyer interviewing crime victims or witnesses, a physician interviewing a patient about his medical history, or a jour- nalist conducting a public opinion poll.

Information-seeking interviews are especially useful for people who are planning a career, anticipating a career change, or planning for future pro- motion. For example, most job-hunting guides recommend that readers con- duct several information-seeking interviews before going on a job interview (Bolles, 2012). These interviews, which should take no longer than 15 min- utes, can provide a wealth of information. These are some of the questions

Group Interviews Used by the Container Store If you are thinking of applying for a job at The Container Store, be aware of two things: first, read up on group interviews—because they use them; second, they hire only 3 percent of the people interviewed (Our Foundation Principles, 2012). The Container Store specializes in organization and storage. Since opening in Dallas in 1978, they’ve grown to approximately 3,500 employees with 60 stores in 23 states. They adhere to “strict merchandising, superior customer service, and intense employee commitment” (Plunkett, et al., 2013, p. 436). They also maintain the business model that “One great employee is equal to three good employees (in terms of productivity)” (Putting Our Employees First, 2010). This busi- ness model is demonstrated by Garrett Boone, the chairman, and Kip Tindell, the CEO, who are often seen “selling, dusting shelves, and helping with customer carry-outs” (Plunkett, et al., p. 436).

Once an applicant begins the hiring process, he or she will first go through a group interview. “The group setting offers managers a glimpse of how candidates function as part of a team” (Powers, 2004), and once they determine which of the original applicants made the cut, they can proceed to one-on-one interviews that may take as long as 3 hours. By instituting such a rigorous interview process,

The Container Store management ensures that they will be hiring “great” people.

Even though they use combined group and individual interviews to find the people who best fit their needs, the Container Store believes in providing training—during their first year, new employees participate in 263 hours of formal training, although the industry average for training is 8 hours (Putting Our Employees First, 2012). The Container Store has managed to hire high-quality employees, provide a high level of customer service and satisfaction, and maintain a turnover rate that is under 10% (Plunkett, et al., 2013). It’s no surprise that The Container Store has been on

Fortune magazine’s “100 Best Companies to Work For” for 13 years in a row (Fortune, 2012).

WHAT DO YOU THINK? Based on what you’ve learned about the Container

Store, which types of questions do you think their inter- viewers would prefer asking and why?

What advantages and disadvantages do you see to using group interviews?

Describe the nonverbal communication that Container Store interviewers would likely look for in applicants during the group interview.

IT REALLY WORKS

206 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

you might ask: ● Exactly what does your job entail? ● What are the educational requirements for this position? ● What experience is required or recommended? ● What do you like most about the position? Like least? ● If you could start over, would you choose the same career? Why, or why not? ● What problems could I expect to encounter in a position of this type? ● What future changes do you see in this field (or position)? ● Describe the ideal person for this career (or position). ● What is the average salary for a person just starting out in this career? ● What questions could I expect if I were interviewing for a job of this type? ● What professional organizations (journals, newsletters) do you recommend? ● Could you give me the name of another person whom I might interview?

Find people to interview through friends, coworkers, professors, and even parents and bosses. You may also want to call the human relations (personnel) department of a relevant company and ask for the name of a person to interview. When conducting an information-seeking interview, be sure to follow the basic organization of opening, question–response, and closing phases discussed in the next section of this chapter. Take only mini- mal notes, use verbal and nonverbal probes, ask follow-up questions, and listen carefully. Follow up with a thank-you note. Later, if an interview sug- gested to you by the previous interviewee uncovers a helpful bit of informa- tion, call and share it. This way you are not only developing friendships, but also future references.

Interrogation Interview In interrogation interviews, there is usually some type of offense involved. For example, a firm representative may interrogate a customer in a case of shoplifting, an employer may interrogate an employee in a case of missing company funds, or a police officer may interrogate a suspect. The interview- er should begin the interview by discussing a topic of interest to the inter- viewee to assess his or her nonverbal behaviors when relatively relaxed and to establish a dialogue that encourages narrative responses. Therefore, most questions should be open-ended, which gather more information (Gordon & Fleisher, 2001; Zulawski & Wicklander, 2002), such as those illustrated later in this chapter.

Performance Review One of the keys to the successful operation of any organization is the accurate and consistent evaluation of the performance of employees, regardless of their level. When planned and executed under the proper conditions, these are some excellent ways to use a performance review:

● Recognize and reward employee contributions. ● Give employees feedback on their standing in the eyes of the company.

CHAPTER 7 BASIC INFORMATION FOR ALL TYPES OF INTERVIEWS 207

● Discover and help solve communication problems between employees or between employer and employee.

● Motivate employees by setting future performance objectives.

The content of the performance review should be relevant to the job, include only “observable” aspects of the job, and avoid vague factors such as “desire to succeed” (Muchinsky, 1999). The performance review is covered by equal employ- ment opportunity guidelines and civil rights legislation (covered in Chapter 8) and therefore must be standardized in form, method, and application, and should avoid assessment of traits that can’t be judged objectively (Stewart & Cash, 2011).

The performance review will be more productive if the employee is actively in- volved in assessing his or her performance. Usually an assessment form is filled out by both the employee and supervisor prior to the meeting and then compared and discussed during the meeting. The review should include a written, as well as an oral appraisal; the written form is normally kept in the employee’s file. This written appraisal protects the employee from unfair dismissal, gives the company concrete support for dismissing a person with a consistently poor job record (Cleveland et al., 1989), and provides concrete support for promotion or salary raises.

Persuasive Interview Many employee–customer, employee–boss, or employee–employee interview situations are really persuasive in nature. For example, selling a customer a new product, convincing your boss you deserve a raise, or per- suading your colleagues to go along with your suggested of- fice rearrangement are all examples of persuasive interviews.

Although it influences the choices a customer makes, persuasion is not coercion or trickery. According to Stewart and Cash (2011, p. 289), persuasive interviews are more likely to succeed if you can convince the interviewee that your proposal will satisfy one or more unmet needs; is con- sistent with beliefs, attitudes, and values; is practical and af- fordable; has benefits that outweigh any objections; and is the best course of action available.

Telephone or Skype Interview As the cost of transportation increases, companies are using the telephone interview and interviews on Skype more often. Research by Aberdeen Group reported that video interviews used to recruit rose from 10% in 2010 to 42% in 2011 (Chen, 2012). In addition to screening job applicants, telephone and Skype interviews are used to collect survey information and follow up with customers to determine their satisfaction with a purchase or a procedure such as a car repair. A job interview by telephone could take as long as an hour, but most Skype interviews are more for screening purposes and are much shorter. Regardless of which type of interview you will have, prepare the same way you would for a face-to-face interview

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The best phone interviews occur when you are dressed and using the same facial expression and gestures you would use in a face-to-face interview.

208 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

and keep a file of your personal information and company information close by the phone or on the desktop. Listen to questions carefully before answering, and give complete answers with examples when possible; avoid yes-or-no responses. Make sure you have thoroughly checked out the company website as well as news releases and articles posted about the company on the Internet. Be ready to answer specific questions about the company as well as how you would benefit the com- pany. You will probably be asked whether you have any questions so have several ready by the phone or computer (see Chapter 8 for samples).

Here are some additional suggestions to follow when you are interviewed on Skype (Chen, 2012; Levin-Epstein, 2011; Rose, 2011):

● Practice using Skype ahead of time with a friend serving as the interviewer. Make sure that Skype is set up for your computer and that you have a busi- ness profile and photo—check the volume, your upload speed, and how you look on the webcam. Skype works on an iPhone or iPad, but look for pos- sible problems in advance.

● Better to plug your computer directly into an Ethernet port instead of using Wi-Fi and plug your headset into the computer USB—without headphones (or an earbud) you may experience feedback from the speakers.

● Turn on all your lights and probably bring in a couple of lamps—one on each side—but keep them out of the picture. Adjust the window shades as needed for more or less light and remove all clutter from the background of the picture.

● Dress professionally (dark with some color is good), sound enthusiastic, and keep all your answers professional—20 seconds is long enough for most answers.

● While speaking, look directly into the camera (not the screen) to appear to be making eye contact with the interviewer(s).

● Double-check the time of the interview, especially if you are in different time zones.

BASIC INTERVIEW ORGANIZATION All interviews are organized in pretty much the same way. They consist of three phases: the opening phase, the question–response phase, and the closing phase.

Opening Phase The opening phase of an interview includes three steps: rapport, orientation, and motivation. Normally, these steps are followed in the order listed. However, feel free to order the steps in the way that best fits your preference, the type of interview, and the occasion.

Rapport Rapport is a comfortable, I-respect-you-as-an-individual feeling that makes both participants receptive to the interview. The initial 1 to 4 minutes of the interview may be the most important of the entire interview; their impact on its outcome cannot be overstated (Zunin & Zunin, 1994). First impressions are difficult to erase. In an employment interview, the applicant who makes a good first impres- sion has a better chance of being hired (see Chapter 8 for more on the relationship

CHAPTER 7 BASIC INFORMATION FOR ALL TYPES OF INTERVIEWS 209

between first impressions and hiring). In a grievance interview, rapport is likely to make the conflict easier to resolve. In a performance review, rapport typically makes the employee more likely to accept the review. In a persuasive interview, rapport between the salesperson and the customer usually makes it easier to sell the product. And in an informational interview, rapport makes the information easier to obtain.

There is no magic formula for establishing rapport or making a good first impression. However, the interviewee can begin to create a good first impression by being on time, dressing appropriately, being well prepared, and appearing confident and relaxed. The interviewee can also help establish rapport by refer- ring to a mutual acquaintance or some topic of mutual interest. The interviewer can aid the process by supplying a relaxed but businesslike environment, select- ing a spot relatively free from distractions, and coming from behind the desk to sit near the interviewee. (An exception might be an interrogation interview, in which the interviewer wishes to maintain a psychological distance.)

Orientation In addition to establishing rapport in the opening of an interview, the interviewer should give the interviewee a clear orientation, or overall view, of the interview. The orientation should include at least the following information:

● Verification of the interviewee’s name (if not included previously). ● The interviewer’s name and why he or she is the person conducting the interview.

Why this particular manager or supervisor is conducting the interview (in- stead of someone else the interviewee was expecting) is especially important in the exit, grievance, and performance interviews.

● The purpose or desired outcome of the interview. In some interviews, such as a grievance interview, the interviewer may not know the desired outcome. But even when the purpose is fairly obvious, as in an employment interview, it should be stated—never assumed.

● What information is needed and how it will be used. In general, interviewees are more willing to talk openly, and their answers are more precise once they realize what information is needed and how their comments will be used. When possible, the interviewer may wish to assure the interviewee of the confidentiality of his or her responses.

● Approximate length of the interview. It is common courtesy to give the in- terviewee a general idea of how much time will be needed to complete the interview.

Motivation The interviewer’s third step in the opening phase of an interview is to motivate the interviewee to give straightforward, complete answers. The type of motivation depends on the person and the circumstances. Here are sam- ple motivational approaches for three types of interviews: employment, exit, and information. Employment Interview

This interview is an important part of the application process with our com- pany, Mr. Riley—not just a formality. I feel sure that you are as interested as we are in finding you a position in which you will be most successful. To place you appropriately, we need accurate, detailed information from you, okay?

210 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Exit Interview

Management is interested in your perceptions of our company. Anything you tell me will be kept in strict confidence. After your comments are added—anonymously, of course—to our exit interview suggestion pool, this form will be destroyed. No mention of this interview will be added to your permanent file.

Information Interview

Ms. Smith, so far you are the only witness to the robbery. Our abil- ity to apprehend the thieves de- pends on you and how much in- formation you can give us about them. Thieves tend to come back to the same neighborhood, so I’m sure you want them appre- hended just as much as we do.

Question–Response Phase The question–response phase is the heart of the interview, for in this phase both in- terviewer and interviewee have the opportunity to ask and respond to questions. The primary objective of an interview is explored during the question–response phase.

Regardless of the type of interview, both participants should carefully pre- pare for the question–response phase. Few interviewers can compose effective questions on the spur of the moment, and even fewer interviewees can give good answers to questions that take them by surprise. So, for example, giving employ- ees the list of questions that will be discussed during their performance review allows them to give more complete and honest answers (Lefton et al., 1980).

To plan for the question–response phase of an interview, the interviewer should decide what information needs to be sought and then plan the neces- sary questions. The interviewer should also anticipate possible responses and be prepared to change the type and the organization of the questions if necessary. The advantages and disadvantages of various types of questions and how best to organize questions are discussed in the next section of this chapter.

In preparing for the question–response phase, the interviewee should antici- pate possible questions and think through honest answers to each one. When ap- propriate, the interviewee should ask the interviewer for a list of possible questions or talk to someone who has been through a similar interview. Suggestions for an- swering various types of questions are covered in the final section of this chapter.

Closing Phase The closing phase of any type of interview should begin with a summary of the major points covered in the interview and of any conclusions reached. Summa- ries allow both parties to make sure that all important topics have been discussed and that no information has been misunderstood. The interviewee should also have a chance to ask questions. Finally, the interview should always end with the participants thanking each other for their time and cooperation.

Revisiting the Case Study... Although the story provides limited information, how well do you think Mandy and Ken handled the opening phase of their interviews?

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CHAPTER 7 BASIC INFORMATION FOR ALL TYPES OF INTERVIEWS 211

When appropriate, the closing phase should also include agreement on what the follow-up will be and a date for another meeting if one is needed. For ex- ample, a person applying for a job needs to know whether there is a chance of being hired, when a decision will be made, and how candidates will be notified. Interviewees in grievance interviews or performance reviews want to know what steps will be taken in the future and how these steps may affect their standing in the organization. Likewise, witnesses to crimes want to know if they will be interviewed again and if they may have to appear in court.

USING QUESTIONS EFFECTIVELY IN THE INTERVIEW To use questions effectively in an interview—whether you are the interviewer or the interviewee—you must understand the different types of questions that can be used. In addition, interviewers should organize their questions appropriately, and interviewees should be prepared with answers.

Determine the Types of Questions to Ask Different types of questions elicit different types of responses and maintain differ- ent amounts of control. An effective interviewer knows what types of questions to ask to get particular responses. Consider the interviewer who could not un- derstand why an employee in a grievance interview would not talk much. After all, the employee was the one with the grievance! The interviewer did not realize that she was asking only direct and closed questions, which are designed to get short, brief answers. To encourage the employee to talk, she should have asked open-ended or hypothetical open questions. Effective interviewers also know what types of questions give them the most control and what questions give more control to the person being interviewed. As you read the following types of ques- tions, notice where each type fits on the control continuum in Figure 7.1: A and B questions give the interviewer the most control, F and G questions give the interviewee the most control, and C, D, and E questions fit in the middle because control could go either way depending on the specific situation.

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212 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Open-Ended Questions These are broad questions that allow the inter- viewee maximum freedom in deciding how much and what type of information to give. The following are examples of open-ended questions:

● “In your own words, evaluate your accomplishments this year.” ● “Tell me about your complaint.” ● “We hope to hire someone who will stay for at least three years. We know

plans can change, but could you describe the sort of opportunity or cir- cumstances that would tempt you to leave sooner than this?” (Kirkwood & Ralston, 1999, p. 73)

● “Why are you leaving our company?” ● “Describe a time during your current job when your work was criticized.

Tell me how you responded and the outcome of the complaint.”

Open-ended questions can be effective because they tend to relax most interviewees, who find the questions easy to answer and nonthreatening. Also, these questions reveal what the interviewee thinks is important and may uncover information or attitudes that may need further probing. It is difficult to hide information when answering open-ended questions. Because of these advantages, most interviews should begin with open-ended questions.

Open-ended questions do have some drawbacks. The responses may be time-consuming, cover information of little interest to the interviewer, and even cause the interviewer to lose control of the interview. Also, the ambiguity of open-ended questions may make extremely nervous interviewees even more nervous because they do not know where to begin their answers. Even so, the advantages of using open-ended questions far outweigh the disadvantages.

Hypothetical Open Questions These questions allow the respondent maximum freedom in deciding how to respond to an invented, but possible, situation. The following are examples of hypothetical open questions:

● “On your first day of work, you arrive an hour late. How would you explain this and to whom?”

● “Suppose you were on regular patrol duty and observed an elderly woman run a red light. You signal her to stop, and she pulls into a busy parking lot. What would you do if she refused to roll down the window and accept the traffic citation?”

● “Suppose you were supervisor of this department and someone came to you with a complaint similar to yours. How would you handle it?”

Hypothetical open questions have the same advantages and disadvantages as open-ended questions. In addition, they allow the interviewer great flexibility in designing a question to fit any situation, and the response gives the inter- viewer an idea of how the interviewee would react in a specific circumstance.

Direct (or Specific) Questions These are short questions requiring a short answer or a simple “Yes” or “No.” Here are some examples:

● “Is the accusation against you accurate?” ● “Did you accomplish your top priority this year?”

CHAPTER 7 BASIC INFORMATION FOR ALL TYPES OF INTERVIEWS 213

● “Who recommended you to us?” ● “What word-processing software can you use?” ● “How long have you been in this field of work?” ● “Do you think you should receive a promotion?”

The advantages of direct questions are that they limit responses, save time, and may be more relaxing for some interviewees than open-ended ques- tions. However, researcher E. Duff Wrobbel (1991) has found that many inter- viewees will expand on a short answer or a yes-or-no answer with an explana- tion of their response. Therefore, an interviewer who wants only short answers without explanations should make this clear during the orientation step of the opening phase. Another disadvantage of direct questions is that they usually reveal only limited information, especially if the interviewer does not know which direct questions to ask. In most types of interviews, direct questions that can be answered with a yes or no should be kept to a minimum.

Closed Questions These closed questions limit the interviewee’s choice of answers to one of the answers supplied in the question. The following are ex- amples of closed questions:

● “Do you prefer to work with Doris, Carol, or Bob on this assignment?” ● “Which would best help you meet your performance objectives—more

guidance from me or more assistance from the other supervisors?” ● “What size company do you prefer—large, medium, or small?” ● “How would you rate the president’s handling of terrorists?”

a. Superior d. Fair b. Excellent e. Poor c. Good f. Undecided

The advantages of closed questions are that they give the interviewer maxi- mum control over the questions and answers, the answers are easy to interpret, and more questions can be asked in less time. However, closed questions do not allow for detailed explanations. Also, unless the answers include an “other” option, there is no certainty that the interviewee’s answer was his or her “real” preference. If you wish to encourage an emotional or frustrated interviewee to talk freely, it is best to avoid closed questions.

Loaded Questions Loaded questions are questions that have no correct an- swers but are designed to get an emotional response. Here are some examples:

● “Have you stopped drinking yet?” ● “Are you still difficult to get along with?”

Loaded questions are seldom used, even by expert interviewers; unless care is taken, they can backfire. But they can be valuable in determining how well a person handles pressure or in stimulating a reticent or hostile respondent. Once a loaded question is answered, be sure to mention why the question was asked and discuss any emotion in the answer—for example, the following:

“I asked you that question to see how well you handle stressful situations. You became quite upset, didn’t you? Working in our complaint window is a

214 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

very stressful job. It doesn’t appear that you would be at your best with angry customers. What do you think?”

Leading Questions A leading question implies the correct answer. The fol- lowing are examples of leading questions:

● “You want the kind of car that gets good gas mileage, don’t you?” ● “We are looking for creative people here. What do you have to offer?” ● “I don’t think you have been working up to your potential. What do you

think?”’

Leading questions can be helpful in determining whether the respondent is giving honest answers or merely being a “yes person.” For example, suppose in the early part of an interview you said, “I just love working in teams, don’t you?” and the respondent answered “Yes.” Then later you reversed the question (indicating your dislike for teams), and the respondent agreed again. These re- sponses could indicate a lack of honesty or a high desire to please. To clarify the situation, point out the discrepancy and ask the respondent which answer is accurate.

A disadvantage to using leading questions is that interviewers often confuse them with direct questions. For example, “Do you plan on furthering your edu- cation?” is a direct question, but “Education is important to this company. Do you plan on furthering your education?” is a leading question. As a general rule, unless you have a specific purpose in mind, avoid leading questions.

Third-Person Questions Embarrassing or personal questions may be phrased in a less threatening way by involving a third person. The following pairs of examples show how a question can be rephrased as a third-person question:

● “What do you think about the latest merger proposal?” [Open] ● “What does your group think about the latest merger proposal?” [Third-person] ● “Do you think the new raise is fair?” [Direct] ● “Do the employees in your department think the new raise is fair?”

[Third-person]

The answer to a third-person question is usually the personal opinion of the respondent, which is generally what the interviewer really wants to know. Well-known interviewers like Barbara Walters and Oprah Winfrey use third- person questions to get guests to speak openly about subjects they had planned to avoid.

Verbal and Nonverbal Probes To urge the respondent to add more infor- mation to a previous response, probes are used. Verbal probes are usually single words or phrases requesting more information or a judgment. The following are examples of verbal probes:

● “Tell me more.” ● “I see.” ● “Really?”

CHAPTER 7 BASIC INFORMATION FOR ALL TYPES OF INTERVIEWS 215

● “Uh-huh.” ● “That’s interesting.” ● “How do you mean?” ● “Why?” ● “Why do you feel that way?” ● “Anything else?” ● “What happened next?”

“In probing for information,” suggests Zima (1983), “useful questions begin with the words what, when, where, and who. When seeking judgments, ask ques- tions that begin with the words why and how” (p. 70). Repeating in your own words the response just given is also an excellent probe.

A nonverbal probe often can produce the same result as a verbal probe. Silence, raising the eyebrows, frowning, and nodding are examples of nonverbal probes.

Knowing the different types of interview questions, their strengths and weaknesses, and the control each gives to the interviewer and interviewee leads to better interviews. Complete the Awareness Check on page 216 to see how many types of questions you can identify. If you had any problems in identifying the vari- ous types of questions, go back and reread those sections. Effective interviewers should not ask ques- tions that they cannot identify, and interviewees will do a better job answering questions if they know what to expect.

Decide How to Best Organize Questions Using questions effectively in an interview involves not only knowing what type of questions to ask but also organizing them carefully into general areas. In an employment interview, all questions relating to past work experience might be asked first; then, questions about leadership abilities; and finally, questions about educational background. In a performance review, questions might be organized into four areas: general performance over the past year, ability to get along with other employees, specific achievements, and possible areas needing improvement. Interviewers who jump from area to area without completing any find it difficult to remember what was discussed and what an- swers were given.

When you are conducting an interview, think of yourself as a detective. You are trying to gather enough facts to make a decision of some sort. For example, if you are asking a candidate about her educational background, at the conclusion of your questions you want to be able to say, no, she doesn’t meet our educational requirements, or, yes, she does. Some interviewers assign a rating of 1 to 5 for each general area covered.

Revisiting the Case Study... Ken asked, “What was your most rewarding leader- ship experience?” What type of question is this, and do you think the interviewee answered in the correct manner? If not, what would you suggest he do differently?

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216 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

The questions asked within any general area are usually organized in either the funnel sequence or the inverted-funnel sequence.

Funnel Sequence Questions following the funnel sequence move from the general (open-ended or hypothetical open questions) to the specific (closed or direct questions). The following series of questions illustrates the funnel sequence:

1. “Tell me what overall problems you see occurring in the Harrison project.” (open-ended)

2. “Why do you feel Shelton is an ineffective communicator?” (open-ended) 3. “Are you willing to accept Shelton and Jackson as coworkers?” (direct)

Types of Questions To check your knowledge of the various types of questions, take the following quiz and check your answers against those in the back of this book. You can also complete this activity online. Go to cengagebrain.com to access your Speech Communi- cation CourseMate for Communicating for Results.

DIRECTIONS: Identify each question below. Is it (A) open-ended, (B) hypothetical open, (C) direct/specific, (D) closed, (E) loaded, (F) leading, (G) third-person, or (H) a verbal probe?

________ 1. If you were a supervisor in this department, what changes would you implement to make employees feel more a part of the organization?

________ 2. Do you still arrive late to most meetings? ________ 3. About how long does it take you to drive to work?

Less than 15 minutes 16–20 minutes 21–30 minutes 31–40 minutes Over 40 minutes Don’t know Refused/NA

________ 4. Tell me about one or two aspects of your last job that you hope will never occur again. ________ 5. Oh? ________ 6. The communication teams in manufacturing are very excited about this procedural change. What do you think

about it? ________ 7. Could you give me an example? ________ 8. Suppose you had an employee who was consistently late to work. Every time you talked to him about his

lateness, he apologized and promised to do better, but he never improved for more than one day. How would you handle the problem?

________ 9. If I could lower the price another $300, would you buy this item today? ________ 10. Where did you work immediately after you graduated from college? ________ 11. How did the majority of officers in A Company view the chief? ________ 12. Which do you enjoy the most—working on your own or working under close supervision?

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CHAPTER 7 BASIC INFORMATION FOR ALL TYPES OF INTERVIEWS 217

4. “What makes you say that?” (verbal probe) 5. “Whom do you recommend for director of the Harrison project—Jackson,

Shelton, or yourself?” (closed)

The funnel sequence is probably the most common method of organizing questions. Beginning with open-ended questions usually relaxes the interviewee and often eliminates the need to ask many of the planned questions because the interviewee volunteers the information. Moreover, in many interviews, the interviewer does not know enough about the interviewee to begin with direct, specific questions. The funnel sequence gives the interviewer a chance to listen and learn more about the interviewee.

Inverted-Funnel Sequence Questions following the inverted-funnel sequence move from specific to general. The following series of questions illus- trates the inverted funnel sequence:

1. “Who do you recommend as director of the Harrison project—Jackson, Shelton, or yourself?” (closed)

2. “What makes you say that?” (verbal probe) 3. “Are you willing to accept Shelton and Jackson as coworkers?” (direct) 4. “Why do you feel Shelton is an ineffective communicator?” (open-ended) 5. “Tell me what overall problems you see occurring in the Harrison project.”

(open-ended)

The inverted funnel sequence is typically used with reluctant, shy, or unmotivated respondents. Short, closed, or direct questions may prompt these people to talk, while open-ended questions might cause only frustrated silence.

Remember that the effective interviewer is flexible and can switch from funnel to inverted funnel as needed. Some topics seem more appropriately or- ganized in one sequence than the other. Don’t be afraid to use variety. As the interviewer, maintain control of the interview to cover as much as possible in as short a time as possible. Rambling interviews are frustrating to both partici- pants. To keep the answers on track, interrupt when necessary with comments such as the following:

● “I understand what you’re saying, but let me ask you this. . . .” ● “Let’s go back to . . . for a minute.” ● “I am more interested in. . . . Could you expand on that particular topic

for me?”

Although the funnel and inverted funnel are the most common sequences for questions, you may occasionally want to use their variations: the hourglass and the diamond sequences. These two sequences are used as follow-up when answers are unexpected or unclear.

Hourglass Sequence When the interviewee’s answer to the last (specif- ic or closed) question in a funnel sequence isn’t at all what you expected, you will want to reopen the questioning to clarify the missing information. Each question would then become more and more general until you end with a final

218 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

summary (open-ended) question. A diagram of your questions would resemble an hourglass, hence the hourglass sequence:

1. “Tell me what overall problems you see occurring in the Harrison project.” (open-ended)

2. “Why do you feel Shelton is an ineffective communicator?” (open-ended) 3. “Are you willing to accept Shelton and Jackson as coworkers?” (direct) 4. “What makes you say that?” (verbal probe) 5. “Who do you recommend for director of the Harrison project—Jackson,

Shelton, or yourself?” (closed)

Note: Suppose at this point in the questioning process, the respondent’s an- swers to questions 1 to 4 had clearly indicated both knowledge of the proj- ect and a dislike for Shelton as leader. However, to question 5 the respon- dent answered “Shelton.” Obviously, some piece of information is missing and additional questions are needed. So you search for the missing infor- mation by moving back to direct and open-ended questions, completing the hourglass sequence.

6. “Let me clarify a few items. Did you previously indicate leadership as a pos- sible problem with the Harrison project?” (direct)

7. “Did you not express serious reservations about Shelton as project leader?” (direct)

8. “Then, could you please explain why you selected Shelton and not your- self, Jackson, or even someone else as director of the Harrison project?” (open-ended)

Diamond Sequence When the answer to your final (open or hypothetical open) question in an inverted funnel sequence is unexpected or unclear, the diamond sequence is used. To clarify the answer, you will want to reopen the questioning, starting with a general question and then move to more and more specific ones until you end with a closed (or direct) question. A diagram of your questions would resemble a diamond shape.

Be Prepared to Answer Questions Effectively Just as effective interviewers know what type of questions to ask to get particular responses, effective interviewees come prepared to answer those questions. The following suggestions can help interviewees in any type of interview:

● Try to relax and be yourself. A psychologist’s suggestion to a friend who was testifying in court for the first time is good advice for all interviewees: Imag- ine how you feel when you are sitting in your own living room in a favorite chair, entertaining a guest (the interviewer). You are comfortable, relaxed, warm, and friendly.

● If a question catches you off guard, don’t rush unprepared into an answer. Think about your answer first. If you feel you are taking too much time, say something like, “I’d like to make sure I completely understand your ques- tion. You’re asking . . .” (then paraphrase the question as you understand it). Repeating the question aloud often helps stimulate thinking.

CHAPTER 7 BASIC INFORMATION FOR ALL TYPES OF INTERVIEWS 219

● If you don’t know or can’t remember certain information, say so. Never lie. On the other hand, there are things you probably should avoid men- tioning. There is a fine line between disclosing too much and saying too little. Without falsifying facts, you should present as positive a picture of yourself as possible.

● Don’t be pressured into saying more than you want to say by such inter- viewer techniques as silence, leading questions, or nonverbal probes.

● Use open-ended questions to present the information you want the inter- viewer to know. Open-ended ques- tions give you the floor. “Tell me about yourself ” is one prompt that all interviewees should be prepared to answer. In an employment inter- view, you can tell your age, mari- tal status, spouse’s occupation, and number of children (all unlawful for the interviewer to ask about), but it’s better to speak of past career achievements, past employment, and why you feel especially qualified for this job.

● Listen carefully to hypothetical open questions to make sure you under- stand the situation. Interviewers may use hypothetical open questions to check the consistency of your an- swers or your commitment to an ideal, to check your knowledge, or to determine whether you rush to make decisions.

● Be attentive to the interviewer’s inten- tions when direct (or specific) ques- tions are asked. Because these ques- tions require only brief answers or yes-or-no answers, most interview- ers use them to verify known infor- mation. For these interviewers, keep your answers short. On the other hand, interviewers who are not very skilled at asking questions may really want you to give detailed answers. If

Does It Matter What You Wear to an Interview? Going on an interview is nerve-racking enough; having to decide what to wear is an additional dilemma. If your closet is void of business-looking clothes, you may feel even more stress. As a result, some people take the approach that “It doesn’t matter what I wear because they’ll like me for who I am!” Although this sounds good in theory, you know after reading the Clothing and Personal Appearance section in Chapter 5 that this approach won’t really work.

Clothing sends a nonverbal message about you that becomes part of the impression you create during an interview. According to Clinton Kelly, co-host of TLC’s What Not To Wear, in an interview with Success magazine (Casey, 2011):

Your wardrobe helps others figure out what you’re all about; it’s a nonverbal communication tool. I don’t know why everyone else doesn’t see this as blatantly obvious. You wouldn’t go into a job interview with your resume printed on toilet paper. It would say that you’re crazy. You don’t walk into a pitch meeting with half a cheeseburger in your mouth. It would be inappropriate. It’s just as inappropriate to walk into a business meeting dressed the same way you would dress for your kid’s soccer practice. (p. 29)

The trick is to select something that is appropriate that still presents your personal style. “Style,” says Clinton “is about a point of view. It’s taking what’s available to you and putting your own spin on it” (Casey, p. 29). To avoid common mistakes that men and women made in dress and appearance, see Impression Management in Chapter 8. To determine what is “appropriate” to wear to your interview, take a tour through the building where your interview is scheduled and see what people are wearing. If unscheduled visitors are not allowed in the build- ing, sit outside around noon and observe what people are wearing as they leave for lunch. Of course, you can’t always find a way to visit the job site, so asking the human resources person who offered the inter- view for some information about the dress code would be just as help- ful. If money is a problem, look for gently used clothing at consignment stores. Add to what you already have to create an appropriate outfit that makes you feel good while sending an impression of confidence.

So, does it matter what you wear to an interview? If you have ever watched What Not To Wear, you know what Clinton will answer– absolutely, it does.

QUESTIONS What message do you think your clothing sends about you? If you were the interviewer, would you be impressed? Take a look at the clothes in your closet—how could you dress up your favorite outfit to project a more professional message?

DILEMMAS IN COMMUNICATION

220 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

they seem frustrated by your brief answers, try to answer their specific ques- tions in an open manner. For example:

Q: How long have you been in this field of work? A: Two years. (Experienced interviewers expect this.) A: I’ve been a certified financial planner for 2 years. After my train-

ing and apprenticeship with the Smith Company, I began working for Black’s Financial Planners in. . . . (Untrained interviewers might expect this.)

● Don’t let closed questions limit you to an incorrect answer. Closed questions, normally used in surveys, give the interviewer the most control of any type of question.

● Always answer the question as given, but if your preferred answer is not one of the choices in the question, make sure to express it also. For example:

Q: Which of the following college courses best prepared you for this position: psychology, technical writing, Pascal, or management theory?

A: Of those four choices, I would select management theory. However, if I could pick any course, I would say my business communication course best prepared me to handle people as individuals.

● Avoid answering yes or no to a loaded question. Loaded questions are de- signed to put you under stress for some reason known to the interviewer. For example:

Q: Are you still difficult to get along with? A: I don’t think I am ever difficult to get along with. As a matter of fact,

three months ago I was voted employee of the month by my col- leagues.

● Beware of leading questions. They are normally trick questions designed to determine how much of a “yes person” you are or to get you to agree to pur- chase a product.

● Don’t let the interviewer put words in your mouth. Listen to the question carefully. If it is confusing, ask for an explanation. For example:

Q: This product does meet the majority of your needs, doesn’t it? A: Yes, but I still want to comparison shop.

● Be aware that third-person questions are often aimed at getting you to say more than you planned to say. Third-person questions are face savers that allow us to give our opinion without having to say that it is our opinion. As such, they are good, but be careful not to say more than you intended.

CHAPTER 7 BASIC INFORMATION FOR ALL TYPES OF INTERVIEWS 221

COMMUNICATION SITUATION Skype Interview Three interviewers (Joelle, Ravit, and Jim) from a nonprofit organiza- tion are using Skype to interview a job candidate named Binh Cao. There are three “takes” on this interview—the best of them is included here. See how well Binh follows the guidelines in this chapter as well as some problems he encounters. You can go to the CourseMate website for Communicating for Results to watch a video clip of all three takes, critique the interaction among the inter- viewers and the candidate, and if requested, email your responses to your instructor. Joelle: Ok, so next we’re going to call Binh Cao for an inter- view for our volunteer coordinator position. Binh currently lives in Michigan, so we’re interviewing him via Skype rather than taking on the cost of airfare. Everyone good?

(All three agree, they are good. Joelle connects the call and Binh appears on the screen a moment later.)

Take One: Incomplete Answers (See video on CourseMate)

Take Two: Technical Problems (See video on CourseMate)

Take Three: Quality Interview

Joelle: Good Morning, Binh. I’m Joelle, this is Ravit, and this is Jim. (All say hello.) We’re so happy you had time to talk to us today; we’re very impressed with your experience. Binh: Good morning, everyone. I’m very excited to be here. Thank you for hosting me in cyberspace.

(All four chuckle together.) Joelle: Well, to get things started, we just wanted to know why you applied to our organization in particular? Binh: Well, a friend of mine is from Philadelphia and when I told her about my volunteer position here and how much I wanted to continue the work I had begun here, she told me to look into your organization. So, I went to your website and I was instantly interested. Your mission statement, your goals, all aligned with mine. And then when I saw the amount of programs you have planned, well, I knew you were a very active and healthy organiza- tion. And very clearly respected. Jim: Well thank you, we are very proud of what we’ve achieved. Were there any events in particular that were of interest to you?

nprofit organiza- med Binh Cao.

er- tly her

and

222 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Binh: I thought the community breakfast forum was a fantastic idea. Break- fast is a great way to get people together and having them discuss domestic violence issues by using their own questions is a great way of getting every- one invested. I’d love to organize volunteers in the future to solicit questions from the community just to get more people aware of the event. Jim: Fabulous idea! Ravit: Agreed. So, you’ve spent a lot of time volunteering yourself. Tell me, what have you liked best about volunteering and how would you use that to motivate your volunteers here? Binh: There are so many things I love about volunteering, but really they all have one common factor: meeting so many unique people. It has been won- derful to meet the range of people I have through my shelter here and I’ve learned so much about the importance of meeting people where they are. I would certainly try to use the stories of people I’ve come in contact with as learning tools as well as motivators for my volunteers. I also know that these experiences of meeting people are what gave me my passion for my line of work. So I would try to encourage my volunteers to have similar experiences. Joelle: Wonderful. We have to wrap things up momentarily but we’d love to know if you have any questions for us before we end the interview, Binh. Binh: I do actually. I was wondering if you have any sort of program set up where you work with the local universities—maybe some sort of civic engagement requirements in classes—to get more volunteers? Joelle: We do not but this is another fantastic idea. Do you have any other questions? Binh: Yes, I am interested in how you would describe the culture of your organization. Joelle: Well, like many nonprofits, the people who work here are all united by a common passion. And, given that we have a relatively small organization, we are very conscious of personality compatibility when we hire. I think I can safely say that you seem like a good fit. Binh: Well, thank you. I feel the same way. And I certainly like the thought of working with people who are equally passionate about fighting domestic violence. Joelle: I think I speak for all of us when I say that we are delighted to have gotten to talk to you today, Binh. Binh: It has been my pleasure, truly. Thank you and I look forward to hear- ing from you.

Although there are many types of interviews, the same basic ap- proach can be used in all of them. Therefore, you will find that you can apply the information in this chapter to almost any situation, from counseling and grievance interviews to informational inter- views to employment, telephone, and Skype interviews. All effective interviews are organized into the same three phases: the opening phase (including rapport, orientation, and motivation), the question– response phase (the body of the interview), and the closing phase.

Interviews also include a variety of types of questions. The most common are open-ended, hypothetical open, direct, closed, loaded, leading, and third-person questions, as well as, verbal and nonverbal probes. They all have advantages and disadvantages, and the interviewer should use them with a specific purpose in mind. By grouping questions in general subject areas, the interviewer

can evaluate information in coherent chunks as the interview pro- gresses. The funnel sequence and the inverted-funnel sequence are the two most common methods of organizing questions within general subject areas. The diamond and hourglass sequences are used as follow-up when answers are unexpected or vague.

Interviewees, too, should be aware of the purposes of vari- ous types of questions and the types of responses expected. Ef- fective interviewees know that open-ended questions give them the floor but that direct and closed questions indicate that a brief response is desired. They also know to answer leading and loaded questions with extreme care.

As with all skills, effective interviewing involves both knowl- edge and practice. The next chapter will look in greater detail at the employment interview.

223

SUMMARY

KEY TERMS board interview (203) closed questions (213) closing phase (210) confrontation interview (202) counseling interview (201) diamond sequence (218) direct questions (213) employment interview (202) exit interview (202) funnel sequence (216) grievance interview (202) group interview (203)

hourglass sequence (218) hypothetical open questions (212) informational interviews (205) information-giving interview (205) information-seeking interview (205) interrogation interview (206) interview (201) inverted-funnel sequence (217) leading questions (214) loaded questions (213) nonverbal probe (215) open-ended questions (212)

opening phase (208) panel interview (203) performance review (206) persuasive interview (207) question–response phase (210) rapport (208) Skype interview (207) telephone interview (207) third-person questions (214) verbal probe (214)

William Perry/iStockphoto

CHAPTER REVIEW7 William Perry/iStockphoto

224 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

224

Before continuing to the next chapter, check your understanding of Chapter 7 at the Speech Communication CourseMate for Com- municating for Results. CourseMate gives you quick and easy ac- cess to this text’s resources to help improve your communication skills and prepare you for quizzes and exams. These resources include: ● Study tools including the student companion workbook,

digital glossary, flashcards, and review quizzes. ● Activities and assignments including Awareness Checks,

Checkpoints, and Collaborative Learning Activities. ● Media resources such as Web Links (explore communica-

For more information or to access this book’s online resources, visit cengagebrain.com.

Collaborative Learning Activities 1. In groups of four to seven, develop a list of five or more

quality interview questions that could be asked in an in- formation-seeking interview. Select a specific job (such as sales associate or waiter) and a category into which the questions would fit (e.g., education and work experience required or job duties and responsibilities). Identify each question as to its type and list them in either the funnel or inverted-funnel sequence, making sure that the sequence used is obvious. Be prepared to present your questions to others and justify why you decided to use the sequence you selected. Once you feel comfortable with questions to ask during an information-seeking interview, move to Check- point 7.1 at the end of this chapter and actually conduct one or more interviews. Remember to send a thank-you note or email thank you to each person you interview.

2. In groups of four to six people (use an even number if pos- sible), prepare two quality questions for each type listed on pages 211–214—one question for each type may come from the text; the other questions should be created by the group. Keep in mind that most questions asked by in-

terviewers regardless of the type are poorly worded. Make sure your questions are clear, quality questions. Once the questions are ready, break into pairs and conduct mini- interviews. Take turns asking and answering the questions. Work on sounding confident and maintaining good eye con- tact while answering questions. When finished, discuss how you each felt and which questions were the most difficult to answer and why.

3. Career Activity: Watch the video for the “Communication Situation: Skype Interview” and read the text of the situa- tion on pages 221–222. Note that there are three different “takes” for this situation. In groups of three to five, com- plete the following:

a. Discuss the specific differences between the first two takes of the Skype interview which had problems and the final take which was more effective. What interview tips does this situation provide?

b. Create a general interview situation and make a list of 7 to 10 quality questions that could be asked in an online interview for your situation.

c. With two laptops and access to Skype, practice conduct- ing board interviews using Skype. The group member to be interviewed should be in a separate room by his or her self; use two or three members to be the inter- viewers; have at least one member to observe and give feedback to both the interviewers and the interviewee. Change roles until all group members have been inter- viewed.

d. Discuss what you learned from this exercise that can benefit you in your career.

4. Career Activity: In small groups share personal experienc- es or stories of people you know who have asked for raises. In addition, find at least one article on asking a supervi- sor or manager for a raise. Decide on the best answers to the following questions: (a) What questions and techniques work best in a persuasive interview when asking for a raise? (b) What questions do you think the boss will ask of you? (c) What are the best answers to these questions that will show you are an effective communicator and increase your chances of getting the raise? (d) What questions should you avoid asking the boss? Why?

COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS ONLINE

CHAPTER 8 THE EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW 225

8 IDENTIFY the basic methods for successful job hunting, including locating specific jobs; preparing a conventional, scan- nable, email, and web resume; and writing a powerful letter of application.

SUMMARIZE suggestions for interviewees when preparing for an interview, including creating the right impression, handling different types of interviews, answering tough standard and behavioral questions, and asking the interviewer appropriate questions.

IDENTIFY the phases of a successful interview, and discuss what an interviewer should include in each phase.

SUMMARIZE important suggestions for interviewers when conduct- ing an interview, especially how to know which inter- view questions are lawful and which are not.

THE EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW

©©© iStiiStockockockphophohotototo.comcomcom/Ad/Ad/AdamGGGamGamGregor

225

As you read chapter 8...

226 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

CASE STUDY

You may have thought that the days when a person could falsify information on a resume and expect to get away with it were over when the CEO of Radio Shack lost his job because of resume inaccuracies in 2006. However, here we are again with the CEO of Yahoo, Scott Thompson, who resigned May 2012 after it was found that his resume contained inaccurate information.

In January 2012, Thompson was wooed from Pay- Pal by a CEO search committee chaired by Yahoo Direc- tor Patti Hart. Thompson, who had worked as Chief Tech- nology Officer for eBay Inc.’s PayPal division since 2005, was hired to replace fired CEO Carol Bartz and to improve Yahoo’s yearly earnings. Of special concern was Yahoo’s graphic and video ad sales, an important revenue segment known as “display,” which continued to show a loss (Efrati, 2012). By April, Thompson had already proposed a series of changes, including modifications to 50 nonproducing websites; monetization of part of Yahoo’s 40% stake in Alibaba, a Chinese-based company; layoffs of up to 14% of Yahoo’s workforce, and the creation of a commerce division to improve sales on Yahoo’s most popular websites (Efrati, 2012). Although there was much left to be done, employees and stockholders were encouraged by the clear strategies presented by Thompson.

However, during the first week of May, it was revealed by a large dissident shareholder group, hedge fund Third Point LLC, that Thompson’s resume contained an inaccuracy—instead of having a degree in computer science and accounting, he had only the accounting degree. They demanded that Thompson be fired and that Patti Hart who led the search team, resign (Efra- ti & Lublin, 2012a). Yahoo stock dropped 1.6% on the NASDAQ.

Interesting events followed (Efrati & Lublin, 2012a, 2012b):

● Stonehill College, where Thompson graduated, confirmed that he graduated on May 20, 1979, with a bachelor’s de- gree in business administration. However, they said that the college did not have a computer-science program at the time Thompson graduated.

● On, Thursday, May 10, Thompson apologized to Yahoo executives and suggested that the incorrect degree might have been inserted into his resume by the ex- ecutive search firm that found the eBay job for him. Although he did not name the firm, it was discovered and posted on several tech blogs.

● The search firm, wanting to clear its name, provided documents to Yahoo that they had received from Thompson showing both degrees listed.

● Thompson resigned; Patti Hart announced her plans to leave the board; Yahoo stock rose 2.04%; and Yahoo’s board invited Mr. Loeb of Third Point “and two other directors of his choosing” to join the board (Efrati & Lublin, 2012b, p. B5).

It wasn’t a journalist or a blogger who found the resume discrepancy—it was a disgruntled group of shareholders who were “waging a proxy fight against Yahoo in order to obtain seats on its board” (Efrati & Lublin, 2012a, p. A12).

226

As you read this chapter... See if you can (a) decide what policies Yahoo could implement to make sure no resume inaccuracies occur in the future, and (b) discuss whether you think Scott Thompson deliberately falsified information on his resume, and if so, why he did it. For more information on Yahoo, go to their home site at www.Yahoo.com and scroll to the bottom to Com- pany Info for information. You can find easy access to this link through the CourseMate website for Communicating for Results.

@ iStockphoto/Alija

Scott Thompson deliberately esume, and if so,

ormation

ou ink e for

If you follow the current norm, you will be searching for a job several times dur-ing your lifetime. Arranging for employment interviews through telephone con-tacts, letters of application, computer searches, and a good resume (conventional or electronic), and then communicating effectively during the actual interview are

False Information on Resume Brings Down Yahoo CEO

CHAPTER 8 THE EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW 227

important skills you need to practice. And on the job, you may be interviewing others seeking employment. Knowing how to conduct an effective interview that accurately assesses the qualifications of applicants without restricting their individu- al rights (as specified by law) also requires up-to-date skills and information.

To help you in your job search, this chapter will apply the basic information covered in Chapter 7 to the employment interview; add specific, current infor- mation; and organize these tips into the responsibilities expected of the inter- viewee and those of the interviewer.

INTERVIEWEE: PREPARING FOR THE JOB HUNT As the interviewee, you cannot take a passive role in the employment inter- view process. The following sections discuss some of the things you can do to increase the likelihood that you will find a job that specifically fits your abilities and interests.

Investigating the Employment Market Various job-hunting methods show the following rates of success according to Bolles (2011, 2012) in What Color Is Your Parachute? and Cascio & Aguinis (2011) in Applied Psychology in Human Resource Management:

● Networking (through informational interviews)—86%. ● Cold-calling potential employers—47%. ● Asking relatives/friends/acquaintances or college career centers for job

leads—33%. ● Answering newspaper ads—5 to 24%. ● Using job agencies—5 to 28%. ● Answering an ad posted on an Internet job board—4 to 10%. ● Posting a resume on the Internet—6 to 7% (maybe as much as 10 to 20% if

seeking a job in finance, health care, engineering, or information technol- ogy; or even 45% if seeking a computer-related job).

● Posting a resume on a social networking site (like LinkedIn or Facebook)—4% and growing.

Although some methods have a higher success rate than others, aggressive job hunters use multiple methods. You will certainly want to use networking, based on the information-seeking interview discussed in Chapter 7. A network is a web of contacts and relationships designed to benefit the participants by providing leads and referrals. Although posting a resume on a social networking site may not im- mediately get you a job, using social media to form networks can. Richard Bolles (2012) says, “It used to be an agonizing desperate search for the right people. Now, for anybody with even a modest acquaintance with social media, that search is one hundred times easier. Faster. More accurate. And, less time-consuming” (p. 96). Even so, Weddle (2011a) points out that people who know you as a “contact” only are less likely to put their reputations on the line by recommending you for a job. However, if you “transform those contacts into relationships,” your chances are greatly improved.

228 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Therefore, you have to “work” at getting people to know you. Or as Ellen Reeves notes in her book Can I Wear My Nose Ring to the Interview? (2009), you should be looking for people, not jobs, because “The right person will lead you to the right job” (p. 1). One survey found that the number one recruitment strategy of companies in the United States is employee referrals (“Corporate Recruiters Survey,” 2009). Addi- tional research indicates that “nearly 60 percent of Internet hires come from a com- pany’s own web site” (Cascio & Aguinis, 2011, p. 246). For example, Judy Merkel, se- nior director of recruiting for Booz Allen Hamilton—a Fortune 100 Best Company to Work For—made this comment: “Our best source of new hires is our employee referral program, which is where we get about 50% of our new hires” (Yang, 2009).

There are many good ways to network (see It Really Works for how to turn social networking contacts into relationships). The most effective way to network begins before going on any job interviews. It involves information-seeking in- terviews—conducting 1 to 40 interviews with people who have access to infor- mation you need, and people who have access to other people you may want to contact (Bolles, 2012; Damp, 2005; Weddle, 2011). One new way to find contacts and to research a company is through blogs (web logs). For example, go to Google and type in “business blogs,” and you will be amazed at the results (Maher, 2004).

It’s not as difficult as you might think to find qualified people to inter- view. For leads, ask your friends, schoolmates, family members, family friends, acquaintances from organizations and clubs (including religious and volunteer organizations), business colleagues, and professors. In fact, Rosaluk (1983) claims that each of us knows approximately 40,000 people we could ask. Rosaluk suggests that you start with 200 people you know—friends to casual acquaintances. Don’t overlook acquaintances—they are more likely than your friends to know people that you do not (Gladwell, 2002). Each of those 200 people also knows 200 people. Out of these 40,000 people, you should come up with at least 40 people to inter- view. If you are a member of LinkedIn.com, which claims to have over 100 million professional members worldwide, coming up with 40 people should be a breeze.

A survey conducted by Goodrich & Sherwood Company, a human resources management consulting firm, found that serious networking reduces the length of a job search (Weinstein, 1993). For example, if you see 2 people a week, you may expect the search to last up to a year; if you meet 10 people a week, your search will usually be cut about 6 months. But if you see 20 people a week, you’re likely to land a new job in 90 days or less. Reeves (2009) suggests the Rule of Three—three informational interviews or three actual interviews, three email, and three letters each workday, which equals close to 200 contacts a month. Information-seeking interviews should provide you with the following information:

● Specific information about the career, job, or company in which you are inter- ested (including jargon, keywords, trends, potential problems, expected sal- ary range, organizations to join, and leading journals and magazines to read).

● Feedback on your career goals, resume, interviewing skills, and appearance. ● Names of other people (referrals) you can contact for further information.

Informational interviews—discussed in detail in Chapter 7—are best when con- ducted in person, but phone interviews will do if a personal interview is impossible. Once you have all the information you need about a specific job area, you are ready

CHAPTER 8 THE EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW 229

to prepare one or more types of resumes: a conven- tional paper resume, a scannable paper resume, an email or plain text resume, or a web (HTML) resume.

Locate Specific Jobs of Interest A large number of employers post openings on free sites (such as Indeed.com, Simplyhired.com, LinkedIn.com, LinkUp.com, or Jobster.com), their own websites, or on employment websites like Monster.com or Careerbuilder.com. Employers search for resumes and applicants on employment websites, Google, and Zoominfo.com (Reeves, 2009; Weddle, 2011a, 2011b; Yate, 2011). Job sites can be used for more than just posting your resume or looking for job openings. They are also an excellent source of information, such as interviewing advice, facts about specific companies or jobs, an up-to-date list of average salaries, cost of living across the country, and names of people you may want to call for additional information (Bolles, 2012). You can even get ideas by looking at other people’s resumes.

Most employers now have their own websites where they post job openings. To see if a company you are interested in has a website, do a Google search, or go to Monster.com, Weddles.com, or JobHuntersBible.com for a listing of company sites. Keep in mind that not all jobs are posted—especially not the executive positions. According to Don Weintraub, Managing Director at ExecuNet, “If you aren’t making it easy to be found, like being on LinkedIn or ExecuNet or one of the other executive-level sites, you’re eliminating 92% of the job possibilities” (Ensign, 2012). Virtual job fairs allow you to check who’s hiring in your area and to post your resume for jobs that are of interest.

Prepare a Resume: Conventional, Scannable, Email, or Web The resume is a way of communicating with a prospective employer. If properly done, it can give you an advantage over others applying for the same position. The information you gathered during your information-seeking interviews will help you decide the type and length of resumes to plan. However, for a resume to work, it has to be really good. Research by Execute found that a resume has about “45 seconds to grab the attention of the reader” (Ensign, 2012, p. R2). There are four basic types of resumes—you will probably want to prepare more than one so you will be ready at a moment’s notice for any situation:

@ iStockphoto/Alija

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style resume for his next job hunt should he decide to work again?

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230 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Conventional Paper Resume Conventional paper resumes are the most fun to prepare because you can let your creative side design a unique professional look. They are formatted to look attractive and designed to be mailed or handed to the reviewer but cannot effectively be scanned by computers or stored electronically. They vary in length, style, and content, depending on the type of job, the work experience of the applicant, and the preference of the particular company or firm. Use the information you gathered during your information-seeking interviews to help you decide whether to use a short, one-page resume (Figure 8.1) or a longer, more detailed, two-page resume (Figures 8.2). There are many excellent resume books and Internet articles available (see for example, Kennedy, 2011; Weedle, 2011b; Yate, 2011).

Most conventional resumes are organized in one of three basic ways:

1. First, the chronological resume emphasizes the applicant’s work experi- ence in chronological order beginning with the most recent. The chronologi- cal resume is generally preferred by interviewers (Guffey, 2010; Yate, 2011). Work experience is highlighted and presented in reverse chronological order; dates are prominent. Include responsibilities and achievements for each po- sition—in other words, don’t just tell what you did, but also how well you did it. The best conventional resumes begin by placing the most important information about the applicant first—for example, if education is not your strong suit, begin with work experience or a summary of your skills. Don’t forget awards and commendations. The sample resumes in this chapter follow the chronological style.

2. Next, the functional resume emphasizes skills and accomplishments rath- er than work experience or dates. The functional resume is normally for experienced job seekers who have a variety of experiences and wish to highlight specific skills. It is also recommended if you are changing careers, have been unemployed for a long period of time, or are near retirement and wish to downplay age (Enelow & Kursmark, 2006; Ensign, 2012; Yate, 2011). Employers, however, generally prefer the chronological style.

3. Finally, the combination resume, or hybrid resume, includes both chrono- logical and functional aspects. After the introductory information or sum- mary, the combination resume begins with a functional look at achieve- ments, skills, and personal abilities; follows with a chronological work history listing companies, positions, and accomplishments; and ends with education and any final items. According to Martin Yate (2011), upward- moving, experienced professionals often prefer the combination resume.

Information to Include Regardless of which type of conventional resume you plan to use, include the following basic information:

● Name, address, and phone numbers—Home and sometimes work. ● Objective or position desired—Could be the first sentence in a qualifications

summary; sometimes replaced by a keyword summary. ● Education—If you are still in college or just graduated from high

school, include a brief list of job-related courses you have completed, called “educational highlights.” If you have a college degree or a special

KEY TIPS: Conventional Resumes

Think of a resume as a commercial.

Highlight important facts about you first.

Keep all information job-related.

Make it neat; no misspelled words.

Make it easy to read—use wide margins, bullets, and phrases.

Make it eye-catching yet professional.

Use 1 or 2 full pages—not 1 1⁄2 pages.

CHAPTER 8 THE EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW 231

Adapted from a resume provided courtesy of Deanne Arnath, President of Career Wizards, Inc.com. FIGURE 8.1 Conventional resume

certification or license, there is normally no need to list high school(s) attended.

● Knowledge—Areas of knowledge or professional highlights presented in a keyword summary or a qualifications summary.

● Job experience—If you have little or no job experience, list your volunteer experience. The interpersonal and supervisory skills that the volunteer develops are as valuable as those developed in a paid position.

QUALIFICATIONS SUMMARY Honest, hardworking leader and team player with keen judgment and dependability, poised to leverage education and experience toward launching a successful career in Sports Psychology. Teaching Knowledge: MS in Kinesiology, coupled with experience providing group instruction in Weight Training/Body Conditioning while Department/Teaching Assistant. Athletic Training: Two-year Letter Winner for Athletic Training of athletes in various intramural sports, including Basketball, Softball, Volleyball, and Gymnastics. Communication: Exceptional interpersonal skills in handling sensitive matters. In-depth experience educating for individual needs. Proficient in MS Office Suite and Windows OS. Key Strengths: Finely tuned analytical and research skills. Able to maintain an exceptional rate of productivity, accuracy and efficiency while providing exceptional staff support.

EDUCATION Master of Science in Kinesiology, 2012. Maryland Christian University, Baltimore, Maryland. Specialization: Sport & Exercise Psychology with G.P.A. 3.6. Bachelor of Science in Human Biology, 2007. Maryland Christian University. Specialization: Kinesiology; G.P.A. 3.7; Two-year Letter Winner. EXPERIENCE HIGHLIGHTS GRADUATE STUDENT AND DEPARTMENT ASSISTANT, MARYLAND CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY 2010 to 2012 Completed Master of Science program in Kinesiology and Sports Psychology; Specialized in Research Methods, Physiology of Exercise, and Psychology of Youth Sports; Graduate thesis dealt with Eating Behaviors among Middle School Adolescents. Served as department assistant responsible for coordinating assigned department projects, research, and reporting; maintaining department project calendar to ensure timely completion of all projects; assisting the campus community for the Director; and teaching college courses in weight training and body conditioning. Selected as Teacher’s Assistant for coursework instruction in Elementary Methods, Secondary Methods, Team & Group Sports, and Foundations of Kinesiolog & Sports Psychology. ANDROLOGY TECHNICIAN, CENTER FOR ASSISTED REPRODUCTION, Baltimore, Maryland 2007 to 2010 Responsible for providing customer service to patients receiving andrology and IVF services and coordinating biopsy and testing services with outside laboratories. Participated in the external audit process of laboratory credentialing and licensure to ensure compliance with state and federal requirements.

MEDICAL RECEPTIONIST, GASTROENTEROLOGISTS OF MARYLAND, Baltimore, Maryland 2004 to 2007 Responsible for answering telephones, scheduling patient appointments, explaining policy to patients, scheduling hospital admissions, and filing medical reports and insurance forms. Gained broad based experience in all aspects of medical office administration.

PROFESSIONAL AFFILIATIONS Association for the Advancement of Applied Sports Psychology; Golden Key National Honor Society

LYNDA C. MORGAN 1777 Manual Stree Baltimore, Maryland 21201

[email protected] 410.837.5555 (Home) 410-837.5554 (Cell)

232 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

● Other information—Can be added if it shows character or abilities; omit per- sonal information that does not relate to the job. List veteran status, professional organizations, publications or patents, job-related hobbies/activities/interests, accreditations or licenses, scholarships/awards/honors, and language abilities (spoken or computer).

FIGURE 8.2A Two-page conventional paper resume (Continued) Note: If you have reason to believe that your resume may be scanned for keywords and other information, be sure to place the dates you worked for a company after the company name instead of before as shown here. Scanners tend to miss dates when listed before the company name.

RESUME

Joel C. Reyes 1355 Edna Street Napa, CA 94558 Home phone: (415) 555-5760 Cell: (415) 229-5745

OBJECTIVE Sales, Leading to Sales Supervision

AREAS OF Microsoft Office 2010Personal selling KNOWLEDGE Team problem-solvingCustomer relations

Office Procedures Stock handling Complaint handlingCorrespondence Time management Presentation skills Fluent in SpanishData entry, 55wpm

EXPERIENCE Fabric Imports, Napa, CaliforniaJuly 2012 to

Present Position: Salesperson Responsibilities:

Personally sell to customers, including key accounts In charge of all Spanish-speaking customer accounts Handle customer complaints and adjust satisfactorily

Assist in ordering stock and in promoting warehouse sales Achievements: Top salesperson for the company for the last three years Added ten key accounts last year

Richland College, Dallas, TexasJan. 2010 to July 2012 Position: Assistant

Responsibilities: Provided assistance to the Dean of Instruction and Student Services

Maintained calendar of student programs Coordinated on-campus student organizations and met with the student leaders to discuss goals, activities, budgets, and scholarships

Achievements: Developed new procedure for handling student complaints

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CHAPTER 8 THE EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW 233

The phrase “References available upon request” is sometimes included in a resume but the actual list of references is not included. Some experts believe a statement mentioning references is not even necessary. Whether included or not, you should take a list of references with you to the interview. Normally, fam- ily members should not be used as references. Select people who know you well and can comment on either your communication and people skills or your work abilities and experiences, or both. Usually, three to five impressive references will work. Ask ahead of time whether they are willing to serve as references, and include their contact information.

FIGURE 8.2B Two-page conventional paper resume (Continued)

Joel C. Reyes Resume, Page 2

Jack-In-the-Box, Dallas, TexasFeb. 2009 to Dec. 2009 Position: Fountain Clerk (part-time)

Responsibilities: Took orders from drive-through window.

Prepared fountain items such as carbonated drinks and ice-cream orders.

Achievements: Created best selling new shake flavor

EDUCATIONAL Business SalesmanshipHIGHLIGHTS Advertising Principals Retailing Principles Motivation Seminar

Office Administration Word-Processing Skills on Microsoft Word Shorthand Speed Building Office Management Administrative Procedures Business Correspondence in Spanish

Additional Courses Business and Professional Communication Business Communication Counseling Spanish I-IV

EDUCATION Richland College, Dallas, Texas, May 2012 Associate of Arts Degree in business with emphasis in sales and communication.

LANGUAGES Speak and write fluent Spanish and am familiar with the Spanish dialects used in Southern California and Texas.

REFERENCES Available upon request.

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234 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Information to Avoid Regardless of the style in which your resume is orga- nized, it should use personal data in a way that indicates an awareness of current laws. It is not unlawful for you to include information that is unlawful for an in- terviewer to ask if you wish or if you feel it would be to your advantage. However, if you include personal data and other non-job-related information, there is no guarantee that this information will not be used against you in some way. Unless the information is pertinent in some way to the job, you are advised to omit the following kinds of information:

● Hobbies, activities, or interests that do not relate to the job. (Exception: Hob- bies, activities, and interests that reveal your creativity, leadership, character, and volunteerism usually should be included).

● Past, present, or desired salary (use negotiable). ● Personal data, such as race, gender, age, date of birth, city and state of birth,

marital status, health, height, weight, number and ages of children, type of military discharge, or spouse’s name.

Scannable Resume The scannable resume is a convention- al resume that is altered to be “computer friendly” and is used for companies or online job sites that electronically scan, search, and store resumes they receive (Guffey & Loewy, 2013; Kennedy, 2011; Whitcomb, 2010). If you aren’t sure whether your resume needs to be scannable, call the company and ask. The scannable resume provides an acceptable compromise between a conventional paper resume and the email or American standard code for information interchange (ASCII) resume. It is more professional-looking than the latter, but it doesn’t have to be sent as an attachment—some employers and agen- cies reject attachments because of possible virus infection.

Scannable resumes differ from conventional resumes in two main ways:

1. They are plainer so they will be easier to scan. This means that scannable resumes should avoid using colored or patterned paper; type sizes smaller than 12 point, fancy fonts or fonts with letters that touch; graphics or format- ting such as underlining, italics, boxes, and shading (although boldface type works well).

2. They include keywords so they will be easier to scan. Keywords (also called tags) are used by employers to describe a specific job. If your resume does not include the latest industry keywords (or their synonyms), it will not be selected during a computer search. Once your resume has been searched for keywords and identified as appropriate for a job vacancy, it is downloaded and printed out to be read by the person who will do the interviewing.

A scannable resume usually begins with a keyword summary or a qualifications summary as shown in Figure 8.3. A keyword summary lists multiple keywords or phrases that describe you, your skills, and your interpersonal traits—each key- word/phrase should begin with a capital and end with a period. A qualifications summary usually begins with a clear and powerful career goal and is followed with a bulleted list of three to five values and qualifications in keyword-packed phrases

KEY TIPS: Scannable Resumes

Think in keywords.

Use boldface for titles and filled-in bullets

Avoid boxes, lines, italics, underlining, shading, graphics, or columns.

Use white paper and black ink.

Use simple typefaces—12 to 14 point.

Don’t staple or fold pages.

Put dates on right—May 2013 or 5/13.

CHAPTER 8 THE EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW 235

beginning with action verbs (Nishimura, 2009). Make sure that your keywords are up to date and incorporate any terms that relate to you gathered from the written job description. Don’t overlook your communication and interpersonal skills. For a list of several requested interpersonal keywords used in job searches, see Figure 8.4. For help in developing keywords, look carefully at the terms used in the job description, consult one of the excellent resume books by such authors as Kennedy (2011), Yate (2010a) and especially consult 2500 Keywords to Get you Hired (Block

KEY WORD SUMMARY Honest, confident and hardworking leader. Team oriented. Keen judgment and dependability. Specialist in sport and exercise psychology. Weight training. Body conditioning. Intramural athletic events. Interpersonal skills in handling sensitive matters. MS Office and Windows operating systems. Analytical and research skills. Productive staff supports services. College teaching experience. MS in Kinesiology.

EDUCATION Maryland Christian University Baltimore, Maryland Masters of Science in Kinesiology May 2012 Maryland Christian University Baltimore, Maryland Bachelor of Science in Human Biology May, 2007

EXPERIENCE Maryland Christian University Baltimore, Maryland Graduate Student and Department Assistant 2010–2012 Completed Master of Science program in Kinesiology and Sports Psychology; Specialized in Research Methods, Physiology of Exercise, and Psychology of Youth Sports; Graduate thesis dealt with Eating Behaviors among Middle School Adolescence. Served as department assistant responsible for coordinating assigned department projects, research, and reporting; maintaining department project calendar to ensure timely completion of all projects; assisting the campus community for the Director; and teaching college courses in weight training and body conditioning. Selected as Teacher’s Assistant for undergraduate coursework instruction in Elementary Methods, Secondary Methods, Team & Group Sports, and Foundations of Kinesiology and Sports Psychology.

Center for Assisted Reproduction Baltimore, Maryland Andrology Technician 2007–2010 Responsible for providing customer service to patients receiving andrology and IVF services and coordinating biopsy and testing services with outside laboratories. Participated in the external audit process of laboratory credentialing and licensure to ensure compliance with state and federal requirements.

Gastroenterologists of Maryland Baltimore, Maryland Medical Receptionist 2004–2007 Responsible for answering telephones, scheduling patient appointments, explaining policy to patients, scheduling hospital admissions, and filing medical reports and insurance forms. Gained broad based experience in all aspects of medical office administration.

PROFESSIONAL AFFILIATIONS Association for the Advancement of Applied Sports Psychology Golden Key National Honor Society

LYNDA C. MORGAN 1777 Manual Street Baltimore, Maryland 21201

[email protected] 410.837.5555 (Home) 410-837.5554 (Cell)

Adapted from a resume provided courtesy of Deanne Arnath, President of Career Wizards, Inc. FIGURE 8.3 Scannable resume

236 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

& Betrus, 2002). Use the terms that best describe you while including the jargon used by the industry (Lehman & DuFrene, 2012).

Scannable resumes generally include four headings: Keyword Summary, Experi- ence, Education, and Professional Affiliations and Awards. As with the conventional resume, references aren’t included, and the Keyword Summary usually replaces the Objective. Although the chronological pattern is also effective for scannable resumes, simply telling what you can do isn’t enough. You need to show the end result or benefit of your actions. For example, taking “customer complaints” as a keyword, you might state that you “handled customer complaints.” However, saying that you “developed a faster procedure for handling customer complaints” not only shows what you can do, but it also indicates how well you can do it. Additional suggestions are included in the Key Tips: Scannable Resumes located in the margin.

Email Resume The email resume—also called an e-resume, a plain-text resume, or an ASCII resume—is a “bare bones” resume designed to be pasted into an email message and read by any com- puter using any email or word-processing software. To avoid the possibility of a virus, more and more companies are refusing to accept html attachments and request that you send your resume by email. The email resume can be posted into an email message as well as downloaded to many job boards. Also, to use job boards that have profile forms for each part of your resume, simply copy and paste parts of your ASCII resume into each box (Hensen, n.d.). Note that the email resume is designed for ASCII and uses only keyboard characters—see specifics in the Key Tip: Email Resume box. To keep your resume from having ragged lines or added blank lines when sent through email, keep each line to no more than 60 characters (4.75 inches) and end each line with a space and a hard return instead of letting the lines wrap automatically.

Even though the plain-text resume lacks pizzazz, there are a few ways to make the plain-text resume more readable. You can empha- size your name and the main heads using all caps or set off the main

heads by placing lines of dashes above and below each title and use all caps for your name and the secondary heads (such as the companies for which you have worked). Highlight your accomplishments with a plus sign (+) or asterisk (*) instead of bullets. And you can double-space to separate sections. See Figure 8.5

KEY TIPS: Email (ASCII) Resumes

Think simple.

Begin with name and keyword summary.

Turn off AutoFormat and AutoFormat as You Type features.

Use only keyboard characters.

No boldface, italics, underlining, boxes, special characters, symbols, or graphics.

No bullets—use plus sign (+) or asterisk (*).

Indent with space bar, not tab key.

Left-align text; set margins at 4.75 inches.

End each line with a hard return.

FIGURE 8.4 Interpersonal and communication keywords

Adaptable

Interpersonal and Communication Keywords

Follow-up Persuasive

Public speaker

Self-starter

Supportive

Takes initiative

Team player

Industrious

Innovative

Open minded

Organizational skills

Problem solver

Assertive

Communicator

Creative

Customer oriented

Ethical

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CHAPTER 8 THE EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW 237

FIGURE 8.5 Comparison of two email plain-text resumes

Joel C. Reyes

1355 Edna Street

Napa, CA 94558

415)555-5760/[email protected]

KEY WORD SUMMARY

Sales and sales supervision. Four years in fabric

import sales. Customer relations. Complaint

handling. Team problem-solving. Files & records.

Correspondence. Microsoft Office 2010. Data

entry,

55 wpm. Fluent in Spanish. AA in Business-2012.

EXPERIENCE

Fabric Imports – Napa, California

Salesperson, 7/12 to Present

+ Awarded top salesperson for the last three years.

+ Strengthened customer relations with Spanish-

speaking accounts.

+ Generated 10 new key accounts during last year.

+ Ordered stock, promoted warehouse sales, and

handled customer complaints.

Richland College, Dallas, Texas

Assistant, 1/10-7/12

+ Assisted the Dean of Instruction and Student

Services.

+ Maintained calendar of student activities.

+ Coordinated on-campus student organizations.

+ Met with student leaders to discuss goals,

activities, budgets, and scholarships.

+ Developed less complicated procedure for

handling student complaints.

Jack-in-the-Box, Dallas, Texas

Fountain Clerk (part-time), 2/09-12/09

+ Took orders from drive-through window.

+ Prepared fountain items such as carbonated

drinks and ice-cream orders.

+ Cleaned counters and tables.

+ Created best-selling new shake flavor.

EDUCATION

Richland College, Dallas, Texas

Associate of Arts Degree in Business, May 2012

PROFESSIONAL AFFILIATIONS

Napa Sales Club.

Chamber of Commerce.

Phi Beta Kappa.

Joel C. Reyes

1355 Edna Street

Napa, CA 94558

415)555-5760/[email protected]

---------------------------------------------

Sales, Leading to Sales supervision

---------------------------------------------

Personal selling. Four years in fabric import sales.

Customer relations. Complaint handling. Data entry,

55wpm. Team problem-solving. Files & records.

Correspondence. Microsoft Office 2010.

Presentation

skills. Fluent in Spanish. AA in Business-2012.

---------------------------------------------

Experience

---------------------------------------------

FABRIC IMPORTS – Napa, California

Salesperson, 7/12 to Present

* Awarded top salesperson for the last three years.

* Strengthened customer relations with Spanish-

speaking accounts.

* Generated 10 new key accounts during last year.

* Ordered stock, promoted warehouse sales, and

handled customer complaints.

RICHLAND COLLEGE, Dallas, Texas

Assistant, 1/10-7/12

* Assisted the Dean of Instruction and Student

Services.

* Maintained calendar of student activities.

* Coordinated on-campus student organizations.

* Met with student leaders to discuss goals,

activities, budgets, and scholarships.

* Developed less complicated procedure for

handling student complaints.

JACK-IN-THE-BOX, Dallas, Texas

Fountain Clerk (part-time), 2/09-12/09

* Took orders from drive-through window.

* Prepared fountain items such as carbonated

drinks and ice-cream orders.

* Cleaned counters and tables.

* Created best-selling new shake flavor.

---------------------------------------------

Education

---------------------------------------------

RICHLAND COLLEGE, Dallas, Texas

Associate of Arts Degree in Business, May 2012

---------------------------------------------

Professional Affiliations

---------------------------------------------

Napa Sales Club.

Chamber of Commerce.

Phi Beta Kappa.

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238 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

for two variations on preparing your ASCII plain-text resume. Which one do you think is easier to read?

You will notice that the main headings for scannable and ASCII resumes are the same: Keyword Summary, Experience, Education, and Professional Affiliations/Awards. Of course, these are only guides. You may wish to change the wording or the order of these headings, or you may even wish to add or delete at times. If you feel that adding an objective is necessary, you might try setting off the heading “Keyword Summary” with dashes but replace the heading title with your objective(s) instead (see Figure 8.5 for an example). When you are finished composing your email resume, save it in plain-text format—select Save As and click on the Plain Text or Text Only (txt). Also, test the formatting by pasting the resume into an email message and send it to yourself. Fix any formatting problems before sending it to potential employers.

The email resume does not take the place of a paper resume. You will want to take a hard copy with you to interviews. It does, however, eliminate the need to send multiple resumes through the mail and speeds the job search.

Web Resume The web resume—also called an electronic or e-portfolio (Lehman & Dufrene, 2012)—includes an email resume, a link to a conventional resume, and links to additional informa- tion showcasing your qualifications and abilities all posted to your personal website (see Figure 8.6). Web resumes aren’t advised for all applicants, but they are especially effective for those interested in technology, advertising, marketing, theatre, film, art, or design (Kennedy, 2011).

Information on a web resume could include: ● Your name, email address, and objective or goal near the top

(address and telephone number should probably be omitted, for security purposes).

● A link to your ASCII resume. ● A link to a more professionally formatted resume, like a conven-

tional resume. ● An attractive set of links to specific areas of your resume and to additional

information that showcases your qualifications and abilities (include hon- ors and awards; education and training including degrees, certificates and licenses; work samples and past projects; a PowerPoint presentation you prepared; and even brief video clips of you introducing yourself, giving a presentation, or answering interview questions).

● Keep all information job-related (avoid personal photos or statements that indicate your gender, age, ethnic background, marital status, or religion).

When invited in for an interview, always take a conventional resume and a list of your references; also, you may want to take a DVD of your web resume just in case it seems appropriate to leave a copy with the interviewer. Your e-portfolio can easily be burned onto a CD or DVD and mailed to prospective employers (Guffey & Loewy, 2013).

KEY TIPS: Web (HTML) Resumes

Think e-portfolio.

Omit address and telephone number for security reasons.

Showcase qualifications and abilities.

Be creative but professional in design and color choices.

Keep all information job-related.

Include video clips, past projects, etc.

Include link to conventional resume.

Include link to email resume.

CHAPTER 8 THE EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW 239

Check Resume Content for Accuracy and Honesty As the chapter-opening case clearly indicated, you can’t be too careful about the accuracy and honesty of your resume. Although companies expect you to present yourself in a positive light, as Guffey & Loewy (2013) warn, “Distorting facts on a resume is unethical; lying is illegal. Most important, either practice can destroy a ca- reer” (p. 428). Although some resumes have total lies in them, many people stick to exaggerations and distortions, perhaps because these forms of lying seem less serious to them. Exaggeration is overstating or presenting facts as more important than they are; distortion is misrepresenting or twisting facts, or stating that they are true when they are only partially true. After conducting 2.6 million background checks in a single year, ADP Screening and Selec- tion Services reported the following: “44% of applicants lied about their work histories, 23% fabricated licenses or credentials, and 41% falsified their educational background” (Kidwell, 2004, p. 177). According to Guffey & Loewy (2013, p. 429), before you send

FIGURE 8.6 Sample Web (HTML) resume posted to personal website

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240 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

your resume to poten- tial employers, carefully

check it for the following: inflated education, grades, or honors; enhanced job

titles; puffed-up accomplish- ments; and altered employ- ment dates (such as saying

you worked several months longer than you actually did to cover an employment gap).

Once you have investi- gated the employment market, located several potential jobs, and prepared one or more resumes, you are ready to prepare a letter of application also called a cover letter.

Prepare a Letter of Application or Cover Letter The purpose of the letter of application is to give enough information about you and your capabilities so that the employer will be interested in talking with you personally (Kennedy, 2009; Krannich & Krannich, 2006; Yate, 2010b). If you write it correctly, your letter presents a good first impression, making you sound like a fun, interesting, and confident person. In addition to previewing what is in your resume, it showcases your communication skills and writing style (Reeves, 2009). Each letter should relate specifically to the company and person to whom you are writing (Figure 8.7). Ideally, you will already have conducted an informational interview with someone at the company. If not, try to talk with someone who has been working with the firm; ask for literature, such as the annual report, that explains the firm and its policies; check the

company’s website or blog (look on Google or Twitter for both); or read about the organization at the following sites: CareerBuilder.com, CareerJournal.com, FastCompany.com, Monster.com, QuintCareers.com, Wetfeet.com, or Jobster. com. (You can access links to these sites through the CourseMate website for Communicating for Results.)

You can also check your college or city libraries for the following databases: ● Business and Company Resource Center by the Gale Group (type in company

name or browse; also includes links to articles about the company). ● Associations Unlimited by the Gale Group (contains information on

nonprofit organizations). ● EBSCOHost (click on Company Profiles, then type company name or

browse; includes complete company reports in PDF format).

If the company doesn’t have a website and is too small to appear in any of the preceding sources, call the company receptionist or its sales, marketing, public relations, or human resources departments for information.

KEY TIPS: Cover Letter

Think “first impression.”

Address letter to a “real” person.

Begin with greeting, how you heard about opening, and exact position of interest.

Include basic qualifications.

Include what you can do for them—not why you want the job.

End by requesting an interview.

Include how to reach you.

Be sure to sign your name.

Revisiting the Case Study... Do you think Thompson’s resume inaccuracy was a careless error, or was it done with the intent to deceive? Why, or why not?

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CHAPTER 8 THE EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW 241

Once you have discovered as much about the company as possible, you are ready to complete your letter of application. The key to writing a good letter is to place the focus on the needs or problems of the company and what you can do for them—not on you or how the job fits your interests.

INTERVIEWEE: PREPARING FOR THE INTERVIEW Once your resumes and letters of application have landed one or more inter- views, it is time to carefully prepare for the interview process. Although the ad- vice in this section may seem like common sense, it can make a real difference in how interviewers view you and your abilities.

1355 Edna Street Napa, CA 94558

September 20, 2013

Mr. John F. Schmitz, Owner Schmitz Furniture and Carpet 705 North Locust Street Dulsura. CA 94661

Dear Mr. Schmitz:

Since I have received the honor of being named top salesperson for the past three years by my employer, Fab- ric Imports, I believe that I could make a valuable contribution to Schmitz Furniture and Carpet. Your advertise- ment in today’s Los Angeles Times indicated that you were looking for a carpet salesperson. My experience and communication skills qualify me for this position.

Last year at Fabric Imports, I added ten new accounts because of my ability to sell to walk-in customers. I enjoy the close working relationship with key accounts. In addition, my knowledge of Spanish and personal computers can reach out to a variety of customers thereby increasing your sales.

I would like to personally meet with you to discuss more thoroughly my qualifications for this position. Al- though mornings work best for me, another time can be arranged to meet your schedule. For your convenience, I have enclosed a copy of my resume. You may contact me at my home or cell phone as referenced on my resume or you may leave a message at (415) 666-4332.

Thank you for your consideration. I look forward to hearing from you soon.

Sincerely,

Joel C. Reyes

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242 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Have a Positive Attitude Once you have a date for an interview, the next step is to prepare for it by adjust- ing your mental attitude as necessary. Regardless of the type of interview, atti- tude is immensely important. Know that you are a person of worth and integrity with a genuine right to be considered for the job. Be confident in your ability to respond openly and honestly with favorable effect. Approach the interview with a positive attitude no matter what has happened in the past. No one wants to hire a bitter, depressed person. Use the confidence-building techniques discussed in Chapter 6. Think success!

On the other hand, adjusting your attitude does not mean that you should try to alter your personality or style just for the interview: Be yourself. You will make a better impression if you avoid role-playing and pretense. Remember, the interview also helps you decide whether this position is right for you.

Communicate and Dress for the Occasion—Impression Management Impression management refers to the efforts people make to improve how others see them. An early study found that when a negative impression was created during the first 5 minutes of the interview, applicants were not hired 90% of the time; how- ever, when a positive impression was created in the first 5 minutes, applicants were hired 75% of the time (Blakeman et al., 1971, p. 57). More recent studies (Burgoon & LePoire, 1993; Zunin & Zunin, 1994) confirm the power of first impressions. Further- more, Burgoon and Hoobler (2002) point out that “first impressions based on non- verbal cues tend to be highly persistent, even in the face of subsequent contradictory cues” (pp. 263–264). In other words, once the initial impression of the interviewee is formed, the interviewer tends to view the remainder of the interview as supporting this original view, even when some information may indicate otherwise. In job inter- views, all three codes contribute to first impressions: verbal (what we say), vocal (how we say it), and visual (our dress, appearance, and nonverbal behaviors).

Candidates’ verbal comments affect the kind of impression they make on interviewers. Stevens and Kristof (1995) found that successful applicants most often used the following five types of comments, or impression-management techniques: (a) describing self in a positive manner, (b) describing past events with positive personal stories, (c) expressing opin- ions that agree with the interviewer, (d) claiming personal responsibility for successful past events, and (e) making statements that compliment the company or interviewer. These five comments can be divided into two basic impression-management styles: the controlling style (in which comments are focused on self-promotion) and the submissive style (in which comments are focused on the inter- viewer). As long as the comments are not phony, manipulative, or false, research indicates that the

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controlling style of impression management results in more job offers and higher ratings of the candidate for motivation, enthusiasm, and technical skills (Kacmar et al., 1992; Stevens & Kristof, 1995).

The vocal sounds that candidates make during interviews also help form the impressions of interviewers. Researchers (Buller & Aune, 1988; Burgoon et al., 1990; Burgoon & Hoobler, 2002; Ray, 1986) have found the following:

● Variety in pitch and tempo and a moderately loud volume add to the im- pression of power and credibility. A heavy accent does the opposite.

● A pleasant-sounding voice adds to the image of attractiveness and likability.

● Speaking fairly rapidly and forcefully with few nonfluencies (“uh” and “um”) adds to the impression of competence and authority. On the other hand, speaking slowly or moderately can increase the impression of honesty. Interviewers’ decisions are more heavily influenced by unfavorable first im-

pressions and behaviors than they are by favorable ones (Rowe, 1989; Watson & Smeltzer, 1982). This is especially true of visual impressions. For example, if you are poorly groomed, there is a good chance that the prospective employer will view you as a person with a low self-concept—a person unable to function effec- tively in the position being discussed. (See Chapter 5 for suggestions on how to dress for acceptance in the business world.) Table 8.1 summarizes five common grooming and appearance mistakes that men and women applicants make that lead to negative first impressions.

Nonverbal behaviors also affect interviewers’ evaluations of applicants (Burnett & Motowidlo, 1998; Ralston & Kirkwood, 1999). For example, 26 peo- ple interviewed candidates with good nonverbal behaviors and candidates with poor nonverbal behaviors. Good nonverbal behaviors included direct eye con- tact, high energy level, smiles, and smooth delivery; poor nonverbal behaviors included little eye contact, low energy level, nonfluent delivery, and few smiles. When asked if they would invite the candidates back for another interview, none

TABLE 8.1 COMMON MISTAKES MEN AND WOMEN MAKE IN DRESS AND APPEARANCE

MEN WOMEN

1. Clothes that don’t fit properly or are wrinkled or dirty

1. Clothes that are ill fitting or wrinkled

2. Shirts that fit too snugly at the collar or around the waist

2. Clothing that is inappropriate, especially when too short or too revealing

3. Hands, hair, or nails that are dirty 3. Too much perfume; too much or too little makeup

4. Scuffed or the wrong color shoes; white socks

4. Scuffed or inappropriate shoes

5. Cheap-looking tie or tie that is too short 5. Inappropriate or too much jewelry

Sources: Ilkka, R. J. (1995). Applicant Appearance and Selection Decision Making: Revitalizing Employment Interview Education. Business Communication Quarterly, 58(3), pp. 11–18; Yate, M. (2011). Knock ’em Dead 2012: The Ulti- mate Job Search Guide (pp. 151–161). Avon, MA: Adams Media. © Cengage Learning®. All Rights Reserved.

244 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

of the 26 would invite the candidates with poor nonverbal behaviors, but 23 of the interviewers would invite back the candidates with good nonverbal behav- iors (McGovern & Ideus, 1978). Another study (Einhorn, 1981) found that suc- cessful interviewees were more likely to do the following:

● Speak rapidly and forcefully. ● Gesture and smile often. ● Look directly at the interviewer. ● Nod their head in a positive manner. ● Lean forward while maintaining natural, comfortable postures.

And finally, Watson and Smeltzer (1982) report that there are three things interviewers remember most after the interviewee is gone: eye contact, appear- ance, and facial expressions.

You might find it helpful to think of impression management as another skill that can help you communicate effectively. However, be sure to avoid dysfunc- tional impression management relating to your dress, expressions, or resume (Kidwell, 2004). You still want to be the real you—just a polished you. Dressing professionally or sending a thank-you note (which are examples of positive im- pression management) play an important role at work. Consider carefully the following impression management tips (de Janasz et al., 2002): “Be punctual, dress appropriately, flatter legitimately, have a good sense of humor, be friendly and approachable, and make friends” (p. 204).

Be Prepared for Any Type of Interview You cannot always predict which type of interview you will have. In the course of job hunting, you may experience one or all of the following types.

The Nonstructured Interview In the nonstructured interview you are usually expected to take most of the initiative during the interview. Expect to be asked open-ended questions (such as “Tell me about yourself ”) and behavioral questions (such as “What was the most difficult problem you had to overcome in your last job, and how did you solve it?”). This interviewer wants detailed, fairly long responses. To respond effectively, you must anticipate possible questions and carefully think through your responses in advance. Veruki (1999, pp. 14–17) ad- vises applicants to develop key messages or themes to present during an interview, such as passion for the business, skills and experience, professionalism, creativity, compatibility with the job, cultural compatibility, interpersonal skills, problem- solving ability, and accomplishments. Think of what you want to say, jot down the major points if you wish, and practice aloud “until the words come easily in an organized yet comfortable, conversational way” (p. 14).This type of interview gives you a chance to demonstrate your intelligence, creativity, and ability to adapt to a difficult situation.

The Structured Interview In the structured interview everything is planned in advance and you have much less opportunity to be creative in your responses. The structured interviewer follows the standard interview format dis- cussed in Chapter 7 and asks the same basic structured questions of all applicants.

CHAPTER 8 THE EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW 245

This interviewer asks many direct and closed questions and wants specific, to-the-point an- swers. As a result, this interviewer succeeds in learning a great deal of information in a short time. Keep explanations brief while still includ- ing all necessary information. However, if the interviewer suddenly becomes silent to test how you handle the unexpected, use this silence as an opportunity to expand on your key themes.

The Hostile or Stress Interview On rare occasions, you may find an interviewer who seems to delight in constantly evaluating the in- terviewee, often with belittling and embarrassing comments or questions and subtle nonverbal sig- nals. If so, you are in a hostile or stress interview. This interviewer either has low self- esteem and feels threatened by the interviewee or is a well-organized, experienced in- terviewer trying to see how the interviewee handles “adverse situations” (Yate, 2011, p. 214). Take your time, lean back in your seat, and smile. To give yourself more time to think, answer with a question such as “Why do you ask?” or “That surprises me. Why do you say that?” When possible, reply with one of your key themes. Keep your answers positive and give personal examples that present you in a positive light.

The Group Interview The group interview—including a panel or board interview—is becoming more common in both for-profit and nonprofit organizations and at all levels (Edmunds, 2000; Lehman & DuFrene, 2011). As discussed in Chapter 7, panel interviews usually have one interviewer and sev- eral interviewees; board interviews have two or more interviewers and usually only one interviewee. Many businesses today—especially those that follow the human resources or transformational model—use team involvement in their hiring processes. These board interviews usually include four to seven team members, who plan the questions, determine selection criteria, interview and evaluate candidates, decide who to invite back for a second interview, and make hiring decisions (Lehman & DuFrene, 2011, p. 524).

The Video or Virtual Interview For global companies, face-to-face inter- views can be expensive. Therefore, companies such as “IBM, Microsoft, Nike, and Hallmark Cards” (Lehman & DuFrene, 2011, p. 525) use video (or virtual) interviews to save money. Vicers (1997) reports that video interviews can save as much as 15 to 20% of usual recruiting costs.

If possible, arrive early at the interview site and familiarize yourself with the equipment and camera. Make sure the camera is at eye level when you are sitting. When the camera is pointed downward, you are more likely to appear unfriendly and even dishonest. Lehman and DuFrene (2011, p. 525) recommend that you sit up straight and use small gestures to show energy. However, be care- ful about creating a blurry picture caused by excessive movement.

In addition to being prepared for any type of interview, you must be pre- pared for all probable questions.

Regardless of the type of interview, remain confident yet relaxed and relate all your answers directly to the job.

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246 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Carefully Plan Answers to Probable Questions Einhorn (1981) suggests that when answering questions, job applicants should do the following:

● Use technical jargon that is common in their field. ● Use active, positive, and concrete language. ● Support answers with specific examples, comparisons, illustrations, and sta-

tistics taken from personal experience, coworkers, supervisors, and compa- ny publications. (See Chapter 12 for an explanation of supporting materials.)

● Use humor when appropriate. If the interviewer uses humor, you can; if not, don’t.

● Describe job weaknesses or physical disabilities in a positive manner.

Detailed lists of typically asked questions, as well as good and bad answers are included in many excellent books, such as 101 Great Answers to the Toughest Interview Questions (Fry, 2006), Knock ’em Dead 2012: The Ultimate Job Search Guide (Yate, 2011), and What Color Is Your Parachute 2012? (Bolles, 2012).

Turning Social Network Contacts into Relationships If you are looking for a job, you are probably making a list of friends and acquaintances to help you find that ideal job. This is a good start, because more jobs are a result of referrals than any other job-search method. Also, if you are looking for a job in technology, having multiple connections, friends, or followers may be part of the interviewer’s search criteria. However, for most of us, lists of people won’t get us a job. Why not? Because most people are hesitant to put their reputation on the line for someone they don’t know, for someone who is only a name on a list. But if they knew you, they would not only direct you to that job lead, they might also write you a recommendation. Therefore, what should you do? The trick is to turn contacts into relation- ships. Here are just a few suggestions to get you started: First, post a really good profile—similar to a mini-

resume—on sites like LinkedIn. Take a day and read other people’s profiles to get an idea of what makes a really good profile and use this information to polish yours.

Ask your friends, colleagues, and even professors to post a comment to your profile telling about some qual- ity or skill of yours that they have observed. By reading these comments, acquaintances and even job interview- ers feel as though they know you and are more likely to show interest in you.

Join a social media group with interests similar to yours and participate and post comments regularly—don’t be a lurker. Offer information, new articles you read, unique insight based on a particular experience, and humor to develop relationships. Stick to what you know and try to develop a voice.

Find people who post about your field of interest on Twitter by searching for topics—then follow, reply, and Retweet.

Get active on social media (check your feeds once a day) and stay active. All it might take is one contact turned relationship to get you the job of your dreams.

WHAT DO YOU THINK? If you are already on Twitter, how many people do

you follow who aren’t relevant to your job search? How much time do you spend reading their posts instead of developing relationships with those in your field?

The next time you reply to a social media post, take a second look before you hit send. Does it add anything to the conversation? How can you make it better?

When was the last time you updated your LinkedIn profile? What information can you add to make you look like an expert?

IT REALLY WORKS

CHAPTER 8 THE EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW 247

Many questions interviewers ask are standard questions that are designed to determine basic skills and abilities. Anticipate these questions, plan your an- swers (include research-specific examples and statistics in your answers), and practice your answers aloud until you feel confident about them. Here are a few typical “tough” standard questions (Bolles, 2011; Fry, 2006; Yate, 2011):

What do you know about our company? Why do you want to leave your current job? What do you think of your present job? What salary are you expecting? Where do you want to be 5 years from now? Describe yourself in three adjectives. What is the best idea you’ve had in the past 3 years? How would your coworkers describe you? How would your supervisor

describe you? Why should we hire you over others applying for this position? Another kind of question you may be asked is the behavioral question.

This type of question requires you to give examples of your skills or behaviors. One method for framing your answers to behavioral questions is called SAR: situation or problem/task, action, and result or outcome (Hansen, 2006). Inter- viewers often ask behavioral questions to avoid the memorized answers that candidates sometimes give to standard questions. The Mayo Clinic is an ex- ample of a large company that uses behavioral interviews (Berry & Bendapudi, 2003). They try to avoid questions or situations that have a “right” answer; instead, their behavioral questions “probe for specific details that reflect true experiences and perspectives” (p. 102). Here are a few “tough” behavioral ques- tions (adapted from Berry & Bendapudi, 2003; Fernandez-Araoz et al., 2009; Fry, 2006; Yate, 2011):

If you had to give a presentation to a group of clients with only 2 hours’ no- tice, how and what would you prepare?

Tell me about a situation in which you benefited from a personal mistake. Explain how you saw a new project through to completion. I’m going to describe a conflict between two employees. I want you to de-

scribe each employee’s position and present a solution to the problem that might be acceptable to both.

Suppose you had an important decision to make, but the information to base it on was conflicting. How would you handle the situation?

Listening is an important employee skill. I’m going to present a brief opinion on working overtime, and I want you to demonstrate your listening ability by paraphrasing my opinion.

It is impossible to predict exactly what is going to happen during an interview, but if you take time to consider probable questions and think through your answers, your confidence and chances of success will be greatly improved. Don’t think of the interview as an interrogation; instead, imag- ine the interview as a conversation with a fellow employee on your first day at work (Breen, 2000). Of course, your answers should always be truthful, should come from you, and should never sound memorized. Practice your

248 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

interviewing by conducting several informational interviews, as discussed in Chapter 7.

Be Prepared with Questions to Ask the Interviewer Most interviewers will invite you to ask questions. You should be prepared to ask a few—first, because you want to get enough information to decide whether you really want this particular job, and second, because your questions show that you are interested. If the interviewer does not give you the opportunity to ask questions, simply say, “Excuse me, but I have a few questions I would like to ask about. . . .” Here are some questions you might want to ask (adapted from Bolles, 2011; Stewart & Cash, 2011; Yate, 2011):

How creative am I allowed to be on this job? Your company recently experienced a downsizing of 10% of the workforce.

What has been the impact on efficiency and customer service? I know there is some turnover in every job. Approximately how many people

that you hired in the past 3 to 5 years are still with the company? Would the company support me if I went back to school? What is the typical career path of an individual entering the organization at

this level? What could I do or read while you are considering my application that might

help me on the job if I’m hired? It’s been a pleasure meeting with you. Now that we’ve talked, I really want

this job. Can you tell me what the next step will be? (Or “Can you offer me this job?” which most interviewees fail to ask, but should ask according to Richard Bolles (2012, p. 133). Although it is a bold step, it often works. If not, you can drop back to asking what the next step in the process will be).

Remember, your questions reflect your training and education, your ambi- tions, and your level of commitment.

Be Prepared to Follow up the Interview Most interviews end with some plan for future action on the part of one or both of the participants. When the decision will be reached and how it will be com- municated are usually specified by the interviewer. Make certain that you carry out whatever responsibility you have been assigned during the interview. If you do not hear from the company within a reasonable amount of time (usually 1 to 2 weeks), email, write, or call reconfirming your interest in the position and again thank the interviewer for his or her time.

Send a Thank-You Card Always send a thank-you card immediately after the interview; it could be a fac- tor in whether you are called back for a second interview. Bring a thank-you card with you to the interview—some candidates have them already written, sealed, and stamped before the interview—and mail it on your way home. For specifics on how to write a thank-you note, see Chapter 14.

CHAPTER 8 THE EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW 249

INTERVIEWER: PLANNING THE INTERVIEW If you are the interviewer, you usually have more responsibility for the man- ner in which the employment interview is conducted than does the interviewee. Keep in mind that interviewees prefer interviewers who do the following (Jablin et al., 1987, p. 691):

1. Show high levels of nonverbal immediacy behaviors (discussed in Chapter 5), such as eye contact and an open body posture.

2. Listen to interviewee answers and limit the number of interruptions. 3. Ask open questions and allow sufficient time to answer them.

Also keep in mind that successful interviewing is difficult and requires careful preparation. In fact, poor interviewers are likely to hire a can- didate who is less qualified than a person selected completely at random (Fernandez-Araoz et al., 2009, p. 81). However, if you follow the suggestions in this section and check references carefully, you are likely to make a wise hiring decision.

Get to Know the Interviewee Ahead of Time Read the resume and application forms carefully (along with the background check if you have one) looking for any problem areas, and for areas need- ing follow-up during the interview. Review your structured interview format, making sure you have an evaluation form, which meets equal employment opportunity requirements, ready to use. You may want to search on Google or Yahoo! for the interviewee to see what other information is available, if any. Some companies also search on blog sites such as MySpace, Facebook, Xanga, or Friendster for additional information. The key is to know the applicant before he or she arrives. Regardless of whether you hire this person or not, their impression of your company and what they tell their friends about your company depends on you.

Plan the Environment The nature of the interview usually determines the type of environment you will want to establish. In almost all instances, privacy is essential. Select an area that will be free from phone calls and distractions. The seating should be planned so that participants feel comfortable. You may want to come from behind the desk, and sit across from the interviewee, free from psychological and physical barriers. However, a recent high school or college graduate with minimal work experience may actually feel more comfortable if you remain behind your desk.

Organize the Interview Carefully Interviewers who conduct poorly planned, unorganized employment inter- views learn little useful information about the candidate. Consequently, their decisions will be based solely on gut reactions, often resulting in ineffective

250 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

hiring. Such mistakes cost the company money. One researcher estimates that replacing an employee can cost as much as 1.5 times 1 year’s salary (Lamb et al., 2013). As an interviewer, you cannot afford to make wrong decisions. Therefore, plan and organize each phase of the interview carefully. Some sug- gestions for organizing each phase are summarized here (see Chapter 7 for more detailed explanations).

Plan the Opening Phase The opening phase of an interview generally includes the following:

● Establish rapport. Rapport is a brief get-to-know-you period designed to relax the applicant, get the person talking, and establish a liking and respect for each other. Your prior look at the applicant’s resume and letter of ap- plication should have provided some clues as to what subject would be of most interest to the person. If you plan to establish rapport by discussing general-interest topics, be careful not to overdo it—usually a minute or two of rapport-building is plenty.

● Verify basic information. Don’t assume! Verify the interviewee’s name and the position sought. State your name and the reason you are the one con- ducting the interview. Give a brief overview of the job and any responsibili- ties connected with it to make sure the applicant is interested in this specific job. If they are, clarify the type of information you are specifically interested in and the type of responses you prefer—detailed or brief answers. Give the applicant a general idea of the length of the interview and ask whether that is agreeable.

● Motivate applicant. Most applicants are already motivated simply because they want the job. However, they may feel a need to impress you by pre- tending to have qualities or characteristics they don’t have. Tell applicants that you are sure they are as interested as you are in finding a position in which they will be most successful and that to help you place them accu- rately, you want them to answer all questions honestly and to put aside false modesty.

Plan the Question–Response Phase Asking whatever question comes to mind is an extremely ineffective way to learn and remember in- formation about the applicant. Skilled interviewers begin by deciding what general areas (such as past work experience, leadership abilities, and person- ality characteristics) should be covered in the question–response phase of the interview. Next, they plan specific questions for each area as discussed in Chapter 7 including standard and behavioral questions discussed in this chapter (see page 247 for sample questions). Most employment interviewers organize their questions for each general area into the funnel sequence (de- scribed in Chapter 7), which begins with open-ended questions and ends with direct or closed questions. Open-ended questions at the beginning of the interview usually relax the applicant, uncover a great deal of information (which means the interviewer will not have to ask so many questions), and reveal areas that need to be investigated in more detail. Organized questions

CHAPTER 8 THE EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW 251

will allow you, the interviewer, to make a more valid assessment of the applicant.

To remember data and to comply with Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) regulations, interviewers must keep an accurate record of each interviewee. For example, a rating of 1 to 5 or “well above average” to “well below average” could be given for each characteristic or topic area such as ma- turity or industriousness. To locate evaluation forms to use, go to Google.com and type in “job applicant rating form” and search until you find one that is a close fit for your position. Adapt it or combine several forms making sure that all evaluation areas are lawful. Software such as Microsoft Infopath 2010 allows for creation of a template for rating job applicants that could include various skills to be assessed for such general headings as job experience, applicant preparation for interview, and academics.

Plan the Closing Phase The closing phase of the interview is as impor- tant as the opening, for you will want to make sure the interviewee leaves with a positive feeling and an accurate understanding of what will happen next. Let the applicant know that the interview is ending by summarizing its content and outlining the times and nature of any future contact. Give the interviewee a chance to ask questions, and thank the interviewee for his or her time and cooperation.

INTERVIEWER: CONDUCTING THE INTERVIEW Although careful planning for each interview goes a long way in assuring in- terview success, it is crucial that interviewers conduct the interview carefully as well. For example, asking only lawful questions, listening carefully to the an- swers interviewers give, and asking appropriate follow-up questions are three important areas discussed in this section.

Ask Only Lawful Questions In accordance with federal and state laws,1 interviewers cannot ask certain ques- tions of applicants during preemployment interviews. These laws are based on the belief that all persons—regardless of race, sex, national origin, religion, age, or marital status—should be able to compete for jobs and advance in the job market based on what the law terms their “bona fide occupational qualifications”: experi- ence, education, and specific skills. An employer does not have to hire anyone who

1Federal legislation and guidelines include Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, amended 1972; the Age Dis- crimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA), amended 1978; the Equal Pay Act of 1963, amended 1972; the Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972; OFCC (Office of Federal Compliance Commission) Affirmative Action Guidelines of 1972; the Rehabilitation Act of 1973; the Vietnam Era Veterans Readjustment Act of 1974 (VEVRAA), amended 1980, and in 1999 to include veterans of World War II, Korea, the Persian Gulf War, Somalia, and Bosnia; the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 (IRCA); Employee Polygraph Protection Act of 1988 (EPPA); the EEOC 1987 policy statement regarding national origin, discrimination and IRCA; the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA), amended in 2009 to include a broader coverage of individuals; and the Civil Rights Act of 1991, which provides monetary damages to employees in cases of intentional discrimination. Many states have employment laws stricter than the federal laws. Check the Federal Register for current federal rulings.

252 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

is not qualified, but race, sex, national origin, religion, age (in most cases), dis- abilities, or marital status cannot be used to determine whether a person is quali- fied (except in rare instances in which an employer can prove that one of these traits is job-related). Thus, skills, experience, and education are the only factors that should be used to determine whether a person is qualified for a particular job.

There are two basic EEOC guidelines to follow in deciding the legality of an interview question (whether it’s asked during the interview or included on the application form):

1. All questions must be job-related. The interviewer must be prepared to prove that the questions are related to the specific job.

2. The same basic questions must be asked of all applicants for the position. In other words, an interviewer cannot have one set of questions for minorities, another for women, and still another for white males.

Using these two guidelines, answer the questions in the Awareness Check on page 253. (These questions are often asked in interviews and found on applica- tion forms.) Determine whether these questions would be considered lawful if used by the average organization. Then compare your answers with those in the back of this book. Be sure to read the discussion provided with each answer; ad- ditional questions are covered there as well.

You may have discovered while checking your answers that what seemed fair or reasonable to you may not be considered fair or reasonable in the eyes of the law. As an interviewer, you must depend on court rulings and not on personal opinions. Court rulings are constantly changing the interpretations of various laws, so stay up to date. Check with the Federal Register or an Equal Employ- ment Opportunity website regularly. Some of the answers we have given here may have already changed. Ask your placement director or personnel supervisor about possible changes.

Keep in mind that it is illegal in the United States to discriminate against someone (applicant or employee) because of that person’s race, color, religion, sex (including pregnancy), national origin, age (40 or older), disability, or genetic information. It is also illegal to retaliate against a person because he or she complained about discrimination, filed a charge of discrimination, or participated in an employment discrimination investigation or lawsuit (EEOC, 2012). If you find that job applicants are answering any of your ques- tions in the ways listed below, you need to review your questions for possible discriminatory content (Bolles, 2011; Jablin & Tengler, 1982; Stewart & Cash, 2011; Wilson, 1991):

Less Effective Answers to Unlawful Questions

● Silence. ● “That’s illegal; you can’t ask me that.” ● “I prefer not to answer that question at this time.” ● Ignoring the legality of the question and giving a candid answer. (Although

employers may prefer this answer, why should applicants give information that may be used against them? Also, if applicants continue to answer un- lawful questions, interviewers will continue to ask them.)

CHAPTER 8 THE EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW 253

Lawful and Unlawful Questions Discover your knowledge of unlawful questions by taking the following quiz. Compare your answers to those at the back of this book. You can also complete this activity online. Go to cengagebrain.com to access your Speech Communication CourseMate for Communicating for Results. DIRECTIONS: For each of the questions and statements below, select L for those you feel are lawful, U for those that seem unlawful, and Q for those that seem questionable (could be either lawful or unlawful depending on the situation).

________ 1. What is your wife’s maiden name?

________ 2. Are you a citizen of the United States?

________ 3. Have you ever been arrested?

________ 4. Do you play golf?

________ 5. How old are you?

________ 6. Would you be willing to submit a copy of your birth certificate or baptismal record to prove your date of birth?

________ 7. How many words per minute do you type on the keyboard?

________ 8. Do you have any physical disabilities?

________ 9. Have you ever been fired from a previous job?

________ 10. What work experiences have you had that adequately prepared you for this job?

________ 11. Tell me about your educational background and your grade point average.

________ 12. Are you married, divorced, or single?

________ 13. Do you have any children? Are you planning on having any children?

________ 14. What foreign language(s) do you speak, read, or write fluently?

________ 15. What personal qualities do you have that you think would be helpful in working with the people within our organization?

________ 16. What type of discharge did you get from the service?

________ 17. What are the names and addresses of your parents, grandparents, or other relatives?

________ 18. Please include a photograph with your application form.

________ 19. What religious holidays do you observe?

________ 20. What office machines can you operate?

________ 21. What club or organization memberships do you hold?

________ 22. Do you own your own home?

________ 23. What is your weight, height, and color of eyes, hair, and complexion?

________ 24. You sound Oriental. Are you from Taiwan? ________ 25. Can you get along with people of different races?

Adapted and updated from Bordwin, M. (1998). The courts get you coming and going. Management Review, 87(10), 51–53; Boyd, J. (1999). Wrong questions can turn job interview into lawsuit. Business Journal, 14(11), 29–30; Frierson, J. G. (1987, December). National origin discrimination: The next wave of lawsuits. Personnel Journal, 66, 97–108; Hoevemeyer, V. A. (2005). High-Impact Interview Questions: 701 Behavior-Based Questions to Find the Right Person for Every Job. New York: AMACOM; How to Conduct a Lawful Employment Interview. (1987). Des Moines: Batten, Batten, Hudson and Swab; Jablin, F. M., & Tengler, C. D. (1982, Winter). Facing discrimination in on-campus interviews. Journal of College Placement, 57–61; Minter, R. L. (1972, June). Human rights laws and pre-employment inquiries. Personnel Journal, 431–433; Perkins, N. L. (1991, March). What you need to know about the Americans with Disabilities Act. Supervisory Management, 4–5; Perkins, N. L. (1992). Americans with Disabilities Act. New York: Wiley; Wilson, G. L. (1991, September). Preparing students for responding to illegal selection interview questions. Bulletin of the Association for Business Communication, 47–48; and Yate, M. (2011). Knock ’em dead 2012: The ultimate job search guide. Avon, MA: Adams Media.

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254 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

More Effective Answers to Unlawful Questions

● “I’m not clear on how that relates to my ability to handle this job. Could you clarify it for me?”

● With sincerity, the applicant asks the same question of the interviewer. For ex- ample, if the interviewer asks if the appli- cant has children: “Yes, I have two lovely children. They are such a joy, aren’t they? Do you have children?”

● Laughter, and then, “Is having children a requirement for this job?”

● Answering the fear behind the question, not the question itself. For example:

Q: Do you have plans for a family? A: If what you are concerned with is

my ability to manage or my commit- ment to my job, I can assure you that I am quite aware of the job’s respon- sibilities and take them seriously.

A: If you are concerned about my regular attendance, let me assure you that I have only missed 1 day of work in the past 3 years, and on that day I had the flu.

Q: Do you have any physical disabilities? A: Any disabilities I may possess would

not interfere with my ability to perform all aspects of this position.

As well as being careful to ask only law- ful questions, you must be careful to listen to the person you are interviewing.

Listen Carefully to the Interviewee It is fairly easy for an employment inter- viewer to become so preoccupied with

the tasks of the interview that he or she forgets to listen carefully to what the applicant is saying. As an interviewer, you need to be aware of the mistakes that poor listeners tend to make. Some of the more common ones are listed here.

● Being distracted by something in the environment (e.g., a stack of letters that must be read before quitting time).

● Listening only for the factual parts of the applicant’s responses (ignoring the applicant’s feelings toward these facts and the reasons behind the facts).

Too Many Resumes: A Problem for Both the Interviewers and the Applicants

You may be thinking how wonderful it is that LinkedIn has added an “Ap- ply Now” button on its job postings so you can send your resume directly to one or more potential employers. Or that independent developers like BranchOut Inc. are creating apps that allow similar services on Facebook and other social networks (Raice, 2011). And, of course, sites like Monster .com and CareerBuilder.com allow you to post resumes as well.

But what you may not realize is that companies are being inun- dated with more resumes than they can handle. For example: Google hired 7,000 people in 2011; they received more than 2 million

resumes (Silverman, 2012b). Starbucks hired 65,000 corporate and retail positions in 2011; they

received more than 7.6 million resumes (Weber, 2012). Proctor & Gamble hired 2000 people last year; they received

1 million applications (Weber, 2012). Texas Roadhouse Inc., with 350 restaurant locations can post a

single position online and receive 400 resumes in less than 24 hours (Weber, 2012).

Not only are companies receiving more applications than they can handle, but at least 50% of the resumes they receive are from people who are completely unqualified. To handle this huge influx of resumes, companies are turning to applicant-tracking systems to scan for such items as keywords, skills, experiences, and education. With robots doing the scanning, it’s very possible that some really good candidates are cut often before they even fill out an application, certainly before they move to the phone interviews conducted by an automated system or possibly an HR staff member, and definitely before they receive an assessment test by email or are directed to an online assessment. If an applicant makes it through all this, an HR person will likely look at approximately 25 people’s resumes and other assessment tools before narrowing the group to four to six people who will actually be invited in for an interview (Weber, 2012). So, if you feel like your resume disappears into a black hole, you may be cor- rect. And you will also understand why some companies are moving away from resumes and toward asking applicants to submit short videos demon- strating their abilities and interests in the position (Silverman, 2012b).

DILEMMAS IN COMMUNICATION

CHAPTER 8 THE EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW 255

● Becoming so overstimulated by something the applicant says (such as a be- lief that all students should work while attending college) that you miss his or her following comments.

● Getting upset when the applicant uses emotional words. ● Making snap judgments about the applicant’s worth based on only one or

two comments. ● Failing to follow up on important information.

Additional listening errors were covered in Chapter 4. We suggest that you reread that chapter carefully in preparation for an interview.

Remember, you can’t listen while you’re talking! Allow the interviewee to do most of the talking—while you listen. Researchers have discovered that in- terviewers generally talk more than interviewees in many interview situations.

COMMUNICATION SITUATION Employment Interview Elliott Miller, job applicant in the following excerpt from a job interview, is trying to follow the guidelines we’ve discussed in this chapter. He dresses appropriately, arrives on time, and does a good job answering some tough interview questions. What techniques does he use to answer his questions that impress his interviewer, Karen Bourne?

You can go to the CourseMate website for Communicating for Results to answer this question online and, if requested, email your responses to your instructor. You can also watch a video clip of this Communication Situation and further critique the interaction between Elliott Miller and Karen Bourne. Bourne: Mr. Miller, I see you’re right on time. That’s a good start. [They shake hands.] Miller: Thank you for inviting me to interview today. Bourne: Sit down. [He sits in the chair in front of her desk; she sits behind the desk.] So you’re about to finish college, are you? I remember that time in my own life—exciting and scary! Miller: It’s definitely both for me. I’m particularly excited about the job here at Community Savings and Loan. Bourne: [smiles] Then there’s a mutual interest. We had a lot of applications, but we’re interviewing only eight of them. What I’d like to do is get a sense of your interests and tell you about our managerial trainee program here, so that we can see if the fit between us is as good as it looks on paper. Sound good to you? Miller: Great. Bourne: Let me start by telling you about a rather common problem we’ve had with our past managerial trainees. Many of them run into a

some tough

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256 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

problem—something they have trouble learning or doing right. That’s normal enough—we expect that. But a lot of trainees seem to get derailed when that happens. Instead of finding another way to approach the problem, they get dis- couraged and give up. So I’m very interested in hearing what you’ve done when you’ve encountered problems or roadblocks in your life. Miller: Well, I can remember one time when I hit a real roadblock. I was taking an advanced chemistry course, and I just couldn’t seem to understand the mate- rial. I failed the first exam, even though I’d studied hard. Bourne: Good example of a problem. What did you do? Miller: I started going to all the tutorial sessions that grad assistants offered. That helped a little, but I still wasn’t getting the material the way I should. So I orga- nized a study team and offered to pay for pizzas so that students who were on top of the class would have a reason to come. Bourne: [nodding with admiration] That shows a lot of initiative and creativity. Did the study team work? Miller: [smiling] It sure did. I wound up getting a B in the course, and so did several other members of the study team who had been in the same boat I was in early in the semester. Bourne: So you don’t mind asking for help if you need it? Miller: I’d rather do that than flounder, but I’m usually pretty able to operate independently. Bourne: So you prefer working on your own to working with others? Miller: That depends on the situation or project. If I have all that I need to do something on my own, I’m comfortable working solo. But there are other cases in which I don’t have everything I need to do something well—maybe I don’t have experience in some aspect of the job or I don’t have a particular skill or I don’t understand some perspectives on the issues. In cases like that, I think teams are more effective than individuals. Bourne: Good. Banking management requires the ability to be self-initiating and also the ability to work with others. Let me ask another question. As I was looking over your transcript and resume, I noticed that you changed your major several times. Does that indicate you have difficulty making a commitment and sticking with it? Miller: I guess you could think that, but it really shows that I was willing to ex- plore a lot of alternatives before making a firm commitment. Bourne: But don’t you think that you wasted a lot of time and courses getting to that commitment? Miller: I don’t think so. I learned something in all of the courses I took. For instance, when I was a philosophy major, I learned about logical thinking and careful reasoning. That’s going to be useful to me in management. When I was majoring in English, I learned how to write well and how to read others’ writing critically. That’s going to serve me well in management, too.

256 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

CHAPTER 8 THE EMPLOYMENT INTERVIEW 257

Bourne: So what led you to your final decision to double major in business and communication? That’s kind of an unusual combination. Miller: It seems a very natural one to me. I wanted to learn about business be- cause I want to be a manager in an organization. I need to know how organiza- tions work, and I need to understand different management philosophies and styles. At the same time, managers work with people, and that means I have to have strong communication skills.

KEY TERMS behavioral questions (247) chronological resume (230) closing phase (251) combination resume (230) controlling style (242) conventional paper resume (230) distortion (239) EEOC guidelines (252) email resume (236) e-portfolio (238) exaggeration (239)

functional resume (230) group interview (245) hostile or stress interview (245) hybrid resume (230) impression management (242) information-seeking interview (228) keyword summary (234) letter of application (240) network (227) nonstructured interview (244) opening phase (250)

qualifications summary (234) question–response phase (250) scannable resume (234) standard questions (247) structured interview (244) submissive style (242) thank-you card (248) video (or virtual) interview (245) web resume (238)

CHAPTER REVIEW8

SUMMARY Both the job-seeking interviewee and the employment interview- er have specific responsibilities if meaningful communication is to occur. Interviewees are responsible for preparing job-hunting tools and preparing for the interview. Preparing job-hunting

tools includes investigating the employment market; preparing one or more resumes, including conventional, scannable, ASCII, and web resumes; preparing letters of application; and check- ing resume content for accuracy and honesty. Preparing for the

Adam Gregor/iStockphoto

Before continuing to the next chapter, check your understanding of Chapter 8 at the Speech Communication CourseMate for Commu- nicating for Results. CourseMate gives you quick and easy access to this text’s resources to help improve your communication skills and prepare you for quizzes and exams. These resources include: ● Study tools including the student companion workbook,

digital glossary, flashcards, and review quizzes. ● Activities and assignments including Awareness Checks,

Checkpoints, and Collaborative Learning Activities. ● Media resources such as Web Links (explore communica-

For more information or to access this book’s online resources, visit cengagebrain.com.

Collaborative Learning Activities 1. Career Activity: Form into groups of four or six then further

divide into teams of two. Each person should prepare a re- sume or list of education, work experiences, and desired job or career. Exchange lists/resumes and plan three standard and three behavioral questions that relate to the personal

258

information received. Either face-to-face, by telephone, or in front of a larger group, each group member will inter- view the other. (If a speaker phone is available, have each team member separated by a wall of some sort conduct- ing interviews by phone with the conversation available on speaker phone for an audience.) If possible, videotape the interviews for later viewing. If there is an audience, share a strength and weakness of each person as interviewer and interviewee. If not, each team should comment on the strengths and weaknesses they saw in each other and in themselves.

2. Career Activity: In small groups, select five interview ques- tions (three included in this chapter and two that you cre- ate) and write both good and bad answers to each question. Be prepared to explain what makes each answer either a good or a bad one. Then, break into pairs and practice ask- ing and answering questions until you feel confident and ready for a “real” interview.

3. In small groups and without looking at the answers ahead of time, complete the Awareness Check on page 253. Try to come to a group agreement on each question. When fin- ished, check your answers with those provided at the end of the text. As a group, discuss those questions that you missed. Refer to the two rules used by the EEOC in deter- mining the legality of questions. Share any problems with other groups.

COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS ONLINE

interview includes having a positive attitude, dressing for the best effect, anticipating various types of interviews, planning answers to possible questions as well as questions to ask the interviewer, and following up the interview and sending a thank- you card.

Interviewers are responsible for carefully planning and organizing the interview ahead of time, asking necessary (but lawful) questions, listening carefully to the interviewee, clarifying

and verifying responses, and avoiding false inferences. The inter- viewer perhaps has the greatest responsibility for the success of the interview. Interviews that are poorly planned, poorly or- ganized, and poorly executed result in neither participant learn- ing anything valuable about the other. Often the wrong person is hired for the job—a costly mistake for everyone involved.

The practical advice offered in this chapter should help you make your next interviews more productive.

CHAPTER 9 SMALL-GROUP COMMUNICATION AND PROBLEM SOLVING 259

259

Walter Hodges/Getty Images

DEFINE the term small group, and list the uses and values of teams in the effective organization.

BRIEFLY DESCRIBE the seven characteristics of successful problem- solving teams, and determine which ones are normally the most important and why.

LIST the steps of the basic problem-solving procedure, including how to use criteria correctly in step 5, and determine which steps are the most crucial to suc- cessful problem solving.

BRIEFLY DESCRIBE these group formats: roundtable, panel, symposium, and forum.

As you read chapter 9...

SMALL-GROUP COMMUNICATION AND PROBLEM SOLVING

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CASE STUDY F D Most teams who produce faulty solutions have a chance to correct their errors and try again. That wasn’t the case for the NASA personnel responsible for the safe return of the space shuttle Columbia. In 2003, the shuttle’s seven astronauts were killed when it disintegrated upon reentry, disabled by a crack in its left wing heat shield that allowed superheated air of 5,000°F to penetrate and melt the aluminum wing spar (Columbia Accident Investigation Board [CAIB], 2003, p. 12). This problem began during liftoff, “when a suitcase-sized piece of foam weighing 1.67 pounds peeled off the massive ex- ternal tank” and hit the wing (Borenstein, 2006). However, the extensive damage to the wing couldn’t be seen clearly from the liftoff photos. In addition, a complete inspection of the damage and discussion of options for the safe return of the crew were hampered by multiple communication problems, in- cluding several symptoms of groupthink, which is an uncritical way of thinking that is characteristic of some groups.

On the day of the launch, NASA’s Intercenter Photo Working Group began normal viewing of launch photos from the many tracking cameras. The next day, they observed possible debris striking the wing, and fearing serious damage, contacted the Shuttle Program to request closer imagery of the wing. Engineers and program managers be- gan exchanging emails to assess the damage and discuss possible action plans. However, program managers sent out various memos stating that “the strike posed no safety issues” and that “there was no need for a review to be con- ducted over the weekend,” because Monday was a holiday (CAIB, 2003, p. 142).

Why would the program managers conclude there was no real danger before any official report was issued? According to the Columbia Accident Investigation Board (CAIB) report, among other reasons, the Shuttle Program la- beled the foam loss as an “action” rather than an “in-flight anomaly,” giving the impression that the loss of foam, a nor- mal occurrence during flights, was “not a safety-of-flight” issue (p. 137) and NASA’s safety culture was unjustifiably optimistic, as well as complacent and overly risk-oriented (pp. 180–181).

Nevertheless, on that Monday, 30 NASA engineers and contractors of the newly formed Debris Assessment Team met, looked at the available evidence, and agreed that they needed additional images to clarify the severity of the

FFFFFF DDDDDD Groupthink and the Columbia Space Shuttle Disaster

damage. The team sent an email to the shuttle engineering manager, requesting that the astronauts try to visually locate the strike. When they’d received no reply, they sent a second, more urgent, message: “Can we petition (beg) for outside agency assistance?” (Glanz & Schwartz, 2003, para. 27). It took two days for the shuttle engineering manager to reply that management had decided against seeking additional images. Astonished, the team asked why, and the engineering manager told them, “I’m not going to be Chicken Little about this” (paras. 30–31). The team wrote an angry reply but decided not to send it, remembering that “engineers were often told not to send messages much higher than their own rung in the ladder” (para. 36).

The engineering manager wasn’t the only one to fail to take the team’s requests seriously. For example, one NASA manager noted, “As engineers, they’re always going to want more information” (Glanz & Schwartz, 2003, paras. 4 & 26). In another instance, in a meeting in which Boeing engineers had concluded that “the shuttle probably took the hit without experiencing fatal damage,” a NASA engineer who wanted to discuss remaining areas of uncertainty, was cut off by the chair of the shuttle mission management team and no further mention of the wing area was made in the meeting (para. 45).

In another attempt, some of the team members contacted a United Space Alliance manager with their con- cerns. In response, he phoned the Department of Defense (DOD) Manned Space Flight Support Office to request

260

As you read this chapter... See if you can (a) identify which symptoms of groupthink contributed to this disas- ter; (b) determine what role email played in the engineers’ attempts to communicate; and (c) explain why the CAIB report summary stated, “We are convinced that the management practices overseeing the Space Shuttle Program were as much a cause of the accident as the foam that struck the left wing” (CAIB, 2003, p. 11).

AP Photo/NASA

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additional imagery of Columbia while it was in orbit. Later email obtained by the CAIB “shows that the Defense De- partment had begun to implement [this] request” (CAIB, p. 150). However, a later discussion between the DOD, the chair of the shuttle mission management team, and other program managers resulted in the cancellation of the request. The following day, the team tried again by con- tacting mission operations about obtaining more images of the wing damage via spy satellites. Mission operations, impressed by the team’s concerns, presented them to a Columbia flight director, who said he’d see what he could do. However, after speaking with the mission management team, he determined there was no reason for additional

images, saying, “I consider it to be a dead issue” (Glanz & Schwartz, 2003, para. 7).

The shuttle tragedy resulted in major restructuring and policy changes at NASA. Following CAIB’s recommendations, NASA “has reached agreements with outside agencies to take images during every flight. And 11 of the 15 top shuttle managers have been reassigned . . . or have retired” (Glanz & Schwartz, 2003, para. 66).

To download the CAIB report, go to nasa.gov and type in “Columbia accident investigation board report” in the search window. For easy access to the NASA website link, go to the CourseMate website for Communicating for Results.

261

Have you ever been a member or leader of a committee or other small group and found it an unsatisfying experience? Have you thought to yourself, “No one cares about my opinion,” as the engineers in the opening case did? If so, you may be one of many people who seldom use groups because they feel that, although teams sound good in theory, in reality they fail to work effectively.

Of course, there are times when an individual is more effective than a group. For example, an individual can make decisions more quickly, which can be cru- cial when time is short. And many individuals in managerial positions certainly have enough expertise and experience to make the right decision for others. It would be ridiculous to appoint a committee to make the minor, daily decisions necessary to run an office.

On the other hand, there are many times when teams can be more effective than individuals. Consider some of these advantages of group decision making (Beebe & Masterson, 2012; Newstrom, 2013):

● Resistance to change is reduced, and decisions that are arrived at jointly are usually better received because members are committed to the solution and therefore are more willing to support it.

● Group decisions may be superior to, and more accurate than, individual decisions because people with different viewpoints give input, making the amount of information greater.

● Because decisions are better, they may be more readily accepted by those outside the group.

● Personal satisfaction and job morale are greater. ● Hostility and aggression are significantly reduced. ● Productivity is increased. ● Responsibility for the decision is diffused, so there is less risk for any indi-

vidual. This is especially important when the solution is unpopular or un- pleasant.

262 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

The problem with group decision making, both in the business world and in society in general, is that often neither the leader of the team nor the partici- pants know how to work effectively as a group. To prepare you for managing and participating in teams in business and professional environments, this chapter emphasizes problem-solving techniques; Chapter 10 will discuss how to be an effective group leader and participant.

DEFINITION OF A SMALL GROUP Three characteristics define a small group or team: size, type of interaction, and action. Small-group communication involves a small number of people, usu- ally engaged in face-to-face interaction, actively working together toward a com- mon goal.

1. A small number of people. A group of fewer than three people usually has difficulty supplying enough information for efficient decisions. A group of more than eight makes it difficult for everyone to participate freely. Five is considered the most productive size for a small group because it is large enough to supply needed information and to share the workload, yet small enough to give each member a chance for maximum participation. (In busi- ness, however, groups of 15 or 20 are common—perhaps explaining why groups often seem to function slowly and poorly.) Having an uneven num- ber of people in a group is also a good idea because it can prevent votes from ending in ties.

2. Face-to-face interaction. This is simply a meeting that occurs in the pres- ence of all the group members. The importance of this characteristic should not be overlooked. A successful virtual team meeting conducted by email or teleconference would be more difficult because of the lack of instant feedback and the absence of nonverbal cues to meaning. A videoconfer- ence using a program like Skype or Centra 7 would be preferable because of the addition of the nonverbal code. However, reception may not be good, language may be a problem, and you may not be able to see all group members at once. Experts on virtual teams recommend that teams will be more successful if they have met at least once face to face and continue to meet face to face periodically throughout a project, as possible (Davis & Scaffidi, 2007).

3. Actively working together toward a common goal. Just having the same goal is not enough. To be classified as a group or team, members must be working together to achieve the common goal.

According to this definition, four people discussing politics while waiting for a bus to take them downtown would not constitute a small group. They may be engaged in face-to-face interaction and have the same goal (to catch the bus), but they are not working together toward that goal. However, if the bus failed to arrive, and the people discussed how they were all going to get downtown—walk or share their money for a taxi—they then would be consid- ered a small group.

CHAPTER 9 SMALL-GROUP COMMUNICATION AND PROBLEM SOLVING 263

USE AND VALUE OF TEAMS IN THE EFFECTIVE ORGANIZATION A brief look at business surveys indicates that the small-group team (e.g., the committee, task force, quality circle, or performance team) may be one of the most often used communication methods within organizations:

● More than 70% of major organizations “have team-based structures in part of their operations” (Shockley-Zalabak, 2012, p. 192).

● GE Healthcare (a unit of General Electric that is located in the United Kingdom) used a project team to develop in 22 months a portable ECG

Amazon’s Two-Pizza Teams Teams have certainly worked well for Amazon, which was number 4 in Fast Company’s “The World’s 50 most Innova- tive Companies” (2012). One reason for their innovative success may be due to the company culture of consumers first and use of teams. Jeff Bezos, founder, CEO, and chairman of the board of Amazon.com believes in what he calls “two-pizza teams”—teams of 5 to 7 people that are small enough that two pizzas will feed them (Deutschman, 2004a). Any larger and they are too large to communicate effectively. You are probably aware of some of Amazon’s features that were created by two-pizza teams (Jones & George, 2011): the Gold Box (special offers that last for one hour after you click to open the box), Search Inside This Book (allows custom- ers to search inside popular books and read some pages for free), and, of course, the Kindle (fairly inexpensive technology for reading material, with a screen that doesn’t hurt your eyes, can be read outdoors, and does not require an Internet subscription to use).

According to Werner Vogels, chief technology officer for Amazon, not only are the teams small, they are fast because they are in charge of a “small” part of a larger problem. For example, instead of trying to “improve customer checkout,” the problem would be “cut down to bite-size chunks,” with each chunk assigned to a different team. “One team might work on streamlining gift certificate

redemption, another on credit card authorization” (Nash, 2005). Also, teams have ownership of the problem because the team “scopes the fix, designs it, builds it, implements it and monitors its ongoing use” (Nash, 2005). If one “fix” doesn’t work, they are empowered to work on another but

always from the viewpoint of customer needs and wants (Lyons, 2009).

WHAT DO YOU THINK? Based on what you read about groups in this chapter, what

do you think makes these two-pizza teams so effective? Have you used any of the features designed by Amazon

teams; if so, how effective are they? What changes, if any, would you recommend?

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264 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

machine called MAC 400 for use by cardiologists. The 3-lb machine, now marketed for $1,500, has the same technology as the original electrocardio- graph machine that took three and a half years and $5.4 million to develop and was offered on the market for $10,000 (Williams, 2011, pp. 374-375).

● Newell Rubbermaid created 20 cross-functional teams of five to seven peo- ple to develop new products. Each year these teams develop over 365 new products. The company now produces over 5,000 household, garden, and bathroom products (Jones & George, 2001, pp. 330–331).

● The U.S. Navy, Marine Corps, and Army formed teams of 8 to 25 persons called forward surgical teams to reach and give needed care to severely wounded military personnel and sometimes civilians during active combat in Iraq and Afghanistan. Unless they receive critical care within a few hours, 15 to 20% of the wounded will not survive; it is these people that the forward surgical teams work to save (Chambers et al., 2006; Daft & Marcic, 2013, p. 560).

● The Windows 7 operating system by Microsoft has many outstanding fea- tures created by an “eclectic team of architects, industrial designers, and writers” (Rockwood, 2009, p. 56). One example is the task bar with its “sheet- of-glass effect.”

Because group communication is one of the most often used methods of communication within the organization, let’s take a look at the three categories of groups generally used:

1. Learning groups are involved in seeking or sharing information—for ex- ample, a department conference of the supervisor and the department em- ployees, a management-training seminar, or an orientation group for new employees.

2. Self-maintenance groups seek to inspire desirable attitudes, understanding, and communication patterns rather than merely to inform. Companies that project a corporate culture use self-maintenance groups to train employees to interact, feel, and communicate as team members.

3. Problem-solving groups make a series of decisions in an attempt to solve a particular problem—such as a team discussing how to expedite the delivery of critically needed materials from a subcontractor who is running behind or a team of engineers and technicians working to debug a new computer software program.

Problem-solving groups can have tremendous influence on others, as the passengers on United Airlines Flight 93 from Newark did on September 11, 2001. Four hijackers took over the plane. When the passengers realized from cell-phone calls that these hijackers were likely on another suicide mission simi- lar to the crashes into the Pentagon and the World Trade Center earlier that day, Todd Beamer and others decided to take action. They discussed what to do and even voted on various courses of action. Over an open cell phone, Todd Beamer was heard to say, “Are you ready? Okay, let’s roll.” A few minutes later the phone went dead as the plane crashed into the ground near Shanksville, Pennsylvania (Beamer & Abraham, 2002). The plane had been headed toward Washington, D.C.—possibly for the White House.

CHAPTER 9 SMALL-GROUP COMMUNICATION AND PROBLEM SOLVING 265

Because problem solving is the most complicated yet most often used type of team process, this chapter concentrates on various problem-solving procedures.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE PROBLEM-SOLVING TEAMS Successful problem-solving teams have seven basic characteristics in common. They (1) are well prepared and organized, (2) receive periodic training, (3) examine assumptions and opinions, (4) evaluate possible solutions, (5) avoid groupthink, (6) manage cultural diversity, and (7) can operate virtually. Let’s look at each of these characteristics in more detail.

Effective Teams Are Well Prepared and Organized Researchers generally agree that groups following an organized procedure are more productive (Hirokawa & Rost, 1992). In fact, organized teams are more likely to avoid sloppy thinking, have fewer problems and negative behaviors, handle conflicts better, build on the strengths of members, and feel more em- powered (Jarboe, 1996; Poole, 1991).

This does not mean that all groups follow exactly the same procedure, nor that they always move smoothly from step to step. Researchers have found that although effective groups tend to move toward a solution in a “linear” fashion,

Many problem-solving meetings are ineffective because they fail to follow an organized procedure.

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266 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

the actual process appears to be accomplished in a “cyclical” manner (Galanes & Adams, 2013). In other words, “forward movement toward a solution is sometimes accompanied by backward steps to anchor ideas in prior discussion, and lateral moves to consolidate the thinking of all members” (Brilhart, 1978, pp. 120–121; see also, Galanes & Adams, 2013, Chapter 9). Effective teams fol- low an organized procedure, but they aren’t overly rigid; some overlapping and backtracking can be expected.

Most organized groups use the roundtable format where discussions are dis- cussed privately. However, if your group is asked to discuss a problem in front of a larger group, you will need to decide whether a panel or symposium format would be the most effective and whether you will allow questions and involve- ment from the audience. For a discussion of formats, see “Types of Team Presen- tation” in Chapter 13.

Effective Teams Receive Periodic Training One way to ensure the failure of a problem-solving team is to not train the leader and participants in problem solving. Research shows that group pro- ductivity can be improved when group training is improved (Pfeffer & Veiga, 1999). John Deere, based in Moline, Illinois, certainly thinks so. One of the things John Deere implemented to turn around their high losses in the 1990s and to create a “work smarter” environment was employee training. Now, not only are John Deere’s employees some of the most skilled and productive in the industry, but their self-managed work teams have also cut manufactur- ing costs by 10% and reduced customer complaints as well (Jones, 2007b, pp. 222–223).

In discussing needed resources for self-managing teams, two professors of organizational behavior said the following:

Team members need to be trained in basic problem-solving and group- dynamic skills. Over time, the employees’ skill base should be broadened to include statistical quality control, conflict resolution and other useful prob- lem-solving tools. Training in the philosophy of participation, responsibility, and management-worker cooperation is also essential. . . . Keep in mind that it is necessary to continue providing training as new workers and manag- ers enter the system; to periodically “retrain”; and, especially, to reinforce the training over time. (Sims & Dean, 1985, p. 31)

Periodic training is especially important for virtual teams (Robey et al., 2000; Wardell, 1998). In addition to the training needed by all teams—basic problem- solving, conflict-resolution, trust-building, and intercultural, nonverbal, and group-dynamic skills—virtual teams also need training in information and communication technologies, including the potential problems of each medium (e.g., Internet, email, desktop videoconferencing systems, collaborative software programs, and electronic brainstorming). In addition, new members should be given a complete record (i.e., print, audio, and even video) of the team’s history, especially discussions leading to crucial decisions.

Warning!

Do not expect success unless you receive adequate training.

CHAPTER 9 SMALL-GROUP COMMUNICATION AND PROBLEM SOLVING 267

Training can dispel a variety of prejudices people have about teams. People who have had poor experiences with teams, fear teams for some reason, or view teams as a waste of time, expect all new team experiences to be negative. They have an attitude referred to as grouphate (Keyton et al., 1996). Sorenson (1981) developed a scale to measure how much or how little people enjoy working in teams and found that those with a higher level of grouphate had no training in group communication skills.

Effective Teams Examine Assumptions and Opinions Researchers have found that ineffective groups tend to accept opinions and as- sumptions without adequately evaluating them and may even view such infer- ences as though they were facts. On the other hand, effective teams question the opinions and assumptions expressed by group members (Hirokawa & Pace, 1983). Here is an example of how an ineffective group failed to question assump- tions in deciding how to punish a student caught plagiarizing:

A: Well, let’s see, we could recommend anything from letting him off to kick- ing him out of school. . . .

B: Kicking him out is unreasonable, don’t you think? C: Yeah, no way that would be justified. . . . This is his first offense . . . right? B: Uh. . . . C: Has to be, I mean, he’s a journalism student, right? They must write a lot

of papers, and since the student has never been caught plagiarizing be- fore, this had to be the first time he did it. . . .

A: Okay. . . So kicking him out of school is out. . . . Also, failing him in the course would be out, too? Huh?

B: Has to be . . . if it’s his first offense and all. . . . (Hirokawa & Pace, 1983, p. 370)

Effective Teams Evaluate Solutions by Comparing Them to Criteria and Consequences The best way to evaluate a possible solution is to compare it to predetermined criteria and look for consequences for adopting the solution. Predetermined cri- teria are guidelines or rules that the group previously agreed to use to reach a solution (how to establish criteria will be discussed later in this chapter). For example, in selecting the employee of the month, a team of employees might agree on the following criteria:

● Employee’s supervisor should have received at least one letter of recommen- dation from a satisfied customer.

● Employee should have at least an increase of 20% in sales over the previous month.

● Employee should be liked by fellow workers.

Although researchers have found that both effective and ineffective groups weigh possible alternatives against determined criteria, effective teams are more thorough

Warning!

Do not give opinions without providing examples or research as support.

Warning!

Do not work toward or expect a quick agreement.

268 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

in considering the consequences of each alternative. In fact, there is an 86% chance that groups who actually discuss the negative consequences of possible decisions will make better decisions (Williams, 2011, pp. 187–188). You can see why considering consequences are effective by looking at what ineffective groups did in one study:

Ineffective groups appeared to test each alternative against the four pre- established criteria in almost a perfunctory manner—that is to say, they ap- peared to “go through the motions.” . . . In most instances, members of the “ineffective” groups would simply ask each other whether the recommenda- tions met each of the four criteria and would simply respond to each question with a simple “yes” or “no” response. (Hirokawa & Pace, 1983, pp. 370–372)

The ineffective teams rarely brought up facts to support their “yes” or “no” responses and ignored the consequences of the possible solutions.

Effective Teams Avoid Groupthink Groupthink, a term developed by Irving Janis, is an uncritical way of thinking, often characteristic of groups in which the desire to avoid conflict and reach agreement is more important than careful consideration of alternatives (Janis, 1989; Turner & Pratkanis, 1998). Teams are often guilty of the following symp- toms of groupthink (Janis, 1971, 1982, 1989):

● The illusion of invulnerability. Like the military advisors who decided to con- centrate on training and supplies rather than on defense because they felt Pearl Harbor was impregnable, teams may make risky decisions, feeling that their decisions cannot possibly be wrong.

● Shared stereotypes. Ideas that conflict with the majority opinion are often presented stereotypically—for example, “Well, you know how those guys in engineering are! Always ready to push the panic button.” Such stereotypes make it easier for a team to discount the “other” as unimportant.

● Rationalization. Justifying or making excuses for a particular course of ac- tion hampers a team’s critical thinking.

● Illusion of group morality. The unquestioned belief that the team’s decisions will be moral and good keeps group members from considering the possible negative consequences of their decisions.

● Self-censorship. When members believe that they are the only ones with doubts or are afraid any expression of doubt or disagreement will destroy the team’s harmony, they remain silent.

● Illusion of unanimity. Self-censorship leads to the mistaken assumption that everyone is in agreement when actually some members have doubts.

● Direct pressure. If a member does voice a doubt and is persistent in that objection, direct pressure is applied by the leader or other members to rees- tablish a feeling of harmony. Usually a simple comment such as “Let’s stay in agreement on this! I’m sure John didn’t mean to upset anyone on the team” is enough to silence the doubters. If not, members may withdraw eye contact, reposition their chairs, and even refuse to listen by talking as though the deviant were not speaking.

Warning!

Do not keep your real opinions hidden or agree just to keep the peace.

CHAPTER 9 SMALL-GROUP COMMUNICATION AND PROBLEM SOLVING 269

● Mind guarding. Members protect each other from mental harm (i.e., infor- mation that might cause the team to question its decisions or opinions) just as a bodyguard protects a person from physical harm.

Groupthink is more likely in teams with sociable-style leaders or members. As you recall from Chapter 3, sociable communica- tors have a strong desire for social ac- ceptance. As a result, they are unlikely to express openly any disagreements or even to introduce any ideas that might cause conflict. They smooth over any conflicts in an effort to reach a consensus and preserve the harmony of the group. In contrast, effective teams view conflict as a healthy way to ensure that all ideas are con- sidered (Frantz & Jin, 1995)—conflicts are resolved, not smoothed over.

To avoid groupthink, Janis (1971, 1989) suggests the following techniques: ● Bring in outside experts with opinions that differ from those expressed by

the team. ● Ask all members to be “critical evaluators,” who look at all sides of the prob-

lem regardless of personal opinions.

To keep from unduly influencing the team, the leader should: ● Keep personal opinions to himself or herself until others have expressed

their opinions. ● Occasionally miss a meeting and allow someone else to lead. ● Impress on the group the importance of looking at many options. ● Once a tentative solution has been reached, give members a “second chance”

to rethink their choice and to openly express any doubts before agreeing to the final solution.

Effective Teams Manage Cultural Diversity Increasingly, you will be participating in decision making with people from oth- er parts of the world. Not all cultures view or solve problems in the same way (Adler & Gundersen, 2008; Ivancevich et al. 2011; Triandis & Albert, 1987). For example, managers in the United States expect problems to occur and are quick to identify them when they do. Managers in Asian countries, such as Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia, are more likely to accept situations for what they are and take longer to identify problems. Also, in the United States a single indi- vidual (usually a manager) assumes the final responsibility for decisions—hence our saying “The buck stops here.” In Sweden, the responsibility for decisions also rests with an individual, but that individual may be a low-level employee. On the other hand, in Japan it is the team that makes and assumes responsibility for decisions.

Americans put great value on speed and decisiveness. In other countries, such as Egypt, a fast decision means that little importance was attached to the

Revisiting the Case Study... Which of Janis’s techniques do you think could have helped NASA management avoid groupthink?

AP Photo/NASA

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Warning!

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270 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

problem or business deal. In Japan and China, people tend to want to discuss all alternatives before making any decisions, whereas Canadians and Americans prefer to make decisions as the discussion proceeds. Italians tend to base de- cisions on tradition and past experience, whereas Australians and Americans prefer unique and innovative solutions.

Even though countries view problem solving differently, research discussed by Nancy Adler (Adler & Gundersen, 2008) shows that multicultural groups have definite advantages: Because of their different backgrounds, the members are less susceptible to groupthink and more likely to produce a creative range of alternatives. These advantages are especially important when problems are com- plex. Adler points out that successful teams do not ignore their diversity; they manage it. To manage diversity, Adler recommends that multicultural groups do the following:

● Recognize differences. Begin by describing the range of cultures present. ● Elect members for their task-related abilities. Members should be “homoge-

neous in ability levels and heterogeneous in attitudes.” ● Find a purpose, vision, or superordinate goal “that transcends individual dif-

ferences.” ● Avoid cultural dominance. Encourage equal participation. ● Develop mutual respect for each other. ● Seek a high level of feedback from each other and the leader. (pp. 126–147)

Effective Teams Can Operate Virtually When face-to-face meetings are difficult, or even impossible because members are dispersed geographically, technology now allows virtual teams to operate instead. An example of a company using virtual teams is a database software

Teams with multicultural members are more likely to produce creative alternatives.

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CHAPTER 9 SMALL-GROUP COMMUNICATION AND PROBLEM SOLVING 271

developer called MySQL that has workers located in 25 countries (Williams, 2011). To communicate, MySQL’s teams use both synchronous and asynchro- nous technologies. Synchronous technologies allow communication to occur in real time and include such technologies as company chat rooms, teleconfer- encing, or videoconferencing through programs like Skype. See Chapter 7 for suggestions on using Skype. Asynchronous technologies delay communica- tion and include such technologies as email, message boards, or programs like Google Docs (upgraded to Google Drive), Dropbox, Microsoft’s NetMeeting, or Internet websites. Worklog is another asynchronous technology that MySQL’s teams use to share information and make decisions.

Virtual teams should also be aware of some of the interesting research com- paring face-to-face (FTF) teams that use all three codes (verbal, visual, and vo- cal codes) with computer-mediated communication (CMC) teams where the visual code is missing. Basically, researchers have concluded that there are three important differences:

1. CMC teams communicate less and share less information than FTF teams.

2. When completing tasks for which a “correct” answer exists, CMC teams un- derperform FTF teams—but only slightly.

3. CMC teams predict the success of their decisions better, thereby allowing them to determine when additional information is needed (Baltes et al., 2002—a meta-analysis of 27 studies; Roch & Ayman, 2005).

The Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986a, 1986b) may explain these differences between FTF and CMC teams. The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) describes how people evaluate arguments: They use either (a) a cen- tral route and take the time to thoroughly consider the argument or (b) the periph- eral route and are distracted by secondary cues, like what the speaker is wearing, and make rapid decisions with little critical thinking. Applying the ELM model, Roch and Ayman (2005) observe that even though CMC teams exchange less information and fewer messages—which is a definite drawback in problem solving—they make up for it by carefully and critically evaluating the written message (using the central route). There is no message giver to serve as a distraction. So, if the team feels that their solution isn’t a good one, believe them, and help the situation by finding ad- ditional information or bringing in one or two new members to serve as consultants On the other hand, FTF teams have both the message and the message giver to ob- serve while listening, so they may possibly allow secondary cues from the presenter to distract them from a careful consideration of the arguments presented.

THE BASIC PROBLEM-SOLVING PROCEDURE To ensure productive meetings, both the leader and the team members should be trained in using the basic problem-solving procedure. Problem solving is a pro- cedure that groups use to move from a current problem to a desired solution or goal (Galanes & Adams, 2013, p. 242). There are many useful procedures available, but in this chapter, we will learn the basic problem-solving procedure, which will direct group members toward a solution that is usually arrived at faster, involves

272 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

less conflict, and is acceptable to all or most group members. De- cision making, on the other hand, refers to the act of choosing among alternatives (p. 243). Before jumping into the problem- solving procedure, even if the team members already know each other, it is a good idea to highlight members’ talents and skills so that they can “develop a deep appreciation for their colleagues” (Preston, 2005).

The basic problem-solving procedure includes six steps adapted from Dewey’s classic reflective thinking process (Dewey, 1910): (1) define the problem, (2) research and analyze the problem, (3) establish a checklist of criteria, (4) list possible alternatives, (5) evaluate each alternative, and (6) select the best

alternative. Many groups skip steps 1 through 3 and go immediately to step 4, listing possible alternatives. However, each of these steps must be addressed for the basic problem-solving procedure to be successful.

Step 1: Define the Problem Step 1 is often omitted because the team members assume that everyone already knows exactly what the problem is. This is especially true when the team’s task has been decided by management or someone outside the group. Eliminating step 1, however, can waste valuable time. Teams often are unaware that every- one’s basic understanding of the problem is different until they are unable to agree upon a solution.

Discuss the Problem’s Symptoms, Seriousness, and Impact Defin- ing the problem may be the only purpose of some meetings. If the problem is vague, too broad, or even unknown, then a discussion of its observed symptoms and perceived seriousness may help the team define the problem. For example, a supervisor who has noticed that production has dropped and that morale seems quite low knows the symptoms but not the problem.

Identifying the exact problem may also help to determine its impact. One consultant found that average managers focus their evaluation on the problem itself, whereas “super executives,” who solve problems with apparent ease, view “the problem as merely a stepping stone to the problem impact—the effect of the problem” (Ford, 1982, p. 6). Whereas the average person is considering the cause of the problem, the super executive is determining the cause of the problem’s impact and what to do about it. This is important because

the initial focal (or takeoff) point generally determines the train of thought that follows . . . starting with the problem instead of the problem impact invariably results in a narrower evaluation of the total situation and final decisions are less prone to be fully responsive to overall needs. (Ford, 1982, pp. 10–11)

Write the Problem in Question Form When the problem finally seems clear to everyone, test that understanding by writing the problem in question form. Discuss the wording of the written question until all members are satisfied.

Basic Problem-Solving Procedure 1. Define problem. 2. Research and analyze problem. 3. Establish checklist of criteria. 4. List possible alternatives. 5. Evaluate alternatives. 6. Select best alternative(s) and discuss

implementation.

CHAPTER 9 SMALL-GROUP COMMUNICATION AND PROBLEM SOLVING 273

Even when the problem to be solved seems obvious, the team should summarize it by stating it precisely in question form. If the team cannot agree on the specific wording, then the problem has not been defined clearly enough.

Keep the following characteristics in mind when wording your question (Young et al., 2006). It should be:

● Written in a manner that allows for the widest range of answers. “Yes” or “no” answers should be avoided. For example, the question “Should Tooling Incor- porated increase online sales?” asks for only a yes or no answer. If the ques- tion is rewritten as “What position should Tooling Incorporated take toward increasing online sales?” the team would have a range of possible responses.

● Specific rather than general. For example, in the question “Should we en- courage employees to give to the United Way?” the words we and encourage are vague. Who are we and what is meant by encourage? The question might be reworded as “What position should the management of Park’s Furniture take toward employees giving to the United Way?”

● Specific about who should act. In the question “What can be done to clean up the debris around Johnson Lake?” the person or group who is to act has not been named. Should the question be directed toward the police, the Boy Scouts, the City Council, or the business community? A better question might read as follows: “What suggestions for cleaning up the debris around Johnson Lake should the local Parents League make to the City Council at the council meeting on Friday?”

● Written in an unbiased manner. Sometimes, questions are worded in such a way that the group’s biases are obvious. “What can management do about the ridiculous hiring practices required by the Equal Employment Opportu- nity Commission?” is not an objectively worded question. How can a group be objective in its answers when the question is biased?

Thus, an effectively worded problem avoids yes or no answers, is specific, states who is to act, and avoids biased phrasing. Can you see what is wrong with the following question: “Should the speed limit be raised to a decent speed?” This question violates all four rules! It can be answered yes or no. It is too general. (What speed limit—national? state? or on company property? What is meant by “decent speed”?) It fails to state who is to act (perhaps the U.S. Congress or the state legislature or the company policy board). And it includes biased phrasing (“decent speed” implies that the present speed is not decent).

You may find it helpful to think of problem-solving questions as questions of fact, value, or policy. In questions of fact, the team tries to determine whether something is true or to what degree something is true. In questions of value, the team tries to assess the desirability of some object, idea, or person. In questions of policy, the team tries to arrive at a specific course of action, usually a change from the present system. Questions of fact base the solution on detailed research; ques- tions of value base the solution on value judgments (opinions); and questions of policy consider both researched facts and value judgments in reaching a solution.

Define Any Confusing Terms The last part of step 1 is to define any unusual or ambiguous terms in the problem question. Defining terms further clarifies

274 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

meaning and prevents misunderstandings. Of course, if your question has been carefully worded, few terms will need clarifi- cation, and the team will be ready for step 2.

Step 2: Research and Analyze the Problem Teams that omit step 2 usually arrive at unsound solutions because they do not know enough about the situation to make an effective decision. Even teams that do analyze the problem often reach ineffective solutions because their discussions are

disorganized. To prevent these difficulties, follow the three simple guidelines outlined in points A, B, and C in the step 2 summary box.

List All the Topics That Must Be Researched and Discussed Listing all the topics will inform team members of the information needed for them to reach an intelligent solution. To answer the question “What position should our county take toward the federal government’s proposal to build a nuclear power plant in Glen Rose?” you would need to research current laws, public opinion, accident records of present nuclear power plants, and safety features. Most problem-solving discussions should also include research on causes of the problem and past efforts to solve the problem: What are the real causes of this problem? Has the problem come up before? How was it handled then? Was the solution successful? If so, why does the problem exist today? What are some possible negative consequences to various solutions? Based on a meta-analysis of problem-solving groups, Orlitzky and Hirokawa (2001) concluded that groups that consider the negative consequences of proposed solutions are 86% more likely to reach effective solutions than groups who do not consider them. If your group is unwilling to risk group reactions, assign one or two people at each meeting to play the role of “devil’s advocate.”

When the cause of a problem is unclear or unknown (such as when a piece of machinery suddenly begins to turn out inferior products), your group may find it helpful to answer the following four pairs of questions (Kepner & Tregoe, 1981): Write the answers on a chalk- board or flip chart so everyone can see them.

1. What is involved? What is not involved? 2. Where is it found? Where is it not found? 3. When does it occur? When does it not occur? 4. To what extent (how much/how often) does it occur?

To what extent does it not occur?

For each pair of answers, ask two additional ques- tions: (a) What is the main difference, if any, between the answer to the first question and the answer to the second, and (b) what change, if any, caused the differ- ence? When as many answers as possible have been found, summarize your information by stating the most

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CHAPTER 9 SMALL-GROUP COMMUNICATION AND PROBLEM SOLVING 275

likely cause. If this possible cause does not account for the facts obtained by an- swering the four pairs of questions, reject it and look for some other cause. Look carefully for differences and changes that might have been overlooked earlier.

Gather Needed Information At this point, the leader should postpone further discussion until members have gathered nec- essary information. Possible sources of information include company records and data, personal opinion surveys conducted by the team, and the company or community library. The Internet, company intranets, and even blogs have greatly improved the ease and speed of information searches. (See Chapter 11 for advice on doing research using the Internet.) There may be times when deci- sions must be made with incomplete information. Lisa Simpson, president of Sony’s Online Entertainment unit admits, “We can’t afford to wait for perfect or even near-perfect information to execute our business” (Hymowitz, 2000). Most teams find, however, that the more information, the better their decisions. Even when no outside research is needed, the discussion will take less time if mem- bers are given a chance to organize their thoughts and do some careful thinking before sharing their information with their team members.

Discuss the Information and Opinions for Each Topic in an Organized Manner A classic study found that most groups changed topics or themes on an average of every 58 seconds; although topics were usually mentioned more than once, few of them were completely discussed (Berg, 1967). Obviously, jumping from topic to topic is unproductive. To organize your team’s discussion, try using the following pattern:

1. State the topic to be discussed. 2. Give all members a chance to cite their research and opinions

on the topic. 3. Ask if anyone has anything further to say on the topic. 4. Summarize the group’s findings on the topic. 5. State the next topic to be discussed and repeat the preced-

ing steps until all topics have been discussed.

Gathering, analyzing, and discussing information rel- evant to the problem are necessary components of the team’s problem-resolution process.

Step 3: Establish a Checklist of Criteria Establishing criteria is one of the most important steps of all. Without criteria, the procedure we have been discussing would not be “the basic problem-solving procedure.” To clarify the importance of criteria, we will examine them from four

Revisiting the Case Study... It was obvious that engineers were hesitant to mention negative consequences to management. How do you suggest that NASA change this team culture?

AP Photo/NASA

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Step 2: Researching and Analyzing the Problem— Review A. List topics needing research/

discussion. B. Gather information. C. Discuss information/opinions in

organized fashion. 1. Identify a topic. 2. Allow all members to give

research/opinions on that topic. 3. Ask if anyone wishes to add

additional thoughts. 4. Summarize the group’s findings. 5. Identify the next topic and repeat

until finished.

276 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

angles: what are criteria, the types of criteria, when in the procedure to establish criteria, and how to use criteria in reaching quality solutions.

What Are Criteria? Criteria are the guidelines that a group agrees to fol- low to reach a solution. For example, your group might agree that any solution selected should receive unanimous support from all group members, fall within current state and national laws, treat all persons equally, not result in any increase in taxes, and receive the backing of both the union leaders and management.

You can also view criteria as a checklist of requirements that a possible solu- tion must meet in order to be selected by your group. For example, a checklist of criteria for the selection of a chief executive officer of a corporation might be as follows:

● Should meet all requirements listed in the bylaws. ● Should have at least 10 years’ experience in policy-making positions. ● Should be a good public speaker and present self well on camera. ● Should have prestige with major companies in the United States and abroad.

Types of Criteria First, criteria can be either task or operational. Task criteria relate to the actual problem or task being discussed. Operational criteria relate to group procedural matters. Examples of task criteria for choosing Employee of the Year might include the following: should be an employee of the compa- ny for at least 5 years; should have received merit pay at least once in the past 5 years; should be a current member of a work team; and should have presented a suggestion to the company that saved $5,000 or more. Examples of operational criteria might include the following: selection of employee of the year must be completed in 2 weeks; selection should be unanimously supported by group members; selection should be agreeable to the division manager; and selection costs (duplication of papers, and so on) should not exceed $50.

Second, criteria can be divided into “musts” and “wants” (Kepner & Tregoe, 1981). Must criteria are required items, and want criteria are desired items. Must and want criteria can be either task or operational items. If an alterna- tive fails to meet even one of the must criteria, it will be rejected by the group. Therefore, there is no need to rank must criteria. On the other hand, want criteria must be ranked to be effective. For example, imagine that two solutions meet all of your group’s must criteria, and solution A meets want criteria 2, 3, and 4, but solution B meets want criteria 1, 2, and 3. In this case, solution B is the best solution because it meets the most important want criteria.

Once the want criteria have been ordered from most desirable to least de- sirable, your group might wish to assign a numerical weight to each criterion (Figure 9.1). For example, if there are five want criteria, the group might assign the most important criterion a numerical weight of 5, the next most important a weight of 4, and so on. Another method is to assign each want criterion a weight of 1, 2, or 3 regardless of the number of items being considered:

1 = important 2 = very important 3 = extremely important (almost a must)

CHAPTER 9 SMALL-GROUP COMMUNICATION AND PROBLEM SOLVING 277

For example, in deciding what computer to buy, your department might arrive at the following criteria: Musts

● Must not cost more than $1,500 (top allotment for office purchases). ● Must include a 24-inch flat-screen monitor. ● Must have a 3 terabyte hard drive. ● Must include an HD DVD burner.

When to Establish Criteria Deciding when to establish the criteria to be used in evaluating possible solutions is almost as important as deciding what your criteria will be. Other than requirements specified by management and given to the group at its first meeting, criteria should not be established before step 2 (researching and analyzing the problem) because the group will not know enough about the problem. For example, in the hypothetical list of criteria for se- lecting a CEO, how did the group know that experience in policy making was an important quality in a CEO? It was because in step 2, one of the group members researched the experience of past corporate CEOs. In discussion of this topic, the group discovered that CEOs who were judged effective by their corporate structures had at least 10 years’ prior experience in policy-making positions. If the group had found that experience seemed to make little difference in the performance of past CEOs, then experience would not be listed as a criterion.

Whether criteria should be established before or after listing alternatives (step 4) is more difficult to say. Research has produced conflicting answers. On the one hand, once solutions are listed, it is difficult for group members to remain objec- tive. It is only natural that they will favor criteria that support their preferred alternative. For example, suppose CEO candidate A has only 6 years of policy- making experience and candidate B has 12 years of experience. You prefer can- didate A. If your group discusses criteria after narrowing the field to these two candidates, you might insist that experience should not be used as a criterion.

On the other hand, establishing criteria before listing alternatives makes it more difficult to think of novel alternatives. Once criteria are set, tunnel vision

WANTS ASSIGNED WEIGHT

Includes a printer 3

Cost of computer low enough to allow for large flat- screen

Keyboard comfortable to use 1

Business software included in cost of computer 2

Hard drive larger than 3TB 2

Speakers produce music-quality sound 1

FIGURE 9.1 Want criteria given an assigned weight

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278 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

occurs. Therefore, if your group’s main purpose is to produce a great number of solutions for group consideration, perhaps you should reverse steps 3 and 4 (Galanes & Adams, 2013). Nevertheless, it’s advisable to establish criteria before listing alternatives in the following situations:

● If the task is complex. ● If the topic is emotional or involves value judgments. ● If team members have little or no problem-solving experience and are likely

to allow preferred solutions to dictate the criteria.

How to Use Criteria Effectively Once a team has decided when to establish criteria, they must focus on producing quality criteria. Criteria are easy to confuse with solutions. Criteria are not solutions, but guidelines for reaching solutions. For example, in discussing whether city police officers should be allowed to strike, “The strike should not last longer than 48 hours” is a solution, whereas “Citizen safety should be considered” is a criterion. To keep your group from confusing criteria with possible solutions, precede each criterion with this phrase: “Any decision we reach should (or should not). . . .” For example, “Any decision we reach should be agree- able to all sides” or “Any decision we reach should not result in any increase in taxes.”

The following procedure is an effective way to organize your group’s discus- sion of criteria:

1. List all possible criteria (make sure everyone gets a chance to respond).

2. Evaluate each criterion to determine its importance or unimportance, thereby

a. Reducing the list of criteria to a workable length by combining or eliminating criteria.

b. Dividing the remaining criteria into musts and nu- merically ranked wants.

Establishing criteria is the key to the basic problem-solving procedure. Once a group agrees on the criteria to be used in eval- uating the solutions, the most difficult part of the process is over.

Step 4: List Possible Alternatives List as many alternative solutions as are feasible within your team’s time and budget limits. Most teams have trouble listing possible alternatives without eval- uating them at the same time. But to use step 4 effectively, all evaluations must be postponed until step 5. Evaluating alternatives as soon as they are mentioned tends to hamper creative thinking. Remember to list first and then evaluate. Brainstorming, electronic brainstorming, and nominal group technique are only three methods for producing innovative lists of ideas such as Glass Chalk (chalk that can write on glass) invented by Pennzoil–Quaker State and Spirit Foam (a nondripping decorative spray in a variety of colors) invented by Valvoline (Lamb et al., 2006). Both of these nonautomotive products were invented by automotive scientists using effective brainstorming for alternative products.

Step 3: Establishing a Checklist of Criteria— Review A. Brainstorm for possible criteria. B. Discuss each criterion in order to:

1. Reduce list (combine and eliminate). 2. Divide into groups of “musts” or

“wants.” 3. Assign each want a rank or

numerical weight.

CHAPTER 9 SMALL-GROUP COMMUNICATION AND PROBLEM SOLVING 279

Brainstorming One way to obtain creative, detailed lists of ideas such as the alternative products mentioned previously is brainstorming, which is the spon- taneous contribution of ideas by all members of the team. Neither a debate nor an evaluation session, brainstorming’s sole purpose is to generate lists of items. For effective brainstorming, follow these basic guidelines (Osborn, 1993):

● Avoid negative feedback (both verbal and nonverbal). The only comments al- lowed should be words of praise and encouragement or requests for clarifica- tion of an idea. Negative comments usually put an end to creative thinking.

● Strive for the longest list possible rather than for a high-quality list. Discus- sions of the quality of the ideas should be postponed until step 5. The leader or a recorder should make a list of all ideas. The more ideas, the better your chances of finding a really good one.

● Strive for creative, unusual ideas. It is often the crazy-sounding idea that proves to be the best when combined with other ideas. Even if it would not be acceptable to the group, a bizarre or extraordinary suggestion often stimulates someone to think of a valuable idea that may have been overlooked otherwise.

● Try to build from previously mentioned ideas. If your team is really thinking, there should be no long pauses. Effective brainstorming moves quite rapidly as one idea stimulates another.

Brainstorming can also be used in step 1 to define the problem, in step 2 to generate the list of topics needing research, and in step 3 to generate the list of possible criteria. Many companies use consumer focus groups to brain- storm for new products. The Dustbuster vacuum, Cycle dog food, and Stick- Up room deodorizers were all the results of group brainstorming (Lamb et al., 2013, p. 388).

Brainstorming works best when team members are outgoing and enjoy being creative and building on one another’s ideas (Bachman, 2000; Kramer et al., 1997). It is less effective when one or two members monopolize the time and don’t give others a chance to participate or when some group members

Use of Criteria To check your knowledge of the various types of criteria and how to use them, take the following quiz. You can also complete this activity online. Go to cengagebrain.com to access your Speech Communication CourseMate for Communicating for Results.

DIRECTIONS: Which types of criteria are represented by the following statements or questions: (A) must criteria, (B) want criteria, (C) task criteria, or (D) operational criteria. More than one answer may be used.

________ 1. Which type of criteria (must or want) does not need to be rank-ordered? ________ 2. Any criteria we select cannot cost more than $150. ________ 3. If possible, our decision should be a unanimous one. ________ 4. Any supervisor we select should be a current member of a work team. ________ 5. Any child care facility we select must be independently owned. ________ 6. Selection of a child care facility must be completed in one month.

AWARENESS CHECK

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280 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

are afraid to talk because of real or perceived group pressures. They may withhold an excellent idea simply because they are afraid someone will criti- cize it. In these cases, electronic brainstorming or nominal group technique is recommended.

Electronic Brainstorming Instead of rapidly throwing out ideas around a table with other group members, in electronic brainstorming systems (EBS), ideas are generated individually (and anonymously) by typing them and sending them electronically. The ideas are recorded by the software pro- gram and combined for later group viewing. EBS thus allows team members to interact with their individual identities revealed or concealed (Williams, 2011). Compared to traditional brainstorming and nominal group technique, electronic brainstorming generally produces significantly more ideas (Gallupe & Cooper, 1993; Pinsonneault & Barki, 1999) and sometimes better-quality ideas (Gallupe et al., 1994), it tends to work better with large groups (Dennis & Valacich, 1993; Gallupe et al., 1992), and groups are more successful when given at least 30 minutes for a task (Dennis et al., 2005).

Royal Dutch/Shell Oil uses the Internet for brainstorming. Each week, teams of six employees from around the globe meet to brainstorm ideas. For example, in 1999, teams produced “more than 300 new-product and process-improvement ideas . . . including four of the company’s five most crucial initiatives” (Stepanek, 1999, p. 57).

Nominal Group Technique Another method of listing alternatives is a procedure known as the nominal group technique (NGT) (Delbecq et al., 1986). Because NGT gives all team members an equal chance to participate, it has some advantages over brainstorming. It encourages shy members to par- ticipate freely and prohibits overly talkative or negative members from domi- nating. NGT can be used both for generating lists of ideas and as a method of decision making.

When NGT is used as a method for generating ideas, these two steps are followed:

1. Ideas are silently generated by each individual. Each person writes down ideas or solutions privately. There is no discussion at this point.

2. Ideas are recorded on a markerboard or flip chart. All ideas are recorded in a round-robin procedure: The leader accepts one idea at a time from each person until all ideas are listed, including any additional ideas that members have thought of while others were speaking. There is no discussion of ideas in this step. (We suggest the use of flip charts because they can be rolled up and taken with you; markerboards often get erased.) When NGT is used as a method of decision making, four steps are followed:

1. Ideas are silently generated by each individual. 2. Ideas are recorded on a chalkboard or flip chart. 3. Each idea is discussed for clarification only. Debate, criticism, or persuasive

appeals are not allowed; suggestions for combining or rewording ideas and for clarifying meaning are allowed.

CHAPTER 9 SMALL-GROUP COMMUNICATION AND PROBLEM SOLVING 281

4. Each member privately selects the top five (or more) preferred items and ranks them according to importance, assigning the most important a rank of 5, the next most important a 4, and so on. When all votes are recorded, one page of a flip chart for the problem “How can our department become more produc- tive?” might look like Figure 9.2.

When using NGT as a problem-solving procedure, the third and fourth steps may have to be repeated until a definite solution is clearly present—that is, until one idea clearly wins the highest score.

The advantage of NGT—privacy—can also be its weakness. Researchers have found that the quality of both individual and group decisions is improved by open exchanges of information, ideas, and criticism. NGT allows an exchange of information, but no criticism. Critical evaluation appears to be necessary for superior decisions.

Combination Method A combination of brainstorming (oral) and NGT (written) methods may also be effective. One popular combination method begins with the two-step NGT and concludes with a brief brainstorming session. The new ideas derived from the brainstorming session are added to the flip chart. Combining brainstorming, EBS, and NGT may pro- vide more effective ways to generate lists of ideas than the tra- ditional brainstorming method alone (Holt, 1996). Try all three to see which works the best for you and your organization.

Step 5: Evaluate Each Alternative If the team has done a good job of determining criteria, step 5 in the basic prob- lem-solving procedure should be amazingly simple. The following guidelines will

Participant votes by rank Number of votes/total score

Idea with highest vote score

FIGURE 9.2 Nominal group technique flip chart

Step 4: Listing Possible Alternatives—Review A. List as many ideas as time and resourc-

es allow. B. Use brainstorming, nominal group

technique (NGT), or a combination of these.

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282 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

enable your group to evaluate the possible alternative solutions:

1. Read through the list of alternatives, eliminating those that the team feels do not meet the criteria agreed on in step 3.

2. Further reduce the list to a workable number by combin- ing any similar alternatives.

3. Discuss each remaining alternative’s strengths and weak- nesses (referring to research presented in step 2 when nec- essary). If no one feels comfortable playing the role of dev- il’s advocate, assign one or two members to criticize and question each solution. According to Williams (2011, pp. 187–188), there is a 58% chance that groups who assign critical evaluators will end up with better decisions. He also

suggests that assigning someone to play the role of devil’s advocate is a good way to encourage the group to use C-type or cognitive conflict, which was discussed in Chapter 3.

4. Determine how well each alternative meets the criteria; eliminate those that do not meet all the must criteria.

5. Continue reducing the list by relating the remaining alternatives to the want criteria and assign numerical values (which is better than just giving check marks).

6. Calculate totals and determine the best alternative (or alternatives).

One drawback to group problem solving is that so much time is required. Teams that use criteria correctly can substantially cut the time needed to reach a solution because criteria limit the solutions that must be considered. In the ex- ample in step 3 about deciding what computer to buy for the department, four must criteria were listed. Suppose that only three of the computers currently on the market meet our must criteria. At this point, we may wish to do additional research or personally test each of the three computers. Next, we determine how well each of the top computers meet the want criteria in Figure 9.3.

Want Criteria Assigned Weight

Computer A*

Computer B*

Computer C*

—Includes printer

—Cost allows for flat- screen monitor upgrade

—Keyboard comfort

—Bundled software

—Hard drive larger than 3TB

—Music-quality speakers

5 total = 44 total = 28 total = 51

* Each computer ranking (on a scale of 1–5) for how well it meets each criterion.

FIGURE 9.3 Using criteria to narrow down possible solutions

Step 5: Evaluating Each Alternative—Review A. Eliminate unacceptable alternatives. B. Combine similar alternatives. C. Eliminate any alternatives that do not

meet all must criteria. D. Compare remaining alternatives to

want criteria and assign numerical values. Calculate totals.

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CHAPTER 9 SMALL-GROUP COMMUNICATION AND PROBLEM SOLVING 283

Step 6: Select the Best Alternative(s) The best solution is simply the solution (or solutions) that best fulfills the group’s criteria. Sometimes, however, even after using criteria to eliminate poor solutions, the team is left with several alternatives—a decision must still be made.

A decision can be reached by one of several methods: consensus, compro- mise, or vote (Wood, 1984). The best decision is the consensus. In a consensus decision, all members agree to accept a particular solution even though it may not have been their original choice. Commitment to the solution is greater in teams that can reach consensus, but the team needs to beware of groupthink, discussed previously in this chapter.

If a consensus cannot be reached, the next best decision is a compromise. Of course, no one completely wins in a compromise; all parties must forfeit some of their requirements, but at least no one completely loses either.

If a consensus or a compromise is not possible, the group may have to vote for the best solution, which would be the alternative that receives more than 50% of the vote. Voting should be used only as a last resort because it often causes resentment by creating winners and losers.

Discuss How to Implement the Best Alternative Once the best solu- tion to the problem has been selected, the team must discuss how to implement it. In other words, the team must decide what should be done to ensure that the solution becomes a reality. During this discussion, the team may decide that although the solution sounds great in theory, it is too costly or management would never agree to it. In this case, go back to step 5, select the second-best alternative, and discuss implementing it.

The team has then completed the decision-making process and is ready to report all recommendations to the appropriate person(s) or, if the group has the power, to initiate the implementation. (See Chapters 12 and 14 for sugges- tions on making individual and team presentations.) If the team is to remain a group even after the solution has been reached, it is important to follow up on the implementation and to keep a record of both successes and failures for future use.

Although the basic problem-solving procedure can be modified to fit specific needs, it tends to work best when both the leader and members are trained in the process, the group is relatively small, and the members have had ample time to prepare. According to one group of researchers, a procedure that works should guide “a group to analyze a problem thoroughly, to establish cri- teria for a good solution, and to evaluate the positive and negative qualities of alternative choices” (Hirokawa et al., 1996, p. 277).

Now that we have covered the basic procedures of group discussion, the next chapter will discuss how individuals can become more proficient in small-group participation and leadership.

Step 6: Selecting the Best Alternative(s)—Review A. Best solutions—those with highest

totals. B. In case of tie, select more than one

solution; or create additional criteria; or use consensus, compromise, or vote.

284 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Teamwork Isn’t For Everyone

We’ve already discussed the characteristics of effective problem-solving teams, but team success also depends on the people selected to be on the team. Some people just have no business working on a team, and these people can sabotage the success of a team without even realizing it. Selecting people to work in a team environment can be a real dilemma for all involved. Some of the issues to consider are: Does the person want to work on a team? If you are thinking that team work is a duty in which all should participate—

count on plenty of unsuccessful teams. People who feel more comfortable working alone and dislike groups can be given other important duties; teamwork definitely isn’t where they belong. Successful teams are made up of people who enjoy the challenge and stimulation of working with others to solve problems or create something new.

Has the person worked with a previous successful team? All teams should receive training in problem-solving and conflict resolution. However, if everyone in the team is new to teamwork, count on a long start-up time and some possibly serious disagreements. If you are expecting immediate productivity, select only people with previous successful team experience. If that is not feasible, make sure that at least half of the team has previous team experience.

Does the person have expertise that will add to the topic under discussion? Teams are not the place for people to learn their trade—each team member needs to carry his or her weight by having some expertise needed by the team. Expertise creates mutual respect, which is needed when people get tired or disagreements occur.

What degree of individualism–collectivism does the person exhibit? Recall from Chapter 3 that individualists believe in the rights of the individual, while collectivists put the rights of the group ahead of self-interests. It might seem that collec- tivistic team members are preferable to individualistic ones, but actually a mix is usually best. While collectivistic team members might hesitate to disagree or give their real opinions for fear they might cause loss of face or be ostracized by the group, an individualistic team member adds balance by wanting members to present direct and honest opinions. The key is that members need to understand and respect both preferences.

Does the person have good communication skills? People who have good communication skills—such as active listening, open-mindedness, and effective personality (as discussed on pages 292–293 in Chapter 10)—make good team members. These skills can be taught but not in time to allow for successful team communication—make sure all team members are already good communicators before the team meetings begin.

Does the person add to the age diversity of the team? We have already discussed the importance of other types of diver- sity, such as cultural diversity, to team success. However, don’t overlook the importance of age diversity to group success. Williams (2011) points out this interesting fact from research on 700 Nobel Prize winners: “. . . game-changing ideas rarely occur before 30 because of the amount of time it takes to get educated and master the knowledge in a particular discipline” (p. 388). Therefore, a mix of younger and older team members will provide both the optimism and knowledge needed to inspire group creativity.

Whether teams are designed to solve problems, manage daily operations, or create new ideas and products, begin by selecting the right members. Once you have a team that clicks on all cylinders, keep them together as long as possible. A good team is hard to recreate.

QUESTIONS Which issue for selecting team members do you think is the most important and which do you think is the least important? Why? Support your answers by relating your ideas to a successful or unsuccessful team of which you are aware. What other issues, if any, do you think are crucial to selecting effective team members?

DILEMMAS IN COMMUNICATION

CHAPTER 9 SMALL-GROUP COMMUNICATION AND PROBLEM SOLVING 285

COMMUNICATION SITUATION Group Discussion: Gaming in the workplace. A team of workers (Ben, Bill, Joelle, Ravit, and Ted) from a nonprofit organi- zation are discussing adding gaming as a way to ease employee tensions to their organization. The meeting is already in progress. What role does each participant play in this group? You can use the CourseMate website for Communicat- ing for Results to answer this question online after you’ve watched a video clip of this Communication Situation. If requested, email your responses to your instructor. Ravit: Ok, everyone, so you may remember that in our meeting last month we discussed a troubling trend in the growing number of compassion fatigue cases among our vol- unteers. We all agreed that inner-city hunger is often a stressful topic to deal with, particularly on a regular basis. So we decided to do something to help our volunteers. Ted: I’m glad we’re moving forward with an action plan. Ravit: [nodding in agreement/acknowledgement] You may also recall that of the solutions suggested, there were two that seemed the most useful to ex- plore further. We asked two of our employees, Joelle and Jim, to take on re- searching one of those topics and lead us in an informed discussion of them today. Joelle, why don’t you start us out? Joelle: Thanks, Ravit. Ok, so I looked into the possibility of implementing a gam- ing program for our volunteers. I was actually really surprised by the amount of work that’s being done with gaming in the workplace right now, particularly for nonprofit workplaces like ours. I really feel like our volunteers can benefit from a gaming program. But first I’d like to get a little feedback. What do you think of when you think of gaming? Ted: Well, I think of playing Nintendo when I was a kid. Super Mario Brothers and Duck Hunt. [He mimes shooting the plastic Nintendo gun at the wall, every- one laughs.] Ben: [Rolling his eyes.] I think of people wasting time on their computers all day, battling mythical creatures with strangers over the Internet. Joelle: Well, yes, both of these scenarios are definitely part of the gaming cul- ture. And the people playing online that Ben is talking about are closely linked to what I found for us—though I don’t think any of you will see it as a waste of time. Ben: I really can’t see our volunteers getting anything useful from battling a level ten Orc with a sword made invincible by a wizard. Joelle: Whoa, you really know your World of Warcraft, Ben, don’t you? [Everyone laughs and Ben half laughs and half grumbles.] But our volunteers

Cengage Learning

Ben, Bill, Joelle, Ravit, and Ted.

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286 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

wouldn’t be battling Orcs or dealing with wizards—at least not at work—they would be playing games related to hunger. They would be working with other people in an online community to use reason and problem solving to solve hunger issues at a local, national, and even global level. Ravit: Very interesting. But how would this help our volunteers with com- passion fatigue? Joelle: Well, so often our volunteers engage with the topic of hunger from a very negative place. They see people suffer regularly and constantly have to deal with the frustrations of the monetary side of solving a problem this big—this can cause the sort of emotional exhaustion that we call compas- sion fatigue. But getting to engage with hunger in a place where they have unlimited resources to deal with it—as they would in the fictional world of gaming—could reinvigorate them and make them feel excited again about taking on this issue again, renew their passion. Jim: Were you able to do any research about how to alleviate the problem? Joelle: Yes. In a book I read by Jill Clayburg, a gaming expert, she pointed out that it’s been proven that engaging a real-world issue in a fictional space of limitless possibility—like in gaming—can lead to the formation of new and unique ways of approaching the problem. People who played games within the World Health Organization on the issue of vaccination in poorer countries were able to generate original and applicable solu- tions to the problem when they were taken out of the confines of the “real world” and its limited resources. Ted: Who knew we could learn so much from Super Mario Brothers? Joelle: You’re a wise man, Ted. Jim, I’d like to hear what you’ve found. I don’t think these two solutions necessarily need to be mutually exclusive.

This interesting discussion continues. To watch the entire video called “Gaming in the Workplace,” go to the CourseMate website for Communicating for Results.

Team decision making is not the answer to all business or profes- sional problems, but, when used correctly, it can be quite effec- tive. Now that you have read this chapter, you should feel more confident about participating in and even leading committees or other small groups. Most typically, you will be asked to work in small groups to solve problems. Unfortunately, problem solving can be one of the most difficult group tasks. Teams can be ef- fective problem solvers if they are well organized, receive train- ing in problem solving, carefully examine members’ assumptions and opinions, evaluate all possible solutions, avoid groupthink, manage cultural diversity, and operate virtually when needed. If the group follows the basic problem-solving procedure outlined

in this chapter, decision making can be less frustrating and more productive. The six steps of basic problem solving are to (a) define the problem, (b) research and analyze the problem, (c) establish a checklist of criteria, (d) list possible alternatives, (e) evaluate each alternative, and (f) select the best alternative. This six-step procedure can be altered to fit most group or individual problems. For example, to practice the procedure, why not use it to solve family problems at home? Because your family group will not be familiar with the process, you will not have to use the terminology discussed here. A skilled leader, regardless of the setting, can guide a group through the six steps without the group even being aware of the process.

287

SUMMARY

KEY TERMS asynchronous technologies (271) basic problem-solving procedure (272) brainstorming (279) compromise (283) computer-mediated

communication (CMC) (271) consensus (283) criteria (276) decision making (272) elaboration likelihood model (ELM) (271)

electronic brainstorming (EBS) (280) face-to-face (FTF) (271) groupthink (268) learning groups (264) must criteria (276) nominal group technique (NGT) (280) operational criteria (276) problem solving (271) problem-solving groups (264)

questions of fact (273) questions of policy (273) questions of value (273) self-maintenance groups (264) small-group communication (262) synchronous technologies (271) task criteria (276) vote (283) want criteria (276)

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CHAPTER REVIEW9

288

Before continuing to the next chapter, check your understanding of Chapter 9 at the Speech Communication CourseMate for Com- municating for Results. CourseMate gives you quick and easy ac- cess to this text’s resources to help improve your communication skills and prepare you for quizzes and exams. These resources include: ● Study tools including the student companion workbook,

digital glossary, flashcards, and review quizzes. ● Activities and assignments including Awareness Checks,

Checkpoints, and Collaborative Learning Activities. ● Media resources such as Web Links (explore communica-

tion concepts); and Speech Builder Express (develop your speech outlines); Interactive Video Activities (watch and critique videos of professional communication situa- tions and sample speeches); Speech Studio (upload your speech videos for peer reviewing and critique other students’ speeches).

For more information or to access this book’s online resources, visit cengagebrain.com.

Collaborative Learning Activities 1. In small groups, practice writing good discussion questions

by first evaluating what is wrong in each of the following discussion questions and then rewriting each question to conform to the guidelines in this chapter.

a. Should city police departments purchase foreign or American patrol cars?

b. Should something be done to alter the ridiculous prices charged smart phone users for data plans?

c. What can be done to help eliminate waste in the federal government?

2. In small groups, practice brainstorming by listing the quali- ties you look for in a teacher—stop at the end of 2 minutes. Count your list and compare its length with other group lists. Discuss which of the rules for effective brainstorming gave your group the most trouble and why. Discuss how to divide your list of qualities into wants and musts. Keep your must list relatively short—if you have too many musts, you will never be able to find a teacher that meets them all. When finished, rank the wants from most important to least

important striving to get a group consensus. Compare your list with other groups.

3. Career Activity: Assume that someone in your organization must be transferred to a branch store and that the decision as to who will be transferred has been left to the employ- ees. The branch store is 85 miles from your current store, and all jobs in this organization are considered functionally equivalent. In groups of three to seven, establish criteria to determine who should be transferred. Start the process by using nominal group technique, with everyone making an individual list. Then, using a flip chart or markerboard, fol- low the instruction on page 280 to make a complete list. Have group members write down their top five choices. Then continue the NGT method by determining how many people voted for each criterion. Continue the process un- til you determine by a process of votes, your group’s top three criteria. Be prepared to share your final three criteria. When finished, discuss whether NGT or brainstorming would be the most productive in the workplace and why.

4. Career Activity: Watch the video for the “Communication Situation: Gaming in the Workplace” and read the text of the situation on pages 285–286. In groups of three to five, complete the following:

a. What role does each team member play in the discus- sion? Which team member was the strongest? Which was the weakest? Why?

b. Based on the information on characteristics of effective teams covered in this chapter, which characteristics best described this team? Give reasons for your answers.

c. Did the discussion follow the suggested procedure for solving a problem? How could the structure of the dis- cussion be improved?

d. Discuss what you learned from this exercise that can benefit you in your career.

5. In small groups, review the Dilemmas in Communication box on page 284. If your team members have additional sugges- tions or criteria to use when selecting people to work on teams, add them to the list. Then, rank-order all the sugges- tions from most important to least important. Share your ranked list with other groups and be prepared to defend your decisions if asked.

COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS ONLINE

CHAPTER 10 PARTICIPATION AND LEADERSHIP IN TEAMS 289

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Andersen Ross/Digital Vision/Getty Images

10 SUMMARIZE the communication skills needed by effective team members and why these skills are so important.

DEFINE task, maintenance, and dysfunctional roles as used by effective team participants, and briefly list and explain the group behaviors that fall under each category.

DESCRIBE each of the different types of leadership described in this chapter and explain what contribution each makes to the person learning to be an effective leader.

IDENTIFY the leader’s responsibilities during a team meeting.

As you read chapter 10...

PARTICIPATION AND LEADERSHIP IN TEAMS

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apathy and ineffective leadership. The following information is just a sample of additional mind-boggling facts now known (Brinkley, 2006; Heerden & Bryan, 2006; Horne, 2006):

● The USS Bataan hospital ship was ready off the coast with 600 hospital beds, six operating rooms, and the capability to make 100,000 gallons of water per day—it was not used by FEMA.

● The state Department of Wildlife and Fisheries “had appealed to FEMA’s headquarters in Denton, Texas for 300 rubber rafts”—later upped to 1,000. They were denied because of possible “debris” in the water (Horne, 2006, p. 89).

● The Department of the Interior (a federal organization) “with hundreds of boats available for rescue work” never got a return call from FEMA, so no boats were deployed (Horne, p. 89).

● On Monday, Brown sent out a press release stating, “It is critical that fire and emergency departments across the country remain in their jurisdictions until such time as the affected states request assistance” (Brown, 2005). For those who came anyway, many were sent home by the Na- tional Guard, which had been instructed by FEMA to “keep emergency responders out” so local, state, and federal of- ficials could become “well coordinated” (Brinkley, 2006, p. 254). FEMA employees “were mortified” (p. 251).

All this happened even after a week-long Hurricane Pam exercise conducted by FEMA in 2004 was designed to clarify “who would be doing what during an actual hurricane emergency” in New Orleans—especially in case

As you read this chapter... See if you can determine (a) what specific factors made the handling of evacuees so difficult; (b) what leader- ship style was used by Brown—was it the best for handling a disaster of such magnitude; and (c) which organization model from Chapter 2 best describes FEMA, and what role did this model play in this disaster?

290

) what leader- t

CASE STUDY

When Hurricane Katrina struck Louisiana in August 2005, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) responded with mixed leadership. Although FEMA leadership in Baton Rouge was excellent, the leadership shown in New Orleans by FEMA director Michael Brown was completely ineffective (Brinkley, 2006; Heerden & Bryan, 2006; Horne, 2006).

Hurricane Katrina made landfall slightly east of the down- town area on a Monday morning, and as late as Tuesday, federal officials thought that the city had “dodged the bullet.” In actual fact, the storm surge had created breaches in the flood walls around New Orleans, and millions of gallons of water a minute were pouring into the city, eventually flooding 148 square miles of urban land, killing at least 1,300 people, and trapping thou- sands on rooftops and in hotels (Horne, 2006; Hudson, 2006). FEMA director Brown had been apprised of the dire conditions in New Orleans on Monday evening, but failed to take any action. He even prevented others from dealing with the prob- lems, which resulted in the absence of needed personnel, sup- plies, buses, planes, and rescue boats.

When the only FEMA employee in New Orleans on Monday morning, Marty Bahamonde, realized the seriousness of the sit- uation, he informed FEMA immediately, which in turn promised food, water trucks, and medical teams (Horne, 2006, p. 52). That evening, when very few of these resources had arrived, he spoke directly with Brown, informing him that the levees had been breached; the city was under water; thousands were trapped on rooftops across town; 20,000 hungry people were camped out in the Superdome; 30,000 tourists were trapped in hotels with no power; and hospitals were not responding to his calls (pp. 58–59).

At that point, Brown sent a memo to Michael Chertoff, secretary of Homeland Security, requesting that 1,000 employ- ees from the Department of Homeland Security be made avail- able in 2 days and that 2,000 more report in 7 days (Brinkley, 2006, p. 272). The next morning, Brown flew to New Orleans with the Louisiana governor and senators to meet with Mayor Ray Nagin—but he brought no supplies or staff. Before Brown left, Bahamonde twice reiterated how dire the situation was and stressed the hungry and dehydrated people in the dome and the need for oxygen and toilet paper. He told Brown, “Sir, the situation is past critical.” Brown responded, “Thanks for the update. Anything specific I need to do or tweak?” (Horne, 2006, p. 64). Brown’s response expressed perfectly his seeming

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of catastrophic flooding (Heerden & Bryan, 2006, p. 149) and after senior FEMA professionals in 2004 expressed to Brown their grave concerns over “unprepared teams and zero funding for training, exercises and team equip- ment” (Kagan et al., 2006).

Brown resigned as FEMA director in September, 2005. For more information on Hurricane Katrina, go to the Louisiana State University website at Katrina.LSU.edu and browse for information. You can find easy access to this site via CourseMate, the website for Communicating for Results.

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The basic problem-solving procedure presented in Chapter 9 is a useful way for teams to organize their decision-making processes. As we saw in the opening story about FEMA, poor organization can cause team failure. However, for a small group or team to operate effectively, it must be more than well organized and well trained (as covered in Chapter 9). It also must have team members who know how to participate effectively and leaders who know how to lead. For example, have you ever been on a team for which members often wait for the leader to initiate each step, but then become angry when the leader does so? As a result, they feel that they play no real part in the decision-making process. On the other hand, leaders are often confused about their role as well. They want to let team members make decisions but believe that leaders should hold firm control if the team is to accomplish anything.

To help you avoid such problems in your teams, this chapter discusses effec- tive team participation and effective team leadership.

EFFECTIVE TEAM PARTICIPANTS HAVE GOOD COMMUNICATION SKILLS For successful communication to occur, team members must successfully use the communication skills of commitment and preparation, active listening, open- mindedness, and flexibility in dealing with people of different personality types.

Commitment and Preparation Effective team members come to their meetings committed and prepared. A committed member is one who is willing to devote time and energy to the team by faithful attendance and is committed to supporting the final decision of the team. When the facts and figures presented during a discussion point to a solution that is agreeable to all but a few members, the majority opinion must stand until new evidence is presented. In the business world, members who are not willing to support their team’s final decisions are not committed members. This does not mean that the members should avoid disagreement or productive conflict during the discussion, but once a solution is reached, it should be supported by everyone on the team.

Effective team members also prepare carefully for each meeting. Obviously, meetings run more smoothly when members are prepared. Probably the best way to prepare for a problem-solving discussion is to work through the six basic problem-solving steps—as discussed in Chapter 9—before the meeting. Come prepared with facts, possible criteria, and possible solutions. Be prepared to research and discuss all pertinent viewpoints and alternatives, thereby avoiding groupthink.

292 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Active Listening Many times when we are discussing a problem in a group, we listen to gather ammunition for our rebuttals and to determine when to in- sert our viewpoints. Active listening, however, requires us to listen from the speaker’s viewpoint. The active listener:

1. Receives the speaker’s total message—verbal, visual, and nonverbal. 2. Interprets the speaker’s meaning as closely as possible. 3. Checks the interpreted meaning for accuracy by rephrasing it for the speaker. 4. Repeats steps 1 through 3 until the speaker is satisfied with the interpretation.

Only after you are sure you understand the speaker’s argument should you present your views. This type of active listening is necessary for effective group participation.

Open-Mindedness While preparing for a group discussion, team members sometimes become convinced that a certain solution is best. They come to the discussion prepared to convince the other members to agree with their choice. If all participants were equally closed-minded, the discus- sion would become a debate. Productivity would decrease, and the meeting would drag on.

Productive team discussion requires that members listen with an open mind and respect others’ views (LaFasto & Larson, 2001). But open-mindedness does not mean that there will be no disagreement. Conflict over opinions can stimu- late the team’s thinking. If no one disagreed, the group could fall into a group- think pattern and arrive at a risky or unsuccessful decision.

Open-minded participants try to reach a decision that benefits the group or company as a whole. They work together as a team, not as unyielding advocates of a particular position.

For effective group participation to occur, team members must be committed and prepared, active listeners, open-minded participants, and able to communicate with teammates of different personality types.

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Effective Personality Types Productive team discussion also requires that members respect and work with the differing personality types of their team- mates. Depending on their personality, people interact with others, gather data, make decisions, and orient their lives differently especially during times of crisis. Five personality characteristics often referred to as the “Big Five” personality fac- tors are considered important in successful teams (Daft & Marcic, 2013, p. 409): 1. Extroversion—how “outgoing, talkative, assertive, and comfortable with in-

terpersonal relationships” the team member may be. 2. Agreeableness—how well the team member gets “along with others by being

good-natured, likable, forgiving, understandable, and trusting.”

The Big Five Personality Factors Questionnaire DIRECTIONS: The following phrases describe various traits and behaviors. Rate how accurately each statement describes you, based on a scale of 1 (low) to 5 (high) accuracy. You can also fill out this questionnaire online using the CourseMate website for Communicating for Results.

EXTROVERSION I am usually the life of the party. 1 2 3 4 5 I feel comfortable around people. 1 2 3 4 5 I am talkative. 1 2 3 4 5

AGREEABLENESS I am kind and sympathetic. 1 2 3 4 5 I have a good word for everyone. 1 2 3 4 5 I never insult people. 1 2 3 4 5

CONSCIENTIOUSNESS I am systematic and efficient. 1 2 3 4 5 I pay attention to details. 1 2 3 4 5 I am always prepared for meetings. 1 2 3 4 5

EMOTIONAL STABILITY I usually feel proud and pleased with myself. 1 2 3 4 5 I am happy for other people when they receive special recognition. 1 2 3 4 5 I am a relaxed and cheerful person. 1 2 3 4 5

OPENNESS TO NEW EXPERIENCES I am imaginative. 1 2 3 4 5 I am open to new ideas and like to try new things. 1 2 3 4 5 I find it easy to discover creative solutions to problems. 1 2 3 4 5

INTERPRETATION: Determine which traits are your most prominent. If you have a moderate to high degree of each personality factor, you are likely to be an effective team member. If you have a low degree in any factor, be especially aware of how you communicate in future discussions.

Based on Daft, R. L., & Marcic, D. (2013). Understanding management (8th ed.). Mason, OH: South-Western, Cengage Learning, p. 410.

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3. Conscientiousness—how well the team member focuses on team goals in a “responsible, dependable, persistent, and achievement oriented” manner.

4. Emotional stability—how “calm, enthusiastic, and self-confident, rather than tense, depressed, moody, or insecure” the team member is.

5. Openness to experience—the degree to which the team member “has a broad range of interests and is imaginative, creative, artistically sensitive, and will- ing to consider new ideas.”

EFFECTIVE TEAM PARTICIPANTS PERFORM NEEDED TASK AND MAINTENANCE ROLES Team members are responsible for 80% of the success of an organization (Tubbs, 2009), but this success occurs only when members display good communication skills and are able to perform needed task and maintenance roles while handling any nonfunctional behaviors that may appear in the team.

Task and Maintenance Roles Just as we perform numerous roles in our lives—as a spouse, a student, a mem- ber of the church board, a manager, and a friend—so we may perform many task and maintenance roles in the life of a group (Benne & Sheats, 1948; Mudrack & Farrell, 1995). Task roles are functions that must be performed if the group is to accomplish its task or solve its problem. Maintenance roles are functions that must be performed to maintain the interpersonal relationships and harmony of the group. The number of task and maintenance roles that need to be performed in a particular group depends on the personalities of the group members, the goal of the group, and even the leadership style of the leader (see the section on “Situational Leadership Theory,” below). Task roles are stressed more by the traditional/classical manager, whereas maintenance roles are stressed more by the human relations manager (see Chapter 2).

The following lists give examples of various task and maintenance roles (Benne & Sheats, 1948; Keyton, 1999, pp. 65–66). Group Task Roles

● Initiate. Propose new ideas, procedures, goals, and solutions to get the dis- cussion started.

● Give information. Supply evidence and experiences relevant to the task. ● Seek information. Request and clarify information from other members. ● Give opinions. State beliefs, attitudes, and judgments. ● Seek opinions. Solicit and clarify opinions and feelings of others. ● Elaborate. Clarify and expand the ideas of others through examples, illustra-

tions, and explanations. ● Energize. Stimulate the group to be energetic and active. ● Review. Summarize the discussion throughout. ● Record. Record group suggestions and decisions.

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Group Maintenance Roles

● Encourage. Provide a warm, supportive interpersonal climate by praising and agreeing with others (especially important during conflict).

● Harmonize. While recognizing the value of conflict to a group, members reconcile differences in a productive manner. Compromise and mediation may be used when necessary.

● Relieve tension. When necessary, relax the atmosphere through informality or humor.

● Gatekeep. Control the flow of communication: Draw the nontalkers into the discussion, and tactfully cut off the monopolizers and other dysfunc- tional members in an attempt to give all members an equal chance to com- municate. The positive behaviors of task and maintenance functions are necessary in groups. Gatekeepers are needed to minimize nonfunctional behaviors.

Dysfunctional Behaviors Some behaviors are dysfunctional because they serve individual needs while inhibiting group needs. Although these behaviors often cause problems, some of them can also stimulate healthy conflict and jar a group out of its groupthink pattern. Some of the common dysfunctional behaviors of group members are listed here (Benne & Sheets, 1948; Keyton, 1999, pp. 66–67).

Dysfunctional Behavior

● Blocking. Constantly putting down the ideas and suggestions of others. ● Aggression. Insulting and criticizing other members, perhaps out of jealousy

or dislike. ● Storytelling. Luring the group off track with irrelevant stories, often very

interesting. ● Recognition seeking. Calling attention to personal achievements and

successes. ● Dominating. Monopolizing group interaction; often, domination is the

result of excellent preparation and involvement in the discussion. ● Confessing. Using the group as a sounding board for personal problems and

feelings. ● Special-interest pleading. Representing the interest of another group, regard-

less of whether or not it fits the topic being discussed. ● Distracting. Distracting the

group with antics, jokes, and comments at inappro- priate moments.

● Withdrawing. Participat- ing very little or not at all, possibly from lack of preparation, nervous- ness, or the climate of the group.

Revisiting the Case Study... Were FEMA’s problems mainly due to poor leadership, ineffective team participation, or poor training? What solutions would you recommend?

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Handling Dysfunctional Behaviors When it is obvious that dysfunc- tional behaviors are causing unproductive conflict, handle them with care and tact. The key to handling these behaviors lies in the reason for them. Care- ful observation of both the verbal and the nonverbal behaviors of these team members should give the gatekeeper or leader valuable clues to their motives. Although the appointed leader often takes responsibility for handling dys- functional behaviors, committed team members should be willing to help as well. Here are some helpful hints for minimizing the effect of dysfunctional behaviors:

● Plan your opening remarks carefully. When you are the leader, open the meeting with a reference to the short time allotted for the meeting and request that all remarks be brief and specific. Mention that you will be interrupting conversations when necessary to keep the discussion on track. Listing expected topics or the criteria for performance is surpris- ingly effective in directing group behavior. Most members are willing to conform to necessary limitations as long as they know what they are and the reasons for them.

● If you know ahead of time that a person with potentially dysfunctional behavior will be present, seat the person immediately next to the leader. It is easier to bypass a person in this position. If the leader is sitting on one side of a rectangular table, make sure the person with dysfunctional behavior is not at one of the ends of the table (the traditional power seats) or across from the leader, where direct eye contact is impossible to avoid.

● Avoid direct eye contact with anyone performing dysfunctional behaviors. Eye contact in American society is a nonverbal signal that encourages talk- ing. Therefore, when asking a question of the group, look only at those to whom you wish to speak.

● Assign dysfunctional members specific tasks to keep them occupied. For example, ask them to help you relieve tension during the sure-to-come tense moments or to be the recorder. By having to concentrate on their tasks, these nonfunctional people will likely become productive team members.

● Ask members to speak in a specific order to make sure that everyone gets a chance to participate. Such regimentation will make the group more formal, however, and should be used only when necessary.

● When a person who is displaying a dysfunctional behavior stops to take a breath, break in! Briefly summarize the previous comments, or quickly ask someone else for an opinion. Don’t ask, “Is that correct?” He or she will sim- ply begin speaking again.

● Place an extremely talkative member between two extremely quiet members. Such seating seems to stimulate the quiet members and restrain the talkative member.

● Encourage withdrawers by giving only positive feedback to their comments or by asking them specific questions.

● Give praise and encouragement when possible to those who seem to need it, including the distracters, the blockers, and the withdrawn.

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EFFECTIVE TEAM LEADERSHIP In addition to an organized procedure and committed participants with good communication skills, an effective team must have good leadership. Without it, situations like Brown’s handling of Hurricane Katrina (covered in the chapter case study) can occur. With good leadership, even complicated and stressful situations can be handled effectively—see the It Really Works box on page 305 for an example.

There are many theories of leadership (Table 10.1). Research does not com- pletely validate any of these theories, and they are not all equally helpful to those who want advice on how to become a good leader. Therefore, we summarize here the theories that are the most important if you wish to assess your leadership skills.

Trait Theory of Leadership Do you believe that some people are “born leaders”? Such a belief is based on the trait theory of leadership, which claims that a person must have certain traits to become a leader. Although it may be helpful and even desirable for a leader to have such traits as self-confidence or flexibility, research on leadership does not

BEHAVIOR THEORIES

Trait Leaders are born with certain leader characteristics.

Two-dimension Leaders have either task orientation or people orientation (Stogdill, 1948).

Function Leadership is determined by a set of functions—task functions and maintenance functions. Anyone can perform functions, thereby sharing leadership responsibility (Benne & Sheats, 1948).

Three-dimension Leader behavior is thought of in terms of three basic styles: autocratic, democratic, or laissez-faire (White & Lippitt, 1968).

SITUATIONAL THEORIES

Situational contingency Leader style determined by (a) leader–member relations, (b) how clearly task is structured, (c) leader’s power position (strong or weak). Different leader styles successful in different sets of circumstances. Leaders normally don’t change styles (Fiedler, 1967, 1996).

Situational leadership Leaders can change styles to fit the situation. Which of four styles to use—delegating, participating, sell- ing, or telling—depends on the ability and willingness of subordinates to carry out the task (Hersey & Blanchard, 1996; Hersey et al., 2007).

Path–goal Leader effectiveness depends on leader’s abilities and group’s needs. Leader is responsible for assisting followers in attaining their goals while providing needed direction—making the path to those goals clear (House, 1971; House & Aditya, 1997).

MORE RECENT THEORIES

Normative decision Provides a step-by-step guide for selecting one of five basic decision-making strategies (Vroom & Yetton, 1973; revised by Vroom & Jago, 1988).

Transformational A charismatic leadership style that inspires employees to exceptional performance, enthusiasm, and loyalty (Bass, 1985, 1995; Burns, 1978).

Servant leadership Leadership that begins with service to others and concentrates on empowering and developing followers (Greenleaf, 1970, 1977; van Dierendonck, 2011).

TABLE 10.1 LEADERSHIP THEORIES ©

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completely support the trait theory. Keith Davis (1972) reports the following:

Research has produced such a variegated list of traits presumably to describe leadership that for all practical purposes it describes nothing. Fifty years of study have failed to produce one personality trait or set of qualities that can be used to discriminate between leaders and nonleaders. (p. 3)

In a search for leader traits, scholars like Stogdill (1948) have reviewed thou- sands of books and research articles on leadership and management and failed to find any “magic” traits that fit all leaders in all situations (see also Bass, 1995). In more recent reviews of trait research (Kellett et al., 2006; Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991; Kouzes & Posner, 2002), researchers report that successful leaders do seem to be different from less successful leaders: Successful leaders are more likely to be ambitious, fair-minded, inspiring, empathetic, trustworthy, motivated to lead, self-confident, able to integrate and interpret large amounts of information, knowledgeable of their industry and of technical matters, creative, and able to adapt to people and situations.

Even so, most experts believe that good leaders are not born, they are trained. Practically anyone willing to spend the time in training can become a team lead- er. People who seem to be natural leaders have usually observed leaders (perhaps a parent or mentor) and had leadership experience (various clubs and organiza- tions). Determine your leadership traits in the following Awareness Check.

Leadership Trait Questionnaire The main benefit of trait theory is that you can use it to indicate leadership characteristics that are strengths and those needing some long-term improvement. To determine your leadership traits, complete the following questionnaire. You can also complete this activity online. Go to cengagebrain.com to access your Speech Communication CourseMate for Communicating for Results.

DIRECTIONS: You and two other individuals should complete the following questionnaire about you as a leader. Indicate the degree that each adjective describes you (as leader) and see how closely their perceptions match yours. 5 = Strongly Agree 4 = Agree 3 = Neutral 2 = Disagree 1 = Strongly Disagree Rater One Rater Two Your Rating

1. Motivated to lead—wants challenge and responsibility. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 2. Adaptable—in handling conflict and the unexpected. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 3. Confident—in self and decision-making. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 4. Trustworthy—honest and dependable with others. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 5. Fairminded—listens to and is respectful of other’s opinions. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 6. Knowledgable—of business field and related technology. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 7. Inspiring—motivates and encourages others. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 8. Goal oriented—focuses on meeting objectives. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

INTERPRETATION: Realizing that these traits will require time to achieve, which two traits are most like you and need the least work; which two traits are the least like you and need the most development?

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Function Theory of Leadership Suppose that you have just been promoted to supervisor and the first day with your new employees will be in 1 week. Or suppose that your boss has asked you to lead a problem-solving team that will meet in 2 weeks. Is it possible to train yourself to be a leader in 1 or 2 weeks? Not if you believe in the trait theory! You could have a nervous breakdown trying to acquire Kirkpatrick and Locke’s (1991) list of “successful leadership characteristics”: ambitious, trustworthy, motivated, self-confident, intelligent, knowledgeable, creative, and flexible. How long would it take to train yourself to be ambitious, self-confident, and creative? Thinking of leadership as a list of personality traits is counterproductive.

Instead, think of leadership as activity composed of various functions or roles (Benne & Sheats, 1948; Keyton, 1999, pp. 65–67; Sayles, 1993). The func- tion theory claims that there are certain functions or roles that must be per- formed if a group is to be successful. Any time you perform one of these roles, you are the leader for that period of time.

As mentioned previously, leadership may be defined as the use of power to promote the goal accomplishment and maintenance of the group (Johnson & Johnson, 2002). In other words, the leader is a person (or persons) who per- forms the task and maintenance roles discussed previously in this chapter. In many groups, the appointed leader performs most of the task and maintenance roles. However, in democratic groups in which the members are committed and involved, the leadership functions or roles are shared. Because it is difficult for one person, the designated leader, to guide a group through the basic problem- solving procedure and, at the same time, to be aware of all the roles that need to be performed, another member can handle some leadership roles. For example, you may be sitting next to someone who has been trying to participate in the conversation for several minutes, but the leader and the other members are so involved in what’s being said that they haven’t noticed. When you say, “Carol has a point she wishes to make,” you are performing gatekeeping, an important leadership role. Furthermore, in some groups the appointed leader is inept, and the only way the group will succeed is for one or more members to emerge as the real leaders. If you wish to develop leadership skills, begin by simply learning to perform the task and maintenance roles discussed previously. The Awareness Check below will help you assess your task and maintenance skills.

Leadership Function Questionnaire DIRECTIONS: After you have participated in at least one group discussion, complete the following questionnaire indicating how often you performed each task and maintenance function. You can also complete this activity online. Go to cengagebrain.com to access your Speech Communication CourseMate for Communicating for Results.

1 = Never 2 = Once 3 = Twice 4 = A few times 5 = Several times 1. Initiator (proposed new ideas, procedures, goals, etc., to get the discussion started) 1 2 3 4 5 2. Information giver/seeker (supplied evidence and experiences/requested

information and ideas from others) 1 2 3 4 5

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Leadership Styles or Three-Dimension Theory of Leadership To become a skilled leader, you should be aware of your leadership style (the way you handle yourself and others in a group). The leadership styles or three- dimension theory of leadership describes three different leadership styles: au- thoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire. Barge (1994, pp. 203–204) summarizes the three main leadership styles as follows:

● Authoritarian leadership style. Leaders are central authority figures who re- tain a high degree of control and power over their followers. Leaders make the decisions, whereas followers’ participation in decision making is mini- mal. Leaders use one-way communication.

● Democratic leadership style. Leaders and followers make decisions to- gether and jointly determine courses of action. They are viewed more as equals because two-way communication exists between leaders and followers.

● Laissez-faire leadership style. This style of leadership is best characterized by leaders who are not involved with the team’s decision making. . . . Team members make work assignments and evaluate task completion among themselves.

Authoritarian Leader The authoritarian leadership style is similar to the traditional organization model, Theory X, and the dominant communication style discussed in Chapters 2 and 3.

● Advantages: The team reaches a solution quickly, often makes few errors, and gets more work accomplished than groups that get bogged down in detailed discussion. Also, large groups often need an authoritarian leader to maintain control.

● Disadvantages: Members may develop a dependence on the leader rather than a trust in their own abilities and initiative, and they tend to display more

3. Opinion giver/seeker (stated beliefs and judgments/ asked others for opinions and feelings) 1 2 3 4 5 4. Elaborator (clarified and expanded ideas of others through examples and illustrations) 1 2 3 4 5 5. Energizer (stimulated group to be energetic and active) 1 2 3 4 5 6. Reviewer/recorder (summarized group’s opinion and/or kept official record of discussion) 1 2 3 4 5 7. Encourager (helped provide a supportive climate by praising and supporting the ideas of others) 1 2 3 4 5 8. Harmonizer (helped group members settle differences in productive manner) 1 2 3 4 5 9. Tension reliever (helped relieve tense situations by poking fun or using humor) 1 2 3 4 5

10. Gatekeeper (encouraged nontalkers/tactfully cut off monopolizers and nonfunctional members) 1 2 3 4 5

INTERPRETATION: Roles that received a 4 or 5 show leadership skill. Roles that received a 1 or 2 need additional improvement for effective leadership performance.

Adapted from Benne, K. D., & Sheats, P. (1948). “Functional roles and group members.” Journal of Social Issues, 4, 41–49. © 1948 The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues. Reprinted by permission.

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discontent and even hostility with their low level of participation. Manz and Sims (2001) found group hostility to be 30 times greater with autocratic teams than with democratic teams.

● Level of use is declining. Wagner and Hollenbeck (2010) note, “In today’s project-oriented, team-driven business environment, autocratic leadership is becoming more and more rare” (p. 225).

Democratic Leader The democratic leadership style is similar to the hu- man resources model, Theory Y, and the open communication style discussed in Chapters 2 and 3.

● Advantages: Motivation, initiative, and creativity are higher than in auto- cratic groups. Also, under democratic leadership, team members experience a high level of personal satisfaction and are more committed to the team and its final decision.

● Disadvantages: Tasks take longer to accomplish under a democratic leader because so many employees have ideas to share.

● Level of use is increasing.

In the business world, team commitment to decisions can be important—especially because people tend to resist change. One way to reduce re- sistance to change is to allow employees to share their ideas in small teams and to take part in de- ciding how the change is to take place. People who have been involved in a decision are much more likely to abide by it (even if they aren’t completely happy with it) than people who have not. Therefore, the democratic style of leadership is a good choice when member satisfaction and personal commit- ment are crucial. In fact, Manz and Sims (2001) call democratic leadership that involves and empow- ers team members SuperLeadership; Tubbs (2012) calls this type leadership “the trend in leadership development” (p. 243). Keep in mind, however, that democratic leadership can be difficult and time- consuming. It takes much skill and patience to be- come a good democratic leader.

Laissez-Faire Leader Most groups seem to need more guidance than the laissez-faire leader gives. As a result, this style of leadership tends to result in a low level of group productivity and poor member satisfaction. Only one type of group usually excels with this “nonleader”: a group of highly trained, highly motivated experts (such as a group of vice presidents) who perform leadership roles themselves.

If you are thinking that democratic leadership is always the best choice, be sure to consider the time needed to (a) reach a decision, (b) get group commit- ment, and (c) implement the decision. The chart in Figure 10.1 compares the

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total time for the three leadership styles. Although the autocratic approach is usually assumed to be the fastest, the chart shows that it is actually the slowest when the time required to implement a decision is included. The autocratic

style is quick at reaching a solution but slow at imple- mentation, possibly because group members are not fully committed. The democratic style takes longer to reach a decision but is faster to im- plement, probably because the group is actively involved in the decision.

In general, the autocratic leadership style works best in the following conditions: ● Group agreement is not required for implementation. ● The group is very large. ● Time for a decision is short. ● Tasks are fairly simple.

Democratic leadership is suggested when the following are true: ● Greater employee satisfaction is needed. ● Group commitment is needed for implementation. ● Tasks are complicated and require lengthy discussion. ● Increased productivity is needed. ● Reduced resistance to change is sought.

Selecting the wrong leadership style can result in wasted time, unacceptable solutions, unhappy or hostile employees, and resistance instead of commitment to an idea. To determine which leadership style fits you best, complete the fol- lowing Awareness Check.

Time to implement decision

Time to make decision

Time to deepen commitment

Decision Commitment Implementation

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FIGURE 10.1 Time needed for group decisions Source: Adapted from Marshall Sashkin, M., & Morris, W. C. (1984) Organizational Behavior: Concepts and Experiences (p. 190). Reston, VA: Reston. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ

Revisiting the Case Study... Do you think Brown’s leadership was more auto- cratic, democratic, or laissez-faire? How do you know?

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Situational Contingency Theory of Leadership Another approach to leadership is to adapt to the situation and the contingencies involved. Before choosing a leadership style, you would weigh the style you are most comfortable with, the needs and expectations of the group, the situation, and the goals of the group. For example, if group members expect a good leader to be auto- cratic, they may not perceive you as a good leader if you use the democratic style.

Because of the normal pressures of the business world, the situation may be the primary factor that dictates the most effective leadership style. Fred Fiedler remains the best-known exponent of situational contingency theory (see Chapter 2, p. 55 for a more detailed explanation). In summary, Fiedler (1967, 1978, 1993, 1996) found that leadership in any given situation depends on the power of the leader, the nature of the task, and the relationship between the leader and the team members. He determined task and relationship preferences by how each leader reacted to a “least preferred coworker” (LPC). If you tend to react fairly negatively to coworkers you least like, Fiedler would say you are a low LPC leader (authoritarian), who is more task-oriented than relationship-oriented. If you react fairly positively to coworkers

Leadership Styles Questionnaire DIRECTIONS: Complete the following questionnaire by circling the degree from 1 (never) to 5 (always) to which you, as a leader, would perform each action listed. You can also complete this activity online. Go to cengagebrain.com to access your Speech Communication CourseMate for Communicating for Results. 1 = Never 2 = Seldom 3 = Sometimes 4 = Often 5 = Always

LEADERS SHOULD: 1. Encourage employee participation in decision-making. 1 2 3 4 5 2. Leave employees to their own devices--guidance is not needed. 1 2 3 4 5 3. Provide resources which is the primary job of leaders. 1 2 3 4 5 4. Work together with employees to make decisions. 1 2 3 4 5 5. Monitor employees carefully for laziness. 1 2 3 4 5 6. Allow maximum employee input even if decisions take more time. 1 2 3 4 5 7. Stick to company matters and leave employees to work alone. 1 2 3 4 5 8. Wait for employees to ask for help–no need to volunteer it. 1 2 3 4 5 9. Make decisions rapidly to keep from wasting time. 1 2 3 4 5

10. Make decisions without getting employee approval. 1 2 3 4 5 11. Encourage group consensus in decision-making. 1 2 3 4 5 12. Personally make all final decisions. 1 2 3 4 5

SCORING: Compare your score totals and determine which styles are the most and least dominant in your own leadership.

1. Total your responses for items 5, 10, 9, and 12 = __________ (Authoritarian leadership). 2. Total your responses for items 6, 1, 4, and 11 = __________ (Democratic leadership). 3. Total your responses for items 3, 7, 8, and 2 = __________ (Laissez-faire leadership).

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you least like, he would say you are a high LPC leader (democratic), who is more interested in relationships than tasks. Greenberg (2011) suggests that a directive, low LPC leader would work best for an airline cockpit crew or a military platoon in a dif- ficult battle situation; on the other hand, a high LPC leader would likely be preferred for a research and development team (p. 465).

Researching both leader types, Fiedler found that authoritarian (or low LPC) leadership is more effective at two extremes: When the leader is powerful, the task is well defined, and relations are good; or when the leader has little power, the task is poorly structured, and the leader is disliked by the group. Democratic (or high LPC) leadership is more effective when the three conditions are some- where between the two extremes—when the leader has some power, is moder- ately liked, and the task is somewhat vague.

To determine whether you are more task-oriented or more relationship- oriented, complete the following Awareness Check.

Situational Contingency Leadership Questionnaire DIRECTIONS: Use Fiedler’s Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) Scale to rate a difficult coworker. Do not describe yourself as you answer this questionnaire; instead, describe a person you have major problems working with. Circle the number between each pair of adjectives that best describes this person and record it in the Scores column. When finished, total the Scores column for your LPC score. You can also complete this activity online. Go to cengagebrain.com to access your Speech Communication CourseMate for Communicating for Results.

ADJECTIVES SCORES Pleasant 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Unpleasant __________ Friendly 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Unfriendly __________ Rejecting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Accepting __________ Tense 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Relaxed __________ Distant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Close __________ Cold 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Warm __________ Supportive 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Hostile __________ Boring 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Interesting __________ Quarrelsome 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Harmonious __________ Gloomy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Cheerful __________ Open 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Closed __________ Backbiting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Loyal __________ Untrustworthy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Trustworthy __________ Considerate 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Inconsiderate __________ Nasty 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Nice __________ Agreeable 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Disagreeable __________ Insincere 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Sincere __________ Kind 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Unkind __________

Total: _______________

INTERPRETATION OF TOTAL SCORE: 57 or below indicates that you are more task-oriented; 64 or above indicates that you are more relationship -oriented.

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Situational Leadership Theory Believing that a good leader is flexible and can change styles when needed, Hersey and Blanchard (1996, pp. 516–517; Hersey et al., 2007) describe the fol- lowing four leadership styles—style selection depends on the ability and willing- ness of subordinates to carry out a particular task:

● Delegating style. Employees make and implement decisions on their own. This style works best when employees are both willing and able to do the job.

● Participating style. Employees and leader share in decision making. This style works best when employees have the ability but require encouragement.

● Telling style. Employees receive detailed instructions with close supervision. This style works best when employees are able but lack the knowledge need- ed to do the job.

● Selling or coaching style. Employees receive structured but supportive in- structions. This style is needed when employees have neither the ability nor the willingness to do the job.

Effective Crisis Leadership during Hurricane Katrina In contrast to the poor handling of the disaster in New Orleans covered in the chapter opener, at least one FEMA officer located in Baton Rouge had exceptional leadership—Robert Alvey. The following information comes from Creating an Effective Communication Team (Alvey, 2005).

Two days before Hurricane Katrina touched down, the Louisiana Department of Health and Hospitals (LDHH) prepared a field hospital on the LSU campus in Baton Rouge and began to stockpile supplies. They also requested a crisis communications officer from FEMA, Robert Alvey, to serve as media manager for the hospital and lead LSU’s inexperienced crisis communication team in handling the large number of media expected to descend on the hospital.

The crisis communication team had to work within the field hospital’s nonnegotiable rules: “No disruption of medical care, no talking to patients or medical staff, no identifying images of patients, no more than five or six me- dia per tour, and all media needed to be escorted by armed

security” (p. 12). Alvey had his own unbreakable rules for the team: limit comments to the field hospital’s activities or conditions; talk about the news, don’t make it; and be proactive with the media by establishing the team as “the source” for information.

Under Alvey’s guidance, the team conducted more than 125 media tours and facilitated almost 300 inter- views in one week. They also “produced stock photos and video footage for the media” (p. 12), established their own disaster website, held press conferences, and worked to unite children with missing families. Alvey and his team played a large role in the Baton Rouge success story because they handled evacuee, staff, and media needs rapidly and effectively, allowing the medical teams the time and quiet they needed to concentrate on evacuees.

WHAT DO YOU THINK? Which leadership theory or style do you think Alvey was

using? Would this style work in other hurricane disasters? Why,

or why not?

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Transformational Leadership John F. Kennedy, Martin Luther King, Jr., Steve Jobs, and Oprah Winfrey are examples of transformational leaders, who transformed society with their visions; that is, charismatic leaders who have “the ability to inspire and

Situational Leadership Questionnaire DIRECTIONS: Read each of the following questions and decide which action you would most likely take: A, B, C, or D. A = Let the group members decide what to do. B = Ask members for input, but make the final decision yourself. C = Make the decision yourself, but explain your reasons. D = Make the decision yourself, but tell the group exactly what to do. You can also complete this activity online. Go to cengagebrain.com to access your Speech Communication CourseMate for Communicating for Results.

________ 1. In the face of financial pressures, you are forced to make budget cuts for your unit. Where do you cut? ________ 2. To meet an impending deadline, someone in your secretarial pool will have to work late one evening to finish

typing an important report. Who will it be? ________ 3. As coach of a company softball team, you are required to trim your squad to 25 players from the 30 currently

on the roster. Who goes? ________ 4. Employees in your department have to schedule their summer vacations so as to keep the office appropri-

ately staffed. How is the decision made? ________ 5. As chair of the social committee, you are responsible for determining the theme for the company ball. How do

you do so? ________ 6. You have an opportunity to buy or rent an important piece of equipment for your company. After gathering all

the facts, how do you make the choice? ________ 7. The office is being redecorated. How do you decide on the color scheme? ________ 8. Along with your associates, you are taking a visiting dignitary to dinner. How do you decide what restaurant

to go to?

INTERPRETATION: Delegating score is the number of times you chose A _____. Participating score is the number of times you chose B _____. Selling score is the number of times you chose C _____. Telling score is the number of times you chose D _____.

Source: From Sashkin, M. & Morris, W. C. (1984). Organizational Behavior: Concepts and Experiences (p. 190). Reston, VA: Reston. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc.

AWARENESS CHECK

Although research has yet to prove the validity of this situational leadership theory, companies such as Xerox, Caterpillar, and Mobil Oil have found it a successful tool in their leadership training (Greenberg, 2011, p. 465).

To determine which situational leadership style you tend to prefer, complete the following Awareness Check.

CHAPTER 10 PARTICIPATION AND LEADERSHIP IN TEAMS 307

motivate people to do more than they would normally do, despite obstacles and personal sacrifice” (Daft & Marcic, 2013, p. 460). For example:

● President Kennedy’s vision of putting a man on the moon inspired the “space race” of the 1960s (Greenberg, 2011).

● Rev. King’s “I Have a Dream” speech inspired a national civil rights movement.

● Steve Jobs creative vision took an Apple “on its deathbed in 1996” to an Apple with a “decade-long string of hits— iMac, PowerBook, iPod, iTunes, iPhone, iPad, to list just the blockbusters” (Schlender, 2012, p. 82).

● Oprah Winfrey has inspired millions to read and to better themselves and others through her charisma and accomplishments, including being a winning talk- show host, actor, author, book critic, magazine pub- lisher, producer, and philanthropist (Northouse, 2012, p. 26).

Transformational leadership as shown by the above ex- amples includes the following components:

[Transformational] leadership is charismatic, and followers seek to identify with the leader and emulate him or her. The leadership inspires followers with challenge and persuasion, providing both meaning and understanding. The leadership is intellectually stimulating, expanding the followers’ use of their abilities. Finally, the leadership is individually considerate, providing the follower with support, mentoring, and coach- ing. (Bass & Riggio, 2006, p. 5)

According to Greenberg (2011), transformational leaders do more than “de- velop a vision that is both clear and highly appealing to followers”; they “articu- late a strategy for bringing that vision to life” (p. 454). As Conger (1991) notes, because of this relationship, the transformational leader can “make an appealing dream seem like tomorrow’s reality” (p. 44). In brief, the transformational leader has undeniable charisma (Bass & Riggio, 2006; Greenberg, 2011). Research sup- ports that these leaders are able to improve performance at all levels of their organizations (Bass et al., 2003; Grant, 2012).

Unfortunately, not all charismatic leaders are ethical, as indicated in this chapter’s Ethics Dilemmas in Communication feature. Williams (2011) de- scribes unethical charismatics as leaders who “control and manipulate fol- lowers, do what is best for themselves instead of their organizations, want to hear only positive feedback, share only information that is beneficial to themselves, and have moral standards that put their interests before everyone else’s” (p. 560).

To determine whether you are a transformational leader with charisma, complete the following Awareness Check.

Transformational leaders such as Lynn Tilton, CEO Patriarch Partners, a private equity firm, inspire followers to exceptional performance, enthusiasm, and loyalty.

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LEADER RESPONSIBILITIES Regardless of whether the team is small or large or meeting virtually or face to face, if you are the designated leader, you should be ready to assume certain re- sponsibilities for maximum team success.

Virtual Meetings One of the latest innovations in small-group management is the concept of virtual teams. As discussed previously in the text, a virtual team is composed of members in diverse locations, each with a specific expertise, who rarely meet face to face. Business is conducted electronically, usually either through the Internet, web conferencing, or teleconferencing or videoconferencing. This poses a challenge for leaders: What strategies work best when managing virtual teams? The following suggestions are a good place to begin (Gibson & Cohen, 2003; Kimble (2011); Shockley-Zalabak, (2012); VirtualConnection .biz, 2003):

● Select team members carefully. Look for good communicators who are self-motivated, self-reliant, creative, adaptable, and expert in needed areas.

Charisma Quotient DIRECTIONS: Select an answer for each question. You can also complete this activity online. Go to cengagebrain.com to access your Speech Communication CourseMate for Communicating for Results.

ANSWERS 1. I worry most about (a) my current competitors or (b) my future competitors. ________ 2. I’m most at ease thinking in (a) generalities or (b) specifics. ________ 3. I tend to focus on (a) our missed opportunities or (b) opportunities we’ve seized. ________ 4. I prefer to (a) promote traditions that made us great or (b) create new traditions. ________ 5. I like to communicate an idea via (a) a written report or (b) a one-page chart. ________ 6. I tend to ask (a) “How can we do this better?” or (b) “Why are we doing this?” ________ 7. I believe (a) there’s always a way to minimize risk or (b) some risks are too high. ________

8. When I disagree with my boss, I typically (a) coax him nicely to alter his view or (b) bluntly tell him, “You’re wrong.” ________ 9. I tend to sway people by using (a) emotion or (b) logic. ________ 10. I think this quiz is (a) ridiculous or (b) fascinating. ________

INTERPRETATION: Charismatic leaders answer as follows: 1 (b); 2 (a); 3 (a); 4 (b); 5 (b); 6 (b); 7 (a); 8 (b); 9 (a); 10 (b). If you answered four or fewer questions as listed, you probably don’t have much charisma. Seven or more? You ooze it!

Source: Sellers, P. (1996). What exactly is charisma? Fortune, 133(1), 68–75.

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● Avoid micromanagement. Once you have picked a good team, let them func- tion while still providing structure, clear goals, ground rules, and performance criteria.

● Provide detailed training. Regular team training plus trust-building ex- ercises and training in information and communication technologies is necessary. In The Five Dysfunctions of a Team, Lencioni (2002) says, “Trust lies at the heart of a functioning, cohesive team. Without it, team- work is all but impossible” (p. 195). Trust is even more important in virtual teams.

● Encourage regular and extensive communication. An initial team-building session (face to face if possible) could include sharing a personal fact, pet peeves, hobbies, and photos. Without getting to know each other and feeling like a “team,” members are more likely to blame other members and less likely to take responsibility when problems occur (Walther & Bazarova, 2007). Team building creates morale and trust. Plan regular feedback sessions in which information and resources are shared and hold face-to-face meetings at least once a year if possible—more often is definitely better.

Face-to-Face Meetings When more formal face-to-face meetings are needed, leaders are responsible for including the following (adapted from Guffey & Loewy, 2013, pp. 350–353):

● Inform everyone involved when and where all meetings are to take place. Dis- tribute an agenda whenever possible.

● Select a place for the meeting that will be conducive to effective discussion. Pay attention to the surroundings—make them as pleasant as possible. Comfort- able chairs that can be arranged in a circle are desirable. Serve refreshments if possible.

● Check the facilities a few minutes before the meeting to see that everything needed is in place. It can be disconcerting to discover that the media equip- ment is missing, that there are too few chairs, or that the room has another meeting scheduled at the same time as yours.

● Welcome people as they come in. Handshakes, smiles, and friendly greetings go a long way toward creating a favorable climate.

● Start and end meetings on time. People have busy schedules and are more likely to attend meetings they know will start and end on time.

● Preview and stick to the agenda. Even if the participants already have access to this information, your time will be well spent if you take a few moments to remind them of the points to be discussed. Work to keep the discussion on track.

● Make sure the secretary/recorder is present. If not, appoint someone to keep the minutes.

● Encourage discussion. It is your responsibility to encourage reticent mem- bers of the team to give their points of view and to tactfully block those who try to monopolize or disrupt the discussion.

310 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

● Ask questions skillfully. Don’t get off on side conversations. Know the various types of questions—open- ended, hypothetical open, direct, third-person, and closed—and the kind of responses each type encour- ages. Using a variety of questions can help ensure an intelligent, productive discussion. (See Chapter 7 for types of questions.)

● Listen carefully to all comments, even when you don’t personally agree with the speaker. Make sure your nonver- bal communication shows interest and respect. Team members may look to see how you are responding to various speakers and take their behavior cues from you.

● Summarize. Summarize the main points and decisions as the discus- sion progresses and provide an overall summary at the conclusion.

● See to other necessary task and main- tenance functions. These functions may be performed by members of the group, but it is the responsibility of the leader to make sure that the group ac- complishes its task.

● Thank the participants and the audi- ence (if any). It takes little time for you to express appreciation to the participants and the audience, but it will end the meeting on a positive note.

● Make sure that all people in the orga- nization who need results of the meet- ing are properly informed as soon as possible.

By following these suggestions, you can greatly improve your team’s chances of success.

Can Charisma Turn Bad?

Transformational leaders have a charming, almost hypnotic, way about them called “charisma.” The Greeks defined charisma as “gift from God.” However, there are two types of charismatic leaders: ethical and unethical. Unethical charismatic leaders are interested in the benefit of self over all others. This was certainly true of Enron’s former chief financial officer, Andrew Fastow (Williams, 2011, pp. 560–561).

When Fastow became Enron’s CFO, he was essentially an un- known, yet, “suffering delusions of grandeur after just a little time on the job, Fastow ordered Enron’s PR people to lobby CFO magazine to make him its CFO of the year” (Deutschman, 2005, para. 15). One banker described him this way: “He was so mean in business but so personally delightful” (McLean & Elkind, 2003, p. 139). While Fastow and his team were “creating the financial structures that would allow Enron to hit its profit targets” (p. 141), he was also stealing money directly from Enron. In 2002, his fraudulent deals came to light in court, and Fastow was forced to return $24 million and was sentenced to serve 10 years in federal prison (Deutschman, 2005, para. 15).

Robert Hare, professor emeritus at Columbia, refers to corpo- rate charismatic leaders as corporate psychopaths because they “ruthlessly seek their own selfish interests” (Deutschman, 2005, para. 6). In a personality scale he devised, he says these people score high on Factor 1, which includes eight traits: “glibness and superficial charm; grandiose sense of self-worth; pathological lying; conning and manipulativeness; lack of remorse or guilt; shallow affect [emotional displays to cover coldness]; callousness and lack of empathy; and the failure to accept responsibility for one’s own actions” (para. 12). According to many people who knew him, these traits describe Fastow quite well.

QUESTIONS: Why do you think unethical charismatic leaders are able to fool so many people for so long? Would it be as easy to fool a team of 5 to 15 people? Think about the traits of a corporate psychopath listed by Dr. Hare. What verbal and nonverbal communication behaviors do you think team members should be able to detect to identify an unethical charismatic leader?

DILEMMAS IN COMMUNICATION

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COMMUNICATION SITUATION Teamwork A project team is meeting to discuss the most effective way to present its recommendations for implementing a flextime policy on a trial basis. Members of the team are Jason Brown (team leader), Erika Filene, Victoria Lawrence, Bill Williams, and Jensen Chen. They are sitting around a rectangular table with Jason at the head. What are the leadership behaviors depicted in this scenario? Is Jason the only leader, or do other team members contribute leadership to the group? You can use the CourseMate website for Com- municating for Results to answer this question online. After you’ve watched a video clip of this Communication Situation, further critique the interaction among the team members, and, if requested, email your responses to your instructor. Jason: So we’ve decided to recommend trying flextime for a 2-month period and with a number of procedures to make sure that people’s new schedules don’t interfere with produc- tivity. There’s a lot of information to communicate to employees, so how can we do that best? Victoria: I think it would be good to use PowerPoint to highlight the key aspects of the new procedures. People always seem to remember better if they see something. Bill: Oh, come on. PowerPoint is so overused. Everyone is tired of it by now. Can’t we do something more creative? Victoria: Well, I like it. It’s a good teaching tool. Bill: I didn’t know we were teaching. I thought our job was to report recom- mendations. Victoria: So what do you suggest, Bill? [She nervously pulls on her bracelet as she speaks.] Bill: I don’t have a suggestion. I’m just against PowerPoint. [He doesn’t look up as he speaks.] Jason: Okay, let’s not bicker among ourselves. [He pauses, gazes directly at Bill, then continues.] Lots of people like PowerPoint, lots don’t. Instead of arguing about its value, let’s ask what it is we want to communicate to the employees here. Maybe talking about our goal first will help us decide on the best means of achieving it. Erika: Good idea. I’d like for us to focus first on getting everyone excited about the benefits of flextime. If they understand those, they’ll be motivated to learn the procedures, even if there are a lot of them.

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Jensen: Erika is right. That’s a good way to start. Maybe we could create a handout or PowerPoint slide—either would work—to summarize the ben- efits of flextime that we’ve identified in our research. Jason: Good, okay, now we’re cooking. Victoria, will you make notes on the ideas as we discuss them? [Victoria opens a notebook and begins writing notes. Noticing that Bill is typing into his personal digital assistant (PDA), Jason looks directly at Bill.] Jason: Bill, are you with us on how we lead off in our presentation? Bill: Sure, fine with me. [He puts the PDA aside but keeps his eyes on it.] Erika: So maybe then we should say that the only way flextime can work is if we make sure that everyone agrees on procedures so that no division is ever missing more than one person during key production hours. Jensen: Very good. That would add to people’s motivation to learn and follow the procedures we’ve found are effective in other companies like ours. I think it would be great if Erika could present that topic because she did most of the research on it. [He smiles at Erika, and she pantomimes tipping her hat to him.] Jason: [He looks at Erika with a raised brow, and she nods.] Good. Okay, Erika’s in charge of that. What’s next? Victoria: Then it’s time to spell out the procedures and—. Bill: You can’t just spell them out. You have to explain each one—give people a rationale for them or they won’t follow them. [Victoria glares at Bill, then looks across the table at Erika, who shrugs as if to say, “I don’t know what’s bothering Bill today.”] Jason: Bill, why don’t you lead off then and tell us the first procedure we should mention and the rationale we should provide for it. [Bill looks up from his PDA, which he’s been using again.] Bill: [Shrugs and speaks harshly.] Just spell out the rules, that’s all. Victoria: Would it be too much trouble for you to cut off your gadget and join us in this meeting, Bill? Bill: Would it be too much trouble for you to quit hassling me? Jason: [He turns his chair to face Bill squarely.] Look, I don’t know what’s eating you, but you are really being a jerk. If you’ve got a problem with this meeting or someone here, put it on the table. Otherwise, be a team player.

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KEY TERMS active listening (292) authoritarian leadership style (300) big five personality factors (293) charismatic leader (306) democratic leadership style (301) dysfunctional behaviors (295) function theory (299)

laissez-faire leader (301) leadership (299) leadership styles (300) maintenance roles (294) open-mindedness (292) situational contingency theory (303)

situational leadership theory (306) task roles (294) three-dimension theory (300) trait theory (297) transformational leaders (306) virtual team (308)

SUMMARY To operate effectively, teams need to do more than just follow the basic problem-solving procedure. Effective group process re- quires other ingredients. First, it requires committed members, who are willing to devote time and energy to the team, support the decision of the team, and perform needed task and mainte- nance roles, as well as avoid nonfunctional behaviors. As par- ticipants in a team, you and the other members have a definite effect on its productivity. When members are active listeners and open-minded, are well prepared, view conflict as productive, and are willing to support the leader in any way necessary, the team has a very good chance of producing good decisions and ideas. However, if the members fail to actively listen to one another, are set on their own opinions, fail to prepare or research their ideas prior to the meeting, view conflict as a win–lose situation, and expect the leader to make all the decisions, the team is certain to be nonproductive. Even an excellent, skilled leader would be

unable to motivate such members to become a productive team. Effective team members also are able to communicate with teammates of different personality types.

Second, effective teams require leaders who can perform necessary task and maintenance functions, who are adept and flexible at using the democratic, autocratic, and laissez-faire styles of leadership, and who can handle conflicts productively. As the leader of a team, you will directly affect their productivity. “The real test of leadership lies not in the personality or behavior of the leaders, but in the performance of the groups they lead” (Bass & Stogdill, 1990, p. 39).

In your future, you will most likely serve as a team member in some situations and as the team leader in others. This chapter has given you the necessary guidelines to help you perform both roles successfully and productively. Remember, the more you practice these skills, the more effectively you will be able to use them.

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Before continuing to the next chapter, check your understanding of Chapter 10 at the CourseMate for Communicating for Results. CourseMate gives you quick and easy access to this text’s resources to help improve your communication skills and prepare you for quizzes and exams. These resources include: ● Study tools including the student companion workbook,

digital glossary, flashcards, and review quizzes. ● Activities and assignments including Awareness Checks,

Checkpoints, and Collaborative Learning Activities. ● Media resources such as Web Links (explore communica-

For more information or to access this book’s online resources, visit cengagebrain.com.

Collaborative Learning Activities 1. Career Activity: Ask five to seven people to form a circle in

the middle of the room with one or two persons to sit behind and slightly to the right or left of each of the members in the inner circle. Assign each person in the inner circle a task or maintenance role—place a folded card with the name of the role on both sides of the card so the role is visible to all. The inner circle will discuss; the outer circle will evaluate the discussants’ success. The discussion should be over a current problem of concern to the group, such as the government’s stimulus package, hiring practices, going green, or tobacco- free businesses and college campuses. The inner group dis- cusses for 5 to 10 minutes with each person performing their assigned role as needed. When the time is up, the outer circle will evaluate how well the inner circle played their roles and comment on which roles seemed to help the group discussion the most. If time allows, have a new set of people form the in- ner and outer groups and continue the discussion and evalua- tion process. If different roles are performed, make sure that new place cards indicate the roles.

2. Read the group discussion in the Communication Situation for this chapter, “Teamwork,” and then watch it on the CourseMate website for Communication for Results. In small groups discuss the following:

● How effective was Jason—the appointed leader? Was he the only leader, or do other team members contribute leadership to the group?

● What task, maintenance, and dysfunctional roles were performed by the group members?

● What changes would you recommend to improve the success of this team? Why?

3. Career Activity: In groups of 3 to 5, complete the following: ● Discuss the task and maintenance roles that are

used by successful workplace teams and pick two from each category that if missing would cause serious group problems.

● Discuss the dysfunctional behaviors listed on page 295 and pick two that you think would cause the most problems in the workplace. Which of the suggestions for handling dysfunctional behaviors given in your text would work best to handle the two dysfunctional behaviors you selected above? Why?

● Practice handling problem people in workplace teams by picking a topic or problem to discuss and assigning one of your team members to play a dysfunctional behavior such as distractor, withdrawer, or dominator. Also, assign a member to “handle” the behavior. Limit the discus- sion to 5 minutes. Discuss how successful the intervention was and what could have been done differently.

● If time remains, switch roles and try again until each person has the opportunity to “handle” a problem person.

4. In small groups, discuss this chapter’s case study about FEMA’s handling of Hurricane Katrina (pages 290–291) and answer the following questions: ● How effective was the communication between

team members and volunteers? ● What leadership style did Brown use and how

effective was it for this situation? ● Which organization model from Chapter 2 best

describes FEMA’s handling of the Katrina disaster? Would another model have worked better? Why or why not?

● Compare FEMA’s response to Hurricane Katrina with its response to Hurricane Sandy that hit the east coast in November of 2012. What similarities and differences do you see? Conduct research using databases such as EBSCOhost or Sirs to support your answers.

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CHAPTER 11 INFORMATIVE PRESENTATIONS: PLAN, RESEARCH,ORGANIZE, AND DELIVER 315

PLAN your presentation by contrasting informative and persuasive presentations, analyzing your audience, and selecting your topic.

RESEARCH your topic by using printed materials, commercial databases, Internet, blogs, personal interviews, and more, all while avoiding plagiarism.

ORGANIZE your presentation to best communicate clear content and keep audience interest.

DELIVER your speech in a natural, enthusiastic, and confident manner using effective verbal, visual, and vocal elements and stylistic language devices.

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As you read chapter 11, decide how to: ...

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INFORMATIVE PRESENTATIONS: PLAN, RESEARCH, ORGANIZE, AND DELIVER

315

the first two versions for fear of retribution? No, he claims, the SEC was nonfunctional in its understanding of modern finance (C-SPAN Video, 2009).

A closer look at Markopolos’ memo reveals a few dis- tinct problems in his communication style. If, as Markopolos asserts before Congress in his 2009 testimony on reform- ing the SEC, “the SEC’s staff lacks the financial expertise and is incapable of understanding the complex financial in- struments being traded in the 21st century” (C-SPAN Video, 2009), he certainly didn’t tailor his memo to the level of knowledge of his audience. The pages of his memo reflected well-documented knowledge of the financial industry but failed to clearly lay out the 29 red flags in a way that the SEC’s untrained staff could understand. Red flag number one, for example, is buried halfway through a paragraph. For an audience unfamiliar with the topic, Markopolos needed a succinct outline of the 29 red flags, written in plain English; instead, he provided a detailed, technical essay.

Would Madoff have been caught in 1999 if Markopolos’s report had communicated more effectively with the SEC, or would the SEC’s apparent ineptness have stood in the way regardless? The SEC ignored Markopolos’s report mul- tiple times, succinct or not, even when Markopolos “gift wrapped and delivered the largest Ponzi scheme in history” to the SEC (C-SPAN Video, 2009). Perhaps Markopolos’ shy demeanor and his stated fear of retribution from Madoff played into the situation as well (C-SPAN Video, 2009). Less than a year after the SEC’s investigation clearing Madoff

Harry Markopolos: Why Didn’t Anyone Heed His Warnings?

CASE STUDY

When you hear the name Bernie Madoff, what comes to mind? For many people the name Madoff is synonymous with the phrase Ponzi scheme. Through smooth talk- ing and deception, Madoff managed to steal more than $50 billion of investors’ money. Could he have been stopped sooner? Harry Markopolos, an investment vet- eran, thinks so. Unfortunately for all involved, he was unable to convince the Securities and Exchange Commis- sion (SEC) to take sufficient action. This Ponzi scheme continued unchecked from the time it was discovered by Markopolos in 1999 until Madoff’s confession in 2008 (“The Man Who Knew,” 2009).

Let’s take a look at the role Markopolos played in this situation. In 1999, while working for a rival firm, Markopolos tried to recreate and duplicate Madoff’s investment prac- tices but found it was impossible. He took the information to several colleagues and asked for their expert advice; he ran mathematical models. Finally, Markopolos was ready to present his findings, which he did in 2000, 2001, 2005, 2007, and 2008 (American Program Bureau, 2009). The first two times, the SEC ignored him outright, and when they did finally take notice, the investigation led nowhere. In fact, in 2007, Madoff was cleared of charges, a verdict largely due to the lackluster investigation by the SEC. Despite this, “the investigation evidently convinced investigators that Madoff had ‘misled’ SEC examiners during the 2005 inspection” and additional investigations were considered (Kiel, 2008).

“The World’s Largest Hedge Fund” grew as Markopolos’ research continued through the years, and by 2005, he had prepared 29 glaring red flags for the SEC to look into. These ranged from the simple, “[W]hy would the world’s largest hedge fund manager be so secretive that he didn’t even want his investors to know he was managing their mon- ey?” to the complex, “It is mathematically impossible for a strategy using index call options and index put options to have such a low correlation in the market where its re- turns are supposedly being generated from” (Markopolos, 2005). Even with points ranging from common sense to hard data, the SEC failed to listen for almost a decade. Why? Was Markopolos’s argument invalid? Could his lack of credibility have been a problem because he didn’t sign his name on

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As you read this chapter... See if you can (a) analyze Markopolos’s use of an informative memo and de- termine its appropriateness in light of what happened; and (b) suggest what Markopolos could have done differently once he realized the lack of knowledge on the part of his audience (the SEC).

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CHAPTER 11 INFORMATIVE PRESENTATIONS: PLAN, RESEARCH,ORGANIZE, AND DELIVER 317

of fraud, Madoff surprised everyone by turning himself in and admitting to fraud. Was his action due to looming government investigations, knowledge of the information gathered by Markopolos, or a bad economy that made con- tinuing the Ponzi scheme impossible? The reason is still unknown. Despite these setbacks, Madoff was eventually

brought to justice and was sentenced to 150 years in prison. But not before unbelievable damage was done to hundreds of thousands of lives, from unassuming retirees to famous Hollywood actors to everyday citizens. Appar- ently, having knowledge of a fraud isn’t enough if you can’t get those in power to believe you.

Why is it that people who are just beginning their careers tend to pre-pare themselves for every area of business except one: giving an oral presentation? For some reason, they don’t think they will ever have to give presentations. Actually, the opposite is true—the higher you advance in your career past the entry level, the greater the chance that you will need to be skilled in giving presentations. Employers rank the “ability to verbally commu- nicate with persons inside and outside the organization” as the number 2 skill they are looking for in job candidates—number 1 is team skills (Job Outlook, 2012). To verify the importance of verbal communication, select Google or a search engine like WebCrawler or AltaVista and run a keyword search for “business presentations” or “public speaking”—use the quotation marks. You will be amazed at the number of articles dealing with oral communication skills written by people in your business or profession.

It’s not just executives in large businesses such as Facebook or General Motors or professionals such as lawyers or politicians who need to give oral presentations. Even small organizations need employees who are skilled in oral presentations. For example:

● A high school coach must sell the school board on purchasing new equipment as well as motivate the team;

● A wait staff person often works as a team member and presents informal briefings at meetings and sometimes even customer groups.

● A salesperson must present products and ideas to customers. ● Even an assembly-line worker at General Motors is expected to participate

in decision-making teams and formally present team ideas to management.

When you first begin working in a business or nonprofit organization, most of your oral presentations will be done in-house unless you are in sales. You will be expected to present informational reports, proposals, and recommenda- tions to supervisors. When you are a supervisor, you will be expected to give instructions, to brief employees on various policy decisions or procedures, and even to inspire or motivate employees. Both employees and supervisors are ex- pected to give informal briefings and present reports to their colleagues within the company.

Why limit your flexibility as a communicator and maybe even your chances for advancement by failing to learn to make good oral presentations? To give professional and memorable presentations whether formal or informal, you will need to carefully plan, research, organize, and deliver your messages—guidelines for all these are covered next. In addition, see Chapter 12 for how to make your presentations “pop” with verbal and visual supporting materials; and Chapter 13

What’s all the fuss—few people ever have to give presentations during their careers.

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318 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

for how to give dynamic persuasive presentations as an individual or as part of a team. Let’s start with how to plan for a successful presentation.

INFORMATIVE PRESENTATIONS: PLANNING The place to begin when planning an informative presentation is to make sure you know the differences between informative and persuasive presentations and the types of information presentations typically given in the workplace.

Informative versus Persuasive Presentations If your intent is to make the listeners aware of a topic or to present some new ideas or facts, then the presentation is an informative one. Informative presen- tations promote understanding of an idea, concept, problem, event, procedure, person, thing, place, or body of related facts. Here are some sample informative topics:

● Nonverbal cultural differences between Japanese and Americans. ● How stress affects employee productivity. ● How to write an effective blog post. ● Why email messages are often misinterpreted. ● Sales techniques that work. ● The advantages of using blogs and Twitter as marketing tools.

If your purpose is to get your listeners to change their beliefs or take a specific action, then your presentation is a persuasive one. Persuasive presentations influence behaviors or opinions. Here are some sample topics:

● Volunteer work is everyone’s responsibility. ● Mandatory drug testing should be implemented for new and current

employees. ● In our efforts to go green, we must recycle more manufacturing waste. ● Employee use of social media should be restricted. ● Exercise regularly on rebounders to improve your creativity.

Although persuasive presentations inform, as well as, persuade, the two types require different approaches. As a speaker, be sure to decide whether your presentation will be informative or persuasive before you begin preparing.

Types of Informative Presentations Many types of informative presentations are used in business situations. Although the names for various informative presentations differ from company to company, two types that occur most often in the business environment are oral briefings and oral reports.

An oral briefing is designed to present a summary of facts in a short period of time (usually under 15 minutes). A briefing may be given to an individual (such as an employee, supervisor, or client), to a small group, or, on some occasions, to an entire department. Many briefings are informal, as when an employee or supervisor

CHAPTER 11 INFORMATIVE PRESENTATIONS: PLAN, RESEARCH,ORGANIZE, AND DELIVER 319

informally presents information to col- leagues at a weekly communications meet- ing. Other briefings are more formal, such as a briefing on the status of a particular project given to an entire department. Longer pre- sentations require visuals (see Chapter 12).

An oral report is designed to present complete details and so is longer than a briefing and usually more formal (keep it to 20 minutes if at all possible). The most often used types of reports include:

● Feasibility report (such as the feasibil- ity of producing a new item).

● Instructive or summary report (such as how to use or sell a particular prod- uct; or a summary of the product’s key features).

● Progress report (such as how a team’s project is proceeding; what has been completed and what is coming next).

● Proposal (such as examining a problem and providing persuasive recommendations).

Often decision-making teams are required to prepare both written and oral re- ports on a problem and their recommendations for solving it. Suggestions for writing briefings and reports are covered in Chapter 14.

Now that you are clear on the difference between informative and persuasive presentations and know which types of information presentations are typically giv- en in the workplace, the next step is to identify both your audience and your topic.

Audience Analysis Knowing your audience is critical to giving a successful presentation regard- less of whether the topic is mandated by the situation or whether you have the freedom to select the topic. Business audiences are not all the same—in today’s workplace, diversity of age, skills, culture, and interests are amazingly different. If you want your specific audience to listen carefully to your report and under- stand your ideas, you must be able to relate your presentation to their inter- ests and needs—their frames of reference. There are two ways to analyze your audience—by characteristics and by types.

Audience Characteristics Knowing the characteristics of your audience will help you pick a topic or custom-make your presentation so the audience feels that you are speaking directly to them. Discover as much of the following information about your potential audience members as possible:

● How many people will be present? Audience size will determine the room you se- lect, what type of visual aids you can use, and whether a microphone is needed.

Most business audiences are basically the same; there’s no need to analyze each one separately.

MYTH or FACT

Employees who can give effective presentations, such as this busi- nessman speaking to a room of delegates, are highly valued by busi- ness and professional organizations.

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320 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

● Are they coming by choice? If so, what do they hope to get from the presentation? Voluntary audiences tend to be homogeneous and have much in common, including an interest in your topic. Knowing your audience expectations allows you to plan for ways to meet them and to make your audience satis- fied and glad they came.

● Who are they—including names, positions/ranks, key decision-makers, de- partments, culture and gender differences, and so on? Who will be in the au- dience may determine whether a briefing or report is more appropriate. It could also affect how you organize your presentation—indirectly, in which you present information leading up to a final position or recommenda- tion; or directly, in which you get right to the point with the position or recommendation and work backwards through the reasoning/research process.

● What do they know about your topic? Or think they know? How much your audience knows about your topic and its history will determine how much background information is required. A dynamic, attention-grab- bing introduction is even more important for audiences who know little about your topic.

● Do they know you? Your team? Your organization? Whether you need some- one of importance to introduce you often depends on how much your audi- ence knows about you and how much credibility you have going into the presentation.

● Are there any negative biases they have toward you, your team, or your topic? If negative biases do exist, in addition to having someone with credibility introduce you, you may need to give additional background information and proof to dispel misconceptions. If you can get the decision maker in the audience to feel positively toward your presentation, others will as well.

Much of the above audience information you can get by observation and walking around. The rest can be obtained by talking to people you know, such as team members or your boss. If you are speaking to an audience outside your organization, ask the person who originally contacted you to tell you about the audience’s characteristics.

Audience Types Another way to analyze your audience is to iden- tify them as one of four basic types: (a) friendly, (b) neutral, (c) uninter- ested, or (d) hostile (Elsea, 1985). Although you should be careful not to stereotype your audience, it is easier to organize your speech, se- lect supporting materials, and plan your delivery when you can place your audience into a general cat-

egory. Table 11.1 outlines strategies for dealing successfully with each audience type. The success of any speech depends on how well the speaker relates the topic to the frames of reference of the audience members.

Revisiting the Case Study... Markopolos obviously misread the SEC. How could he have analyzed his audience better? Be specific.

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CHAPTER 11 INFORMATIVE PRESENTATIONS: PLAN, RESEARCH,ORGANIZE, AND DELIVER 321

Hopefully, you are beginning to see how important it is for speakers to spend the time analyzing their audiences. Not only do effective speakers analyze before their speeches, but many also analyze after each speech by taking time to talk to audience members and listening to their comments and suggestions.

Topic Selection Unless you are asked to speak to a group outside the organization and are told to choose any topic you want, the general topic is usually predetermined. Your supervisor may ask for a briefing on a certain project or idea, an engineer may request a technical report on a specific topic, or you may wish to present a new

TABLE 11.1 STRATEGIES FOR DEALING SUCCESSFULLY WITH FOUR TYPES OF AUDIENCES

AUDIENCE TYPES ORGANIZATION DELIVERY SUPPORTING MATERIAL

Friendly audience (predisposed to like you and your topic)

Any pattern; try something new; ask for audience participation

Warm, friendly, open; lots of eye contact, smiles, gestures, and vocal variety

Humor, examples, personal experiences

Neutral audience (consider themselves calm and rational; have minds already made up, but think they are objective)

Present both sides of issue; pro–con or problem–solution patterns; save time for audience questions*

Controlled, even, nothing showy; confident, small gestures*

Facts, statistics, expert opinion, comparison and con- trast; avoid humor, personal stories, flashy visuals, and too much color*

Uninterested audience (short at- tention span; present against their will)

Brief—no more than three points; avoid topical and pro–con patterns that seem long to audience

Dynamic and entertaining, move around, large gestures

Humor, cartoons, colorful visuals, powerful quotations, startling statistics

Do not: Darken the room, stand motionless behind the podium, pass out handouts, use boring visual aids, or expect audience to participate.

Hostile audience (looking for chances to take charge or ridicule speaker; emotional)

Noncontroversial pattern such as topi- cal, chronological, or geographical

Calm and controlled, speak slowly and evenly

Objective data and expert opinion; avoid anecdotes and jokes

Avoid: Question–answer period if possible; otherwise, use a modera- tor or accept only written questions

*Also suggested for an audience of mixed audience types. Source: Adapted with changes from Elsea, J. G. (1985, September). Strategies for Effective Presentations. Personnel Journal, 64, 31–33.

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322 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

idea to your colleagues or demonstrate a product for a new customer. In all of these cases, the general topic would be obvious. If you find yourself in a situation in which you are asked to select your own topic, be sure to pick a topic that fits your audience, that highlights your knowledge, and that is of real interest to you. See Figure 11.1 for some sample informative topics.

Once your general topic is clear and you have carefully analyzed the poten- tial listeners, you are ready to narrow your topic by focusing on a specific goal or objective. Kathy Reiffenstein (2008), communication consultant and trainer, suggests that your objective should answer three questions:

● What do you want to accomplish? ● What do you want your audience to take away? ● What do you want your audience to do with the information?

Once you have answered these questions as a way to help you focus on a specific objective, use this information to brainstorm possible approaches for your speech by writing exact purpose statements—these are single sentences beginning with “After hearing my presentation, the audience will. . . .”

"Biotech" or GMO foods

ADA (Americans with Disabilities Act)

Advertising and deception

Airline safety suggestions

America's role in Iraq

Anthrax threat—how great?

Bottled water—improving water quality

Business blogs—are they safe?

Cancer and cell phone usage

Child care and employee recruiting

College degrees—are they for everyone?

Company internships—advantages?

Computer hackers—cost of apprehending

Computer software—new trends

Computer viruses—how to stop them

Cord blood banks

Credit cards and the teen market

Diversity in the workplace

Downsizing—did it really help?

Dressing professionally on a budget

NAFTA's effect on American labor

Nursing home costs skyrocket

Office environments—improving them

Online sales continue to grow

Outsourcing

Peace coalitions

Podcasting—business benefits?

Preventing terrorism

Safety in the workplace

Sexual harrassment—still a problem?

Social Security—how safe is it?

Spam—how to handle it

Stock market and retirement

Stress and American workers

Telecommuting—pros and cans

Veterans—why can,t they find jobs?

Volunteerism—on the increase?

Web pages—building good ones

Working in teams

World population—declining or myth?

Ethics in business—what went wrong?

Endangered species—can we save them?

Farmers of the future

Flexible office hours and traffic problems

Global warming and business implications

Globalization and American jobs

Healthcare costs

Healthcare for everyone?

Herbal remedies and regulation

Hiring older employees

History of the Internet

Hospital infections—why the increase?

Hurricare Katrina

Immigrants and refugees in the workplace

Internet addiction and the workplace

Job seeking on the Internet

Land trusts—keeping them safe

Library funding decreases—how serious?

Medical treatments—new vs. old

Mars exploration

FIGURE 11.1 Sample topics for informative presentations.

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CHAPTER 11 INFORMATIVE PRESENTATIONS: PLAN, RESEARCH,ORGANIZE, AND DELIVER 323

To show how this works, let’s take a sample situation:

Suppose your company has just taken a bold step and implemented a com- pany blog for internal and external communication. Although there are a few younger employees who are familiar with blogs, most of the staff and man- agement view blogging as something only college students do.

Each department has been asked to develop its own uses for the company blog and to help develop blogging policies for the company. You have been asked to bring the employees in your department up to speed on the new blog. You have been allotted 15 to 20 minutes for your presentation. How will you decide on a specific purpose?

First, you answer the three questions suggested above:

Question 1: What do I want to accomplish?—to give staff and management as much information about blogging and the new company blog as time allows. Question 2: What do I want my audience to take away?—enough information to ease their anxieties and create some excitement about the company blog. Question 3: What do I want my audience to do with the information?—be willing to join a blogging team and help develop policies, consider ethical issues, and eventually blog with customers.

Next, based on your answers to the three questions, you brainstorm as many exact purpose statements as you can think of beginning with “After hearing my presentation, the audience will . . .”

● Understand the company and department benefits of having a blog. ● Appreciate the importance of developing and following specific blogging

policies. ● Appreciate the employee time requirements for effective blogging. ● Understand possible ethical issues with blogging. ● Realize the dos and don’ts of a good blog response. ● Feel confident communicating with customers through the blog. ● Know whom to contact when problems arise while using the blog. ● Begin the process of planning the department’s blog section and what blog-

rolls (links to other available and related blogs) the department wishes to use.

After brainstorming so many possible topics, you would probably think, “There is no way I can cover all the necessary information about the new com- pany blog in 15 to 20 minutes!” And you would be correct. However, you recall that your presentation will be given to a specific group of listeners and decide to do a bit more audience analysis. You discover that only five mem- bers of your audience has ever used a blog before, management is as lost as everyone else, some people are feeling hostile, but fortunately, most of your audience members are eager to learn. Even though you would prefer to jump right into blogging policies and ethics issues or the dos and don’ts of a good blog response, you realize that your team is not ready for this yet. Also, you decide that trying to include specific hands-on training in 20 minutes would only cause confusion.

324 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Finally, you decide on your exact purpose statement as follows:

After hearing my presentation, the audience will appreciate the important benefits the new blog can provide for customers, employees, and company sales and know whom to contact for private instructions or to answer any questions. Q & A session to follow.

So, that wasn’t so bad was it? However, without audience analysis, you would probably have selected an inappropriate topic that was over the heads of your au- dience and may have caused even more confusion, dissatisfaction, and hostility.

INFORMATIVE PRESENTATIONS: RESEARCHING Now that you have narrowed your topic and have some possible main points in mind, as indicated in your exact purpose statement, it is time to research.

Why and What to Research If you are fairly new to presentations, you may be wondering exactly why and what you need to research.

Why Research? Ask any well-known speaker whether they research their presentations and they will look at you in disbelief. All the best presenters re- search their topics carefully. Some of the reasons include:

● To find new information. Without research, you can’t be sure that the main points included in your exact position statement are the latest and greatest— research may uncover some new information or procedure unknown to you.

● To add to personal credibility. Even if you have personal experience with your topic, citing known experts on the topic adds to your credibility and makes the audience realize that you really know what you are talking about. Listen- ers are more likely to pay attention to and remember information when the speaker is judged to be highly credible.

● To prepare for Q & A. Research gives you a look at the entire topic or issue and prepares you to successfully answer questions at the end of your presentation.

● To find content to support main points. Research allows you to find valuable supporting materials like statistics, quotations, and stories to add interest, clarification, and proof to your presentation.

What to Search for Of course your audience analysis should direct what you search for—especially the type of audience. See Table 11.1 for which supporting materials each type of audience (hostile, friendly, uninterested, or neutral) likes best. Information to look for when you research includes:

● New ideas, new authors, and newly published or posted information—Look for interesting quotations and facts.

● Novel ways to present important but older information—The more you re- search, the more likely you are to discover new approaches.

CHAPTER 11 INFORMATIVE PRESENTATIONS: PLAN, RESEARCH,ORGANIZE, AND DELIVER 325

● Charts, graphs, pictures and photos you can use or adapt—These are espe- cially good for use in visual aids.

● Materials that add interest, clarify, and prove—Look for interesting statis- tics, quotations, comparisons, illustrations, examples, and explanations. The more variety of supporting materials used in a presentation, the better your chances to capture attention and keep your audience involved. See Chapter 12 for examples of verbal and visual supporting material that audiences love.

Where to Research In researching their topics, inexperienced speakers often make one of two mis- takes: (a) they do too little research because they plan to rely primarily on their personal knowledge and experience or (b) they use only the Internet to do their research (Hamilton, 2012, p. 111). Even if you have a great deal of personal experience with your topic, you need to research additional sources as well— especially electronic databases. Using information from other respected sources shows that you are an objective and informed speaker, and it adds to your cred- ibility. Using the Internet may be a place to begin your research, but it certainly isn’t “all you need” if you want to give quality workplace presentations. However, since it is probably the most popular source of information, we will begin our discussion of where to research using the Internet.

The Internet Most people don’t realize how recent a creation the Internet is: It has only been in common use since 1992. See Figure 11.2 for a look at the staggering growth of websites from 1995 to 2012 (June 2012 Web Server Survey, 2012; Saunders, 2000).

Although the Internet offers seemingly unlimited access to information, you must keep three facts in mind:

1. Not all information on the web is authoritative. Some of it is outdated, fal- lacious, biased, and basically worthless. You must carefully evaluate what

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The best research is done on the Internet—Google and Wikipedia are all you really need.

MYTH or FACT

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326 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

you find by making sure that authors are qualified experts in the field and that the information is objective, accurate, and current. Verify information obtained from the Internet with at least one other non-Internet source and identify when the website was last updated. If there is no date on the website, don’t use it. Also, unless your topic deals with history, try to use sources that are no older than five years.

2. Unless you know where to look, it is possible to spend hours on the Internet without finding the information you need. Make sure you are using the cor- rect research terms and then use multiple search engines when searching the Internet. Any one search engine accesses less than 16% of the billions of pages of information available on the web (Saunders, 2000). Google and Yahoo! are still the most popular search engines. Metasearch engines, which search multiple search engines at a time are better, but even then only 10 to 15% of each website is actually searched (Barker, 2006). Some suggested metasearch engines are Dogpile, WebCrawler, ixquick, and Search. For ad- ditional search engines, see TheSearchEngineList.com. Just remember that if you want a quality search, using a single search engine simply won’t produce what you need.

3. Many valuable sources are not available on the web (or are not available for free). This material is often referred to as the “invisible web” as it cannot be accessed by search engines because search engines cannot type a login or password. Even though they have run into some legal issues, Google Scholar is still a valuable door to the invisible web—but this only scratches the surface of available materials. It is only through licensed databases found though your college or city library that this “invisible” information can be found. Therefore, quality research still requires a trip to the library.

Before Going Online Consider the preceding three facts, and to save time and the frustration of an inadequate search, do your homework before going online. First, prepare a rough-draft outline of the main points and supporting informa- tion you think you might use in your speech. A look at this rough draft should tell you what information sources you already have or know from personal ex- perience and what information (such as facts, statistics, quotes, or examples) are still needed.

Second, when you visit the library looking for print materials and electronic databases, make a list of keywords and phrases ahead of time to use when search- ing the Internet. The information you want may be on the Internet, but if you search using the wrong keywords, you may never find it—or at least, only find part of it. For example, some important documents on positive imagery and speaking can be found only under the keyword visualization; other documents appear when the keyword mental imaging is used. To narrow a search of “posi- tive imagery” to speaking situations, would you use the keyword speech, pre- sentation, or public speaking? Consulting print materials on the subject first will help you draw up a list of potential keywords.

Third, search one or more electronic databases (such as InfoTrac College Edi- tion, EBSCOHost, or ProQuest) available through most college libraries and many organizations. You know this information is reliable and can be used to

CHAPTER 11 INFORMATIVE PRESENTATIONS: PLAN, RESEARCH,ORGANIZE, AND DELIVER 327

verify the credibility of other sources you find on the Internet. Electronic data- bases will be discussed in more detail later in this chapter.

Searching with Boolean Operators Whether you are using an electronic da- tabase or a search engine, keyword searches, which look for websites that con- tain a specific word or phrase, will be more effective if you link your search terms with Boolean operators like OR, AND, or + (see Table 11.2).

TABLE 11.2 BASIC BOOLEAN OPERATORS AND THEIR USES

BOOLEAN OPERATOR MOST DATABASES AND SEARCH ENGINES

GOOGLE

OR (Searches documents with either word & both words = maximum number of hits.)

motorcycle or racing OR = all caps or

lowercase

motorcycle OR racing Searches documents with

either word but not both words

motorcycle racing

AND (Searches only documents containing both words.)

motorcycle AND racing AND = all caps or

lowercase

motorcycle racing Google default puts AND

between all words unless quote marks are used.

+ [plus sign] (Searches docu- ments with either word but not both words.)

motorcycle +racing Add space before but not

after+sign.

“Star Wars Episode +1” Google omits words like

in, the, when, how, and numbers unless a+sign (with space before but not after) is used to force inclusion of these words.)

“[phrase]” (Searches for content inside quotes as a single word or exact phrase.)

“motorcycle racing” If no quotes, searches

each word separately.

“motorcycle racing” skills If no quotes, puts AND

between words.

NOT or – [minus sign] (Search excludes documents using word or phrase following –, NOT, AND NOT.)

motorcycle NOT “dirt bike” motorcycle and not “dirt

bike”; motorcycle –“dirt bike” (Use all caps or lowercase.)

motorcycle –“dirt bike” motorcycle NOT “dirt bike” NOT must be in all caps. Add space before the

minus but not after.

* [asterisk] (Searches for truncated endings of the search term.)

Listen* Searches listen, listening,

listens, listeners, etc.

listen + listeners + listening Google does not truncate

but will find synonyms if a tilde (~) is placed immedi- ately in front of term: ~food will find food, recipes, cooking, nutrition, etc.

* For more information on Google searches, go to Google.com/help or Google to find Googling to the Max by UC Berkeley.

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328 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Although the number of hits a search produces is important, the quality of hits is even more important. Usually, if the first two pages of hits don’t contain what you want, you used the wrong term or search engine. If your search pro- duces too many or too few hits (located websites), try the following suggestions:

● To narrow hits found in a search—avoid using OR; enclose titles, procedures or names in quotation marks (“motorcycle racing”); add words following + or AND (“motorcycle racing” AND women); exclude words following – or NOT (“motorcycle racing” NOT “dirt bike”).

● To increase hits found in a search—check for spelling errors; use OR; use the wildcard (*) to search for all forms of the word (legisl* or listen*); use fewer search words; use alternate keywords.

Keep in mind that not only can Boolean operators make Internet searches more productive; they also can be used on most electronic databases as well.

Licensed Electronic Databases Libraries are the place to find electronic databases (probably over 100 of them) that include books, magazine and jour- nal articles, government documents, and more:

● EBSCOhost, CQ Researcher, and Sirs Issues Researcher cover a wide range of topics and may be the databases to start your research;

● Business Source Complete in EBSCOhost is the place to go for business topics; ● Sirs is great for sports related topics; ● For medical topics check out Student Resource Center; ● CQ Researcher and Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center

cover both sides of persuasive topics as well as providing videos, podcasts, photos and graphs;

● Academic Search Complete and Communication & Mass Media Complete in EBSCOhost include over 4,600 peer- reviewed journals and 350 communication journals;

● Finally, if government and military topics are of interest, look in the Military and Government Collection in EB- SCOhost, which also includes Vital Speeches of the Day.

Keep in mind that commercial databases give you the op- tion of avoiding “general interest” magazines and let you limit your search to scholarly (peer-reviewed) journals. Databases also make available back issues at no charge, whereas most search engines provide only the current issue for free and require you to become a member or to pay for back issues.

Printed Materials If you are relatively unfamiliar with your topic, it’s a good idea to begin your search for information with the following printed materials to get a good overview: ● Books. Use library online catalogs for locating books and

electronic databases; for online books look in eBooks or This speaker is researching printed materials to find an authoritative source to use in her presentation.

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netLibrary. Also, Amazon.com is an excellent online site to search for books by author, title, or topic.

● Magazines/journals. It is easier to search for these materials using electronic databases, which offer full-text articles and refereed journal articles—articles selected for their quality by a panel of reviewers. Also, don’t overlook valuable magazine indexes such as the Business Periodicals Index and the Index to Journals in Communication Studies.

● Newspapers. Although newspaper accounts may not tell the complete story, they are more current than magazines and books and contain personal de- tails and quotes that can serve as good supporting materials for your presen- tations. EBSCOhost, LexisNexis, and ProQuest are electronic databases that include searchable, complete-text, newspaper articles.

● Specialized dictionaries and encyclopedias. If you are new to your topic, be- gin your research with a specialized dictionary, such as the Dictionary of American History, or an encyclopedia, such as the Physician’s Desk Refer- ence. If you find information in Wikipedia.org (“a free encyclopedia that anyone can edit”), be sure to verify all information in at least one other reliable source.

● Other library resources. Libraries also contain quotation books such as the Speaker’s and Toastmaster’s Handbook; yearbooks like the Facts on File Year- book, and the Statistical Abstract of the United States. Also, check with your librarian for government documents and special collections.

Blogs and Tweets Blogs, or weblogs, are often personal opinion journals but may also be factual information or introductions of new products posted on the Internet by individuals or companies. Many blogs contain links to factual materials, photos, or other blogs. Tweets are messages of 140 characters or less posted on Twitter.com that contain information, opinions, news, ideas posted by organizations and individuals all over the world. Tweets have links to videos, pictures, and articles as well.

Most online magazines like Forbes.com contain blogs on their own websites or on Facebook, MySpace, or Twitter. Major companies such as Southwest Air- lines and Zappos.com have a presence on Twitter—both these companies have between 1 million and 2 million followers. Check Chapter 6 for more on blog- gers and tweeters.

When researching for your presentation, if you are unclear about current public views, using blog research could bring you up to date. Also, new products and current issues can be found by conducting a search on Twitter. Blogs and tweets can be used by speakers in various ways:

● As attention-getting narratives in introductions, ● As supporting examples during the speech, ● As clarification of pro-and-con arguments in a persuasive speech.

However, be especially carefully how this information is used—much of it is opinion. Before using information from blogs or tweets in a presentation, look for the blogger’s/tweeter’s frame of reference, goal or purpose, date of the blog/ tweet, as well as the credibility of the site (i.e., does the site have restrictions such

330 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

as real names required?). Also, remember that if you use information obtained though blogs and tweets, be sure to cite sources to avoid plagiarism.

Personal Interviews If your personal knowledge and your library and In- ternet searches do not provide exactly the type of information you need, you may want to conduct some personal interviews. For interview specifics, see Chapter 7. After you decide on likely candidates, you should plan your questions and conduct the interview following these steps:

1. Introduction. Be relaxed and friendly, and make good eye contact. Thank the interviewee for his or her time, and establish rapport by talking about the reason you especially wanted to speak with him or her. State why you are there (unless already mentioned), how long you expect the interview to take, exactly what information you are looking for (if there are several areas, list them), and how the responses will be used.

2. Body. Here you ask the questions that you have already planned, written out, and brought with you. Use mainly open-ended questions; they will elic- it more information. Use probing questions like “Tell me more” or “What happened next?” to keep the interviewee talking. To make sure you haven’t missed valuable information, conclude questioning with “Is there anything else you think I should know?”

3. Conclusion. Begin with a brief summary of the main areas you covered in the interview (this allows both you and the interviewee to see whether anything important was omitted). If you are planning to quote the interviewee direct- ly, now is the time to review the quote for accuracy and ask for permission to use it in your presentation. End by thanking the interviewee and offering to shake hands. As soon as you can, send the interviewee a thank-you note expressing the value of the information to you and your presentation.

Use the results of the interview carefully. Expand your notes as soon as you get back so that you won’t forget or misrepresent the interviewee’s information. In decid-

ing what, if anything, to use in your speech, be sure to keep all matters you agreed not to reveal confidential.

How to Avoid Plagiarism when Researching In addition to researching thoroughly and avoiding bias, you must be careful not to plagiarize. Recall that plagiarism is using the ideas of someone else (whether paraphrased or word for word) without giving credit. If you read an article, hear an ad or TV program, or read a blog or tweet and then use information from it in your speech without citing the source—even if you only paraphrase the content—you are plagiarizing. As the “Dilemmas in Communication” feature about ex–school board

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chairman Keith Cook indicates, using information and parts of speeches from the Internet without giving credit is also plagiarism.

As you are researching for sup- porting materials on the Internet, you will find many sites willing to sell both canned and custom speeches for class- room or seminar use. Don’t be tempted to buy a speech from one of these sites or from a friend; you will be on danger- ous ethical ground. If your professor or seminar instructor has questions about your speech, there are several sites that can be used to check it for plagiarism. Turnitin.com is an example of a site that checks both Internet and print sources for plagiarism. There are many reasons to avoid using someone else’s speech (Hamilton, 2012 p. 18): It’s unethical; the consequences of plagiarism can be se- vere and long-lasting; you won’t learn the successful speech skills needed for busi- ness success; it’s very difficult to deliver a speech you didn’t write—especially if you are nervous; and you will be wasting money when the skills necessary to write a quality speech are available for your use in this chapter and Chapters 12 and 13.

Make sure you avoid unintentional plagiarism by recording your research information carefully. Some people like to photocopy or print articles or pages from books and then underline and use sticky notes. Some people prefer to use note cards. Whatever method you use, be sure to put quotes around any material that is taken word-for-word from a source. Also, don’t forget to write the com- plete source citation including author, date, name of article, book, or blog/tweet and the online site and URL or publisher. It’s very frustrating to have a great quote or statistic that you can’t use because you can’t remember where you found it. See Chapter 12 for suggestions on how to orally cite each source during your speech.

INFORMATIVE PRESENTATIONS: ORGANIZING If you want your presentation to enlighten and impress, then organization is critical. In fact, the structure of your presentation is just as important as analyzing your audience and researching for materials. Even if you are an

If It’s on the Internet without a Source, Can You Use It in a Presentation?

When Keith Cook, a school board chairman from Orange County, North Carolina, found a speech on a web page that listed no author, he thought it would be all right to use a large part of it in his com- mencement address. The speech used the movie Titanic to draw some interesting life lessons that were just perfect for graduating high school seniors. A reporter attending the ceremonies recognized the speech as one given by Donna Shalala when she was U.S. secretary of Health and Human Services, and he emailed Cook the Internet address (“School Board Chairman Resigns Amid Plagiarism Scandal,” 2004). When asked where he got the speech, Cook first replied, “I wrote it” (Norton, 2004, para. 6). Later, he admitted to finding it on the Internet, but because it had no author he thought using it would constitute fair use. It was an “honest mistake,” he said (para. 10). Many teachers, students, and community members demanded his res- ignation, saying that his plagiarism and denial of it set a bad example (Winn, 2004). The high school valedictorian “told a reporter that any student would have been suspended for doing what Cook did” (para. 23). The scandal even reached Good Morning America, USA Today, and Time magazine (Norton, 2004, para. 14; Winn, 2004, para. 8). Although Cook remained on the board, he resigned as chair. The board thought that this action would take care of the problem. When school board elections were held just 2 months after the controversy, however, Cook was not reelected.

QUESTIONS What do you think? Should Cook have resigned from the board? What effect would his actions have on high school students and possible plagiarism in their assignments?

DILEMMAS IN COMMUNICATION

332 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

experienced speaker, allowing audience questions to dictate your organiza- tion is very dangerous. What if there are no questions? Or what if the ques- tions lead in a direction in which you are unprepared? Also, jumping around answering questions makes it very difficult to be sure that your main points are covered. Starting by stating your topic is absolutely one of the least effec- tive ways to begin a presentation, as you will see when we cover introduc- tions. Speakers should definitely be concerned with organization for several reasons (Hamilton, 2012, p. 147):

● Organized information is easier for listeners to comprehend, to remember, and to take notes from and is more likely to keep their attention (Holschuh & Nist, 2007, p. 125; Kosslyn & Rosenberg, 2009; Titsworth, 2004). The whole point of giving a briefing or report is to impart valuable information you want your listeners to understand and use. If content is confusing, difficult to comprehend, or uninteresting, your listeners are likely to stop listening, pull out their iPhones, or even get up and walk out.

● Organized information causes listeners to judge speakers as being more cred- ible. Studies have long indicated that when you are organized and present information in a confident manner, your listeners judge you as more trust- worthy and competent (Sharp & McClung, 1966).

● Organized information is easier for the speaker to remember. Information organized in a logical order is not only easier for your listeners to recall, it is easier for you, the speaker, to remember what you want to say (and that means you will need fewer speaking notes).

● Organized information gives the speaker confidence. You can relax and speak with more assurance when you are not worried that you might forget an important point.

The basic organization of an oral briefing or report is fundamentally the same: an introduction, a body, and a conclusion (Figure 11.3). When prepar- ing a presentation, the body is usually planned first, then the introduction and conclusion.

Organizing the Body of the Presentation In organizing the body of your presentation, you have three main tasks:

1. Finalize your main points. 2. Select the best pattern for organizing those main points. 3. Expand your main ideas into an outline.

Let’s look at each in more detail.

Finalize Your Main Points You have already selected a topic or been assigned one; analyzed your audience, which helped you narrow the topic; brainstormed a list of possible exact purpose statements to narrow things even more; and researched to make sure that your points are accurate. So, by now you should be fairly sure what main points you plan to cover. If not,

Don’t worry about orga- nization. State your topic and let audience questions determine the direction of your presentation.

MYTH or FACT

CHAPTER 11 INFORMATIVE PRESENTATIONS: PLAN, RESEARCH,ORGANIZE, AND DELIVER 333

write them out so you can visually see them. Reading them out loud also helps in deciding whether they flow. Most speakers cover three main points in their presentations. If you include more than five, you may lose listen- ers. Research on memory suggests that five bits of information is about all the average person can remember with accuracy at one time (Cowan, 2001; Miller, 1994).

If you use Twitter, you will appreciate this suggestion from Ron Ashkenas, consultant and author:

When you prepare a presentation, work backwards. Start with the key mes- sage or takeaway that you want to convey. Then imagine that you had to

FIGURE 11.3 Basic outline for informative presentations

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Basic Outline for Informative Presentations

Introduction

Capture attention, show benefit to audience, state your qualifications, preview pur- pose and main points

Body

I. Main Point

B. Supporting materials: explanations, examples, statistics, quotes, visuals, (discussed in Chapter 12)

Transition: [Add your transition sentence here]

II. Main Point

B. Supporting materials

Transition: [Add your transition sentence here]

III. Main Point

B. Supporting materials

Conclusion

Summarize purpose and main points, and give closing thoughts

334 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

send that message via Twitter instead of using slides, charts, documents, and discussions. Force yourself to summarize your key points in no more than 140 characters. Based on that focus, then think through what other information you’ll need as backup and support (Ashkenas, 2012). Ashkenas, R. (2012, January 10). In presentations, learn to say less. HBR Blog Network. Retrived June 19, 2012, from http://blogs.hbr.org/ashkenas/2012/01/in-presentations -learn-to-say.html. Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review.

Actually, take a look at your exact purpose statement—it is likely even shorter than 140 characters.

Select the Best Pattern for Organizing Your Main Points The second task in organizing the body of your presentation is to organize your main points. Main points can be organized in a variety of ways. The following organization patterns are the most relevant to business and professional situations:

● Topical pattern—used to divide a topic when no spatial, chronological, or causal relationship exists among the main points. Topical organization is probably the easiest and, therefore, the most popular pattern. It is the most effective if the points are arranged from most to least important, known to unknown, or familiar to unfamiliar. However, just because topical is the easi- est, doesn’t mean that it is the best—see if a different pattern might be more novel and interesting.

● Spatial pattern (or geographical)—organizes main points according to their spatial location, such as front to rear, north to south, bottom to top, or left to right. The layout of a manufacturing plant could be described by its left, center, and right wings; the layout of a park could be explained by proceeding from entrance to exit.

● Chronological pattern (or time pattern)—used to present events in the order of their occurrence or steps in the order in which they should be fol- lowed. For example, the steps to follow in evacuating an office building dur- ing a fire could be presented from first to last step; the history of nuclear power could be presented in chronological order from the date when it was discovered to the present.

● Causal pattern—used when your main points have a cause-and-effect rela- tionship. In this type of organization, you have only two main points: One is the cause and the other is the effect. Informative presentations normally discuss the problem or condition first and follow with its result or effect. Persuasive presentations, on the other hand, may present the result first and then discuss the problem or condition that caused it.

In order to tell which pattern will be best for your topic, make four mini- outlines with a purpose and main points—one for each pattern. Ask oth- ers to read your outlines and tell you which sounds the most interesting and valuable to them. Check your understanding of these organization pat- terns by identifying the pattern used for each mini-outline in the following Awareness Check:

NOTE You can use Speech Builder

Express to create your exact purpose. Speech Builder Express is an online speech organiza- tion and outlining program that will help you prepare your speeches for this course. You can also use it to create your main points, introduction and conclusion, source list, and more. Access Speech Builder Express through the CourseMate website for Communicating for Results.

CHAPTER 11 INFORMATIVE PRESENTATIONS: PLAN, RESEARCH,ORGANIZE, AND DELIVER 335

AWARENESS CHECK Organization Patterns

DIRECTIONS: To check your knowledge of the four organization patterns (typically used in informative briefings and reports), read the main points in the following mini-outlines and identify whether the organization is (a) topical, (b) chronological, (c) spatial or geographic, or (d) causal. Compare your answers to those at the back of this book. You can also complete this activity online. Go to cengagebrain.com to access your Speech Communication CourseMate for Communicating for Results.

________ 1. Purpose: After hearing my briefing, the audience will be aware of the company sales increases in the United States.

I. New England sales have increased 10%. II. Midwestern sales have increased 5%. III. West Coast sales have increased 30%.

________ 2. Purpose: After hearing my presentation, the research team will appreciate the guidelines needed for a suc- cessful research project.

I. Obtain top management support. II. Define research objectives carefully and fully. III. Be realistic when preparing the budget. IV. Be prepared to be flexible.

________ 3. Purpose: After hearing my presentation, employees will realize why the company has decided to restrict employee use of email and noncompany blogs.

I. Many employees use email and blogs for social and personal business. II. The company should restrict when and how employees use email/blogs.

________ 4. Purpose: After hearing my presentation, the audience will have a better understanding of fashions through the ages:

I. Fashion in the 70s was ugly. II. Fashion in the 80s was childish. III. Fashion in the 90s was retro.

________ 5. Purpose: After hearing my report, area realtors will be familiar with the procedures followed by building contractors in locating land for building.

I. First, the blueprints for the development are drawn. II. Second, possible sites are selected. III. Third, cost and marketing surveys are conducted for each site. IV. Finally, lad is purchased and cleaned.

________ 6. Purpose: After hearing my presentation, the audience will understand the responsibility of society in today’s Eating disorders:

I. Eating disorders are serious. II. Social preoccupation with appearance responsible for disorders.

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Expand Your Main Ideas into an Outline The third task in organizing the body of your presentation is to turn your main ideas into an outline. Unless you are giving a manuscript presentation, do not write out the speech word for word. It takes twice as long to organize your thoughts this way. It is much faster and easier to work with a simple sentence or keyword outline.

An outline tells you at a glance how the main points are organized. When you see your presentation in outline form, it’s easy to see the big picture and to know what changes are needed. For guidelines on how to write an effective outline, see Chapter 14 on “Polishing Your Written Communication.” Included will be the rec- ommended numbering system for outlines, reason for indenting, using two support- ing items per level, parallel wording, and when to capitalize. For a sample informative outline see Emily’s outline on bacterial meningitis located in the Communication Situation at the end of this chapter. You can also view a video of her presentation and many other speeches on the CourseMate website for Communicating for Results.

Organizing the Introduction of the Presentation An introduction is one of the most important parts of a presentation—first impressions can set the tone for the entire speech. The introduction of an oral presentation has four important steps:

1. Capture the attention of your listeners. 2. Motivate them to listen by showing your presentation’s benefit to them. 3. Convince them that you are qualified to speak on the subject. 4. Make your purpose and main points clear in a thesis statement.

Let’s look at each step in more detail.

Capture Audience Attention As you begin your presentation, listeners’ attention may be focused on many other things. One person may be worrying about a car payment that is due. Another may be reviewing a big business deal that fell through that morning. Others may be wishing they were home eating lunch. Therefore, the purpose of the first step in the introduction is to direct at- tention from individual concerns to your presentation. The following are some common techniques for gaining attention, or what Gladwell (2002, p. 25) calls the Stickiness Factor (when a message “makes an impact. You can’t get it out of your head. It sticks in your memory”):

● Reveal one or more startling facts. ● Ask a question. The question may be a rhetorical one (a question that causes

the audience to think rather than respond) or an actual question (listener response is usually obtained by a show of hands).

● Tell a joke or humorous story relating directly to the topic. Poorly told jokes do not impress listeners. If you are not good at humor, try something else.

● Briefly cite two or three specific incidents or examples that relate to the topic. In detail, recount an actual or hypothetical event (often called an “illustration”).

● Refer to the specific occasion or event for which you are speaking (such as a company’s 50th anniversary).

CHAPTER 11 INFORMATIVE PRESENTATIONS: PLAN, RESEARCH,ORGANIZE, AND DELIVER 337

● Quote or paraphrase a well-known publication or expert. ● Briefly demonstrate the item or skill you will be discussing in your presentation.

Cynthis Starks (2010), used humor in her introduction on “How to Write a Speech”:

On this date—Feb. 16, 1923—archeologist Howard Carter entered the burial chamber of King Tutankhamen. There he found a solid gold coffin, Tut’s in- tact mummy and priceless treasures.

On Febuary 16, 1959, Fidel Castro took over the Cuban government 45 days after overthrowing Fulvencia Battista.

And America’s first 9-1-1 emergency phone system went live in Haleyville, Alabama on February 16, 1968.

Today, I won’t be revealing priceless treasures. I promise not to overthrow anyone, or generate any 9-1-1 calls. But I do hope to reveal a few speech- writing secrets, provide a little revolutionary thinking and a sense of urgency about the speeches you ought to be giving (p. 153).

Although humor can be very effective in a presentation (Detz, 2000), self- disparaging humor (where the speaker uses himself or herself as the brunt of a joke) is difficult to use successfully. According to the author of The Elements of Great Speechmaking (Smith, 2004), don’t use self-deprecating humor unless you can make it sound genuine and spontaneous. More specifically, Hackman (1988) found that when either high- or low-status informative speakers used humor that focused on their personal shortcomings, audiences judged the speeches more hu- morous; however, the audiences also rated the speakers as being less competent, less interesting, and less desirable to associate with. But Gruner (1985) found that humor directed at one’s occupation or profession does not harm a speaker’s image.

Motivate the Audience to Keep Them Listening Capturing the attention of your listeners does not guarantee that they will listen to the remainder of your presentation. Therefore, the purpose of step 2 in the introduction is to keep their attention by convincing them that the presentation will help them satisfy personal or job-related needs. Refer back to the audience analysis you completed for ideas on how to make your presentation valuable and important to your listeners.

Establish Your Credibility The purpose of step 3 in the introduction is to con- vince the audience that you are qualified to speak on the subject. Unless they believe that you know what you are talking about, few people will take the time to listen to your ideas or proposals, let alone be persuaded by them. You can demonstrate your qualifications to speak on the topic by referring to your personal experience, the re- search you have done on the topic, the interviews you have conducted with knowl- edgeable people, and by asking a boss or other credible person to introduce you.

Make Your Purpose and Main Points Clear The final step in the in- troduction is to present a thesis statement. A good thesis statement has two parts: a general statement of purpose and a preview of the main points to be covered. The average listener finds it much easier to follow and remember the

338 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

ideas contained in your presentation when your introduction previews the key points that will be covered.

Many business speakers also suggest that you “start your presentation with your recommendations or conclusions unless you have a compelling reason not to” (Wiegand, 1985). This direct method helps you keep the attention of the typically rushed, tired, and stressed-out business audience. It also helps you determine what background material to leave out; include only the points needed to support your conclusions. However, if your conclusion is bad news, sensitive information, or a controversial proposal, it would be better to use the indirect method and report the background data and events before stating what you hope is the obvious conclusion or recommended action. Your audience is more likely to listen objectively and less likely to interrupt with questions if such conclusions are presented last.

Organizing the Conclusion of the Presentation No oral presentation is complete without a conclusion that leaves your audience thinking about your topic as they go back to their offices or head for home. The conclusion of an oral presentation has two main steps:

1. Provide a final summary of your purpose and main ideas. 2. End with a memorable closing thought to refocus audience attention.

Final Summary Your final summary can be general (referring to the general topic of the presentation) or specific (listing the main points covered). The intent of the summary is to clarify for the listeners any confusion about the purpose and main points of your presentation and to refocus them on what they have learned. Don’t took too long—no one wants to hear the speech over—and don’t present new points that weren’t discussed in the speech.

Closing Thought A memorable closing thought serves as a final attention- getter. Its purpose is to give the audience a thought or challenge that will keep them thinking about your presentation long after it is completed. Linda Reivity, secretary of the Department of Health and Social Services for the state of Wisconsin, concluded her speech “Women’s Achievements Toward Equality” with this thought-provoking statement:

I would like to close today with a salute to former President Grover Cleve- land, who in 1905 said, “Sensible and responsible women do not want to vote.” May all those who display equal enlightenment as [his] attain an equal place in history. (Reivity, 1985, p. 153)

Examples and stories are also effective ways to end presentations. Stephen E. Ewing, president and chief operating officer for MCN Corporation and MichCon, concluded his presentation “Marble and Mud: Shaping the Future of the Natural Gas Industry” with this challenging story:

Many of you are golfers, so I have a story that sums up my point—a story told at one time by Glenn Cox, president of Phillips Petroleum.

CHAPTER 11 INFORMATIVE PRESENTATIONS: PLAN, RESEARCH,ORGANIZE, AND DELIVER 339

At the 1925 U.S. Open, golfer Bobby Jones insisted on penalizing himself a stroke when his ball moved slightly in the rough when the blade of his iron touched the turf. Nobody else could possibly have seen the ball move. The penalty dropped Jones into a tie with golfer Willie McFarlane, who went on to win the playoff.

Tom Kite did the same thing 53 years later in 1978. The self-imposed pen- alty caused him to lose the Hall of Fame Classic at Pinehurst by one stroke.

Reporters asked both men why they took the penalties. And both said es- sentially the same thing—“There’s only one way to play the game.” Ladies and gentlemen, there is only one way to play our game—and that’s with a high ethical sense—even in the fiercely competitive businesses we are in. (Ewing, 1991, p. 491)

Any attention-getters that can be effective in your introduction can also be used successfully to conclude your presentation. One method is to refer back to your opening remarks. For example, if you began with a rhetorical question, you can end by answering or re-asking the question; if you began with a quote, mention it again or end with another quote. Other effective ways to close are is- suing a challenge or appealing for action.

Ending your presentation without a closing thought is like giving a birthday gift in a brown paper bag: Neither the audience nor the gift recipient feels that they received anything special. However, a clever conclusion is like beautiful wrapping paper and an elaborate bow; it dresses up the presentation and leaves the audience feeling like they received a gift by listening to your presentation.

Adding Transitions to the Presentation Before leaving organization of an informative presentation, there is one more area of importance—transitions. A transition is a word, phrase, or brief sentence used to link ideas, main points, or major parts of a speech. Transitions add polish and flow to a presentation, they highlight main points making them easier to follow and remember, and they add interest and create anticipation (Hamilton, 2012).

● Transitions Add Polish and Flow. Transitions help listeners follow the de- velopment and flow of the speaker’s ideas and keep them from getting lost. Examples of transitions are words such as also, although, but, because, and however; phrases such as in addition, on the other hand, for example, and in other words; and even brief sentences such as “The second benefit that oc- curs when employees start blogging is. . . .”

● Transitions Highlight Main Points. When main points are highlighted with transitions, it makes the points easier to follow and remember. Instead of just saying, “The next point . . . ,” highlight your points like this example: “So far I’ve covered two important points to consider in choosing a day care—the lo- cation and the outside appearance of the facility. Both are fairly easy to re- search. The next item is just as important, but much more difficult to research.”

● Transitions Add Interest and Create Anticipation. Some examples of tran- sitions that would likely create interest and even some anticipation include the following:

“If you don’t remember anything else from this speech, be sure to remember this.”

340 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

“This next point will be of special interest to all parents.” “No mistake can be more costly than this last one.” “Although my third point sounds complicated, in reality it’s the easiest process of all.”

Don’t forget to add transitions after each main point in your outline. Actu- ally thinking about transitions and writing them out in your outline will help the flow of your presentation when speaking.

INFORMATIVE PRESENTATIONS: DELIVERY Effective speakers must do more than plan, research, and organize—they must also present their ideas in a believable manner. “To be successful in the information age,” warns Robert V. Smith (2004), “professionals must be dramatic, interesting, and intellectually adventuresome communicators” (p. ix). As Lee Iacocca (Iacocca & Novak, 1986) said in his autobiography, “You can have brilliant ideas, but if you can’t get them across, your brains won’t get you anywhere” (p. 16). Your delivery isn’t more important than what you say, but without good delivery, your audience may never hear what you have to say. Your words, your tone of voice, and your ges- tures, eye contact, and appearance must reinforce each other for your presentation to be most effective. However, writing out a speech like a script and then reading or memorizing it is definitely not the preferred way to give business presentations— notice the correct way in the following section on “Methods of Delivery.”

Methods of Delivery Often the success of your presentation depends on the delivery method you select: speaking extemporaneously, from visuals, from memory, from written manuscript, or impromptu.

Speaking Extemporaneously (with or without Notes) This is the preferred method of delivery for most business speakers. An extemporaneous speech is not memorized or even written out word for word. Instead, the speaker lists in outline fashion on note cards the main ideas to be covered and the ver- bal and visual supporting materials. Each time the presentation is given, it will be a little different. Speaking from outlined notes allows the speaker to sound conversational, to maintain good eye contact with the listeners, and to alter the speech if listener feedback indicates confusion.

Speaking Using Visual Aids Now that so many business speakers use PowerPoint slides during their presentations, another form of extemporaneous speaking exists. Like the extemporaneous presentation, the visual aid speaking method is not memorized or written out word for word. But instead of using note cards, speakers use their PowerPoint slides as a memory device or refer to printed copies of their slides (nine per page works well). If your main points appear at the click of the mouse, it’s a good idea to build your own bullets (see the PowerPoint Speaker’s Guide located on the CourseMate website for Communicating for Results

If you don’t want to forget anything, it’s best to write everything down on paper like a script and memorize it.

MYTH or FACT

CHAPTER 11 INFORMATIVE PRESENTATIONS: PLAN, RESEARCH,ORGANIZE, AND DELIVER 341

for specific bullet instructions). Building your own bullets (which remain station- ary with the title) allows you to recall exactly how many points you planned for each slide. In contrast, PowerPoint bullets, which fly in with each point, make it dif- ficult to remember how many points a slide has—especially if you are a bit nervous.

Speaking from Memory Business and professional speakers seldom select this method of delivery. First, speaking from memory takes a great deal of time, as it means memorizing a manuscript word for word, and few people have this luxury. Second, speaking from memory makes it difficult to react to listener feedback. A question from a listener can make the speaker forget the next sentence. Even if the listeners make no verbal comments, they make plenty of nonverbal ones. How can a speaker, who sees from facial expressions that a certain idea is not understood, correct the problem when speaking from memory? Any deviation from the practiced speech could cause the speaker to lose concentration and forget the memorized material.

Speaking from a Manuscript Speaking from a manuscript is much more difficult for most people than speaking from outlined notes. When speaking from a manuscript, the speaker must read a prepared presentation word for word but make it sound conversational and personal by using good vocal variety and maintaining eye contact with the audience. Unless the speaker deviates from the manuscript occasionally, he or she cannot respond to listener feedback any more than during a memorized presentation.

Nevertheless, for the experienced speaker, there are certain advantages to a manuscript presentation. For example, when the speaker is given a very strict time limit, speaking from manuscript helps to ensure that the presentation will not be too long. For people who speak to audiences outside the company, speak- ing from a manuscript has the advantage of allowing upper management to read and okay the presentation before it is given. This method also protects the speak- er from saying something unintentionally and from blatant misinterpretation. Top-level managers and executives, state governors, and the president of the United States often use manu- scripts for protection.

If you must use a manuscript sometime in the future, be sure to practice reading it until your pitch, rate, volume, and emphasis make you sound authoritative yet conversation- al and you are able to glance up and make eye contact with your listeners often enough to look natural.

Impromptu Speaking Speaking without prior preparation and without notes or manuscript—called impromptu speaking—is obviously a hazardous way to give a major presentation. Yet, every time your manager, a client, a newspaper re- porter, or a job interviewer asks you a question, your response is an impromptu presentation that must sound intelligent, authoritative, and confident. A hesitant, apologetic, or stumbling answer does not project the professional image you want.

Mark Wilson/Getty Images

Revisiting the Case Study... Go to YouTube.com and find a video of Markopolos testifying before a congressional subcommittee and listen to him speak. Which delivery method should Markopolos have used for a presentation in front of the subcommittee? Which methods would you recommend he avoid? Why?

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342 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

When asked to speak impromptu, try the following (Stone & Bachner, 1994): ● Appear confident (even if you must pretend). ● Decide on your conclusion first so that everything you say can lead up to the

conclusion in an organized manner. ● Begin with a general statement or background information to give you time

to think of one, two, or three supporting reasons for your conclusion. ● Introduce your supporting reasons with the word because until you can stay

organized without it. For example: Q: Do you think speech training should be required for promotion of area

managers? A: Because the average area manager is called on to make at least four for-

mal presentations to the public a year, and because they make weekly informal presentations to their employees, I see speech training as a nec- essary requirement for promotion.

● Answer the question directly and honestly. The exception is those rare in- stances when you are asked a question you don’t wish to answer or for which you don’t have an answer (and you feel it would be unacceptable to say, “I don’t know”). In those cases it may be justifiable to change the topic to one you do want to answer. Politicians are very good at changing subjects with such comments as these: “That’s an important question—almost as important as. . . .” “Great question! That gives me an opportunity to talk about. . . .” “Could I come back to that question? I’ve been wanting to reply to the re-

mark this gentleman made previously. He said. . . .” “I think we need to look at the problem from a different angle. . . .”

Although there are times when speaking from memory, speaking from a manuscript, and impromptu speaking are appropriate, remember that most suc- cessful business speakers do not memorize, read word for word, or speak with- out prior preparation. The preferred method of delivery for most business speakers is speaking extemporaneously often from brief notes or PowerPoint slides.

Characteristics of Effective Delivery Now that you know the dos and don’ts of picking a delivery method for your pre- sentation, let’s discuss the delivery characteristics that make an effective speaker. The professional, polished, and enthusiastic speakers look confident and relaxed, sound conversational, natural, and enthusiastic, and use language that is informal, vivid, and specific. These are all characteristics that can be learned with practice.

Look Confident and Relaxed As a speaker, you should appear confident and relaxed. You should not become a different person when you give an oral presenta- tion; you should not step into a speaker’s disguise. Simply be yourself, presenting your ideas the same way you would if you were talking to a good friend. An audience de- cides whether you are confident and relaxed by looking at your nonverbal behaviors:

● Look directly at your listeners and smile occasionally. Don’t look over the heads of or between listeners, or they may decide that you are nervous and lack authority.

CHAPTER 11 INFORMATIVE PRESENTATIONS: PLAN, RESEARCH,ORGANIZE, AND DELIVER 343

● Dress in a professional manner. If you want your listeners to have confidence in what you are saying, you must appear confident. Dressing up for the pre- sentation is one way to feel more confident and a good way to indicate non- verbally that what you have to say is important.

● Use natural gestures. Gestures can add enthusiasm and authority to your pre- sentation. Of course, too many gestures or repetitive gestures could distract the audience’s attention from what you are saying; on the other hand, too few gestures can cause your audience to lose interest. Used correctly, ges- tures add excitement and reinforce main ideas. Ideally, you will get so in- volved in your topic that the gestures will come naturally.

● Add occasional movement. Stepping forward, backward, or to the side is an effective way to show enthusiasm, to emphasize a point, or to progress from one idea to another. For the best effect, try to move at either the beginning or the end of a sentence or an idea.

Sound Conversational, Natural, and Enthusiastic Not only do effec- tive speakers look confident and natural, they also sound conversational, natural, and enthusiastic. People are more likely to listen closely and understand more clearly if you speak much as you do in ordinary conversation. People conversing generally use excellent vocal variety. The key to effective vocal variety, is to vary the following in a natural manner:

● Vary your volume. Volume, the loudness and softness of your voice, is im- portant in several ways to your success as a speaker. First, you must be loud enough to be heard easily from all parts of the room. Second, you also need to vary the volume of your voice to make the presentation interesting. Third, you should increase and decrease volume to emphasize words or phrases.

● Vary your pitch. Pitch, the highness and lowness of vocal tones, is also im- portant to vocal variety. Too little variety in pitch can make your voice a dull monotone (like a piano repeating only one note), whereas extreme changes in pitch can make you sound unnatural and insincere. Effective speakers use step changes in pitch (changes between high, medium, and low pitches) and pitch inflection (gradually rising or falling pitch) to add interest and enthu- siasm to their voices and to communicate subtle or implied meanings.

● Vary your emphasis. Emphasis, stressing a word with your voice to give it significance, is another important ingredient of vocal variety. In empha- sizing a word, two things happen: Your pitch goes up (usually followed by a downward slide) and your volume increases. For a demonstration of this point, say the following question five times, each time emphasizing a different word and giving the sentence a different meaning:

Why did you fire him? Why did you fire him? Why did you fire him? Why did you fire him? Why did you fire him?

● Vary your rate. Rate, how fast or how slowly you speak, is especially important in maintaining listener attention. Constantly speaking at the

344 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

From Stutterer to Professional Speaker Growing up, Bob Love could barely speak without stutter- ing. It was not until after an injury ended his basketball career at age 45 that Love finally learned to let his voice be heard. Most of the following information comes from an interview published by the American Speech-Language- Hearing Association (Moore, 2004).

Bob Love scored 12,263 points for the Chicago Bulls during his career and is the third-highest scorer in Bulls history—behind only Michael Jordan and Scottie Pippen. He was voted NBA All-Star three times, and for eight seasons av- eraged 23.0 points per game (“Bob Love,” 2012). However, for most of his life, Love got by with being silent. Drafted by the Cincinnati Royals in 1965, he soon realized that, despite his talent, people judged him more on his speaking ability than on his playing ability. He was traded twice for that very reason, and even when he hit his career peak for the Chicago Bulls, he was rarely interviewed by reporters and never received any product endorsements. Although he dreamed of being a pro- fessional speaker, his stutter was such a problem that upon leaving the Seattle Supersonics because of a back injury, the only job he could get was “washing dishes and busing tables for $4.45 an hour” at Nordstrom’s (Moore, 2004, p. 8).

This is where a little hard work and likely some luck paid off for Love. Because of his excellent work, Nordstrom wanted to promote him, but first he had to get rid of his debilitating stutter. The CEO of Nordstrom took personal in- terest in Bob and offered to pay for a speech therapist. The therapist, Susan Hamilton, worked with Love’s rate, con- tinuous formation, and breathing patterns, and with hard work and encouragement, his life was completely changed. Now, in addition to serving as the director of Community Affairs for his beloved Chicago Bulls, Love moonlights as a motivational speaker, giving over 300 presentations per year (“Bulls in the Community: Outreach,” 2012; “Bob Love,” 2012). His dream of becoming a professional speaker achieved, Love’s story is now an inspiration to youth and adults.

WHAT DO YOU THINK? Do you think that people really judged Love more by

his stutter than by his playing, or was he being overly sensitive?

Based on Love’s personal experience with stuttering, what kinds of supporting materials could he successfully use in his motivational presentations?

IT REALLY WORKS

same rate can lull your listeners to sleep. An effective speaker usually speaks faster to show excitement, to build suspense, or for emphasis. A slower speaking rate can also be used to show the importance of an idea; combined with low pitch, a slow rate can indicate inappropriate or boring ideas. Be sure to pause after important phrases or ideas to let the listeners absorb them.

Use Language That Is Informal, Vivid, and Specific Listeners expect speakers to use a more informal language style than that used in written reports. For example, in oral communication you should use short, simple sentences. In fact, it isn’t always necessary to use complete sentences. It is fine to use personal pronouns such as I, we, you, us, and contractions such as I’ve or won’t—forms often avoided in formal written English.

One of the most serious mistakes a speaker can make is to try to impress listeners by using long or extremely technical words or jargon. Do not assume that upper management, employees in other departments, or the public will un- derstand the technical terms and jargon used in your department; they probably

CHAPTER 11 INFORMATIVE PRESENTATIONS: PLAN, RESEARCH,ORGANIZE, AND DELIVER 345

won’t. The best language is vivid (paints a picture for the listener), specific (gives details), and simple (easy to understand).

Maintaining a Confident Delivery Feeling nervous prior to a new communication situation is perfectly normal. We all experience a butterflies-in-the-stomach feeling at times. Your friends do, your boss does, top-level managers do, and so do the vice president and the chief executive officer of your organization. Because speaker anxiety is so prevalent, it is included as an obstacle to communication in Chapter 6. Reread the section on “Communicator Anxiety” in that chapter and review whether your anxiety is more situational or trait. Then follow the guidelines for how to manage your type of anxiety, including visualizing yourself giving a successful presentation.

In addition to knowing the type of anxiety you have, there are several sug- gestions that professional speakers follow:

● Don’t overlook the importance of practice—stand up, speak out loud, and use your visuals (if you use notes, make sure they are keywords only). Practice allows you to check the length and make corrections on any content or transitions that don’t seem to flow smoothly. Don’t try to memorize the presentation. In fact, each time you practice, it should sound a bit different. Think how much more confident you feel when you have really studied for an exam than when you just skimmed the material. The same is true with speaking—people who practice several times, feel much more confident and in control when giving the actual speech. If you want your listeners to have confidence in what you are saying, you must appear confident (even if you feel nervous inside). So, practice, practice, practice!

● Videotape a practice session when possible—give the speech in front of friends or family. Research has showed that students who practiced their speeches in front of others actually received higher grades than students who prac- ticed without an audience (Smith & Frymier, 2006). Also, practicing before larger audiences resulted in higher evaluations than practicing before small- er audiences.

● Don’t apologize—even if you make a mistake or feel sure everyone can tell you are nervous. If your nervousness causes you to leave out a crucial idea, summarize what you have covered so far and insert the idea by saying, “An- other topic that needs to be considered is. . . .” After all, the listeners don’t have a script of your presentation, so how will they know you left something out or changed the order of topics? If you do make an obvious error, don’t call attention to it. All speakers make a few minor errors—listeners expect it. To look confident, don’t toy with pencils, paper clips, or other small items (especially in your pockets) that will distract the listener and make you look nervous and unprofessional.

● Prepare speaking notes—but don’t mistake your outline for speaking notes. An outline is detailed and used for planning and organizing; speaking notes are brief keywords or phrases used as a memory aid while speaking

346 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

(Leech, 1992). Most people use one or two note cards plus a separate card for each quotation. Use color and underlining to make keywords stand out, and write personal notes (like eye contact or louder) in the margins. It’s also a good idea to make a hard copy of your PowerPoint slides (six to nine on a page a page works well) just in case of equipment failure. Figure 11.4 shows the speaking notes used by one speaker; an outline of another speaker’s presentation is shown in Figure 11.5 in the “Communi- cation Situation” feature for this chapter.

Now that we have covered the major pointers to help you plan, research, organize, and deliver an informative presentation, you are ready for two more important aspects—verbal and visual supporting materials. These last two as- pects, covered in Chapter 12, are what take a presentation from good to great; from interesting to riveting; and from average to professional.

FIGURE 11.4 Sample speaking notes—first note card

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CHAPTER 11 INFORMATIVE PRESENTATIONS: PLAN, RESEARCH,ORGANIZE, AND DELIVER 347

COMMUNICATION SITUATION Informative Presentation: Bacterial Meningitis by Emily Wilson Emily planned, researched, and organized her topic for her presentation on bacterial meningitis; then she delivered her informative presentation to her business communica- tion class. Emily’s assignment was to prepare a 4- to 6-min- ute informative presentation about a topic of her choosing. Since she had a friend stricken by this disease, Emily de- cided to inform her classmates about the dangers of menin- gitis. Visual aids were required; minimal notes were allowed. Although Emily used visual aids in her speech, they are not included in the outline below. What visuals would you suggest? As you read this presentation, think about changes you would make if you were speaking about the same topic. Pay special at- tention to her introduction and conclusion and her outline. How well did she implement the guidelines in this chapter? You can go to the CourseMate website for Communicating for Results to watch a video clip of this Communication Situation, critique the presentation, and if requested, email your responses to your instructor. There are many other sample informtive presentations included on CourseMate, in- cluding “Retail Theft” by Mark Stephenson (see his speech and his informative report in Chapter 14).

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Title: “Bacterial Meningitis” by Emily Wilson

Exact Purpose: After listening to my presentation, the audience will become aware of the danger surrounding meningitis by understanding what it is and how it can hurt us.

INTRODUCTION

I. Attention-getter: How many of you have heard of or been affected by meningi- tis? How many of you know someone that has experienced the effects of menin- gitis? [Visual #1]

II. Qualifications: I personally have not been affected by meningitis but I do have a friend who has suffered from this silent killer. She has recovered from her expe- rience but still has minor neurological problems.

III. Motivation: According to the National Meningitis Association there are annu- ally an estimated 3,000 cases of bacterial meningitis in the United State and out

Introduction:

Emily's introduction includes all the important steps usually included in an informative speech. Her use of statistics was a good way to motivate the audience to listen to this topic that relates to them personally.

Q: If Emily had used the statis- tics as an attention-getter, would it have made her introduction even stronger? Why, or why not?

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FIGURE 11.5 Informative speech outline with commentary

348 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

of those 3,000 cases, about 330 people will die. Teens are more likely to die than younger or older people—so it really relates to us.

IV. Thesis: Today we are going to look at what bacterial meningitis is, how you get it, and what happens when you are infected. These three main points will help you to understand the significant danger of meningitis. [Visual #2]

BODY

I. What is bacterial meningitis?

A. Bacterial meningitis is a serious and dangerous infection of the meninges.

1. The infection travels up the spinal cord into the brain.

2. Once in the brain, bacterial meningitis causes swelling in the normal meninges made up of the dura mater, the arachnoid, and the pia mater. (Visual #3).

B. According to the article BACTERIAL MENINGITIS:

Disease/Disorder Overview from the Health and Wellness Resource Center, there are two leading strands of bacterial meningitis. [ref. #1]

1. Meningococcal

2. Pneumococcal

Transition: Next, let’s look at how we contract a meningitis infection such as the meningococcal strand.

II. How do we get bacterial meningitis or where does it strike?

A. Bacterial meningitis is actually found in the body. [Visual #4]

1. The bacteria are in everyone’s body.

2. Bacterial meningitis is triggered only when your body experiences a drastic change.

B. Bacterial meningitis can be spread unless you are careful.

1. Bacterial meningitis is spread buy coughing, kissing, and sharing food. [ref. #2]

2. It is spread through ear, throat, and sinus infections.

3. Blood infected by bacterial meningitis spreads to the brain.

Transition: Now that we understand how bacterial meningitis is contracted, let’s look at what happens when we are infected.

Transitions:

Emily's transitions into her second and third main points are brief yet specific. Putting them into her outline shows their importance.

Q: Do you see any places where an internal summary, a repetition, or a restatement would add clarity to her message? Be specific.

Main Points:

Emily had pages and pages of information on her topic but finally narrowed it down to three important main points: What is bacterial meningitis? How do you get it? And what can you expect if you are infected?

Q: Looking at her outline, do you think she chose the best main points of interest and value to her audience? What other main point might she have included?

Supporting Materials:

One strength of Emily's speech is that she uses a variety of support- ing materials to clarify as well as add interest and proof to her main points.

Q: How many different sup- porting materials can you list that Emily used? Evaluate their general quality on a scale of 1 (fair) to 5 (excellent).

Continued

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CHAPTER 11 INFORMATIVE PRESENTATIONS: PLAN, RESEARCH,ORGANIZE, AND DELIVER 349

Visual Aids:

Emily used five PowerPoint slides in her speech—all were text slides with visual anchors except for one graphic slide showing the layers of the me- ninges.

Q: What additional graphic slide do you think would have made an effective visual aid?

Conclusion:

Emily reminds her audience how easy it is to contract bacte- rial meningitis and how fast it can potentially kill them.

Q: Do you think her final thought was effective or too strong? Why, or why not?

References:

Emily cited her sources during her presentation, which is nec- essary to show credibility and that you researched your topic.

Q: In this situation, were two sources enough? Why, or why not?

III. What happens when we get it?

A. Death or severe brain damage occurs to many people.

1. Bacterial meningitis causes swelling in the meninges.

2. Swelling causes the brain to put extreme pressure against the skull.

B. Amputations are common.

1. Amy Purdy was a college student when she contracted bacterial meningitis and had to have both of her legs amputated at the knee.

a. This tragedy struck her overnight.

b. Within 24 hours she went from being a healthy college student with two perfectly good legs, to an ICU resident with two amputated legs and massive internal damage.

2. Amy surprised everyone. She not only survived, she continued her love of skiing, as you can see in this picture of Amy. [Visual #5]

C. Neurological damage may last a lifetime.

1. Most survivors have neurological damage.

2. According to the National Meningitis Association, 20% of survivors usually suffer from extreme damage of the kidneys, brain, and liver.

3. Less serious neurological damage results in such things as loss of hearing and slow response abilities.

CONCLUSION

I. Although you may think that this harmful infection will not happen to you, no one is impervious to this quick, silent killer.

II. It is important to remember that it is a serious bacterial infection that can be caught from someone coughing on you and could potentially kill you within the next 24 hours.

III. Now that you are aware of bacterial meningitis, I hope that you will be able to use this new knowledge to your future benefit.

REFERENCES

1. Bacterial meningitis: Disease/ disorder overview. (2008, November). Retrieved from the Health and Wellness Resource Center database.

2. Centers for Disease Control. (2009, August 6). Meningitis: Transmission. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/meningitis/about/transmission.html

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SUMMARY In this chapter, we discussed basic information that applies to any formal or informal informative presentation that you may give within an organization or to the public. Effective speakers plan, research, organize, and practice delivery prior to a presentation. Plan your presentation by determining whether it needs to be in- formative or persuasive and whether it should be an oral briefing or an oral report. Next, analyze your specific audience character- istics and type. Finally, narrow your topic and write out an exact purpose statement. Research carefully to find new ideas, new approaches, visual aids, and supporting information to add inter- est, clarify, and prove your points. Be careful about overusing the

Internet. Organize your presentation by determining main points, selecting the best organizational pattern for your speech content, deciding on an effective introduction and conclusion, checking or- ganization clarity by preparing an outline, and adding transitions. Keep in mind that how you organize your presentation will depend on your listeners’ needs, interests, and knowledge; the situation; the time limit; and your own speaking style. Deliver your presenta- tion by selecting an appropriate method of delivery—usually the preferred business method involves extemporaneous delivery. Then practice, practice, practice so that your delivery will be enthusiastic, conversational, and extemporaneous.

350

KEY TERMS body (332) blogs (329) Boolean operators (327) causal pattern (334) chronological pattern (334) closing thought (338) conclusion (332) delivery characteristics (342) electronic databases (328) emphasis (343) exact purpose statements(322) extemporaneous speech (340) final summary (338) friendly audience (321) geographical pattern (334)

hostile audience (321) impromptu speaking (341) informative presentations (318) introduction (332) keyword searches (327) neutral audience (321) oral briefing (318) oral report (319) personal interviews (330) persuasive presentations (318) pitch (343) plagiarism (330) rate (343) refereed (329) search engines (326)

self-disparaging humor (337) spatial pattern (334) speaking from a manuscript (341) speaking from memory (341) speaking notes (345) supporting materials (324) thesis statement (337) time pattern (334) topical pattern (334) transition (339) tweets (329) uninterested audience (321) volume (343) wildcard (328)

CHAPTER REVIEW

Christopher Robbins/Getty ImagesChristopher Robbins/Getty Images

CHAPTER 11 INFORMATIVE PRESENTATIONS: PLAN, RESEARCH,ORGANIZE, AND DELIVER 351

COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS ONLINE Before continuing to the next chapter, check your understanding of Chapter 11 at the Speech Communication CourseMate for Commu- nicating for Results. CourseMate gives you quick and easy access to this text’s resources to help improve your communication skills and prepare you for quizzes and exams. These resources include: ● Study tools including the student companion workbook,

digital glossary, flashcards, and review quizzes. ● Activities and assignments including Awareness Checks,

Checkpoints, and Collaborative Learning Activities. ● Media resources such as Web Links (explore communication

concepts)and Speech Builder Express (develop your speech outlines); Interactive Video Activities (watch and critique videos of professional communication situations and sample speeches); and Speech Studio (upload your speech videos for peer reviewing and critique other students’ speeches).

For more information or to access this book’s online resources, visit cengagebrain.com.

Collaborative Learning Activities 1. In groups of five to seven, create a series of questions for

which speakers would likely need to know the answers with regard to their audience to adequately prepare an effective speech, including what they know and think about the speaker and the speaker’s topic. When the survey is completed, each group should select a speech topic; each member should in- terview 5 to 10 colleagues using the survey and taking notes. Compare notes and discuss the general level of knowledge on your topic. Finally, using your audience analysis, suggest at least two ways to get those interviewed interested in the topic.

2. Career Activity: In groups of three to five, select four busi- ness-related topics for informative speeches. Select the topic that the group thinks would make the best business-related speech and create several possible main points that might be included. To show your knowledge of the informative organi- zational patterns and to show that most topics can be orga- nized into all four patterns, make four different outlines from the same general topic but organize the main points into the topical, spatial, chronological, and causal patterns. When fin- ished, decide which pattern would make the most interesting presentation for the workplace. Why would it be more inter- esting? Compare your outlines with those from other groups.

3. Career Activity: In small groups, take the most interesting speech outline from career activity 2 and have half of the group prepare an introduction for the speech, and half of the group pre- pare a conclusion for the speech. Make sure that you include all the steps that are usually found in an effective introduction and conclusion. Ask for volunteers to present both the introduction

and conclusion to the entire group who will suggest two strengths and at least one weakness from the content and the delivery. How could any weaknesses be changed into strengths?

4. In small groups, go to EBSCOHost and click on the Military and Government Collection, and look for an informative speech that the group likes from a recent Vital Speeches. After reading the speech, complete the following:

a. Make an outline of the speech determining which orga- nizational pattern was used. On a scale of 1 (ineffective) to 5 (outstanding), how effective was the organization? Would a different pattern have worked better? If so, why?

b. Identify the research sources used in the presentation including personal experience. How effective were they?

c. Find two current sources that the speaker could have implemented into the speech to make it even better— one source should be a book, newspaper article, or jour- nal article; one source should be a twitter or blog post. Be prepared to share your information if requested.

5. In small groups, find information about Turnitin.com and other plagiarism checkers available online. If your college or organi- zation has Turnitin.com available for use, have each group mem- ber submit an informative or persuasive outline that contains at least one paragraph that is not original. Did the software flag any areas other than the expected paragraph? Discuss the results and what you learned about avoiding plagiarism.

6. In groups of three or five, brainstorm at least five pos- sible informative speech topics for each of these general headings: business, education, sports, social issues, how- to topics, relationships, ethics, and health. When finished, read through the list of topics in Figure 11.1 adding any you especially like to your lists. Compare lists with other groups. Finally, select two topics and complete the following: ● List possible main points for each topic. ● Write an exact purpose statement for each topic

beginning with “After hearing my presentation, the audience will . . .” See pages 322-324 for help on writing exact purpose statements.

7. In small groups, discuss the Myth or Fact statements in the margins of this chapter coming to complete agreement on the best answer for each. Do your answers agree with the comments in the text? If not, be prepared to defend your position by giving examples where possible.

8. In small groups, discuss the difference between an outline and speaker notes. Share experiences on what you have used for notes in past presentations over the years and how successful or unsuccessful they were. As a group, take a position on the best way to use notes and be prepared to share it if asked.

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VERBAL AND VISUAL SUPPORTING MATERIALS

IDENTIFY with dos and don’ts the following supporting materials used in quality presentations: explanations, comparisons, illustrations, examples, statistics, and expert opinion.

DISCUSS the benefits of using visual aids in a presentation and list several types of effect visuals.

IDENTIFY important guidelines for selecting visual aids, including what mistakes to avoid, how many visuals to use, and appropriate size and typeface.

LIST and briefly discuss suggestions for designing visuals, including tips for text visuals, graphic visuals, general design principles, and color.

PINPOINT major guidelines for effective use of PowerPoint.

352

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12 Flying CColours Ltd/Jupiterimages

As you read chapter 12...

As you read this chapter... See if you can (a) suggest what the military and businesses might do to improve the quality of PowerPoint presentations without banning or restricting their use; (b) discover specific tips and guidelines for preparing Pow- erPoint slides; and (c) determine what lessons public speakers can take from this chapter opener. For more details, run a Google or database search for PowerPoint articles.

g ; ( ) p eparing Pow-

overload it with information. To stop this abuse, Atkinson rec- ommends that speakers stop using bulleted lists in their Pow- erPoint presentations and instead use images and narrative stories with drama and interest. Gallo (2010), author of The Presentation Secrets of Steve Jobs, agrees with Atkinson and says that “Bullet points on presentations should be avoided. Pictures are superior” (p. 104). Other experts are less hostile toward use of bulleted lists but feel they should be used in moderation. For example, in Presentation Zen, Reynolds (2012, p. 142) recommends that bullets be used rarely and only when other options won’t work. Kosslyn, psychologist and author of Clear and to the Point: 8 Psychological Principles for Compel- ling PowerPoint Presentations (2007) feels that bullet points have a definite place in PowerPoint slides if used correctly. For example, he recommends that speakers show the complete, short bulleted list as an overview but then show and discuss each bulleted item separately by graying out the remaining items (p. 75). And finally, educational experts Clark and Mayer, in e-Learning and the Science of Instruction (2011) suggest that simple bullet points that divide information into manage- able chunks may actually help listeners organize material and improve what they remember. This is especially true for listen- ers who are new to the subject or when content or terms are complex. So, what’s the answer—is PowerPoint and use of bul- lets “poison” or do you think the problem lies with the user?

CASE STUDY PowerPoint Poisoning? Computer-generated visuals can either aid presentations or they can be so irritating that they work against your best ef- forts no matter how great your statistics and other verbal supporting materials may be. Millions of PowerPoint presen- tations are made daily which leads to Sandberg’s (2006) es- timate that “bad PowerPoint presentations cost companies $252 million a day in wasted time” (p. B1). With all these “bad” presentations, the phrases “Death by PowerPoint” and PowerPoint Poisoning, coined by Scott Adams in his Dilbert comic, take on real meaning.

Is PowerPoint really all that bad? The military certainly thinks so. For example, the Pentagon began waging war on PowerPoint which they labeled as a “growing electronic men- ace” over a decade ago (Jaffe, 2000, p. A1). Apparently, many military presentations are too long (100 slides or more), too con- fusing, too wordy, and cluttered with showy effects (e.g., fancy backdrops, distracting slide transitions, spinning pie charts, and “booming tanks”). A former chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General Hugh Shelton, attempted to solve the problem by placing restrictions on the use of PowerPoint in military presentations. However, according to a recent article in the Armed Forces Jour- nal, the problem still exists and “is so firmly established in the services that it is unclear whether anything can be done about it” (Abela, 2012). Almost all military briefings use PowerPoint. In one of those briefings, General McChrystal, former commander of American and NATO forces in Afghanistan, was shown a Power- Point slide which caused him to comment, “When we understand that slide, we’ll have won the war” (Bumiller, 2010).

The business world is experiencing similar problems. It’s rare to attend a meeting or conference where presenters do not use PowerPoint—and long bulleted lists seem to be the norm. In fact, when people think of presentations they think of PowerPoint bullets—the words are almost synonymous (Mortensen, 2012). Some conferences require presenters to follow a standard PowerPoint format and then bind together the slides for participants as a handout (Reynolds, 2012, p. 70).

The real problem may be that “the art of creating a Pow- erPoint brief frequently has become a substitute for real plan- ning, thoughtful discussion, and cogent analysis” (Wooldridge, 2004, p. 85). As a captain in the U.S. Air Force, Cliff Atkinson, author of Beyond Bullet Points (2011), saw PowerPoint abuse first-hand. He feels that one of the main problems is that pre- senters view PowerPoint slides as another piece of paper and

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354 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

How many dull, boring presentations have you endured in the workplace or in the educational environment? If visual aids were used, were they also boring and over packed with information? If you could, you prob- ably left the presentation early. There is no reason that your presentations should have these problems. The key is to concentrate on inspiring your listeners not just informing them. To inspire and motivate an audience so they will want to remember and believe the information in your presentation, you will need to know how to use verbal and visual supporting materials more effectively than most people. This chapter will offer innovative ideas on supporting your ideas both verbally and visually. Get your pencils ready to jot down ideas you can use in your next presentation. First, let’s start with verbal supports.

VERBAL SUPPORTING MATERIALS The key to understanding what is meant by supporting materials is the verb support. One of its dictionary definitions is “to hold up or serve as a founda- tion or prop for.” Therefore, supporting materials are informative materials that serve as a foundation for our ideas. Supporting materials have three purposes:

● To clarify. If your listeners do not understand your ideas, your presentation will fail. The effective speaker uses visual supports (such as charts, graphs, and pictures) and verbal supports (such as stories, comparisons, and expla- nations) to clarify ideas in such a clear manner that listeners can’t help but understand.

● To prove. Often, statements must be proven or substantiated before they are accepted. The effective speaker uses verbal supports (such as statistics, quotes from experts, and real events) as evidence for ideas and statements in such an innovative manner that listeners can’t help but believe.

● To add interest. Because every person has a different frame of reference, not everyone will view a particular support as interesting. An effective speaker uses such a variety of interesting and unusual supports for each idea or as- sertion that listeners can’t help but be interested.

The verbal supporting materials most often used by business and professional speakers can be divided into six categories: explanations, comparisons (includ- ing figurative and literal comparisons), illustrations (including hypothetical and factual stories), examples, statistics, and expert opinions.

Explanations In an explanation, the speaker describes the relationship between certain items, defines a term or word, or gives instructions on how to do something or how to get somewhere. For example, a speaker might describe the relationship between the sales and purchasing departments, give the official company definition of compensation time, or describe how to operate a new piece of machinery. Be- ginning speakers tend to overuse explanations. If the only support you use is explanation, your presentation will not only lack proof but will most likely lack

CHAPTER 12 VERBAL AND VISUAL SUPPORTING MATERIALS 355

interest as well. As often as possible, replace or reinforce the explanation you planned to use with some other type of support.

In a speech titled “I Know It When I See It: Moral Judgments and Business Ethics” George Ellard (2007), co-head of the white-collar and corporate compli- ance section of Baach Robinson & Lewis Law Firm, used the following explana- tion and definition of business ethics:

It is an honor to speak with you tonight about business ethics. It is also a very difficult task be- cause the notion “business ethics” rests on the distinction between right and wrong. Most civ- ilizations before the modern epoch accepted the existence of right and wrong, but by the time people reach college age in our society many, if not most, have absorbed the belief dominant in our culture that moral judgments are simply personal preferences (p. 193).

Comparisons Speakers use comparisons to show the similarities or differences between some- thing the listeners know and something they do not know. Suppose, for example, you are speaking to a group of supervisors about an often used but ineffective way of motivating workers—the “dangling carrot” approach. To clarify your point, you could compare this method of motivating workers to a parent mo- tivating a teenager to clean up his room by promising the use of the family car.

There are two types of comparisons: literal and figurative. A literal compari- son shows similarities or differences between two or more items from the same class or category. The following are examples of literal comparisons: two styles of management, sales of three competing companies, two advertising campaigns, and monthly travel expenses of five top salespersons. Although comparisons are not used as absolute proof, a literal comparison can offer solid evidence for your point if the items being compared are almost identical.

For example, Elaine L. Chao (2007), U.S. Secretary of Labor, in a speech titled “Remarks” at the Asian American Government Executives Network, used the following literal comparison:

And Asian Pacific Americans need to be aware of the cultural differences that may impact the way in which they practice leadership in society. Let me give you an example. This goes back to classroom days. . . . In traditional Asian American communities, children are discouraged from speaking unless they have something to say. But in American culture, expressing one’s opinion is encouraged and rewarded. And this makes sense in this society. . . .Leaders advance and defend the interests of their organization and their colleagues. So executives need to be articulate, both in written and in oral presentations. . . .You can see these trends in little children. . . . But most Asians are taught that it is rude to speak out of turn or to interrupt others. It is proper to defer to others.

Explanations... Should be specific but brief. Should be used only for clarification, not for proof. Are generally used too often by beginning speakers. As

often as possible, replace or reinforce the explanation you plan to use with some other type of support.

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356 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

America, however, is a place where everybody speaks their mind. . . . I had to overcome my cultural reticence about speaking up (pp. 10–13).

A figurative comparison shows similarities or differences between two or more items from different classes or categories. A speaker who compares a sales- person’s competitive drive to the drive of a hungry bear is using a figurative comparison. Figurative comparisons are never used for proof, but they do add interest and clarify ideas.

Mike Ruettgers (2003), EMC Corporation’s executive chairman of the board, in a speech delivered at Bentley College, clarified the problem of business ethics by using a figurative comparison:

There is an old parable about the “boiled frog.” Now I don’t know why anyone would want to boil a frog, but the story goes that if you put a frog in a pot of boiling water, he’ll try to jump out. But place him in room-temperature water and gradually turn up the temperature, and he stays in and eventually is boiled. It seems to me that ethical confrontations are similar. When facing an obvious breach of ethics, you jump out to safety. But when the line between right and wrong is not so obvious, you can get boiled. (p. 151)

Illustrations An illustration is a narrative or story told in vivid detail to paint a picture for the listener. A speaker who recommends that the company provide more conference rooms might present an illustration about a buyer who, when an important client arrives, has no conference room available. A good speak- er would give such a vivid picture of the event that the listeners would feel the embarrassment and anger of the buyer trying to negotiate an important purchase in the middle of ringing telephones and competing conversations. Illustrations can be used in the introduction, body, or conclusion of a speech to gain attention and involve the audience personally.

Illustrations can be factual or hypothetical. A factual illustration is a de- tailed narrative about someone, something, or some event that actually hap- pened. In discussing how important encouragement is to each of us, Robert L. Veninga (2006) used the following factual illustration in a commencement address for graduate students at the University of Sioux Falls:

The importance of encouragement cannot be overemphasized. Recently I had a mid-career student in one of my classes. She took notes religiously, which any professor will tell you is the mark of a highly educated person! Then she would frequently stay after class to discuss class content.

One day, however, I saw sadness written all over her face. I asked her what was wrong. “Just before coming to class my supervisor handed me my performance

Comparisons . . . Should relate something unfamiliar to something familiar to the

audience. Plan your comparisons to fit the average frame of reference of your audience.

Are an effective and easy way to add interest to your presentation.

Are used mainly to clarify ideas. The figurative comparison is used only for clarification and never for proof; the literal comparison can be used in persuasion as a weak but introductory proof to be followed by other types of proof as well.

REMEMBER

CHAPTER 12 VERBAL AND VISUAL SUPPORTING MATERIALS 357

review,” she said. “Would you read it?” I read it and was quite impressed with all her accomplishments. And frankly I was puzzled as to why the student was upset until the student asked me to reread the appraisal. Upon rereading it I under- stood: There was not a word of thanks. There were no statements of appreciation. It was just a listing of facts related to her job. The student looked at me and said plaintively: “All I wanted was a simple thank you.” (pp. 544–545)

If you are using factual illustrations to add proof, keep this important point in mind: One or even two illustrations are seldom enough to prove a point com- pletely. There is, however, an additional way to add proof that many speakers overlook—following the illustration with a series or list of examples (short factual statements). Think about this situation: Suppose you wanted to persuade your audience that serious water pollution existed in your state. You only have time to give a detailed illustration about one or two lakes—the pollution, floating debris, smell, and so on. Since your state has more than 100 lakes, two illustra- tions won’t be enough to persuade people. However, following the illustrations with a list of the top 10 most polluted lakes really adds proof to your argument. It’s like saying, “And I could include even more if I only had the time.”

A hypothetical illustration is a detailed narrative about someone who could exist or some event that could or probably will happen. In other words, the hypothetical illustration is made up by the speaker to fit a particular situ- ation. To be effective, the hypothetical illustration must be possible or likely. Hypothetical illustrations usually begin with a phrase such as “What would you do if . . . ,” “Suppose for a moment . . . ,” “Imagine . . . ,” or “Put yourself in this situa- tion. . . .” During the Civil War, Abraham Lincoln used a hypothetical illustration combined with a figurative comparison to silence critics of his war policy:

Gentlemen, I want you to suppose a case for a moment. Suppose that all the property you were worth was in gold, and you had put it in the hands of Blon- din, the famous rope-walker, to carry across the Niagara Falls on a tightrope. Would you shake the rope while he was passing over it, or keep shouting to him, “Blondin, stoop a little more! Go a little faster!” No, I am sure you would not. You would hold your breath as well as your tongue, and keep your hands off until he was safely over. Now the government is in the same situation. It is car- rying an immense weight across a stormy ocean. Untold treasures are in its hands. It is doing the best it can. Don’t badger it! Just keep still, and it will get you safely over. (Ross, 1980, pp. 181–182)

Examples Examples are brief, factual references to specific items or events that are used for both proof and clarification. Although a single example can work if it is powerful enough, examples presented in groups of two or more usually clarify and prove

Illustrations . . . Should be detailed and vivid, painting a picture for your audience. Should relate clearly to the point you are supporting. If factual, are used both to clarify and to add proof; the more illus-

trations you use, the stronger the proof. Are followed with a list of examples—to save time and add to the

proof of an illustration. Are used by speakers in introductions to get the attention and

personal involvement of the audience. If hypothetical, are used only for clarification.

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358 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

more effectively than a single example. Therefore, present your examples either as lists of items with no detail or as a series of items described with a few brief facts.

A speaker who made one humorous example effective was Joan Detz, author of It’s Not What You Say, It’s How You Say It (2000), when speaking to the National Conference of State Legislators in Boston on how to give presentations. She included the following example to illustrate using humor (2007):

Since we’re here in Boston today, I should use at least one John F. Kennedy example. After JFK won his first Senate race in 1952, he faced wide criticism for “buying” the victory with his father’s deep pockets. So at a Gridiron din- ner, Kennedy addressed these rumors head-on . . . with humor. He brought down the house by reading a telegram supposedly from his father: “Dear Jack: Don’t buy a single vote more than necessary. I’ll be damned if I’ll pay for a landslide.” (p. 541)

Sharon Allen (2009), Chair of Deloitte LLP, made a case for the importance of business students being trained for leadership with the following list of statis- tical examples followed by an explanation of their meaning:

As an accountant, I’ve always believed that numbers tell a story. Here are some that have my full attention: ● Currently, age 62 is the median age for retirement in the U.S. ● This year, an estimated 10,000 Baby Boomers will turn 62—every day. ● And in the next 10 years, 43 percent of the population in the U.S. will be-

come eligible to retire. That’s what’s happening at the end of the U.S. talent pipeline—and there

appear to be similar trends in Europe, Russia, and Japan. As for what’s tak- ing place at the beginning of the talent pipeline, the numbers are equally sobering. Research conducted by Deloitte indicates that in the U.S. there will be fewer young people to replace retiring workers every year for the next 30 years.

With numbers like that, our newest employees probably will be called on to lead earlier in their careers than any previous generation entering the workforce. So we have an urgent need for business students to be fully pre- pared to become business leaders—sooner rather than later. (p. 353)

In a speech delivered at Harvard University, Jonathan Reckford (2012), CEO of Habitat for Humanity International, used two brief examples to add impact to his presentation on the role of Habitat in finding affordable housing:

Next week, Habitat will celebrate two important milestones. In observance of World Habitat Day, we will dedicate our 500,000th house in Maai Mahiu, Kenya, and then raise the walls on our 500,001st house in Paterson, New Jersey. (p. 23)

In a speech titled “How Women and Minorities Are Reshaping Corpo- rate America,” Linda Winikow (1991), vice president of Orange and Rockland

CHAPTER 12 VERBAL AND VISUAL SUPPORTING MATERIALS 359

Utilities, Inc., used these two longer examples to illustrate how simply being a woman creates barriers to advancement:

When I first became involved in poli- tics, back in the early 1970s, men found it difficult to swallow that I could be a member of the Zoning Board of Appeals and be pregnant simultaneously!

And when I was a New York state senator, I was stopped by the State Po- lice on the New York State Thruway because they thought my car—with its Senate license plate—must be stolen, since a woman was in it! (p. 243)

Statistics Statistics are numbers used to show relationships between items. Used correct- ly, statistics can clarify and add proof to your ideas; used incorrectly, they can confuse and bore your listeners. Statistics can work for you if you follow these important rules (Hamilton, 2012, pp. 127–130).

Relate Statistics to Your Listeners’ Frames of Reference This is the most important rule in using statistics. Compare the statistics to some- thing familiar to your listeners so that they will be meaningful. Instead of telling his Indiana University audience that tobacco kills close to 500,000 Americans each year, Lonnie Bristow (1994), chair of the board of trustees of the American Medical Association, made the statistic more meaningful in the following way:

I ask you to check your watches. Because in this hour, by the time I’m done speaking, 50 Americans will die from smoke-related diseases. By the time you sit down to breakfast in the morning, 600 more will have joined them; 8,400 by the end of the week—every week, every month, every year—until it kills nearly half a million Americans, year in, year out.

That’s more than all the other preventable causes of death combined. Alcohol, illegal drugs, AIDS, suicide, car accidents, fires, guns—all are killers. But tobacco kills more than all of them put together. (p. 333)

Eliminate Statistics That Are Not Absolutely Necessary Listeners generally do not pay attention when long lists of statistics are read. If you still want to use several statistics, use a chart or graph to simplify them and make them much easier to understand.

Round Off Statistics to an Easy Number to Remember Your listeners will remember a number better if you say, “The amount approaches 25,000” or “approximately 25,000” rather than “The amount is 24,923.002.” The following

Examples . . . Are brief references to specific items or events. May contain no detail (such as a list of items) or may include a few

brief facts. Are used for both clarification and proof. Are more effective when used in groups of two or more. Are often included immediately after a factual illustration to add

additional proof to the illustration.

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360 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

example used in a speech by Frank Corvino (2012) includes statistics that were simplified for clarity: To cite just one example, among those over the age of 85, Alzheimer’s will strike one out of every two. Yes, that’s right, 50 percent of the over-85 population will be stricken with Alzheimer’s. And the cost of treatment for each individual can run into hundreds of thousands of dollars. (p. 70)

Demonstrate the Credibility of Your Statistics Show credibility by citing the source, the expertise of the source, and the size of the population from which the statistics were

compiled. Consider this statistic: “Four out of five managers recommend using em- ployee appraisals.” How many managers had to be interviewed to make that state- ment? Only five! The statements of only five managers out of the thousands that exist are not adequate support for an assertion. However, suppose a survey of 5,000 mid- dle managers from companies of various sizes was conducted by the Independent Business Polling Corporation and that four out of five of the 4,000 managers who replied to the survey (that is, 3,200 managers) recommended the use of employee appraisals. This statistic would be strong support for our claim.

Present Statistics in Graphic Form when Possible Audi- ence’s comprehend statistics faster and remember them longer when they are presented in graphic form. Using a bar graph, pie chart, or line chart to present statistical data both clarifies and adds inter- est to them. For an example, look at the table on page 365 to see data

in chart form and compare it with the figure on page 365 to see the same data in graphic form.

Expert Opinions Expert opinion refers to the ideas of an expert in the field, either paraphrased or quoted directly by the speaker. Expert opinion is best when kept brief, as was this quote used by Gene Block, Chancellor, University of California (2012):

Derek Bok, former president of Harvard University, once issued this chal- lenge: “If you think education is expensive, try ignorance.” (p. 190)

Supporting your ideas with expert opinion is an excellent way to add both clari- fication and proof to your presentation. To use expert opinion to prove an idea, be sure to (a) state the name of the expert, (b) briefly describe his or her qualifications unless you are sure the listeners are already familiar with them, and (c) briefly cite

ANDREW MATTHEWS/PA Photos/Landov

Revisiting the Case Study... Are certain types of verbal supporting materials easier to work into visual aids? If so, which ones and why?

Statistics . . . Are figures used to show relationships between items. Are made more meaningful when directly related to the listeners’

interests and knowledge. Should be used sparingly. Are easier to understand and remember when displayed in graphic

form. Should be rounded off. Are more credible when cited with the source and the source’s

qualifications. Are used for both clarification and proof.

REMEMBER

CHAPTER 12 VERBAL AND VISUAL SUPPORTING MATERIALS 361

where and when the expert reported this information—for example, in a personal interview conducted last Wednesday or in the most recent issue of Harvard Busi- ness Review. When paraphrasing—putting the expert’s ideas into your own words— make sure that you don’t misrepresent the expert’s ideas. Here is a sample of how to introduce a paraphrase:

In their bestselling book Groundswell revised in 2011, Charlene Li and Josh Bernoff, both social media and technology experts, make the point that . . . [put information in your own words].

Here is an example of how to introduce a direct quote: In response to a question about whether he thought Twitter would be the phe- nomenon it is, Josh Bernoff, technology expert and coauthor of the bestseller Groundswell, answered, “[insert quote].”

When using direct quotes, not only should the content be interesting, but as you read the quote, make sure your delivery is lively and convincing.

If your audience is unfamiliar with your experts, you will need to introduce them thoroughly, as Jenny Clanton (1989) did in her speech titled “Plutonium 238: NASA’s Fuel of Choice.” In her attempt to inform the audience of the danger of Plutonium 238, she included the credentials of the expert she paraphrased:

Last July, Common Cause magazine contacted Dr. Gofman at Berkeley and asked him to place Plutonium 238 in perspective. Before I share Dr. Gofman’s assessment, please understand he’s no poster-carrying “anti-nuke.” Dr. Gofman was co-discoverer of Uranium 233, and he isolated the isotope first used in nuclear bombs. Dr. Gofman told Karl Grossman, author of the article “Redtape and Radioactivity,” that Plutonium 238 is 300 times more radioac- tive than Plutonium 239, which is the isotope used in atomic bombs. (p. 375)

If your expert is well known to your audience, it is not necessary to cite the expert’s qualifications. For example, speaking to the YWCA Women of Distinc- tion Annual Dinner in Nebraska, Janice Thayer (2001), president of the Excel Corporation, used the following quote, which needed no detailed introduction:

Barbara Bush must have been heartened when, in his acceptance speech her son said, “I believe in grace, because I have seen it. . . . In peace, because I have felt it. . . . In forgiveness, because I have needed it.” (p. 408)

Whether you are paraphrasing or using a direct quote, make sure your audience understands what the expert is saying and your reason for using his or her idea. If you feel there is any chance of confusion, follow the paraphrase or quote with such comments as “In this quote, _____ is making the same argument I made previously”; or “What is _____ saying? He or she is telling us . . . ”; or “I cited _____ because. . . . ”

Expert Opinions . . . May be paraphrased or quoted directly. Should be kept brief to keep listener interest. May be used for both clarification and proof. Should be quoted as though the expert were actually speaking—

not read in a dull or monotonous voice. Should usually include the name and qualifications of the expert

and when and where the information was reported. Should, in many cases, be followed by an explanation. Don’t as-

sume that the listener understood either the content of the quote or your reason for citing it.

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362 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

The six types of verbal supporting materials often overlap. For example, you may quote an expert who is explaining an idea by comparing statistics. The ef- fective speaker uses a variety of supports to keep the listeners interested. Don’t forget that some supports are used only to clarify, and others are used both for clarification and for proof, as summarized in Table 12.1.

Supporting Materials To check how well you can identify types of support, take the following quiz. Compare your answers to those at the back of this book. You can also complete this activity online. Go to cengagebrain.com to access your Speech Communication CourseMate for Communicating for Results.

DIRECTIONS: Identify each of the following types of supporting material by selecting one of the following: (a) explanation, (b) comparison, (c) illustration, (d) examples, (e) statistics, or (f) expert opinion.

________ 1. Speaking about self-confidence, Eleanor Roosevelt said, “No one can make you feel inferior without your consent.” ________ 2. Abraham Lincoln gives us a dramatic view of the power of attitude:

He was defeated for office in 1832. His sweetheart died in 1835. He suffered a nervous breakdown in 1836. He was defeated for office in 1838 and 1843. He was elected to Congress in 1846. He was defeated for office in 1848, 1854, 1856, and 1858. He was elected president of the United States in 1860.

________ 3. “Grunting” is a popular technique used to collect earthworms. A stake is driven into the ground and vibrated. The vibrations drive the worms to the surface.

________ 4. If you had a credit card debt of $2,500 and paid only the minimum payments, it would take approximately 121/2 years to pay off that balance.

________ 5. Imagine that it’s a Wednesday morning and your alarm has just gone off. You reach over and after several tries finally get that awful noise to quit. You pull the covers from your head, force your eyes open, yawn, and roll over. You’re thinking, “Should I get up and go to work, or should I sleep in a bit longer? After all, the weather is bad today, and I do have a cold. . . . ”

________ 6. Trying to decorate your home without the help of a design consultant works about as well as trying to diet by eating Big Macs.

AWARENESS CHECK

TABLE 12.1 VERBAL SUPPORTS

USED ONLY FOR CLARIFICATION USED FOR BOTH CLARIFICATION AND PROOF

Explanations Literal comparisons (but this is very weak proof)

Figurative comparisons Factual illustrations

Hypothetical illustrations Examples

Statistics Expert opinions

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CHAPTER 12 VERBAL AND VISUAL SUPPORTING MATERIALS 363

Citing Sources of Supporting Materials Adding a variety of verbal supporting materials clarifies information and adds in- terest for your listeners, as mentioned earlier. When supports are used to add proof which is crucial when giving a persuasive briefing or oral report, as discussed in the next chapter, be sure to cite your sources during your presentation, not at the end of it. Citing credible sources adds to your credibility, which makes you more persuasive and more believable. Waiting until the end to cite sources is too late to be of much good. By then, your audience has already decided whether you do or do not know what you are talking about—first impressions are all important.

When should you orally cite sources? Basically, anytime you use informa- tion that is not original with you, a citation is needed. Specifically, Hamilton & Creel (2011) suggest the following:

● Statistics always need a citation. Tell us where you found them, the date they were compiled, and who compiled them—even if you found them on the Internet.

● Quotations and paraphrases of quoted material always need a citation. Include the person’s name; the article, book, or interview where you found the infor- mation; the date of the information; and why the person is worth quoting.

● Important facts or ideas usually need a citation. Include where you found the information and an author, date, and title if possible. If you are using an Internet article or blog, you still need to give as much information as possible. If you can’t find a date, scroll to the bottom of the home page and look for a “last updated” entry and use it: “According to WidgetsAreFun.com, last updated January 2013 . . .” If there is no date, don’t use the source. Even if you put a short version of each source at the bottom of your Power-

Point slides, you still need to cite them orally. Don’t bury us in words; just give us enough information to be impressed and to share it with others. James Madison University posted some guidelines for citing sources (Oral Citations, 2012)— here are some citations that follow their guidelines:

● “Carmine Gallo, well-known speaker and columnist for Businessweek.com, has written a book where he discusses the legionary speaking techniques of Steve Jobs. In this 2010 book, The Presentation Secrets of Steve Jobs: How to Be Insanely Great in Front of Any Audience, Gallo shares this unforgettable advice: . . .”

● “Which meal would provide 560 fewer calories: a Boston Market rotisserie chicken salad sandwich or a Boston Market beef brisket with green beans and dill potatoes? According to David Zinczenko in his fascinating 2011 edition of Eat This Not That, . . . ”

● Do statistics cause you to switch to daydream mode? Well, you will find this year’s hurricane statistics for the United States exciting enough to keep you awake. According to the National Hurricane Center’s statistics published this month, . . .”

● Bloomingdale’s is one of the first department stores to provide customers with a virtual dressing room. In a personal interview conducted on August, 13, 2012, with the manager of the Lexington Avenue Bloomingdales’s in New York, I learned that “ . . . .”

364 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

As you can see, adding verbal supporting materials to presentations make them easier to understand, definitely more interesting, and more believable.

VISUAL SUPPORTING MATERIALS Have you ever tried to give instructions verbally on how to get somewhere and finally, frustrated, said, “Here, let me draw you a map”? Such a situation demonstrates the value of visual supporting material. It is easier for people to understand when they can see and hear instructions at the same time. A visual aid, therefore, is anything presented in a form that listeners can see to supplement the information they hear.

Benefits of Using Visuals Are visuals worth the time and effort required to prepare them? Absolutely—if in your preparation you have properly designed them (Clark & Mayer, 2011). Claudia Kotchka, vice president for design innovation and strategy for Procter & Gamble, says that when a product is designed and packaged in an interest- ing, creative manner, people are willing to pay as much as 400 percent more to get it (Reingold, 2005). Therefore, when well-designed, interesting visual aids accompany written or oral messages, they improve listener memory, speed com- prehension and add interest, and add to speaker credibility.

Visual Aids Improve Memory Research on listening indicates that a few days after a presentation, most listeners will remember only about 10 to 25% of your presentation (Wolff et al., 1983). And because of frame-of-reference differences, part of the 25% they do retain may be inaccurate. Better organization, more inter- esting examples, and more dynamic delivery will not necessarily improve these sta- tistics, but visual aids can definitely improve what the audience remembers. Richard Mayer in his book, Multimedia Learning (2009), relates two principles that explain the importance of visual aids to memory. One he calls the multimedia principle— people learn significantly better when pictures are added to text; the other he calls the contiguity principle—people learn better when the pictures are placed next to the words they illustrate. Both principles are more than just theories; many research studies have provided evidence to support them—most indicating that in educa- tional situations, learning is doubled when pictures and graphics are used with text (Butcher, 2006; Halpern et al., 2007; for a summary, see Clark & Mayer, 2011).

Visual Aids Speed Comprehension The old saying “A picture is worth a thousand words” is often true. Not only do visual aids improve audience memory, they help us understand complex, technical information more quickly.

A look at right-brain/left-brain theory indicates why visuals speed listener com- prehension. Whereas the left hemisphere seems to specialize in step-by-step, analytic processing of information, and pays close attention to details, the right hemisphere seems to specialize in simultaneous processing of information as a whole and pays little attention to details (Bryden & Ley, 1983; Russell, 1979). If you include no visu- als or only statistics-laden tables, you are asking the left side of the brain to do all the work. After a while, you run the risk of audience mistakes in reasoning, information overload, and boredom. In computer terminology, the system shuts down.

CHAPTER 12 VERBAL AND VISUAL SUPPORTING MATERIALS 365

On the other hand, in only one glance the right brain can understand complex ideas presented in picture or graphic form (Thompson & Paivio, 1994). In fact, our memory of pictures is almost perfect (Haber, 1970; Nickerson, 1980)—especially when the pictures are vivid (Hishitani, 1991); also, picture memory is long-lasting (Babrick et al., 1975). Picture memory may be more ingrained because pictures and vivid words are coded in both hemispheres (dual coding/channel), making them easier to store and retrieve (Perecman, 1983). The dual channel is especially impor- tant when the information is complicated and/or is online, where the audience must watch a video and read explanatory text at the same time. Researchers have found that if the text is replaced with an oral explanation, understanding is significantly im- proved (Clark & Mayer, 2011). As speakers, this tells us that when we are explaining a process and showing a complicated graphic or series of pictures, we should keep the text to a minimum and concentrate on a clear and interesting oral explanation.

To illustrate the power of a graphic to aid understanding, look at the data in Table 12.2. Can you quickly tell which multimedia in 2010 was used the most by adults 45 to 54 and which one was used most by adults 18 to 24? Now look at the same data presented using Microsoft Graph (Figure 12.1). At a

TABLE 12.2 DATA CAN OFTEN BE DIFFICULT TO GRASP

MULTIMEDIA AUDIENCES IN 2010*

Age

Medium 18–24 25–34 35–44 45–54

Newspapers 58.66 58.37 65.49 70.48

Internet 92.70 88.35 85.17 80.02

Radio 85.67 86.42 86.84 86.48

Television 89.61 89.57 92.42 93.94

*By percent. Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2012, Table 1133. Multimedia Audiences— Summary: 2010, p. 712.

Newspapers

100.00

90.00

80.00

70.00

60.00

50.00 25–34 35–4418–24 45–54

Pe rc

en t

Ages

Internet Radio Television

FIGURE 12.1 Data presented in graphic form is easier to understand Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2012, Table 1133. Multimedia Audiences— Summary: 2010, p. 712).

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glance you can tell that television was used more by adults 45 to 54 but that the Internet surpassed television as the number one medium used by those 18 to 24. Therefore, when you need to include complicated data in your pre- sentation, remember that comprehension will be more complete and faster if you present the data in visual form. Keep in mind that because we remember pictures so well, a picture or sometimes a piece of clip art (if it relates closely to the concept or idea) can serve as an anchor to help your audience recall the main points and concepts in your presentation well after the presentation has ended (Alesandrini, 1982; Paivio, 1986; Thompson & Paivio, 1994). For exam- ple, in a presentation about the four steps realtors follow in selling homes, you could show four steps leading up to the front door of a home with a “For Sale” sign on its door. Later, when the audience tries to remember the main points of your talk, they will picture the “four steps” leading to the home for sale (visual anchors), which will help them remember that you presented four points and even what they were. Since images are so important to audience recall, select them with extreme care.

Also, since visual aids speed comprehension, speakers can present informa- tion in less time. The study by the University of Minnesota and the 3M Corpora- tion found that the use of visuals could reduce the length of the average business meeting by 28% (Antonoff, 1990). However, keep in mind that audiences can ab- sorb only so much information before reaching the point of overload. Just because you can cover more information when using visuals doesn’t mean that you should.

Visual Aids Add to Speaker Credibility If you are in a situation in which you have fairly low credibility (such as being new to a company, younger than most others in the same position, or unknown to audience members), researchers found a long time ago that visuals can be especially important. Seiler (1971) found that low-credibility speakers who use visual aids can overcome an audience’s initial doubts about them (as nonauthorita- tive and even untrustworthy) and elicit the same level of audience retention as high-credibility speakers. The study conducted by the University of Minnesota and the 3M Corporation also found that an “average” presenter who uses visuals can be as effective as an “expert” presenter who uses no visuals (Vogel et al., 1986, 1990).

Types of Visual Aids Now that we know the benefits of using visual aids, let’s take a quick look at the most popular types of visual aids and some tips for using each effectively. Most of the later sections of this chapter (such as typeface, point sizes, and design principles) give advice on designing professional computer slides for electronic and multimedia presentations. The final section of this chapter offers specific tips for using Microsoft PowerPoint for making dynamic visuals.

Video and Audio Aids If used with care, video and audio aids can add definite interest to your presentations. Video clips, podcasts, and music clips are readily available on the Internet for use in your presentations. Some of the most popular sites for these items are YouTube, Hulu.com, Google video, and

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Dailymotion.com. PowerPoint 2010 not only allows you to embed audio and video clips into your slides, but you can trim them to the length you want. If you decide to add video or sound to your presentation, follow these tips:

● Make sure you include a copy of the actual audio or video file in the folder with your PowerPoint presentation. Test it out on a different computer to make sure all is working.

● Keep the audio or video clips short: 15 to 30 seconds is plenty; if there is sound, test it ahead of time for correct volume.

● For instructions on how to embed a video or audio clip into PowerPoint, see Using Microsoft PowerPoint on page 388.

Electronic and Multimedia Aids The most popular visual aid in businesses today is the computer-generated presentation. Affordable computer hardware and software make it possible to produce professional, sophisticated electronic and multimedia aids with color, animation, sound, photos, and video clips. One of the most popular software programs for visual aids is Microsoft’s PowerPoint. (In fact, many of the visuals in this chapter were produced with PowerPoint.) When using computer-generated visuals, follow these tips:

● Remember that the main point of using visuals is to aid listener comprehen- sion. Using too many slides, too much text, too many colors, too many type- faces, or repetitive sounds distracts from your message. Everything on each visual must work together to simplify meaning and direct audience attention.

● When using graphics, give an oral explanation without using written text. Presenting written text plus a spoken explanation for a graphic can cause redundancy and overload the visual channel. A few key words, however, can be used to highlight specific parts of the graphic without causing overload. (Clark & Mayer, 2011, Chapter 7)

● Use sounds sparingly, if at all. The first time we hear a sound (e.g., applause) it’s unique; each additional time we hear it, it’s a distraction.

● Select images carefully and choose the best format for them. Images must be specific to add recall and photos are generally better than clip art at getting audience attention.

● Make sure that the audience can see you when the lights are turned off. Select a room with appropriate lighting over the speaker stand. If the listeners are likely to take notes, a room with soft lights on a dimmer switch can light both the audience and the speaker. New data projectors are so bright that overhead lights can remain on.

● Try using a cordless mouse or remote such as Logitech’s Cordless Presenter so you can advance slides and control volume from anywhere in the room.

● Look at your computer screen and your audience, but do not turn away from the audience to look at the projection screen behind you unless you need to point to something—then, use a laser pointer.

● Speak in a conversational manner and don’t read from your visuals. Accord- ing to the personalization principle (Clark & Mayer, 2011; Mayer, 2009), audiences learn better when speakers use a conversational style instead of a formal one. Clark and Mayer also warn that when identical/redundant

368 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

written and spoken text are used, audience members recall less—so don’t read word-for-word from your visuals unless using a quotation.

● Before clicking to the next slide, give the oral transition to the next idea—then change slides (Zelazny, 2000). This keeps the audience from reading the slide before you are ready.

● For specific PowerPoint techniques like moving seamlessly from slide to slide, turning the screen black or white to redirect audience attention, using presenter view so only you can see your notes, creating stationary bullets instead of bullets that appear or fly in with the text, or inserting a video and trimming it to any length, see “Using Microsoft PowerPoint” on pages 387–388.

● Come prepared with a backup plan in case of equipment fail- ure. For example, bring a copy of your PowerPoint slides to use as notes and a second copy of your disk on a CD or a USB flash drive, or email your PowerPoint file to yourself so that it can be accessed through the Internet.

Whiteboards and Markerboards Whiteboards or markerboards are usually preferred to chalkboards because the glossy white of the board is more attractive and there is no messy chalk residue. However, both markerboards and whiteboards have several drawbacks, which include making speakers look less prepared and less professional than other types of visuals and requiring the speaker’s back to be toward the audience while writing on the board. When using marker and whiteboards, fol- low these tips:

● Practice is vital. Unless you practice ahead, your information may be either too small to see or so large that you run out of space; or you’ll need to erase your sketch or repeat it several times to get the proportions correct; or you might forget the spelling of a key word.

● Learning to speak and draw at the same time requires work. You will need a great deal of practice to do this well.

● Make sure that your letters are large enough to be read easily—generally, a capital should be 3 inches high and basic text at least 1½ inches high. If you use color markers, make sure they are bold—avoid pastels.

Objects, Models, and Handouts Objects can be effective visual aids as long as they are large enough to be seen yet small enough to display easily. To keep from distracting audience members, wait until your presentation is completed before passing objects around the audience for a closer view. Bet- ter yet, use your iPhone to take a picture of the object and insert it into your PowerPoint so everyone can see the object clearly. Bill Gates used a jar of mos- quitoes as an object during his speech on “Mosquitos, Malaria and Educa- tion” at a TED Conference in February 2009. Gates released the mosquitoes into the audience saying, “There’s no reason only poor people should have the

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CHAPTER 12 VERBAL AND VISUAL SUPPORTING MATERIALS 369

experience” (February 2009). Although the audience laughed and the mosqui- toes were free of malaria, using objects that are “alive” is seldom recommended.

If an object is too small, too large, or too dangerous to be used as a visual aid, you might use a model instead. For example, a model car, a model office lay- out, or a model of an atom would all be effective visual aids—especially if you showed a larger version on screen.

Handouts can be both a help (they limit the audience’s need to take notes) and a distraction (the audience will likely read the handout instead of lis- tening to you). So unless you need the audience to do something with the material while you are speaking (like answer a survey or a checklist), it’s bet- ter to give handouts at the conclusion of your speech. Let the audience know in your introduction that you will have handouts available at the end of the presentation.

Selecting Your Visual Aids Now that you realize the benefits and drawbacks of some of the most popu- lar types of visual aids, you are ready to discover how much fun it is to cre- ate visuals. Of course, the content you use and the pictures and graphics you select for your visuals completely de- pend on your audience. If you aren’t sure about your audience, go back to Chapter 11 and read about audience analysis before beginning to design your visual aids.

Avoid Major Mistakes Using visual aids, especially computer presenta- tions like PowerPoint can be so much fun that some speakers forget that for effective communication, “less is more,” as was indicated in our chapter case study. A survey of 603 people who view one to two PowerPoint presentations each day identified the major things that annoy them the most (Paradi, 2011):

● Speakers who read off the slides (73.8%). ● Complete sentences used instead of phrases or bullet points (51.6%).

What and When to Use Images in Presentations? Research indicates that memory of images is almost perfect and is long lasting and that images serve as anchors to help listeners recall presentation content. In addition, our opening scenario indicated that using fewer bulleted items and more images during presentations would help listener memory if used correctly. However, the dilemma that many speakers face is what images work best and when to use them.

First, what images should be used—uncluttered pictures or graph- ics that relate specifically and directly to the key idea on each slide. Irrelevant, vague, or overly busy pictures or graphics chosen just to add color or serve as window-dressing actually work against audience recall by distracting and even enticing listeners away from important content (Clark & Mayer, 2011, Chapter 8; Harp and Mayer, 1998). Also, keep in mind that clip art isn’t nearly as effective or professional as “real” images.

Second, when images should be used—generally once per slide but only if uncluttered, specific, and relevant images are found. Images can bleed off the slide edges to serve as a background or be used as a smaller picture or placed in a frame. Since research says that learning is improved when simple words and pictures/graphics are used together, all key slides should have a visual anchor if possible. Keep in mind that although words can be either written or spoken, the following guide- lines are important: Written words should appear directly next to the image to which the

words refer. Spoken words used to describe an image generally produce more

learning than written words (Clark & Mayer, Chapter 6). If you plan to use both written and spoken words to describe an

image (such as when using bullets), keep the written words to single words or phrases and definitely don’t read word-for-word from your slides (Clark & Mayer, Chapter 7).

QUESTIONS What do you think? What type pictures and graphics, if any, do you find that distract you from learning? Why is clip art less effective than pictures in a presentation?

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370 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

● Text too small to read (48.1%). ● Text color choices too difficult to read (34.0%). ● Charts too complex to decipher (26.0%).

These annoyances (or poisons) are responsi- ble for the dislike that many people have toward PowerPoint presentations. As our chapter opener about PowerPoint indicates, it’s not PowerPoint slides that are poison, it is the way they are used. To make sure that your visuals aid rather than obstruct understanding, the remainder of this chapter, gives specific advice on designing pro- fessional, poison-free electronic and multimedia presentations.

Choose Text or Graphic Visuals Visuals can be either text visuals or graphic visuals. Text visuals are mainly text or printed words with a picture or drawing and sometimes a piece of clip art or a cartoon; the images create interest and serve as a memory aid for your listeners (see Visuals 1 to 4 on pages 373–374). Text visuals are especially helpful during the introduction of your speech as you list your main points, during the conclusion of your speech as you summarize the main points, and at any other time when lists of information are needed. Graphic visuals include organizational charts and flowcharts, diagrams and schematic drawings, maps, pictures, and graphs, with just enough words to clarify the visual (see Visuals 5–8 on pages 375–376).

Decide How Many Visuals to Use Creating visuals is so enjoyable that some speakers use too many visuals in their speeches. To keep your audience from experiencing visual overload, try this formula when deciding how many visuals to use:

length of speech 2

+ 1 = maximum number of visuals

For example, for a 6-minute speech, you would want approxi- mately four visuals (6 divided by 2, plus 1); for a 10-minute speech, you would want approximately six visuals (10 divided by 2, plus 1). This formula is only a guide. Fewer visuals could certainly be used, but more visuals should be used with care. Longer speeches

often need transition slides to highlight change from one topic area to another. These transition slides and the opening slide with your title and name are not part of the length formula.

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CHAPTER 12 VERBAL AND VISUAL SUPPORTING MATERIALS 371

Using Appropriate Type Size and Typeface One of the most common mistakes that speakers (even experienced speakers) make in preparing visuals is using text that is too small for easy viewing by the audience. To make sure the text on whiteboards and markerboards are easy for your audience to read, be sure your titles are approximately 3 inches high and the basic text is approximately 1½ inches high. Until you get used to writing on whiteboards and markerboards, the sizes may seem too large; however, these guidelines will ensure that even the people in the back row can see your message clearly.

When you use electronic computer visuals (such as PowerPoint visuals), your audience will have no problems if you use these suggested minimum sizes measured in points, as shown in Figure 12.2. Remember, you can al- ways use larger point sizes—in fact, we recommend it—but no type should be smaller than the sizes suggested here. Obviously, regular print sizes will not work!

In addition to type size, you will also need to select which typeface to use. For our purposes, typefaces are divided into two basic types: sans serif and serif. A sans serif typeface (a geometric-looking, simple typeface) is recommended for titles or emphasis. Sans serif typefaces include Futura, Impact, Tahoma, Verdana, Helvetica, and Arial. A serif typeface (a typeface with small lines, or finishing strokes, that extend from letter stems) is especially good for text and small labels on charts. Serif typefaces include Times New Roman, Century, Garamond, and Bookman Old Style.

Typefaces can affect the readability of your visuals and will either harmo- nize with or distract from the overall tone or style of your speech. Imagine your audience’s confusion if you were giving a serious business presentation but your visuals used Poster Bodoni, a playful typeface. Figure 12.3 includes suggested typefaces for visuals along with the connotations or tone they project to audi- ences (compiled from Riggs & Grieshaber, 2009; Williams, 2008a, 2008b):

In general, use no more than two different typefaces per visual, and use the same typefaces for all visuals in a particular presentation. Sometimes the

FIGURE 12.2 Minimum point sizes to use in computer-generated slides

CORRECT POINT SIZES FOR COMPUTER–GENERATED SLIDES*

Title 30–36 points Subtitles 24 points Text 18 points

(if no subtitle, use 24 points) *Note: These are minimum sizes—go larger if possible

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best way to ensure that your visuals are sending the message you desire is to see them projected on a screen. Once they are enlarged, the tone is more obvious.

Designing Your Visual Aids If you would like your visual aids to impress and improve learning, keep these two keys to good design constantly in mind:

#1—Know your audience. #2—Simplify, simplify, simplify by removing all extraneous text, images,

graphics, colors, sounds, and movements.

Tips for Designing Text Visuals Quality text visuals also follow specific design tips or guidelines adapted from Holcombe and Stein (1996). These guide- lines are summarized in Figure 12.4. Before reading further, look at Figure 12.5 to see how many of the tips listed in the visual are actually followed in this figure. Then continue reading and see if you were correct. Remember, if visuals require effort to read, the audience is forced into a reading mode rather than a listening mode. They can’t pay attention to what you are saying while they are reading. Therefore, a good visual should make sense in six seconds or less. Or as Peoples (1996) advises, a good visual aid is “like a billboard on an interstate highway that people can read going by at 65 mph” (p. 249).

Keep the following tips in mind when designing your text visuals: ● Use no more than four to six lines of text or four to six words per line. The goal

is to limit information to what the audience can read in six seconds or less— meaning no more than six lines with six words each; four is better. Less is definitely more when designing slides. Godin, design and presentation ex-

FIGURE 12.3 Typefaces by the tone or image they project

TYPEFACES IMAGE OR TONE

Arial

Bodoni

Bodoni Black

Century

Verdana

Futura

Garamond

Times New Roman

Tahoma

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©Robert Fullerton/Shutterstock.com

VISUAL 1 Design template and photo add color and interest to this text visual

VISUAL 2 Colorful poster and scrolls are used to introduce main points as an alternative to bullets on this text visual

Text and Graphic Visuals

374 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

VISUAL 4 The words “Truth” or “Myth” produced in PowerPoint Word Art fly in to accentuate the answer on this text visual

VISUAL 3 Personal photo of a truck engine clarified by reference circles and arrows

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CHAPTER 12 VERBAL AND VISUAL SUPPORTING MATERIALS 375

VISUAL 6 The pictograph and 3D filled line graph draw the eye to important health statistics on this graphic visual

VISUAL 5 Colorful photo used as opening slide on this graphic visual

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376 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

VISUAL 8 What the speaker sees when using Presenter View using PowerPoint

VISUAL 7 Visual in Notes Page View in PowerPoint (see View, Notes Page)

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CHAPTER 12 VERBAL AND VISUAL SUPPORTING MATERIALS 377

pert, feels that slides should never contain more than a total of six words (Godin, 2007). Not counting the title and subtitle, a visual contain- ing more than six lines with six words, takes more than six seconds to understand. More than six seconds means that the audience has stopped listening and is now reading. Another reason for using only four to six words per line is to leave plenty of white space (space that contains no text or graphics). White space is essential for fast comprehension and prevents your visual from looking cluttered. Of course, there may be some exceptions—if the text is a list containing single words, seven or eight lines might be fine. In general, if you need more than six lines of text, you probably should split the information into two visuals or simplify your text.

● Use single words or phrases rather than sentences. Single words and short phrases are much easier to read. Eliminating unnecessary words allows lis- teners to grasp the content of your visual faster—again, keep the four to six-word goal in mind. Figure 12.4 shows how sentences slow down com- prehension. The same information using phrases is displayed in Figure 12.5. Which visual would you rather have an instructor use in a lecture?

● Use upper- and lower-case type. Although speakers often put their titles and text into all capital letters because they think it will look larger and therefore be easier to read, research has shown that text in all caps is more difficult to read and to comprehend (Adams et al., 2001). To illustrate why this is true, try a brief experiment using Figure 12.6. The word official has been divided onto two lines. Hold your hand over the top line and ask at least four people to read the bottom line. Now hold your hand over the bottom line and ask four other people to read the top line. Which line were more people able

FIGURE 12.4 How many of these design tips are followed by this visual?

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378 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

FIGURE 12.6 Word-recognition experiment Source: Adapted from Baskette, F. K., Sissors, J. K., & Brooks, B. S. (1992). The Art of Editing, 5th ed., New York: Macmillan, p. 267.

official official

to read correctly? The reason that the top line is easier to read is that word recognition comes mainly from the upper half of lowercase letters. However, when the word official is put in all capitals (OFFICIAL), it can look like a shapeless box that cannot be instantly recognized, especially from far away (adapted from Baskette et al., 1992). Therefore, use all caps only for special emphasis.

● Use a simple typeface. Script such as the title in Figure 12.4 and fancy type- faces are difficult to read. The typefaces suggested previously in this chapter have stood the test of time and are known to work for visual aids. Feel free to experiment, but don’t get carried away.

● Allow the same space at the top of each visual. Many speakers incorrectly cen- ter the content on each of their visuals from top to bottom. This means that some visual aids have only a few lines in the middle of the page, while oth- ers utilize the entire page. As a result, each time you project a slide onto the

FIGURE 12.5 Which visual takes less time to read: this one or Figure 12.4?

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screen, the audience has to locate the title—this takes valuable time. Also, your visuals will look more professional if the text begins at the same place on each visual.

● Use images, larger type, boldface, and color for emphasis. Images and free- hand drawings add emphasis and anchor the content of your visual for your audience. Large-size type, boldface, and color are excellent ways to direct the eye to areas you wish to emphasize. The largest and boldest type will usually be noticed first unless you have also used color. If you want to direct your audience’s attention to a portion of a complicated diagram, color is the way to do it. Even on a color visual, a bright, contrasting color will draw your audience’s attention.

Bullets: Use with Care According to our chapter opener, research indicates both advantages and disadvantages to using bullets on PowerPoint slides. If you decide to use them, follow these guidelines:

● Keep your use of bullets to a minimum. As you will see throughout this chapter, there are many other ways to communicate using PowerPoint than just bullets.

● Follow the Rule of Four to Six. When you do use slides with bullet points, make sure that you keep your words to a minimum—single words and phrases are best.

● Make sure that you cover only one idea per slide. Multiple charts or lists are both confusing and easily contribute to overload and stress. If it takes too much effort to follow and grasp your points, people give up and take out their iPhones or may just get up and leave.

● Never read off your slides. At least two thirds of the information you will tell us about each slide should not be on the slide at all. When listeners read printed words on a slide and hear these same words spoken by the speaker, their circuits are overloaded and they end up remembering less (Clark & Mayer, 2011)—which is why bullets should contain single words or two or three-word phrases.

● Use a picture that captures the main idea being presented by material in the bullets. Pictures if selected carefully can add interest and serve as an anchor to visually connect facts and ideas.

Types of Graphic Visuals A search of Google using the Images search fea- ture produces many graphics and pictures. The most common types of graphic visuals are charts, diagrams and schematics, maps, graphs, and pictures.

Organization charts and flowcharts are used constantly in the workplace and appear hanging on the walls of most administrator’s offices. Useful flowchart symbols can be found in Word or PowerPoint in AutoShapes/Flowchart.

Diagrams and schematic drawings also make effective graphic visu- als. You don’t need an artist to draw the diagrams or schematics needed in most presentations—you can do them yourself. Use the Drawing toolbar in Word and PowerPoint to access the Diagram Gallery, which includes sample diagrams, or go to Insert/Diagram. If more complicated diagrams are needed, such as the cutaway diagram in Figure 12.7, check for images in Google or ask

380 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

FIGURE 12.7 Cutaway diagram showing construction of a fiber optic cable

for assistance from the graphic arts department or from an engineer or drafts- person where you work.

Maps and images are additional types of graphic visuals. A presentation on the population of the United States might include a map of the United States showing the top five states and their populations (Figure 12.9). Again, click on Images in Google for an amazing number of maps on all sorts of topics. If the map you need isn’t there, look in the reference section of your library or in a current magazine on your topic. Scan the map and insert it into your visuals (for Word or PowerPoint use Insert/Picture/From Scanner or Camera). Although pictures

Metal wire (for strength)Glass tube

Plastic coating

”Cladding“ (to conduct light)

Fiber optic cable Glass fibers

FIGURE 12.8 Map showing the population of the top five states based on the United States 2010 Census

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Census 2010 Interactive Population Map.

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are not graphs, many design experts refer to them as a type of graphic. If you use a large photo such as an aerial shot of a flooded area or a person sitting in a beau- tiful park, be sure to include a descriptive title. Don’t forget to include the source for any images you use immediately under the image (such as www.funphotos .com or © McDavid/Shutterstock.com for photos receiving permission) and align them with the side of the image closest to the edge of the slide.

Graphs have traditionally been used in industry to display complicated data in simplified, visual form. Line graphs show changes in relationships over time; bar graphs compare countable data at a specific moment in time; pie charts and stacked bar graphs show part of the whole or percentages; and pictographs replace bars with graphic symbols or icons. Presentation software such as PowerPoint, as well as word-processing programs such as Word, provide excellent chart capa- bilities. In Word, go to Insert/Picture/Chart; in PowerPoint go to Insert/Chart/ Chart Type or Chart Options. For sample graphs see the following section.

Tips for Designing Graphic Visuals Color, small clip art illustrations, and background images (if used sparingly) can add eye-catching appeal. To be successful, graphic aids should follow the design tips adapted from Holcombe and Stein (1996) (illustrated in Figures 12.9 through 12.11):

● Simplify and minimize data using only what is absolutely necessary. For example, if your data deals with the drop in sales, don’t add irrelevant but interesting data dealing with expenses and dividends—stick to the point of the slide. Also, unless the audience expects it, leave off distracting grid lines and eliminate data points. Keep it simple and uncluttered as shown in Figure 12.9. It is always a good idea, however, to have additional materials ready in case of audience questions.

● Combine and round-off data when possible. Figure 12.10 illustrates the prin- ciple of grouping data. Grouping seven small categories of costs under the general heading of “Other Expenses” greatly reduced the amount of time needed to get the point of the pie chart. You could follow this visual with a second one that lists the content of “Other Expenses.” Note that exact costs are not used, but are rounded off to the nearest million.

FIGURE 12.9 Limit data, grid lines, and data points to only what is needed to support your verbal point

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Sales plummeted in 2014 Sales plummeted in 2014

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● Make bars wider than the spaces between them. When the white space be- tween the bars in a bar graph is wider than the bars, as in Figure 12.11, the white space visually pushes the bars apart, making them seem unrelated (Williams, 2008b). For easier audience viewing, make the bars wider than the spaces between them, regardless of whether the bars are horizontal or vertical.

● Always use titles. Whether your graphic visual is a chart, graph, map, or picture, always use a title or heading to reinforce your point. For example, a hand-drawing of a skier in the correct position to begin water skiing might seem obvious to you as the speaker, but without a title or heading, the exact purpose of the visual might not be immediately clear to your audience.

General Design Principles Before we conclude this chapter on visual supporting material, let’s look at four general design principles that apply to all visuals, whether text or graphic.

FIGURE 12.10 Round off numbers and combine distracting data under a general heading

THIS NOT THIS

Other expenses $1.2 million

Energy costs $3.6 million

Profits Energy costs

Profits Raw materials Consulting service

Advertising Interest on debt

Administrative expenses Salaries

Energy costs consume bulk of gross earnings

FIGURE 12.11 Make space between bars narrower than the width of the bars

Surfsailors outsold competing sailboats in 2014

THIS NOT THIS

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Boardbees

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Sunscouts

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Boardbees

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Surfsailors outsold competing sailboats in 2014

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A summary of these design principles, discussed by Williams in her The Non- Designer’s Design Book (2008a, p. 13), follows:

Contrast To make an item stand out and grab audience attention, use con- trast. Items that are similar have no contrast—neither do items that are only slightly different. For contrast to occur, items must be really different in some way such as size, color, thickness, shape, or texture from other elements on the slide. Don’t be shy; design with boldness.

Repetition To give a sense of organization and consistency to your slides, use repetition throughout. This is the reason that background design is re- peated for most presentations. When possible, every element (such as colors, lines, typefaces, shapes, or background) should repeat at least once. For ex- ample, if the title is blue, repeat the same blue in the picture or bullets; if the picture includes a bold line, repeat the line by underlining the title or adding a boldfaced word.

Alignment Nothing should be placed arbitrarily on a slide; instead make sure that each element has a visual alignment with another element on the

Design Power—Would you pay 400% more for Altoids? Is there power in design? According to Claudia Kotchka, former Procter & Gamble’s vice president for design in- novation and strategy, when customers are presented with the same product packaged in two different styles—one plain and one lively—they are not only more likely to pur- chase the product with the interesting packaging, but they also will be willing to pay a premium of up to 400% more for it (Reingold, 2005). She illustrates this by comparing a tin of Altoids (not a P&G product) with a hypothetical P&G version designed to save money. The Altoids packaging features the product name, printed in a nostalgic type- face, on a tin that smells of peppermint, looks homemade, and sits inside a paper liner that crinkles. In contrast, the P&G mints are little beige ovals that don’t have a peppermint aroma and are packaged in an inexpensive white plastic container with no liner and a less attractive typeface. According to Kotchka, the pleasure gained from using the product is absent, and the product might as well be called “Proctoids” (para. 3)

Kotchka is working to convince designers to “listen with their eyes” (para. 12) so they can develop products

that will not only satisfy but also “infuse delight into customers’ lives” (para. 4). One such project is the Mr. Clean Magic Reach cleaning brush. This product was designed with “little details” that make a big differ- ence, such as a connecting lever that makes an “audible ‘click’” when assembled correctly, blue cleaning pads (customers consider blue a “clean” color), and a silver handle that gives the whole package a slightly magical feel (paras. 13–14).

Kotchka’s attempt to “build design into P&G” has produced many new, creative products (para. 8), but she laments, “There are still a lot of people who don’t know what [design] is” (para. 15). However, her decision to embed “top designers in brand teams to help rethink not just the superficials—graphics, packaging, product design—but, more importantly, how consumers experience products” (Kalins, 2006) seems to be producing results.

WHAT DO YOU THINK? What specific content in this chapter supports Kotchka’s

design approach at P&G? What specific lessons, if any, can speakers using visuals

aids take from P&G’s experience with design?

IT REALLY WORKS

384 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

page. Titles, underlines, and bullets usually align on the left side; pictures or clip art and the underline can align on the right side. Connecting all elements on the left and right sides of the slide creates a clean, professional look.

Proximity Related items should be physically closer together than nonrelat- ed items—in other words, items that go together should be in close proximity to each other. Proximity gives audience members an immediate visual clue on how content is structured. It also reduces visual clutter and allows the audience to improve learning.

Using Design Principles Using the design principles just discussed, look at the business card in Figure 12.12 and the slide in Figure 12.13 and decide which of the four design principles are not used effectively in these visuals.

For the business card there is no contrast—your eye doesn’t know where to look; no alignment that matters; no proximity—the address is spread all over the card; and there is no color or lines for any repetition. Basically, this is a blah and uninteresting card. The mortgage visual is also uninteresting, isn’t it? Although the typeface was a good choice and was large enough to be easily seen, the design principles were not effectively used. Even with the title in boldface, there isn’t enough contrast with the text; although the bullets do align, they don’t line up with any of the other elements like the title or underline; alignment is also weak because there is too much space between main points; the only things that repeat

FIGURE 12.13 How would you improve this visual?

FIGURE 12.12 How would you improve this business card? ©

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are the bland bullets—no color repetition or other items. Basically, this is also a blah and uninteresting slide. Fortunately, there are unlimited ways to redesign the business card and mort- gage visual to incorporate the four design principles, as well as, the specific design rules for text visuals. Figures 12.14 and 12.15 show one improved ap- proach for each visual. What other changes would you suggest?

Tips for Using Color It’s easy to go overboard when selecting colors for your visuals. When color is poorly used, it can be as great a distraction as too many words or a cluttered graph. For example, color visuals are more persuasive (Vogel et al., 1990) and produce better recall than black-and-white visuals (Hamilton, 1999; Vogel et al., 1990). Color advertisements are 80% more likely to be read, 55 to 78% more likely to be remembered, and 50 to 80% more likely to produce a sale than noncolor ads (Johnson, 1995). Quality color visuals follow specific color principles (Conway, 1988; Johnson, 1995; Marcus, 1982; Pastoor, 1990):

● To show organization, use different hues for unrelated items; use a single hue with different saturation levels for related items. Hue is the actual color— each color on the color wheel is a different hue. Saturation is the amount of

FIGURE 12.15 One approach to redesigning the visual in Figure 12.13

FIGURE 12.14 One approach to redesigning the visual in Figure 12.12

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color used in the selected hue (fully saturated colors are vivid; low-saturated colors show more gray and appear paler). Use the fully saturated hues to highlight the most important information.

● For figures (including graphs and charts), use full saturation for all hues. It is easier to see lines and bars if they are in a fully saturated color.

● For backgrounds and texts, select hues low in saturation. ● Use color to indicate distance. Warm colors (such as orange and red) are

more active and “jump forward” from a neutral background such as gray. Cool colors (such as green and blue) are more passive and restful. Dark col- ors appear farther away, while light colors appear nearer.

● Use well-defined boundaries around figures and letters. When light colors (such as pastels) are used for figures, bullets, or letters on a clear or light background, they are difficult to see unless they have a darker outline or shadow, often called a “black zone.”

● Use high contrast between figure and background. Dark backgrounds re- quire light letters, bullets, and figures. For example, blue letters on a dark blue or black background are almost impossible to read; white or yellow letters on a dark background are easy to read. In general, the lighter the background, the darker the letters, bullets, and figures need to be for view- ing ease. Contrast also can be created by varying the saturation of color se- lected (such as a fully saturated figure on a partially saturated background). The contrast between lightness and darkness is the most important factor for visibility.

● Avoid colors that tend to look the same at a distance. For example, red and brown often cause confusion when seen from a distance. Other problem combinations include red and orange, orange and yellow, and yellow and green. On the other hand, most basic colors (including red, yellow, blue, green, purple, and pink) are easy to distinguish when not used in the above combinations.

● Avoid placing opposites on the color wheel immediately next to each other. Color opposites (such as blue and orange or red and green) appear to vi- brate when placed side-by-side. Therefore, select colors for bar graphs or pie charts with care. Also, be careful with red and green because many people have red–green color-blindness.

● Limit your use of colors—more than four colors usually makes visuals look cluttered and slows down comprehension. Finally, whatever colors you se- lect, use the same ones for all the visuals in a presentation. For example, use the same color background for each visual and the same typeface and colors for each title giving a consistent appearance—consistency projects professionalism.

Using Microsoft PowerPoint Now that you know how to design an effective visual aid, it’s time to fa- miliarize yourself with one of the major presentation software packages: Microsoft PowerPoint. Whether you wish to begin simply by preparing a

CHAPTER 12 VERBAL AND VISUAL SUPPORTING MATERIALS 387

few computer slides, or wish to go “all out” with an electronic (multimedia) presentation, the following pointers should prove helpful. Although this sec- tion is designed for PC users, PowerPoint works basically the same way on a Macintosh.

● Start with one of the design templates that comes with PowerPoint. There are at least 40 different designs that can be used in many color choices that come with PowerPoint 2010. However, always revise and alter templates to follow the design, text, and graphic principles covered in this chapter and to make your presentation unique. You don’t want someone to comment that they have seen your design used before.

● Use a rough-draft or more detailed outline to follow as you sketch out slides for each main point. You can look at your slides in Outline View or Slide Sorter View (shows all slides on one screen). Any corrections you make to the text material in Outline view, will automatically update in the Power- Point sides; also, any changes you make to individual slides will update the outline view.

● Two tips to make designing your slides much easier. Tip 1—Activate Ruler and Guides. To do this, go to View and put a checkmark in the boxes in front of Ruler and Guides (not Guidelines). To add as many guides (either vertical or horizontal) as you need, put your cursor on a dashed guide line and press the CTRL key on your keyboard while you press and drag the guide—notice that the original line is still there. The guides will not print but are a great help with aligning text boxes, pictures and clip art, graphs, and lines. Tip#2—Turn off “snap objects to grid” so you can move objects exactly where you want them. To do this depends on your version. In PowerPoint 2010, click on any text box on your slide and then click on Drawing Tools/Align/Grid Settings. When the Grid and Guides box opens, make sure there is no checkmark next to “Snap objects to grid.”

● Build your own custom bullets. Regular PowerPoint bullets fly in with each point, making it hard to remember whether there is another point on the slide or not. However, if you build your own bullets that remain station- ary with the title and picture or graphic, you will know exactly how many points are located on each slide. This is a real confidence booster—there is no need to memorize your outline! If you are worried about being ner- vous during your presentation, definitely build your own custom bullets. Basically, what you do is go to Insert/Shapes and select a preferred shape (such as a triangle); then press and drag a bullet to the desired size. Add a shadow (using the “Shadow” button) and select a color (using the “Fill Color” button—which looks like a paint bucket). Hopefully, you have set up guides where you want the bullets to be placed. Simply copy (Ctrl + C) the bullet you created and paste it (Ctrl + V) each place where a bullet is needed—use the arrow keys to move the bullet into the exact position needed. You can make creative bullets by reducing simple clip art or pic- tures or drawing your own in paintbrush (usually located in Programs/ Accessories/Paint).

388 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

● Control what the audience sees with a simple touch of a key on your key- board. When you are finished with a slide, always remove it from audience view. If you aren’t ready to move to another slide, simply push the B key on your keyboard and the screen will become black. This directs audience attention back to you. If you prefer a white screen, push the W key. Click to your next slide and then push the B or W key a second time for view of the new slide.

● Embed “trimmed” audio and video clips into your PowerPoint slides. PowerPoint 2010 has a wonderful feature that allows you to embed vid- eos from YouTube and other sources (or audio files) into your slides. Go to Insert and click on the video or audio symbol at the far right of the ribbon. Next select the location of the video or audio file (from file, website, or clip art) and insert it. You can drag it to the size and location you want, add a border or shadow or other effects. Make sure it is playing and then click on the Video Tools/Playback/Trim Video. In the Trim Video or Trim Audio boxes, you move the green line to where you want the video or audio to start; move the red line to where you want it to end. Then select “OK” and you are ready to test it and make any changes needed.

● Conduct a technological rehearsal. Don’t leave anything to chance; conduct a run-through to check for any possible problems. ■ Test presentation. Always test your presentation by trying your disk,

CD, or USB flash drive on a different computer. Once PowerPoint has loaded, open your slides to a full-screen presentation by clicking F5. Better yet, save your presentation as a PowerPoint show (.pps) by going to File/Save As, select PowerPoint Show, and click Save. Now a simple double-click on your presentation icon will immediately show a full- screen view of your opening slide without any indication that Power- Point is running—much more professional!

■ Test lighting. Make sure there is adequate lighting so the audience can see your facial expressions as well as the screen.

■ Locate remote control. Use a remote control if possible—it frees you from the keyboard and gives you speaker control.

■ Practice smooth transitions. To move back and forth between slides, press the number of the slide and then the Enter key. For example, if you are on slide 6 when someone asks a question about slide 3, simply press 3 and Enter to switch to slide 3.

■ Prepare backups. Print a paper copy of your slides by selecting Hand- outs (four to six slides per page) and Frame slides. Number your slides for easy reference in case you need to move back and forth between slides. Prepare a backup form of the slides (such as handouts) in case of equipment or power failure.

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COMMUNICATION SITUATION Student Informative Presentation with PowerPoint Now that you’ve explored different types of visual aids, use the CourseMate website for Communicating for Results to watch a video clip of a sample informative or persuasive presentation that includes examples of PowerPoint slides. “Retail Theft” by Mark Stephenson is one of these speeches (see Mark’s outline in Chapter 14). The Informative speech in Chapter 11 and the persuasive speech in Chapter 13 also include PowerPoint slides. You can use the CourseMate website to critique these speeches and, if requested, email your responses to your instructor.

Effective Visual Aids How aware are you of the tips and guidelines for preparing quality visual aids? To check your knowledge, take the following quiz and check your answers against those in the back of this book. You can also complete this activity online. Go to cengagebrain.com to access your Speech Communication CourseMate for Communicating for Results.

DIRECTIONS: Identify each question below as T (True) or F (False):

______ T F 1. The best visuals are centered on the page. ______ T F 2. Using three or more typefaces per visual is recommended for adding contrast and interest. ______ T F 3. A sans serif typeface is recommended for titles or emphasis. ______ T F 4. When giving a PowerPoint presentation, to move back to a previous slide, press the number of the desired

slide and then press the backspace key. ______ T F 5. Saturation is the amount of color used in a specific shade. ______ T F 6. For easy audience viewing of a computer slide, titles should be no smaller than 30 points in size. ______ T F 7. One way to enhance readability of a computer visual is to use capital letters. ______ T F 8. On a poster or flip chart, titles should be approximately 3 inches high. ______ T F 9. When used effectively, color visuals are more persuasive and easier to remember. ______ T F 10. Using the visual aid formula, a speaker giving a 30-minute speech could easily expect to use

60 slides.

AWARENESS CHECK ©

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KEY TERMS alignment (383) clip art (370) comparisons (355) contiguity principle (364) contrast (383) custom bullets (387) diagrams (379) examples (357) expert opinion (360) explanation (354) factual illustration (356) figurative comparison (356)

flowcharts (379) general design principles (382) graphic visuals (370) graphs (381) hue (385) hypothetical illustration (357) illustration (356) literal comparison (355) maps (380) multimedia principle (364) organization charts (379) personalization principle (367)

PowerPoint poisoning (353) proximity (384) repetition (383) sans serif typeface (371) saturation (385) schematic drawings (379) serif typeface (371) statistics (359) supporting material (354) text visuals (370) typeface (371) visual aid (364)

SUMMARY Effective speakers carefully research their topic for current infor- mation that can serve as supporting materials for their ideas. They begin their research with print sources, then move to databases, if available, then search the Internet for additional specific infor- mation, and if necessary, conduct personal interviews. Then they select pieces of information from their research to be supporting materials that add clarity, proof, or interest to their speeches. Verbal supporting materials include explanations, comparisons, illustrations, examples, statistics, and expert opinions. Effective speakers also realize that they must develop effective delivery to create the greatest impact.

To improve your presentations and avoid PowerPoint poi- soning, use several visual aids to support your ideas—text vi- suals, graphic visuals, or both. Visual aids are not optional. Ef- fective speakers know that audience attention and retention are enhanced when visuals are included. The number of visuals should be about half the number of minutes in the presentation.

The type size for all visuals must be large enough to be read by everyone in the room, and the typeface should convey the appro- priate tone. The best visuals follow the specific tips for text visu- als and graphic visuals (i.e., charts, diagrams, maps, and graphs), as well as, the four general design principles. The tips for text visuals are (a) four to six lines of text per visual, (b) no more than 40 characters in a line, (c) phrases rather than sentences, (d) upper- and lower-case type, (e) simple typefaces, (f) equal space at the top of each visual, and (g) clip art, large type, bold- face, and color for emphasis. The four general design principles are contrast, repetition, alignment, and proximity. Guidelines for color visuals include using the same colors throughout a presen- tation, the same hues for related items, low-saturation hues for backgrounds, and high contrast between figure and background.

PowerPoint slides are an effective way to add visual aids to your presentation, but for the best effect, you must be sure to alter them to follow the design principles you have learned.

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COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS ONLINE Before continuing to the next chapter, check your understanding of Chapter 12 at Speech Communication the CourseMate for Com- municating for Results. CourseMate gives you quick and easy ac- cess to this text’s resources to help improve your communication skills and prepare you for quizzes and exams. These resources include: ● Study tools including the student companion workbook,

digital glossary, flash-cards, and review quizzes. ● Activities and assignments including Awareness Checks,

Checkpoints, and Collaborative Learning Activities. ● Media resources such as Web Links (explore communication

concepts); Speech Builder Express (develop your speech outlines); Interactive Video Activities (watch and critique videos of professional communication situations and sample speeches); and Speech Studio (upload your speech videos for peer reviewing and critique other students’ speeches).

For more information or to access this book’s online resources, visit cengagebrain.com.

Collaborative Learning Activities 1. Career Activity: In small groups, go to EBSCOHost and click

on the Military and Government Collection, and look for a business presentation that the group likes from a recent Vital Speeches magazine. Each group member should read the speech looking for examples of each type of supporting material. Select three of the best and discuss what made them so effective. Select at least one support that you don’t think was effective and discuss what the speaker could have done to make it more effective in a public, educational, or business setting.

2. In small groups, select one of the sample visuals included in this chapter and complete the following:

a. To practice the design rules covered in this chapter, each group member should revise the chosen visual aid and print their slide to share with group members.

b. As a group, select the best two revisions and make sug- gestions to make them even better. When these two slides are revised a second time, make a list of why the two slides are effective and how they follow the guide- lines given in this chapter.

c. Using a document camera or a portable USB thumb drive, share your slides with other groups. As a class, select the best slide from all groups.

3. Each student should prepare one or two quality PowerPoint slides they plan to use in their next presentation. Print a copy of each visual to share with others. In small groups, critique the slides from each group member, covering at least three items that make the slide successful and three suggestions for how to make it even better. If time allows, select the best slide from all slides and share it with the best slide from other groups.

4. Career Activity: Select a manuscript of a recent business presentation printed in the Vital Speeches. If your library does not carry this magazine, look for it in EBSCOHost, Mili- tary and Government database. In groups of three to five, discuss what visual aids the speaker could have used with their presentation and sketch out brief storyboards of each visual, including suggestions for color, typefaces, motion, and sound. In a computer lab or on personal computers, pre- pare at least three of the visual aids using PowerPoint and following the design guidelines in this chapter. Be prepared to share your results with other group members.

5. Go to Ted Talks or Ted Themes on TED.com and select a presen- tation to evaluate and discuss. Try to select one that received several comments online. Once a presentation is selected, in small groups discuss and evaluate the speaker’s use of both verbal and visual supporting materials. List at least two strengths and two weaknesses. Considering the audience, how successful was the presentation on a scale of 1 (weak) to 5 (out- standing). Be prepared to support your reasons.

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EXPLAIN the meaning of persuasion, and the different types of persuasive presentations.

BRIEFLY DESCRIBE each of the four factors/theories necessary to make your presentations persuasive, and pinpoint at least two practical tips each factor/theory provides the persuasive speaker, including the four methods of citing evidence in a presentation.

LIST the steps for preparing a persuasive speech, and describe each of the following persuasive organiza- tional patterns: claim/reasons, causal, problem–solu- tion, criteria satisfaction, comparative advantages, and motivated sequence.

IDENTIFY three characteristics found in successful team presen- tations, and suggest several tips for handling Q & A.

As you read Chapter 13...

PERSUASIVE PRESENTATIONS: INDIVIDUAL OR TEAM

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CASE STUDY

When Janet Cooke was interviewed and hired by the Washington Post, “every interviewer was impressed” (Green, 1981, para. 4). In fact, after Cooke had received and lost the presti- gious Pulitzer Prize, they recalled: “So impressed had the staff been with her and her writing that the usual check of refer- ences was done in a cursory manner” (para. 10). The following story was adapted from Kidwell (2004) and Green (1981).

In her first 8 months at the newspaper, Cooke had impressed everyone with her writing and had written “52 by- line articles” (Kidwell, 2004, p. 178). However, what she really wanted was to land a front-page story and eventually the Pulitzer Prize (the Post had received a Pulitzer for its stories on Watergate). Cooke had heard about an 8-year-old boy who was addicted to heroin, and an editor encouraged her to seek out the child and write his story. After searching for several months with no luck, she decided to just invent a story about a child, his mother, and the mother’s boyfriend, who she said injected Jimmy with heroin while she watched. The story began this way:

Jimmy is 8 years old and a third-generation heroin addict, a precocious little boy with sandy hair, vel- vety brown eyes, and needle marks freckling the baby-smooth skin of his thin brown arms. (p. 178).

Cooke’s story made the front page on a Sunday morning and immediately “the Washington Post’s telephone switch- board lit up like a space launch control room” (Green, 1981, para. 86) with people outraged by the article and concerned for the child’s whereabouts. By Monday, a citywide search had begun by the police, the schools, and social services. A $10,000 reward was offered for information leading to Jimmy. According to Green (para. 92), “It would be difficult to over- estimate Washington’s compassion for ‘Jimmy’ or its anger when the Post refused to reveal his identity or address.” Yet, after 17 days of intense searching, no child was found. At this point, the police and mayor had serious doubts about the accuracy of Cooke’s story. Feeling under attack, the staff went into a “protect the source and back the reporter” mode (para. 150). At one point, a worried editor spoke with Cooke and still remembers his satisfaction at her “gripping account of her visit to ‘Jimmy’s home’” (para. 152).

Cooke’s story was nominated for the Pulitzer Prize by the Post leadership, and early the next year it was announced that she had won. The Associated Press and various papers

Dysfunctional Persuasion

As you read this chapter... See if you can determine (a) what could have caused the editors to be so easily persuad- ed by Cooke; and (b) how we can protect ourselves from this type of dysfunctional persuasion?

apter...

immediately began researching the story behind Cooke’s win. A comparison of her Pulitzer biography with her resume showed some discrepancies—she had added an additional six writing awards and fluency in two additional languages to the Pulitzer biography (Kidwell, 2004, p. 179). A further search found that some of her original resume had also been fal- sified—she had attended Vassar one year, but hadn’t gradu- ated from there magna cum laude as stated in her biogra- phy. When confronted with the discrepancies by several Post editors, Cooke admitted to the resume padding but insisted that her story about Jimmy was true. Finally, only days after receiving the Pulitzer, she admitted to fabricating the story and resigned from the Washington Post. Cooke was obviously a good writer, well-liked, highly motivated to achieve, and ap- parently persuasive enough in her interview and about her feature story that her editors didn’t really question her cred- ibility until the story had gone to print (Green, 1981).

Speaking of the incident, the executive editor of the Post had this to say (Maraniss, 1981):

The credibility of a newspaper is its most pre- cious asset, and it depends almost entirely on the integrity of its reporters. When that integri- ty is questioned and found wanting, the wounds are grievous, and there is nothing to do but come clean with our readers, apologize to the Advisory Board of the Pulitzer Prizes, and begin immediately on the uphill task of regaining our credibility. This we are doing.” (para. 4)

For more details, go to WashingtonPost.com. You can easily access this link through the CourseMate website for Communicating for Results.

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394 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

A20-year study of MBA graduates from Stanford University con-cluded that no skill is more important to business success than good communication—especially the desire and ability to persuade (Harrell & Harrell, 1984). The yearly survey by NACE (National Association of Colleges and Employers) lists which candidate skills/qualities are ranked the highest by employees. For the last 10 years, communication skills have ranked first or sec- ond in importance. The most recent NACE survey at the time of this text’s publi- cation (Job Outlook 2012, 2011), ranks the “ability to verbally communicate” as second place (behind teamwork skills) and the “ability to sell or influence oth- ers” as tenth place—just behind written communication skills (p. 28). As we cau- tioned previously, to overlook the importance of speaking skills is to limit your flexibility as a communicator and perhaps even your chances for advancement.

PERSUASIVE PRESENTATIONS: DEFINITIONS AND TYPES Although persuasion is one of the most often used business communication skills, it may very well be one of the least effectively used. To learn to use persuasion, speak- ers need to know what persuasion is and understand the many types of persuasion.

Persuasion Defined There are many definitions and approaches to persuasion—three are included for you in the margin. For some reason, people seem to be confused about per- suasion. So, let’s contrast what persuasion is with what it is not.

● Persuasion is not simply offering information and letting the audience make up their own minds—that would be an informative presentation. Persuasion is arguing for a particular view after presenting possible alter- natives. As Brembeck & Howell’s definition indicates, a persuasive speaker “intends” to influence the choices and behaviors of the listeners even though some of them may decide to disagree.

● Persuasion is not coercion—there is no trickery or force involved in persua- sion. The receivers of the persuasive message must weigh your logic and evi- dence and make their own decision. Once that decision has been made, they alone are responsible for it, although the sender helped “shape, reinforce, or change” the decision of the listeners, as included in Miller’s definition. Persuasion is taking a stand and doing everything in your power (that is ethical) to convince your listeners that your proposal is the better one—or as Aristotle said, using all the “available means of persuasion” including logical appeal, emotional appeal, and ethical appeal.

Types of Persuasive Presentations There are two basic types of persuasive presentations: the presentation to con- vince and the presentation to actuate. The two speeches differ in the degree of

Persuasion is communica- tion intended to influence choice (Brembeck & Howell, 1976).

Persuasion is a process with the goal of shaping, reinforcing, or changing the responses or behaviors of others (Miller, 1980, 2002).

Rhetoric is the ability to discover in every given case the available means of persuasion (Aristotle, Rhetoric). Means include logos, pathos, and ethos.

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audience reaction sought: The presentation to convince seeks intellectual agree- ment from listeners, whereas the presentation to actuate asks listeners for both intellectual agreement and action of some type.

In a presentation to convince, you want your audience to agree with your way of thinking. You aren’t asking them to do anything other than agree with you. This approach is especially good when your audience initially disagrees with your position and you realize that moving them to action is unlikely— getting agreement is a more realistic goal.

In a presentation to actuate, you want your audience to go one step past agreement to take a particular action. First you must convince them of the merits of your ideas; then you want to actuate them—move them to action. Actuating includes the following (suggested by one of the fathers of persuasion, Wallace C. Fotheringham, 1966):

● Persuade the audience to do something new—something they haven’t been doing, like join a work team.

● Urge the audience to continue doing something, such as continue eating bal- anced meals.

● Ask them to stop doing something, such as stop texting while driving. ● Persuade them to never start doing something, such as smoking cigarettes

Depending on your topic and your audience, you may want to include more than one action request. For example, in a speech on alcohol you might urge audience members who drink to use a designated driver, those drinkers who have used designated drivers to continue to do so, and those who don’t drink to never start.

Persuasion in Business Persuasion in business includes both written and oral messages. See Chapter 14: Polishing Your Written Communication for a discussion of persuasive written communication and persuasive outlines for oral pre- sentations. Persuasive oral presentations in the business world go by several names (Aubuchon, 2007; Burch, 1996). Some companies label the persuasive presenta- tion a “sales pitch,” others a “proposal,” and still others a “presentation.” Because the differences are subtle, we will simply use the term persuasive presentation.

Many persuasive presentations are informal and are given within the orga- nization by supervisors to their employees or by employees to their supervisors. Supervisors’ topics might include convincing employees of the need for a new reorganization plan or urging compliance with a company regulation. Employees’ topics might include advocating for a new piece of machinery, a policy change, or postponement of a deadline.

Other persuasive presentations are given to an individual or group from outside the organization. Such presentations are more formal. For example, the engineers from one company might plan a formal presentation about a new

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product for visiting engineers from another company. International business meetings definitely require one or more formal presentations. For these meet- ings, visual aids are prepared in the language of the guest country. Many com- panies also give persuasive presentations to the general public in an attempt to create a good public image or to change a negative one. An electric company, for example, might decide to have company representatives deliver persuasive presentations to various clubs and organizations in an attempt to change public opinion about the need for a rate hike. And, of course, salespeople give sales presentations to convince customers to buy their products.

PERSUASIVE PRESENTATIONS: THEORY There are many theories about persuasion, such as the inoculation theory discussed on page 402 and the elaboration likelihood model summarized in Table 13.1 and in more detail in the Remember Box below. In addition, persuad- ers have found that persuasion in the workplace (and in other environments as well) depends on four main factors (the first three you recognize as being Aristotle’s “means of persuasion”):

1. Logos: the evidence and logic of the message.

2. Ethos: the credibility of the persuader.

3. Pathos: the psychological needs of the listeners.

4. Opinions: those held by key people in the audience.

Each of the four persuasive factors will be considered in detail to help you utilize the research in improving your persuasive ability.

Evidence and Logic of the Message Americans like to think of themselves as logical people who make logical deci- sions. They expect speakers to use logic and evidence in their presentations. And, of course, when the listeners are persuaded, they attribute the persuasion to the superior logic and evidence used by the speaker.

Evidence is defined as factual state- ments and opinions originating not from the speaker but from another source (McCroskey, 1969). Evidence forms the

When Using the Elaboration Likelihood Theory of Persuasion… When listening to your persuasive arguments, the elaboration likelihood (ELM) theory of persuasion indicates which of two routes for process- ing arguments audience members will likely use (Littlejohn & Foss, 2011; Petty & Cacioppo, 1986b): The central route—used if audience members are motivated (involved

and interested in your topic) and have the ability to process informa- tion. If so, they are likely to use critical thinking and consider your arguments and evidence carefully and ask plenty of questions.

The peripheral route—used if audience members are not motivated (have less involvement or interest in the topic) or are unable to pro- cess information. In this case, they are more likely to take a shortcut to decision making and use less critical thinking and evaluation of arguments where they focus on senses and cues that aren’t directly related to the topic (such as a speaker’s credibility or attractiveness).

So what does the ELM model of persuasion suggest to speakers? First, if audience analysis indicates the central route will be used: Focus on well-supported logic and evidence. Present both sides of the issue (still showing how your position is

the better one). Second, if audience analysis indicates likely use of the peripheral route: Focus on catchy visuals, narratives, personal experiences. Use immediacy behaviors. Organize with rhymes or acronyms.

REMEMBER

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TABLE 13.1 PERSUASION THEORIES

INFORMATION-INTEGRATION THEORY

Basic approach The way people accumulate and organize information (about a situation, event, person, or object) can result in an attitude change (Littlejohn & Foss, 2011, pp. 91–95). Attitudes are affected by the valence and weight of information received. Valence refers to whether the information supports (+ valence) or refutes (− valence) previous beliefs; weight refers to how much credibility is assigned to the information.

Respected theorist

Martin Fishbein (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). A person’s intention to change behavior is determined by their attitude toward the behavior times the strength (weight) of that attitude plus beliefs about what others think they should do times the strength of these other opinions.

CONSISTENCY THEORIES

Basic approach Because people prefer consistency and balance and feel threatened by inconsistency, an attitude change can occur when information creates inconsistency (Littlejohn & Foss, 2011, pp. 95–97).

Respected theorist

Leon Festinger (1957), theory of cognitive dissonance. Dissonance (inconsis- tency) creates stress and tension in people, which causes them to (a) seek to reduce the dissonance and (b) to avoid other dissonance-creating situations.

Respected theorist

Milton Rokeach (1969, 1973), theory of attitudes, beliefs, values. Attitudes are feelings of like or dislike; beliefs are the reasons we hold the attitudes we do; and values are deep-seated principles that direct behaviors. Persuasion may occur when the speaker shows how certain behaviors are consistent with audience values or when a particular value is shown to be less (or more) important now than in the past.

ELABORATION LIKELIHOOD THEORY

Basic approach Elaboration likelihood involves the probability that listeners will evaluate arguments critically (Littlejohn & Foss, 2011, pp. 87–89).

Respected theorists

Richard Petty and John Cacioppo (1986a). When evaluating arguments, people either use the central route (elaborate carefully and critically) or the pe- ripheral route (decide quickly using little critical thinking). For motivated and able people, elaboration leads to attitudes that are resistant to change.

SOCIAL JUDGMENT THEORY

Basic approach People use internal anchors (past experience) as reference points when making judgments about messages (Littlejohn & Foss, 2011, pp. 85–87). Anchors are more likely to influence the judgments of those who are ego involved with the topic.

Respected theorist

Muzafer Sherif (Sherif & Hovland, 1961; Sherif et al., 1965). A person’s ego involvement determines messages that are acceptable (latitude of acceptance), totally unacceptable (latitude of rejection), or merely tolerable (latitude of noncommitment). The larger a person’s latitude of rejection, the more difficult it is to persuade that person. Attitude change results when people perceive that an argument fits within their latitude of acceptance. When an argument falls in their latitude of rejection, a boomerang effect may occur, and the original attitude may be strengthened rather than changed.

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basis for the logical arguments a speaker develops. (See Chapter 12 for supporting materials that can serve as evidence.) Logic, from the Greek logos, or reason, is “the study of orderly thinking, the sequence and connection of thoughts and ideas as they relate to one another” (Bell, 1990, p. 262). In other words, logic connects the various pieces of evidence in a meaningful and persuasive argument.

Despite its merits, of the four factors leading to persuasion, evidence is the most confusing. Researchers have begun to realize that evidence and logic may not be nearly as effective as previously thought and that certain uses of evidence may even be harmful to persuasion. The following research findings suggest some of the many factors influencing the effect of evidence in presentations (for a summary, see Reynolds & Reynolds, 2002):

● Listeners have difficulty in identifying evidence and intellectual appeals and in distinguishing between logical and illogical messages and between high- quality evidence and low-quality evidence (Bettinghaus & Cody, 1997). Ap- parently, even though listeners think logic and evidence are important, they can’t necessarily identify them in speeches.

● In order for evidence to produce persuasion, listeners must be aware and accept that the evidence exists (Reynolds & Reynolds, 2002). Therefore, speakers and advertisers who make it obvious that evidence is being pre- sented are more persuasive (O’Keefe, 2002; Pfau & Louden, 1994).

● Low-ability listeners who are not personally involved with the topic will tend to be persuaded when a large amount of evidence is presented—even if the evidence is of poor quality (Petty & Cacioppo, 1996).

● Logical-sounding phrases (e.g., “therefore,” “as a result,” “it is only logical that,” and “it is possible to conclude”) may cause listeners to judge a presenta- tion as more logical than a presentation without such words (Bettinghaus & Cody, 1997). This finding explains how unethical speakers who use logical- sounding words are sometimes able to fool their listeners.

● Evidence and arguments that are novel or “new” to an audience are more persuasive (Morley, 1987; Morley & Walker, 1987).

● Use of evidence increases the perceived credibility of a low-credibility speaker, thereby increasing persuasiveness (McCroskey, 1970; Olson & Cal, 1984). In a more recent meta-analysis, O’Keefe (1998) found consistent con- firmation that citing evidence in a speech improved the credibility of most speakers. Citing highly credible sources “seems to rub off on the communi- cator” (O’Keefe, 2002, p. 187).

● There is “a significant persuasive advantage for messages providing infor- mation source citations” (O’Keefe, 1998, p. 67). When evidence is used, however, mentioning the source of the evidence without explaining who the expert is does not make the presentation more persuasive. In fact, unless the listener is informed about the source’s qualifications, citing the source of the evidence may actually make the presentation less persuasive (Bostrom & Tucker, 1969; Ostermeier, 1967).

● When giving a source, it is more effective to cite the source and his or her qualifications after the evidence is presented. Cite the source before the evi- dence only if you know the listeners consider the source a highly credible one (Cohen, 1964; Reynolds & Burgoon, 1983).

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● “Self-reference” speakers (who support their assertions by citing firsthand ex- periences) are rated higher in trustworthiness and are more persuasive than speakers who refer only to high-prestige sources (Ginossar & Trope, 1980; Koballa, 1989; Reinard, 1988). Personal examples and experiences may be more persuasive than statistical or numerical data (Kazoleas, 1993; O’Keefe, 2002), es- pecially for listeners who disagree with the speaker (Slater & Rouner, 1996), and they may have a longer-lasting persuasive effect (Ostermeier, 1967; Papageogis, 1963). Statistical evidence may be more persuasive for audience members who already support the speaker (Slater & Rouner, 1996). In most cases, speakers should include both narrative and statistical evidence (Allen et al., 2000).

Figure 13.1 summarizes research findings on the persuasiveness of the fol- lowing methods of using evidence:

● Method 1: Assertion plus evidence plus source. “We need to paint our workroom walls orange [assertion]. Productivity normally increases by 20 percent when walls are painted orange [evidence] according to Kenneth Johnson [source].”

● Method 2: Assertion plus evidence. “We need to paint our workroom walls orange [assertion]. Productivity normally increases by 20 percent when walls are painted orange [evidence].” (Here the evidence is not linked to a source or documented in any way.)

● Method 3: Assertion plus evidence plus source plus qualifications of source. “We need to paint our workroom walls orange [assertion]. Productivity normally increases by 20 percent when walls are painted orange [evidence], according to Kenneth Johnson [source], the research director for Business Color, Inc. [qualifications of source].”

● Method 4: Assertion plus firsthand experience. “We need to paint our work- room walls orange [assertion]. Twice I have been in departments that paint- ed their work areas orange, and both times productivity increased approxi- mately 20 percent [firsthand experience].” Notice that method 1 is the least persuasive of the four methods. Persuasiveness

in this method is increased if the audience already knows the source and the source’s qualifications or views the speaker as highly credible. As discussed previously, citing a source without giving the qualifications of the source may be less persuasive than

Most persuasive

Least persuasive

1 2 3 4 Methods

Figure 13.1 Persuasiveness of evidence presented in four different methods

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presenting evidence with no source at all. As Figure 13.1 shows, the most persuasive type of evidence is often firsthand experience. Let’s discuss when to use each method.

For Persuasive Presentations outside the Organization When speak- ing outside the organization—at conventions, to educators, to customers, or to the general public—the best methods of using evidence are method 3 (assertion plus evidence plus source plus qualifications of source) and method 4 (assertion plus firsthand experience).

There are several reasons for using method 3. First, because these listeners do not know you personally, you enhance your credibility by citing sources that these listeners consider prestigious. Also, these listeners will expect knowledge- able speakers to include documented evidence in their presentations. To appear credible (and to improve your persuasiveness), you must meet the expectations of your listeners.

A second reason for using method 3 when speaking to the general public is that documented evidence may counteract opposing arguments that the listeners hear from other speakers. Communications researcher James McCroskey (1970) found that audiences were less affected by the opposing view (counterpersuasion) of a second speaker if the first speaker’s message contained documented evi- dence. Although undocumented evidence can be persuasive, once the listeners begin to think about the arguments and realize that no sources were cited, they may begin to doubt the speaker. Later, when they are exposed to opposing views, they may doubt the original speaker’s viewpoint even more.

If you are already known as an authority, or if the person introducing you presents you to the audience as an authority, then method 4 (assertion supported by firsthand experience) can be effective. You can also combine methods 3 and 4.

For Persuasive Presentations within the Organization When speak- ing inside the organization to people who know you well, method 2 (assertion plus evidence without sources) and method 4 (assertion plus firsthand experi- ence) are good methods for presenting evidence. Method 2 is often used for several reasons. First, in the business world, time is precious to everyone, par- ticularly to management. As a result, individuals rarely have more than 20 to 30 minutes to present their ideas and answer questions. If the topic is very impor- tant, they might have as much as an hour. Because of such pressure, manage- ment and other listeners tend to view extensive documentation as a waste of time. If they need further verification of a point, they ask for it.

Second, extensive documentation is unnecessary for presentations within the organization because those listening to the presentation are usually already some- what familiar with the topic being discussed. Even if the presentation concerns a new concept or product, they will normally have enough general knowledge in the field to determine whether the speaker’s figures or evidence are reasonable.

Third, the presenter is usually an acquaintance of the listener, so his or her credibility and expertise are already known. If the speaker is relatively unknown or of lower rank than most of the listeners, his or her boss will attend the meet- ing to add credibility and to answer any problematic questions. Even when a team of speakers from one company travels to another company to present a proposal to people they have never met, each team judges the credibility and

CHAPTER 13 PERSUASIVE PRESENTATIONS: INDIVIDUAL OR TEAM 401

expertise of the other by the titles and ranks of the members. This is one reason why titles and positions are so important in business negotiation.

Instead of taking the time to cite the sources during their presentations, business speakers usually include an abbreviated version of the source on the computer visual they show their audience. For example, at the bottom of a visual demonstrating the results of a business survey, they might simply print, “Dun & Bradstreet, 2013.”

Method 4 (assertion plus firsthand evidence) is also a common method of presenting evidence in a persuasive presentation. Would you rather hear about a new way to conduct employee appraisals from a manager who quotes from a book on the subject or from a manager who has firsthand knowledge of how the method works? Suppose that during the last company appraisal, this manager had appraised one half of the employees using the old method and the other half using the new method. This manager could tell you firsthand whether the theory in the book worked well enough to adopt.

Method 4 should be used only if you have considerable firsthand experience and are an authority on the topic (or at least know more than most of the listeners). Oth- erwise, method 2 would be the best. However, speakers using method 4 should come prepared with more than just personal experience. They should have made an objec- tive and complete search for relevant evidence (both for and against their idea) before preparing for the talk. They must be sure that their experiences are not exceptions to the rule and that the proposals they are recommending are the best ones for the com- pany. If someone asks for additional evidence, they must be prepared to present it.

Presenting One or Both Sides of the Argument Before we con- clude this section on evidence, there is one more question we need to dis- cuss: Should business speakers present only the arguments that support their proposal, or should they introduce and then refute opposing arguments— counterarguments? Following are some recommendations (Allen, 1991, 1998; Hovland et al., 1967; Kamins & Marks, 1987).

Present Only Your Side of the Argument When:

● The listeners already agree with your proposal and have a well-developed belief system (in other words, they are not new to the opinion). Presenting negative arguments that they had not thought of (even if you refute them well) may create some doubt in the listeners’ minds and sabotage your attempt at persuasion (boomerang effect). These listeners are more interested in a “pep rally”–type presentation.

● The listeners know nothing about your topic (too many arguments would cause confusion).

● You want the listeners to take an immediate action, such as donating money at the door as they leave.

● There is little chance that the listeners will hear the other side from another speaker or the news media.

Present Both Sides of the Argument When:

● The listeners are fairly knowledgeable on your topic. ● The listeners already disagree with your proposal.

402 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

● There is a good chance that the listeners will hear the other side from another speaker or the news media.

● The listeners agree but are fairly new to the opinion and have undeveloped belief systems.

Knowledgeable listeners, especially when they disagree with the speaker, are suspicious of speakers who present only one side of the topic. Presenting both sides also serves to “inoculate” the listeners against later opposing arguments.

Inoculation Theory According to William McGuire’s (1985) inoculation theory, inoculating a listener against opposing ideas is similar to inoculating a person against a disease. The person who has never heard any negative argu- ments on a certain topic will be susceptible to them, just as the person who has lived in a germ-free environment is susceptible to catching a disease. We can cre- ate immunity by giving a shot containing a weakened form of the disease, or in the case of a presentation, by motivating receivers to realize the vulnerability of their beliefs and presenting a brief look at opposing arguments along with their refutation (facts and logic disproving the arguments). Then, when the listener hears opposing arguments, he or she can say, “Oh, yes, I knew that. However, it’s not important because research shows that. . . .” Presenting both sides also seems to make listeners even more resistant to additional new or novel arguments that the speaker did not cover (Papageogis & McGuire, 1961; Pfau et al., 2010; Szabo & Pfau, 2002). Apparently, inoculating listeners gives them the immunity needed to continue building their own counterarguments. In a meta-analysis of 54 stud- ies, Banas & Rains (2010) concluded: “The practical implication of this result is that practitioners can feel reasonably confident that inoculation treatments can produce resistance not only to those attack arguments specifically refuted, but also to novel attacks—thus, greatly increasing the value of inoculation as a com- munication strategy (p. 303). Whalen (1996) also suggests that “inoculation” can be used with clients or customers who fear opposing views from other people in the organization—you would be supplying them with rebuttal arguments.

To summarize, when speaking (formally or informally) to business audiences within the organization, you should normally present both sides. Regardless of wheth-

er your listeners agree or disagree with you, they will normally be well informed and aware of opposing ar- guments. However, presenting both sides does not mean that you give your opposition equal time. When you are presenting the other side, mention one or more objections to your plan (such as high cost) and then (a) show how each objection is based on inaccurate information or faulty reasoning, or (b) if an objec- tion is accurate, show how it is minor compared to the many advantages of your proposal. After all, every view

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has some disadvantages. The key is to show that any disadvantage to your plan or position is minor but to do so without using fallacious reasoning of the kinds listed in the box “Types of Fallacious Rea- soning” (Damer, 2000; Mauk & Metz, 2013, pp. 49–50).

Credibility of the Speaker The second factor of persuasion is the ethos or credibility of the speaker. A credible person is someone whom others view as believ- able—someone in whom they can place their confidence. In gener- al, research over five decades has found that the greater your cred- ibility, the more persuasive you are (O’Keefe, 2002; Pornipitakpan, 2004). The importance of speaker credibility for persuasion is illus- trated by a study of the decision-making practices of 137 executives and purchasing directors from 70 metal-working companies. The study found that when these executives and directors made deci- sions on awarding contracts, they were more than twice as likely to base their decisions on the credibility of the suppliers than on any other factor. They felt that finding someone with whom they could work well—someone who was honest and dependable—was even more important than finding a good price (Wilcox, 1987).

Researchers have discovered that a speaker’s credibility de- pends on such factors as the audience’s involvement with the topic, the mode of the message, the audience’s similarity to the speaker, and possibly the unex- pected. Note the following research findings (see O’Keefe, 2002, for a summary):

● Listeners who have very low involvement with the topic tend to be more per- suaded by the expertise of the speaker than by the quality of arguments or evidence. However, listeners who are very involved with the topic are more persuaded by quality arguments than by the credibility of the speaker (Petty & Cacioppo, 1996). One explanation for this finding is that involved listen- ers are more likely to pay attention to and evaluate the speaker’s arguments, whereas listeners who are not involved with the topic are less interested in evaluating arguments and more likely to be influenced by their impressions of the speaker (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993; Petty & Cacioppo, 1996).

● When a persuasive message uses an audio or video mode, the level of listener persuasion is likely to be determined by the credibility of the speaker; how- ever, when the message is in the print mode, the level of listener persuasion is more likely to be determined by the data and quality of evidence (Booth- Butterfield & Gutowski, 1993). This may be because print allows time for careful analysis of data, whereas audio and video do not—listeners must base their evaluation of a speaker’s evidence on speaker credibility factors such as sincerity and trustworthiness (Chaiken & Eagly, 1983).

● When a persuasive message is sent by e-mail or the Internet, receivers are more persuaded by the perceived credibility of the sender than the pres- ence of any evidence. In fact, when a persuasive message is presented with emotional appeal and fits in with our values, a type of “instant ethos” oc- curs, which causes us to trust the message even when the author is unknown

Types of Fallacious Reasoning Ad hominem—attacking the person

rather than the argument. Ad populum—arguing that because ev-

eryone knows an idea is right, it can’t be wrong.

Ad ignoratam—arguing that because no one can prove that a particular belief is false, it must be true.

Begging the question—asserting that something is because it is.

Hasty generalization—basing a general conclusion on too few examples or on isolated examples.

Post hoc—claiming a causal relation- ship simply because one event fol- lowed another event.

Slippery slope—asserting that taking a particular step automatically will lead to a second undesirable step.

404 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

(Cialdini, 2009; Gurak, 1997; Larson, 2013).

● Perceived similarity between audi- ence members and the speaker may enhance persuasion by increasing the perceived trustworthiness or compe- tence of the speaker (O’Keefe, 2002). Audience members may perceive at- titudinal similarities between them- selves and the speaker. Attitudinal similarities (even when these similari- ties don’t relate specifically to the topic of the speech) result in increased audi- ence liking for the speaker and a high- er rating of trustworthiness (Berscheid, 1985; McCroskey & Teven, 1999). Speakers tend to be judged as more competent, however, only when per- ceived similarities are relevant to the topic (O’Keefe, 2002). One way law- yers create attitudinal similarities with witnesses (thereby persuading them to express their views more openly and more convincingly) is by ask- ing questions using the same sensory language previously used by the wit- ness—visual, auditory, or kinesthetic (Swanson, 1981). For example, effec- tive lawyers might ask the visual wit- ness, “What did you see?” [I saw this brown Ford coming around the cor- ner. …]; the auditory witness, “What did you hear?” [I was listening to my Walkman, when I heard the screech of brakes. …]; and the kinesthetic witness, “What did you feel?” [I had this feeling that something was about to happen, and when it did.…] (adapted from Swanson, 1981, p. 211).

● There is some research to suggest that the unexpected may create more audi- ence interest and involvement leading to more attitude change. For example, Kar- markar & Tormala (2010) conducted three studies where people with either high credibility or low credibility gave a restaurant review expressing certainty

Audience Analysis, Persuasion, and Technology

Recall in Chapter 11 that we discussed how important it is for speak- ers to analyze each specific audience and how this analysis should affect just about everything in their speeches—such as the exact purpose statement, organization, supporting materials, and the attention-getter. Audience analysis is even more important in persua- sion. Companies have learned that if they expect their advertising to result in sales, audience analysis is critical for them as well. Sales and advertising are intended to persuade and here is where the dilemma comes in—should there be a limit to what type and how much technical analysis a company is allowed to use when planning persuasion?

Technology has changed almost everything in today’s world including how companies collect data. For example, did you know that some electronic billboards are collecting data about you as you drive past (Brownell, 2013, p. 343)? The radiation leakage from your car antenna is monitored to determine the radio station to which you and others driving by are listening. If there is a dominant preferred radio station, the demographics of that station are used to determine the best advertising approach for the billboard. Social networks are also used as data collection sites. Privacy issues have been a continuing problem for Facebook as discussed in the Chapter 1 case study. In 2011, Facebook was charged with “unfair and deceptive behavior” by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) for making user profiles public by default (Raice & Angwin, 2011). You recall that a 20-year settlement with the FTC requires Facebook to get permission from users before making any personal release changes and to be audited every two years (p. B1). In May 2012, the FTC also brought similar charges against MySpace who assigns a Friend ID to all user profiles. Although they told users that they would not release any personal information without their consent, MySpace “provided advertisers with the Friend ID of users who were viewing particular pages on the site” which allowed them to view personal information from profile pages (Couts, 2012). Then, in February 2012, The London Sunday Times (Raby, 2012) announced that apps for mobile phones and tablets allow Facebook to read all text messages sent—apparently permission is given when the app is downloaded (but who reads all that fine print?).

The question isn’t whether companies should listen to poten- tial customers or analyze their likes and dislikes to better meet customer needs and tweak their advertising campaigns; the question is should companies collect data without the knowledge or consent of users?

DILEMMAS IN COMMUNICATION

CHAPTER 13 PERSUASIVE PRESENTATIONS: INDIVIDUAL OR TEAM 405

or uncertainty. The researchers found that a speaker with low credibility “generated greater interest and influ- ence by expressing certainty” –since the audience expected uncertainty but received certainty, expectancy viola- tion or incongruity was created. At the same time, a speaker with high cred- ibility “generated greater interest and influence by expressing uncertainty” – since the audience expected certainty but heard uncertainty, incongruity was also created (p. 1045). As long as the speaker presented quality arguments, it seemed that audiences were more captivated when the unexpected occurred.

A speaker’s credibility seems to be the result of five basic elements: trustwor- thiness, competency, dynamism, objectivity, and organizational rank.

Trustworthiness Most listeners determine the credibility of various speak- ers by observing all five elements and averaging them together. When speakers appear untrustworthy, however, their credibility is questioned regardless of their other qualities (Smith, 1973, p. 309). Therefore, trustworthiness (i.e., honesty, fairness, integrity) is the most important of the five elements.

Several factors seem to affect whether listeners perceive speakers as untrustworthy. For example, speakers who avoid eye contact, shift their eyes rapidly from side to side, or always look over the listeners’ heads appear to be self-conscious or have something to hide. These speakers may be judged untrustworthy. Speakers with poor articulation, breathy or nasal voices, or who speak either in a monotone or too rapidly are also perceived as less trustworthy (Addington, 1971). In addition to hav- ing an effective delivery style, speakers can improve their perceived trustworthiness by presenting both sides of an argument and by appearing friendly and likeable (Chaiken, 1986). Hosman (2002) also found that using active instead of passive sentence structure improves the speaker’s believability, al- though the study dealt with print advertisements.

Competency Another major factor of credibility is competency. Listeners are more likely to judge a speaker credible if they perceive the speaker as com- petent (i.e., knowledgeable, experienced, expert) on the topic. However, speakers who use “nonflu- encies” while speaking are often judged as low on competence. Nonfluencies include inaccurate ar- ticulation, vocalized pauses (like “uh,” or “and uh”),

QUESTIONS What do you think? Should there be some restrictions placed on companies and social networking sites who collect user information? Or do you think loss of privacy is the price we pay for the conve- niences of technology? Does the information you read here affect the credibility of the companies mentioned in this dilemma feature? Why or why not?

The late Apple CEO Steve Jobs was known for his personable and dynamic speaking style.

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and unnecessary repetition of words (Burgoon et al., 1990; McCroskey & Young, 1981). In addition to avoiding nonfluencies, you can appear competent by citing personal experiences that relate to the topic, by citing sources the listeners feel are prestigious, by speaking confidently, by using high-quality visual aids, and by wearing more traditional, higher-status clothing (Behling & Williams, 1991).

Dynamism Another important element of credibility is called dynamism. A dynamic speaker is forceful, enthusiastic, and uses good vocal variety (discussed in Chapter 11). Speakers who avoid direct eye contact, are soft-spoken, use very little vocal emphasis, and appear hesitant give the impression that they are uncer- tain about what they are saying (incompetent) or that they are trying to deceive the listeners (untrustworthy). As a result, the listeners are less likely to be persuaded.

At the same time, the dynamic speaker must also remain conversational. Re- searchers found that as speakers move from low to moderate levels of dynamism, they are perceived as more credible (moderately dynamic speakers are still con- sidered conversational). However, as speakers move from moderate to exagger- ated dynamism, they are perceived as less conversational, less trustworthy, and less credible (Pearce & Conklin, 1971). Speakers with more than moderately dynamic deliveries are perceived as unnatural and phony.

Objectivity The fourth element of speaker credibility is objectivity. An ob- jective speaker is one who is open-minded, impartial, and appears to view evi- dence and arguments in an unbiased manner (Smith, 1973; Whitehead, 1968). Speakers usually seem objective when they discuss all viewpoints of the proposal (of course, they must conclude by showing why their arguments are best).

Organizational Rank In business, the formal position or organizational rank of the speaker within the organization is another element of credibility— although perhaps less important than the others. More people would be im- pressed by a presentation given by the company’s president or assistant vice pres- ident than by someone of lower rank. Therefore, “all other things being equal, the higher the organizational status of the speaker, the higher his credibility and the greater the effect upon the audience” (Howell & Bormann, 1979, p. 79).

If the listeners don’t know you and are unaware of your credibility, or if you have low credibility, review the suggestions in the box “To Improve Your Cred- ibility as a Speaker.”

Credibility, Fraud, and the Internet As mentioned previously, when a persuasive message is presented with emotional appeal and fits in with our val- ues, a type of “instant ethos” occurs. In Persuasion and Privacy in Cyberspace, Gurak (1997) notes that this instant ethos causes us to trust the message even when the author is unknown. Similarly, Priester and Petty (1995) found that victims of fraud (especially Internet fraud) give little attention to the substance of the message once they perceive the sender to be honest. Investigations of In- ternet fraud indicate that criminals use the same credibility-based techniques in Internet scams as they do in telephone and door-to-door scams (Rusch, 1999). In his book Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion, Cialdini (2009) discusses

CHAPTER 13 PERSUASIVE PRESENTATIONS: INDIVIDUAL OR TEAM 407

several of these persuasive techniques, which he says produce irresistible “click-whir” responses in most of us:

● Reciprocation: If you give me something, I feel obligated to reciprocate.

● Commitment and consistency: Once I have purchased or committed myself to something, I tend to defend that deci- sion consistently (even if the decision was a poor one).

● Social proof: If other people are doing it or believe it, I am more likely to want to do it or believe it.

● Likability: If I like you (usually because we are alike in one or more ways), I am more likely be influenced by you.

● Authority: I tend to be influenced by people I perceive to have authority.

● Scarcity: When I perceive an item to be scarce, I value it more.

You may also recognize some of these techniques from mes- sages and ads you have received in the mail and over the Internet.

Psychological Needs of the Listeners To be successful at persuasive speaking, you need more than cred- ibility and logically organized evidence based on reliable sources; you also must adapt your arguments to the pathos or psycholog- ical needs of your listeners (Harris, 1993). In fact, your audience may choose not to believe your evidence no matter how good it is. For example, have you ever had a disagreement with someone when you knew your arguments and evidence were correct, but the person would only say, “I don’t care. I don’t believe it”? As persuasive speakers, we need to remember that it isn’t evi- dence unless the audience thinks it’s evidence.

If you can get your audi- ence to relate personally to your evidence—to decide that your topic is important to them and their specific needs—they are more likely to consider your evidence persuasive. The importance of relating to personal needs is illustrated by the following example:

An excellent vice president had decided to retire early, much to the disbelief of his coworkers. All kinds of inducements (such as a substantial salary in- crease, more office help, and a new car) were offered to convince him to stay with the company. When inducements didn’t work, his colleagues pointed out how much he was needed. Nothing was successful. On his last day with the company, he was having lunch in the executive dining room with the president and two other executives. The president began to discuss a completely new and risky project that the company was contemplating. Almost in jest, the president

To Improve Your Credibility as a Speaker… Have a highly credible expert on the

topic (or someone of higher rank) in- troduce you and establish you as a competent and trustworthy speaker.

Support your assertions with up-to- date, carefully documented evidence and sources considered credible to your listeners.

Identify your views with those of a re- spected person or institution.

Present both sides of an issue to show your willingness to be fair and honest.

Present your ideas in a smooth, force- ful, and self-assured manner, while maintaining good eye contact.

Establish a common ground with your listeners by identifying beliefs, organi- zations, or problems you share.

Recognize (in content and delivery) the formal status and knowledge of your listeners.

Revisiting the Case Study... When evaluating Cooke, do you think the Washington Post experienced the “instant ethos” or “click-whir” response discussed in this chapter? If so, why?

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408 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

suggested that the vice president stay and head the new project. He accepted! None of the other appeals had related to his personal need for achievement. The challenge presented by the new project was something he could not resist.

Hierarchy of Needs Discovering your listeners’ basic needs and motives is an essential part of audience analysis. As far back as 1954, psychologist Abraham Maslow believed that all people have the same basic categories of needs or drives, which are shown in Figure 13.2. Think of the hierarchy of needs as the rungs of a ladder. Although people may be motivated by several levels at one time, generally a lower rung must be satisfied before the next rung becomes important. As each goal is fulfilled, it is replaced with another. Let’s look at each of these basic needs (Maslow, 1954), as well as, our feelings when each need is not fulfilled (Lefton et al., 1980):

● Physiological needs: Food, shelter, clothing, air, water, sleep, and sexual attraction. If unfulfilled, we may experience pain, physical discomfort, or illness.

● Safety needs: A job and financial security; law and order; protection from injury, poor health, or harm; and freedom from fear. If unfulfilled, we may experience tension, anxiety, fear, or panic.

● Social needs: Love, companionship, friendship, and a feeling of belonging to one or more groups. If unfulfilled, we may experience loneliness, boredom, low self-image, or feelings of being unloved or unlovable.

● Esteem needs: Pride, recognition from others, status and prestige, and self- recognition. If unfulfilled, we may experience loss of confidence, low self- image, or self-doubt.

● Self-actualization needs: Becoming the best person one can—developing to one’s fullest capabilities and achieving worthwhile goals. If unfulfilled, we may experience feelings of futility, alienation, or bitterness.

When using emotional appeal, keep in mind that listeners appear to be “more motivated by the thought of losing something than by the thought of gaining something” (Dillard & Pfau, 2002, p. 520). Therefore, when messages are framed to stress potential losses that may occur if certain action is not taken, persuasion

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Social needs

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Figure 13.2 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

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is enhanced. Loss framing is especially effective in situations involving risk and uncertainty (De Dreu & McCusker, 1997; Tversky & Kahneman, 1981).

Audience Involvement According to Josh Gordon, author of Presentations That Change Minds (2006), one of the best and most persuasive ways to relate to audience needs is by getting the audience involved: “Audience involvement means your audience is actively comparing what you are sharing with what they already know, evaluating it, raising concerns, and participating in a dialogue” (p. 4). If you can get your audience actively involved in your presentation, your chance of persuading them is greater. Several successful ways to encourage audi- ence involvement are suggested by Gordon (pp. 4–12):

● Relevancy: Look at the topic from your audience’s viewpoint; what are their problems and what do they want to know. Get them excited and involved right from the start. Show the relevancy of your topic to their needs.

● Fun and activities: Audiences generally expect most meetings and speeches to be dull and boring. Get them involved by doing something fun and un- expected like completing famous quotations or identifying lines from songs where the activity leads into a key point of the speech (Smith, 2004).

● Commonality and emotion: Share something you have in common with the audience and do it with emotion. Don’t be afraid to show your passion for the topic as you relate it to something that you and the audience both have—same problem, children, pet peeve, or desire to make the world a healthier place.

● Graphics and charts: Don’t just use charts and graphs to show facts; use them as involvement-starters by showing “relationships or contrast between fea- tures, competitors, or issues” (Gordon, 2006, p. 9). Ask audience members if the slide is what they expected or if it agrees with their experience and watch the interest and involvement grow.

Identifying Basic Needs

To check your knowledge of Maslow’s Basic Needs, take the following quiz and compare your answers to those at the back of this book. You can also complete this activity online. Go to cengagebrain.com to access your Speech Communication CourseMate for Communicating for Results.

DIRECTIONS: Read the following persuasive statements and identify which of the following basic needs each statement is appealing to (A) Physiological, (B) Safety, (C) Social, (D) Esteem, or (E) Self-actualization.

________ 1. Exercise regularly for a sexier, slimmer you.

________ 2. It may seem like graduation is a long way off, but anything worth having is worth waiting and working for.

________ 3. Unless we take a leadership role in this international crisis, the United States will be viewed as ineffective and weak.

________ 4. Let your children know how you feel about them. Send them off to school each day with a nourishing, hot breakfast.

________ 5. Don’t study just to pass this class or seminar; study so you can uncap your business potential.

________ 6. Aren’t you tired of being a prisoner in your own home each holiday because of the drunks out on the road? Wouldn’t you like to take a car trip this year without worrying about possible consequences to your family?

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These are only a few of the ways to get audience involvement; what other ways do you think would work? The key is to get to know your audience ahead of time and approach your topic from their viewpoint. Once they are involved in your topic, they will be more attentive, enjoy your presentation more, and likely be more persuaded.

Opinions of Key Listeners In almost every group, there is a key person (or persons) whom others look to for advice. To persuade the group, you must first persuade these key people, or opinion leaders.

● Opinion leaders tend to have slightly more formal education and a higher social status than the people to whom they give advice. Therefore, they serve as models to the others in their group.

● Opinion leaders are usually more knowledgeable than others in those areas about which people seek their opinions.

● Opinion leaders are more likely to converse with others.

If you are speaking within the organization, it should be fairly easy to dis- cover who the key people are and what their opinions are likely to be. Direct your arguments toward these people.

Smucker’s “Sweet “ Approach Works with Employees What is it about J. M. Smucker—the company known for its jams and jellies—that earned it the prestigious honor of Number 1 best company to work for in 2004 (Boorstin, 2004) and Number 8 best company in 2006 (Geoff, 2006)? It may be in part because of its positive motivational philosophy: “Listen with your full attention, look for the good in others, have a sense of humor, and say thank you for a job well done” (Boorstin, 2004, para. 2). The company celebrates and moti- vates its employees with special gifts, food, and holiday events (Williams, 2007, p. 15). “They’re always willing to sit down and listen to you,” says Bob Jones, a line worker with the company for over 44 years (Wagner, 2002, para. 5). Due in part to this “culture and management style as straightforward and likable as strawberry jam” (Boorstin, 2004, para. 2), Tim and Richard Smucker—known as “the boys” (Boorstin, 2004, para. 2)—have earned a place of respect for the Smucker’s corporation.

Not only does their quiet, unassuming manner influence employees, but it also influences the small community of Orrville, Ohio—their headquarters for 107 years. On their website, Tim and Richard stress that Smucker’s will “main- tain an environment that encourages personal responsibility

within the Company and the community” (“Join our company,” n.d., para. 2). It’s not surprising that Smucker’s is involved with Orrville’s schools, the library (which is “progressive,” says the director), and many local businesses (Wagner, 2002, para. 7). “This is the best place I’ve ever lived,” says an employee of a metal products manufacturer in Orrville. The teamwork that exists within the company “has shaped the relationship the company has with Orrville and the town’s working-class residents” (Wagner, p. 6).

WHAT DO YOU THINK? How do you think the nonassuming method of influence

used by Smucker’s, with their company of less than 3,000 employees, would have to change if the company grew in size to 100,000 or more employees?

Based on the organizational models discussed in Chapter 2, which type of organization best describes Smucker’s?

When trying to persuade employees or community members to accept an unexpected change in procedure, which persuasive factor would work the best: evidence and logic, credibility, psychological needs, or key lis- tener opinions? Why do you feel this way?

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PERSUASIVE PRESENTATIONS: PREPARATION STEPS If you follow the steps described here, you will be able to prepare successful persuasive presentations.

Step 1: Analyze Your Expected Listeners and Their Needs In general, you should obtain the same information about your listeners as you would when preparing an informative presenta- tion. In addition, you need to identify the opinion leaders and plan your presentation for them.

To be persuasive, you must show how your proposal will help fulfill one or more of your listeners’ needs. Previously, we com- pared Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to a ladder with rungs. Begin with the lowest needs that relate to your topic, and relate your pro- posal to those needs (Figure 13.3). For example, if your listeners were concerned with job security and were worried about having enough money to pay their bills, appealing to their desire for self- actualization or their sense of pride would probably be an ineffec- tive way to motivate them to work harder. You would likely have more success if you explained how increased productivity would not only help secure their jobs in the department but would also get them raises at their next evaluation. The relationship between listener needs and persuasion is very strong. Don’t underestimate it.

Step 2: Write Your Exact Purpose as a Position Statement Although you probably had your topic in mind before analyzing your listen- ers and their needs (see Figure 13.4 for sample topics), you will need to adapt

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Esteem needs

Social needs

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Listeners’ concern

Successful approach

Unsuccessful approach

Figure 13.3 Relating listeners’ needs to a successful persuasive approach

Preparation Steps for Persuasive Presentations 1. Analyze your expected listeners and

their needs. 2. Write your exact purpose as a position

statement. 3. Determine your initial credibility and

plan to increase it if necessary. 4. Research your topic, and choose the

best method for presenting evidence to this audience.

5. Decide how to organize your presen- tation for the best effect.

6. Prepare an outline or storyboards to check verbal and visual supports, in- troduction, and conclusion.

7. Review your presentation to ensure it is ethical.

8. Practice your presentation using your visual aids.

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412 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

it to them specifically. Begin by determining exactly what reaction you hope to elicit from your listeners. Are you hoping to reinforce a current belief or in- spire agreement (a presentation to convince) or to request some specific action (a presentation to actuate)? Now write your exact purpose in the form of a po- sition statement—a simple sentence that states exactly how you feel about the issue you have chosen. A sample position statement for a presentation to actuate might be “Everyone should take an active role in seeing that cigarette advertising is banned from all sports events.” Note that persuasive position statements are different from informative purpose statements.

Step 3: Determine Your Initial Credibility and Plan to Increase It If Necessary If your listeners have met you previously, have heard about you, or have heard about your department or company, you already have some credibility with them. If this initial credibility is positive, it will add to your persuasiveness; if it is negative, you will need to supplement your initial credibility in one or more of the ways suggested previously in this chapter.

One study has shown that 25 to 75% of the customers of small businesses younger than 10 years old come from referrals (Stephenson, 1984). Obviously, for such businesses, employee credibility and company credibility are important to sales, both at the time of presentation and after. A salesperson can continue bolstering personal and company credibility even after a sale:

A telephone call to find out how it’s going is worth it; a follow-up session to check on progress; advertising to reassure customers that the purchase was a good one; follow-up mailing of thank you [notes]; feedback questions; news- letters to users; free information on related ideas/products/ services; are all statements of “We care.” (Stephenson, 1984, p. 31)

In a popular book, You’ve Got to Be Believed to Be Heard, Decker (2008) advises that speaking involves more than transferring information and data; it involves making

Air pollution—Still a concern?

Avoiding terrorism in the workplace

Business role in helping the homeless

Cleanliness and health care workers

College degree: Needed for employees?

Company fitness programs

Company responsibility for child care

Dealing with difficult people in the workplace

Discrimination in the workplace

Effect of casual dress on job performance

Employee responsibility for volunteer work

Ethical behavior in the workplace

Even small businesses should have a website

Hiring the disabled

How to solve [select a topic]

Hybrid automobiles and the environment

Importance of funding space exploration

Improving employee social skills

Loss of ice cap: Who’s responsible?

Managing diversity

Managing employee stress

Mandatory drug testing

Need for work unions

Organic fruits & vegetables improve health

Regulation of employee use of email

Salary cap for top-level executives

Sexual harassment in the workplace

Using Twitter to advertise

Why [select a product] software is best

Figure 13.4 Sample topics for persuasive presentations

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an “emotional connection with your listeners” (p. 32). According to Decker, a basic communication fact is that people “buy on emo- tion and justify with fact” (p. 36). So, if you want them to believe and like you, you have to use emotion to make an impact on them. Once you’ve made emotional contact with your audience (as do people like Charles Swab, Oprah Winfrey, and Barack Obama), once they trust and like you, then—and only then—will they really hear you.

Step 4: Research Your Topic and Choose the Best Method for Presenting Evidence to This Audience Review the methods for presenting evidence discussed previously in this chapter. Suggestions for effective research are covered in Chapter 11. Don’t forget to use a variety of supporting materials (described in Chapter 12) to clarify and add interest, as well as to support your arguments.

Step 5: Decide How to Organize Your Presentation for the Best Effect To organize the main points in the body of their presentation, persuasive speak- ers select from six main patterns: claim or reasons pattern (inductive and deduc- tive), causal pattern, problem–solution pattern, criteria satisfaction, compara- tive advantages pattern, and motivated sequence (see Figure 13.5).

President Barack Obama makes emotional contact with listeners when he speaks.

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Claim #1I.

Claim #2II.

Claim #3III.

Reason #1I.

Reason #2II.

Reason #3III.

CauseI.

EffectII.

SolutionIII.

CauseI.

EffectII.

ActionIII.

Claim/Reasons Causal

Persuasive Patterns

ProblemI.

SolutionII.

BenefitsIII.

ProblemI.

SolutionII.

ActionIII.

Present ideal criteriaI.

Show how plan meets criteriaII.

Add additional benefits (optional)III.

Problem–Solution Criteria Satisfaction

Current plan ineffectiveI.

New plan superiorII.

AttentionI.

NeedII.

SatisfactionIII.

Current plan is averageI.

New plan is betterII.

VisualizationIV.

ActionV.

Comparative Advantages Motivated Sequence

Figure 13.5 Organizational patterns for persuasive presentations

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414 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Claim/Reasons Pattern In the claim/reasons pattern—so called because the speaker “claims” or “give reasons for” certain propositions or benefits—the problem is reviewed in the introduction step and the reasons for believing a partic- ular fact, for holding a particular value, or for advocating a particular plan are pre- sented in the body of the presentation. Although the claim pattern is similar to the topical arrangement used in informative presentations, the language is definitely persuasive. The claim pattern often orders the points according to inductive or de- ductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning involves presenting the specific evidence first, then building up to the general conclusion; deductive reasoning involves presenting the position or general conclusion first, then providing the support- ing evidence. For example, a speech advocating prison reform before a potentially hostile audience might use the following inductive claim pattern (Bidinotto, 1994):

I. Prison spending costs society over $20 billion each year.

[claim 1: specific evidence]

II. Much of this expense goes to provide recreational equipment and services that even many taxpayers can’t afford.

[claim 2: specific evidence]

III. In addition, civil lawsuits filed by in- mates are clogging federal and state courts.

[claim 3: specific evidence]

IV. It’s time to end the resort status of U.S. prisons.

[claim 4: general conclusion]

Causal Pattern The causal pattern in persuasive presentations uses cause-effect reasoning that is followed by either a solution or an action step (see Figure 13.5). Because you are using cause-effect reasoning to prove your point, it’s important that the cause-effect relationship you are presenting is real and not just a coincidence. The causal organization pattern was used by Jeff Davidson in his speech titled “Over- worked Americans or Overwhelmed Americans? You Cannot Handle Everything” (Davidson, 1993):

I. The overwhelmed, pressured feeling that Americans have is caused by the complexity of our society.

[cause]

A. Population growth B. Expanding volume of knowledge C. Mass media and electronic growth D. Paper trail culture E. Overabundance of choices II. As complexity increases, these pressured feelings will

turn into feelings of overwork and total exhaustion. [effect]

III. It’s not too late to take control of your life. [action] A. Make choices in what to ignore. B. Avoid engaging in low-level decisions. C. Learn to enjoy yourself.

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Problem–Solution Pattern The problem–solution pattern can take a variety of forms. The two most popular forms are the problem–solution–benefits and the problem–solution–action patterns. Both patterns begin with a detailed discussion of the problem, its seriousness, and its effect on the audience. Next, a solution (or solutions) is presented to solve or improve the problem. Finally, additional benefits that result from your solution are described, or a particular course of action is recommended to the audience. Nevin S. Scrimshaw (1991) used a problem–solution–benefit pattern in his speech titled “The Consequences of Hidden Hunger”:

I. The magnitude and consequences of hidden hunger still devastate a large proportion of the world’s population.

[problem]

II. Hunger can be abolished as a public health problem in the world if we are willing to take the required actions.

[solution]

III. Conquering hunger will release human potential for creating better societies.

[benefits]

A seminar participant’s speech on drunk drivers used a problem–solution– action pattern of organization:

I. The high number of auto/alcohol-related accidents in- dicates a serious problem.

[problem]

A. Nationally, 2 of 5 involved in auto-alcohol accidents. B. Nationally, 17,000 killed in auto-alcohol accidents. C. In our state, 1,800 killed in auto-alcohol accidents. II. There are several workable solutions to the DWI

problem. [solutions]

A. Year-round sobriety checkpoints B. Legal blood-alcohol level lowered from 0.1 to 0.08 C. Stronger penalties for drunk driving III. Action must be taken now. [action] A. “Lights-on-for-life” promotion B. Letter to state legislators.

Comparative Advantages Pattern The comparative advantages pat- tern of organization is normally used when your audience already agrees with you on the problem but may not agree on the solution. Only a brief men- tion of the problem is needed during the speech introduction. The compara- tive advantages pattern concentrates on the advantages of one course of ac- tion over another. Usually, you will want to show that one course of action is greatly inferior to your more desirable plan for a number of reasons. Or it is possible that the current plan is okay, but it just doesn’t have the advantages of your plan.

416 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

In his speech on “Aid to Russia,” Lawrence M. Lesser (1993) used the com- parative advantages pattern:

I. The current method of giving aid to Russia in the form of cash grants, loans, and credit guarantees isn’t working.

[current plan ineffective]

A. Russia is in default on $600 million of interest payments on $4.2 billion of U.S. agricultural credit guarantees used to purchase U.S. grain.

B. Russia has failed to pay $200 million in debts it owes to 57 U.S. companies.

C. Russia has defaulted on payments on the $4.5 billion it borrowed from in- ternational lenders, forcing the U.S. to pay $180 million in loan loss claims.

II. Bartering, a concept Russia is very fa- miliar with, is a much better way of pro- viding aid to Russia.

[new plan superior]

Criteria Satisfaction Pattern Whether you are dealing with products, services, or ideas, the criteria satisfaction pattern is a successful tool that works well even when audience members oppose your position. First, you establish criteria (guidelines or rules) that should be followed when evaluating possible plans or solutions (“We all want our managers to be knowledgeable and fair”). Second, you show how your plan meets or exceeds the established criteria (e.g., “Not only is Manager X knowledgeable and fair, but she is also a dynamic speak- er”). Of course, it’s important to carefully consider your audience’s values and needs when selecting and explaining why your criteria are important. If you can get your audience to agree with your criteria, the chances are good that they will also agree with your plan.

Using the criteria satisfaction pattern, Farah Walters, president and chief executive officer of University Hospitals of Cleveland and a member of the Na- tional Health Care Reform Task Force, gave a speech called “If It’s Broke, Fix It: The Significance of Health Care Reform in America” (Walters, 1993):

I. Any health care plan should be measured against six fundamental principles:

A. Provide security for all Americans. [necessary criteria] B. Provide choice of physician. C. Provide continuity of care. D. Be affordable to the individual, to business,

and to the country. E. Be comprehensive in terms of coverage. F. Be user-friendly for consumers and

providers.

CHAPTER 13 PERSUASIVE PRESENTATIONS: INDIVIDUAL OR TEAM 417

II. The health care plan designed by the National Health Care Reform Task Force meets all six of these fundamental principles.

[plan meets criteria]

The Motivated Sequence The motivated sequence was developed by com- munications professor Alan Monroe more than 50 years ago. It is similar to the problem–solution–action pattern and is especially effective with speeches to ac- tuate an audience to support a particular policy. The motivated sequence involves five steps: attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action (Gronbeck et al., 1994). Let’s take a brief look at each step.

● Attention step: First, grab your listeners’ attention (using any of the methods described in Chapter 11) so that they want to continue listening.

● Need step: Next, direct the audience’s attention to a specific problem that needs to be solved. Describe the problem using credible, logical, and psy- chological appeals (discussed previously in this chapter), and show how the problem relates specifically to your listeners.

● Satisfaction step: In this step, you satisfy the need by presenting a solution to the problem. The following basic framework is suggested: “(a) Briefly state what you propose to do, (b) explain it clearly, (c) show how it rem- edies the problem, (d) demonstrate its workability, and (e) answer objec- tions” (Gronbeck et al., 1994, p. 209). In demonstrating the workability and feasibility of the solution, as well as, answering possible audience objections, be sure to use supporting materials that will support your statements (see Chapter 12).

● Visualization step: After you have presented the solution to your problem, vividly picture the future for your audience, using either positive, nega- tive, or contrast methods. In the positive method, you picture the im- proved future that the audience can expect when your solution is imple- mented. In the negative method, you picture the undesirable conditions that will continue to exist or will develop if your solution is not adopted. The contrast method uses both the positive and negative methods, begin- ning with the negative and ending with the positive. The purpose of this step is to “intensify audience desire or willingness to act—to motivate your listeners to believe, to feel, or to act in a certain way” (Gronbeck et al., 1994, p. 211).

● Action step: Conclude your speech by challenging your audience to take a particular action—you want a personal commitment from them. Say exactly what you want them to do and how they can do it.

Step 6: Prepare an Outline to Polish Verbal and Visual Supports, Introduction, and Conclusion See Figure 13.6 for a persuasive outline format to serve as a guide in organizing your persuasive presentations and the persuasive outline in the Communication Situation at the end of this chapter. Review Chapter 12 for suggestions on sup- porting materials and professional visual aids of all types. Remember to use a

418 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

variety of supports to clarify and keep audience interest. In addition, make sure you use supports that prove, such as statistics, quotations, factual illustrations, and examples. Reread the sections in Chapter 11 on introductions and conclusions.

Although persuasive conclusions have a final summary and memorable end- ing, they also are different in several ways. First, persuasive conclusions must use persuasive language. For example, which of the following conclusions sounds the most persuasive?

● When legislation on sobriety checkpoints comes up for a vote in your coun- ty, think about what I’ve said in making your decision.

● The evidence we’ve looked at today proves without a doubt that the way our state handles drunk drivers is hopelessly out of date and ineffective. Adding one small, affordable change—adding sobriety checkpoints—has

Topic or Title: Position Statement:

INTRODUCTION Attention-getter: Audience motivation: Credibility: Thesis statement: Background of problem or clarification of terms (optional):

BODY (Use with any of the organizational patterns covered in this chapter; below are two of the most common—claim and problem/solution/action) I. Claim I or Problem: A. Subpoint or supporting material 1. Supporting material 2. Supporting material B. Subpoint or supporting material [Transition]

II. Claim II or Solution: A. Subpoint or supporting material B. Subpoint or supporting material 1. Supporting material 2. Supporting material C. Subpoint or supporting material [Transition]

III. Claim III or Action: A. Subpoint or supporting material B. Subpoint or supporting material

CONCLUSION Summary of argument, position, or recommendations Visualization of future (optional) Challenge or appeal for action Closing thought

References: (Books, magazines, newspapers, Web sites, etc.)

Persuasive Outline Format

Figure 13.6 Persuasive outline format

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CHAPTER 13 PERSUASIVE PRESENTATIONS: INDIVIDUAL OR TEAM 419

the potential of saving hundreds of our citizens’ lives each year—especially teenage lives. Join me in voting yes to sobriety checkpoints. It’s time we make our roads safe again.

Second, persuasive speeches have a visualization step that adds one last persuasive push by vividly picturing the future for the audience. The visualization step of the motivated sequence discussed previously explains how to use the positive, negative, or contrast methods in visualizing the fu- ture—the future as it will be if your suggestions are or are not implemented.

Finally, in addition to summarizing your position and visualizing the fu- ture, you should issue a challenge or appeal for action, making your conclusion explicit—meaning that you don’t just imply; you explicitly ask your audience to take a specific action or change a belief as in the sample on sobriety check- points above (O’Keefe, 2002, pp. 216–218). Judith Humphrey in Speaking as a Leader (2012) reminds speakers to always end with a call to action, even if it is not as eloquent or as memorable as Kennedy’s conclusion to his 1961 inau- gural address):

In your hands, my fellow citizens, more than mine, will rest the final success or failure of our course. . . . The energy, the faith, the devotion which we bring to this endeavor will light our country and all who serve it—and the glow from that fire can truly light the world. And so, my fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country (p. 113).

Step 7: Review Your Presentation to Ensure It Is Ethical Ethical problems are more likely to occur in persuasive rather than informative situations. Speakers may be led into unethical behavior when they are deciding which emotional and logical appeals to use and how to establish speaker credibility. In Chapter 1, we defined ethics as “the moral principles that guide our judgments about the good and bad, right and wrong, of communication” (Shockley-Zalabak, 2012). It is not always easy to see the rightness and wrongness of communication. Does the end ever justify the means? How about the following:

● A passenger who talks a hijacker into giving up his gun by telling the hijacker lies.

● A union leader who gets union members to vote a certain way by making up statistics.

● An advertising promoter who doubles previous sales by making false promises about a certain product.

● A student who invents the evidence used in his speech because he has no time for research because of a family illness.

● Parents who greatly exaggerate a problem to convince their child not to participate in a highly dangerous activity.

What if any of the listeners in the preceding examples found out they had been lied to? Should the possibility of getting caught determine a speaker’s ethical standards? Although we can’t deny that ethics may depend at times on the situation, real persuasion does not involve manipulation, trickery, coercion,

NOTE You can use Speech Builder

Express to help you create your introduction and conclusion. Select “Introduction” and “Conclusion” from the left-hand menu and follow the instructions. For short reminders from this chapter about introduc- tions and conclusions, click on the “Tutor” button.

420 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

or force. In persuasion, the individual’s right to decide cannot be prevented. According to Joseph DeVito (2008, p. 112), communicators are ethical “to the extent that they facilitate a person’s freedom of choice by presenting the person with accurate information.” On the other hand, DeVito says that: “Communicators are unethical to the extent that they interfere with people’s freedom of choice by preventing them from securing information relevant to the choices they will make.” With this definition, speakers who lie or twist evidence, or use extreme emotional or fear–threat appeals, would be considered unethical regardless of the rightness or goodness of their purpose.

Because speakers have a great deal of influence on their audiences, they also have a great deal of responsibility to their audiences.

Step 8: Practice Your Presentation to Gain Confidence Work for a dynamic yet conversational delivery. While you practice, videotape your presentation. Practice makes it easier to manage any situational anxiety that may stifle your forcefulness. As you know, a dynamic yet relaxed delivery im- proves your credibility and persuasiveness. Review the suggestions for successful and dynamic delivery in Chapter 11. You can see video clips of sample persua- sive speeches on the CourseMate website for Communicating for Results and in the Communication Situation at the end of this chapter.

TEAM PRESENTATIONS In some organizations, team presentations by two or more people are more common than individual presentations. The team presentations given by IBM, for example, are well known in the industry. Team presentations are more common in larger organizations, where the budgets are large and the stakes are high—for example, a manufacturing team bidding on a building contract, or a cable TV company asking for a city franchise. Team presentations can also be successful with only two or three speakers and a limited budget—for example, a team of insurance salespeople explaining a policy to a client or two partners attempting to get a bank loan to start a small business.

Team presentations have the obvious advantages of shared responsibility, more expertise during the presentation and the question–answer period, and an impressive appearance. But team presentations are difficult to coordinate, time- consuming, and fairly expensive—planning is the key to successful presentations.

Effective Team Presentations Successful team presentations have three characteristics (Leech, 2004):

● Well-organized, well-supported, smooth-flowing content. ● Creative, professional, and well-used visual aids. ● Smooth, polished, and dynamic team performance.

Types of Team Presentations There are several different formats to choose from when giving your team presentation, such as a panel, problem-solving

CHAPTER 13 PERSUASIVE PRESENTATIONS: INDIVIDUAL OR TEAM 421

panel, symposium, problem-solving symposium–panel, and forum: ● The panel is a small group of well-informed individuals discussing a problem,

current situation, or topic of interest in front of a larger group or recorded for later media use. All panel members contribute freely and equally and are usually guided through the discussion by a moderator or chairperson who is not afraid to take control if needed. A panel is a good way to introduce a wide variety of opinions to an audience unfamiliar with the topic. Make sure that the group is seated in a semi-circle so the audience can see all group members.

● A problem-solving panel is similar to the panel except that the group fol- lows the basic problem-solving procedure discussed in Chapter 9 to discuss a topic of interest to the audience. Members have researched the topic and prepared by individually working through all steps as they would in a private, roundtable discussion. All brainstorming of criteria or solutions is done on a white board so the audience can follow along. A moderator is probably not needed, but would be handy to make sure that the group is sticking to a pre- determined time limit for each step and completing the discussion on time.

● The symposium is composed of a small group of experts, also in front of a larger group. Instead of the free exchange of ideas found in panel discus- sions, each member of a symposium gives a formal, 5- to 10-minute pre- sentation on an aspect of the problem relating to the member’s expertise. You will want to select a chairperson, who will usually give an introduction and conclusion to the symposium and will introduce each presenter prior to speaking. Speakers should stand in an appointed spot (perhaps using a speaker stand) where they can be easily seen but not block audience view of any visual aids. Symposiums are usually intended to educate and/or per- suade the audience and typically end with a question-and-answer session, or the audience may be invited to enter the discussion if the audience is fairly small. After the Q&A or discussion, the chairperson will need to refocus the audience back to the purpose of the symposium and give a memorable conclusion (see Chapter 11 for conclusion specifics).

● The problem-solving symposium–panel is similar to the symposium ex- cept that after the formal 5- to 10-minute presentations, which would be step 2 (researching the problem), the group completes the remaining steps in the basic problem-solving procedure in a forum discussion.

● When audience members are allowed to participate following a panel or symposium, the discussion is called a forum. Thus, both a panel-forum and a symposium-forum are possible. A forum may involve a simple question- and-answer period, a general discussion, or organized groups called “buzz groups.” All of these require preparation if you want them to run smoothly. Suggestions for handling the Q&A, open discussion, or buzz group sessions are covered later in this chapter. If you know a forum will follow a panel or symposium, be sure to let the audience know up front so they can write down questions they may wish to ask.

Content Team presentations can be either informative or persuasive and should follow the basic steps discussed in Chapters 11 and earlier in this chapter. In the initial organization stage, you might benefit by having members write

422 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

their ideas on sticky notes—one idea per note (“Rules for Team Presentations,” 2004). Use the wall or tabletop to organize the notes, moving them around until a basic outline is formed.

Later, each presenter can prepare storyboards of their part of the presentation—again, tape each person’s storyboards to the wall for ease of view- ing by other members. While you read them, imagine that you are an audience member. Is each presentation completely clear? Are the main points obvious? Would you doubt any of the main points? What additional information or visual aids would ease those doubts? Does each member’s presentation flow smoothly into the next? Finding and correcting problems early in the planning process is very important. Otherwise, you may be forced to make last-minute changes re- quiring new visuals. Then, instead of a relaxed dry-run of the entire presentation, you’ll have a tense, frantic session.

Storyboards are informal planning tools that each team member can use to visually rough out their individual presentation and to plan for PowerPoint slides they will need for the presentation. Take a sheet of paper and divide it into four to nine squares; each square is a storyboard. When you first begin planning, think of each square as a PowerPoint slide. The first square could include your title and a list of your probable main points. The second square could include your first main point, supporting reasons (e.g., a list or pie chart), and a brief sketch of a possible visual aid. Continue until your presentation is complete. Add a transition under each square to make sure the presentation will flow smoothly. Bring copies of your storyboards to your planning meeting or plan to tape your storyboards to the wall along with those of other group members.

Visual Aids Visual aids should be consistent in appearance throughout the presentation. If one member has professional-looking computer visu- als with photo and another has bright-colored backgrounds with clipart, the overall impact is diminished. We suggest that all the team’s final visu- als be prepared by one group member or by the graphic arts department in your organization. If individuals are responsible for their own visual aids, decide early on such things as font style, size, and color for titles and text; background color or template; and style of graphics. Your storyboard will be very helpful at this point. Review Chapter 12 for specific suggestions on preparing effective visual aids.

Team members should practice using their visual aids in front of at least one other team member, who can offer suggestions if needed. Awkward handling of visuals can ruin the effect of a well-organized presentation.

You can estimate the length of the team presentation by the number of visuals you plan to use. Most people spend 1 to 2 minutes per visual. If your individual presentations will last between 5 and 10 minutes, four to six visu- als per speaker should be plenty. Stay within the time prearranged with your audience.

Performance A polished and dynamic team performance requires prac- tice, revision, and more practice. Each member should practice alone or with a partner, and then the team should have one or more dry runs of the entire

CHAPTER 13 PERSUASIVE PRESENTATIONS: INDIVIDUAL OR TEAM 423

presentation. Videotape each practice session if possible and view them, looking for areas needing revision.

One team member needs to be the coordinator/leader—preferably a mem- ber with past team experience, speaking experience, and leadership abilities. Marjorie Brody (2003) recommends that a team leader should be a “subject mat- ter expert.” An effective team leader also must be objective in critiquing and di- recting the presenters. During the actual presentation, the coordinator presents the introduction and conclusion, introduces members, provides transitions if members fail to do so, and directs the question-and-answer session.

Q&A and Open Discussions If you decide to have a forum with a question- and-answer session or open discussion, plan ahead how you will handle it. An- ticipate possible questions and determine who has the most expertise to answer specific topic areas. In addition, the leader should:

● Mention in the introduction that there will be a brief question-and-answer period or discussion at the end of the presentation and ask audience mem- bers to jot down questions during the presentation. Then, at the end of the presentation, either ask for questions by a show of hands or collect the ques- tions from the audience. Collecting questions allows you to answer several good questions and ignore undesirable ones.

● Rephrase any confusing or negative questions in a clear and positive manner. ● If a question appears irrelevant or will take too long to answer, thank the

audience member for the question and offer to speak personally with him or her after the session.

● Before directing the question to a group member, repeat the question to make sure that everyone heard it.

● If you plan to allow a general group discussion, make sure that you have micro- phones available at various places in the audience. Ask members to come to a microphone when they wish to speak and to wait until they are acknowledged before speaking. Be sure to allow comments from all sides of the audience.

● End the session on time with (a) a final summary of the presentation that refocuses audience attention back to the main ideas or proposals presented by the group and (b) a pleasing, memorable closure.

Buzz Groups A buzz group is a type of forum that allows a large group of people to actively participate, usually following a panel or symposium. Ideally, the chairperson will announce the topic for the audience discussion at the begin- ning of the program, so that people can mentally prepare while they listen. Also, since you will divide people into small groups, it is easier if the audience is already seated at tables—each table becomes a group. The basic process is as follows:

● Small groups are formed (five to seven is best). ● Each group selects a recorder to write the group’s brainstorming ideas on a

flip chart (sheets of paper can be used but are not as easily seen). ● Depending on the question, give the groups 5 to 10 minutes to brainstorm

answers to their question. Notify them when 2 minutes remain so they can discuss and narrow their list and select their top three answers.

424 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

● When time is up, you can thank the audience for their participation and ask them to bring their flip chart to the front of the room, telling them when and where the complete list will be posted for viewing. Or you can pass a microphone around and ask each recorder to orally present their top three items to the entire audience. Usually there will be applause. Or you can have each recorder write their group’s top three items using a sharp-point marker on a sheet of paper you provided on the table. Collect these papers and then project each group’s paper using a document camera to a large screen at the front of the room. The variations on using buzz groups is almost unlimited. Just be sure that you monitor the time carefully and thank your participants when finished.

We hope we have not only convinced you that speaking skills are necessary for successful business and professional people, but also have included enough specific information in this chapter to enable you to prepare an effective per- suasive presentation. Speaking skill is not learned overnight, it takes practice. Rather than trying to avoid assignments, volunteer for them if you are serious about improving your speaking skills. With careful planning and practice, you can become a successful speaker.

COMMUNICATION SITUATION Student Persuasive Presentation—We Must Save NASA! by Joe Church Joe delivered his persuasive presentation to his basic communication class. The assignment was to prepare a 5- to 7-minute persuasive presentation about a topic of his choosing. Visual aids were optional—Joe used five Pow-

erPoint slides, which are included on his outline below; mini- mal notes were allowed. As you read this presentation, think about changes you would make if you were speaking about the same topic. Pay special attention to his introduction and con- clusion and persuasive organization. How well did he imple- ment the persuasive guidelines in this chapter? You can go to the CourseMate website for Communicating for Results to watch a video clip of this Communication Situation, critique the presentation, and if requested, email your responses to your instructor.

There are many other sample persuasive presentations included on the CourseMate website, including: “Endo- metriosis: Possible Cause Will Surprise You” by Rebecca

DeCamp (see her speech outline in Chapter 14 and see it also as a persuasive report).

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CHAPTER 13 PERSUASIVE PRESENTATIONS: INDIVIDUAL OR TEAM 425

We Must Save NASA!

General Purpose: To persuade Specific Purpose: After hearing my presentation, the audience will understand both the costs and spinoff benefits of NASA and why it is essential that the United Stated save NASA and our space programs.

Introduction

I. Attention-Getter: I’d like a show of hands: How many of you have used or know someone who has used one or more of the following?

● A GPS system or in-car naviga- tion system?

● Satellite television or radio, like Dish, DirecTV, or Sirius?

● Used weather.com or intellicast to view satellite maps of storms?

● A cordless, battery-powered tool, like a drill or Dustbuster?

● Have had a CAT scan or kidney dialysis, or had your temperature taken with the thermometer they stick in your ear?

Most of you raised your hands for at least one of these, but if it weren’t for NASA, these things might not exist today.

II. Credibility: I’ve been a space enthusiast for as long as I can remember. I can remember watching the Apollo 15 lift-off in my second grade class- room and building a scale model of SkyLab for my 4th grade science fair. I have also been an avid reader of science fiction and science fact for most of my life.

III. Motivation: The current administration is gutting NASA: they are killing most of the major programs to reduce the federal budget, which is short- sighted and must be stopped. The benefits provided by NASA extend be- yond space and impact all of us, which is why we must lobby Congress to save NASA.

IV. Thesis Statement: Today I am going to talk a little bit about what NASA costs and the jobs it provides, but more importantly I am going provide some examples of how we all have benefited from this investment over the last 50 years, and convince you why NASA must be saved.

Transition: The first thing you need to understand is what it costs to run NASA.

BODY

I. According to the Budget of the United States Government, Fiscal Year 2010, the 2010 federal budget was 3.4 billion dollars. That’s a huge number!

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426 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

A. NASA’s budget for 2010 was 18.7 billion dollars. I know that sounds like a lot, but you need to put it in perspective:

B. NASA’s budget was only one half of one percent of the total Federal budget

C. It cost each of us 17 cents a day, or $61 a year - that’s less than most of us spent on soft drinks or iTunes music downloads!

D. Since NASA’s inception in 1958, the average cost per person has been only 9 cents per day

E. To put it in perspective, the US De- partment of Agriculture spent over $10B in 2010 for farm subsidies alone, and most of that went to large corporations, not poor farmers.

F. Some people say that this money would be better suited for education; the problem with this approach is that the States fund education, not the Federal government. Cutting NASA’s budget will not put more money into our classrooms.

G. This funding supports the space shuttle, the replacement for the shuttle, the International Space Station, the Hubbell and Chandra space tele- scopes, the various probes, as well as extensive research & development.

Transition: More important than the programs, though, is that NASA pro- vides jobs for Americans.

II. NASA is a huge employer: A. The first thing to remember is that

NASA only hires US Citizens. B. According to NASA’s Workforce

Profile, 2 billion dollars of that budget provides payroll for 19,000 employees.

C. NASA also employs around 7,000 contractors, which puts another billion dollars in Amer- ican households.

D. That’s over 25,000 jobs for Americans!

E. Unfortunately, retiring the shut- tle program will eliminate jobs. Lydia Leavitt’s article in TG Daily states that government contractors will be lying off over 3,000 of their employees.

CHAPTER 13 PERSUASIVE PRESENTATIONS: INDIVIDUAL OR TEAM 427

F. There is no doubt that if the proposed budget cuts go through, more con- tractors and full-time employees will lose their jobs

Transition: More important than the jobs, though, are the scientific advances NASA has brought us over the years, all spawned from the various space pro- grams.

III. NASA provides many spin-offs for US citizens. A. A spin-off is an unintended benefit or unexpected payoff - you are look-

ing for one thing and you find something better, or someone takes what you found and makes it better.

B. Although NASA’s engineers are focused space applications, each of these inventions or ideas have commercial applications

C. The NASA Spinoff Fact Sheet lists a number of key spinoffs, including:

1. Kidney dialysis machines came from research on how to re- move toxic waste in space.

2. CAT scans, or 3D imaging of the body, came from imagery research used for the Viking and Voyager probes to Mars and Jupiter.

3. The Infrared thermometer stuck in your ear at the doctor’s office was developed from technology used to measure the temperature of distant stars.

4. GPS, weather & communica- tions satellites were launched by NASA, using NASA tech- nology.

5. Cordless tools-your Dustbuster and cordless drill came from NASA technology for battery operated tools for use in space.

6. “Space Age” Super insulations used in new homes and appliances for energy efficiency really are “space age.” They were designed for the shuttle and space station.

D. This is just a tiny slice of the benefits and technologies that NASA has provided over the years .

1. I could go on for an hour on recent innovations in medicine, electronics, chemicals and agriculture that all started at NASA.

2. There are so many that NASA publishes an annual newsletter called Spinoffs that lists the latest spinoffs each year.

Transition: The key takeaway is that NASA is much more than rockets and space.

428 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Conclusion

I. General Summary: The technologies NASA has developed have significantly improved our lives over the last 50 years. The administration’s proposed cuts

to NASA programs are shortsighted and must be blocked.

II. Review of main points: Yes, NASA programs cost tax money to run, but the cost is reasonable-we’re only talking 17 cents a day. And when you consider the jobs NASA provides and technological advances generated by NASA’s research and development, the benefits far outweigh the costs.

III. Audience challenge and memorable ending: It is essential that we save NASA and the space programs. I would like to count on each of you to go home this evening and write or e-mail your representatives of Con- gress and tell them that “We must save NASA!” Tell them Joe sent you!

References Budget of the United States Government, Fiscal Year 2010. (2010). US Office

of Management & Budget. Retrieved from http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/search /pagedetails.action?granuleId=BUDGET-2010-BUD-23&packageId =BUDGET-2010-BUD&fromBrowse=true

Workforce Profile. (November 16, 2011). NASA Workforce Profile. Retrieved from http://wicn.nssc.nasa.gov/wicn_cubes.html. [Now available under Ge- neric View, Workforce History, Time Period, Start of FY2010.]

Leavitt, L. (July 23, 2011). NASA braces for massive layoffs. TG Daily. Retrieved from http://www.tgdaily.com/business-and-law-features/57427-nasa-braces- for-massive-layoffs

NASA Spinoff Fact Sheet. (2008, February 24). Kennedy Space Center. Retrieved from http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/news/facts/nasaspinoff.html

KEY TERMS anchors (397) attitudes (397) beliefs (397) boomerang effect (397) buzz group (423) causal pattern (414) central route (397) claim/reasons pattern (414) comparative advantages pattern (415) competency (405) counterpersuasion (400) consistency theories (397) credibility (403) criteria satisfaction pattern (416) deductive reasoning (414) dynamism (406) elaboration likelihood theory (397)

ethos (403) evidence (396) fallacious reasoning (403) forum (421) hierarchy of needs (408) inductive reasoning (414) information-integration theory (397) inoculation theory (402) latitude of acceptance (397) latitude of noncommitment (397) latitude of rejection (397) logic (398) logos (398) motivated sequence (417) objectivity (406) opinion leaders (410) organizational rank (406)

SUMMARY Persuasive presentations are formal or informal presentations designed to influence the audience’s choices. Successful persua- sion depends on the evidence and logic of the message, the cred- ibility of the persuader, the psychological needs of the listeners, and the opinions held by key audience members.

Preparing a persuasive presentation begins with analyzing your listeners and their needs, writing your purpose, and plan- ning ways to increase your credibility, if necessary. Following that,

you must research your topic and decide on the best method of presenting the evidence, decide how to organize your presenta- tion, plan the verbal and visual supports, ensure that your pre- sentation is ethical, and practice the presentation.

Persuasive presentations are sometimes given as a team; such presentations are effective if the team presents well-organized, well-supported content, uses visual aids that are consistent in appearance and unify the overall presentation,

CHAPTER REVIEW13 panel (421) pathos (407) peripheral route (397) persuasion (394) presentation to actuate (395) presentation to convince (395) problem–solution pattern (415) problem-solving panel (421) problem-solving symposium–panel (421) psychological needs (407) social judgment theory (397) storyboards (422) symposium (421) trustworthiness (405) valence (397) values (397) weight (397)

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and practices its performance. Decide whether your team pre- sentation will be organized as a panel, problem-solving panel, symposium, problem-solving symposium–panel, and whether

you will end with a forum, discussion, or Q&A. As always, practice the presentation until it runs smoothly and looks professional.

Street Journal, and several articles on company websites or blogs. Read several articles looking for examples of fallacious reasoning. Find several of each type if possible. When you have located at least two for each type, discuss which type appears to be the most serious. Do you think these examples were de- liberate or done by people unaware of reasoning fallacies?

4. Watch the video for the Communication Situation: We Must Save NASA! and read the outline of the presentation on pages 425–426. In small groups, discuss answers to the following: (1) Take each part of the speech—introduction, body, and

conclusion—and discuss Joe's strengths and weakness- es (include at least two of each).

(2) Which part of Joe's speech stood out as his “shining star”—organization, persuasiveness, or delivery? Why?

(3) Rate each part of the speech on a 5-point scale, where 1 is weak and 5 is amazing. Be prepared to justify your analysis.

5. Career Activity—Using Presenter View: In groups of two to four, select a persuasive speech topic of interest to all members and prepare a mini outline that includes the title, position statement, and main arguments organized into a specific persuasive pattern and complete the following: (1) Select an argument, research carefully, and plan three

methods to support your position: one logical, one ethical, and one emotional.

(2) Prepare 1–3 PowerPoint slides using a graph or photo and minimal words or bullets. Next, go to View, Notes Page and type in notes you might want to see during a presentation. Keep the notes brief and double space be- tween items. Boldface, underlines, and color won't show in presentation view, so use all caps for headings.

(3) Presenter view allows you to see your notes, the audi- ence slides, and a clock on one monitor or laptop while the audience slides appear on a second monitor. Go to Slide Show, Show On: to select the monitors and check the box in front of Use Presenter View. To begin the pre- sentation, press F5.

(4) After practicing, present your arguments using Present- er View to other groups or your class or seminar. Ask for audience feedback.

Before continuing to the next chapter, check your understanding of Chapter 13 at the Speech Communication CourseMate for Com- municating for Results. CourseMate gives you quick and easy ac- cess to this text’s resources to help improve your communication skills and prepare you for quizzes and exams. These resources include: ● Study tools including the student companion workbook,

digital glossary, flashcards, and review quizzes. ● Activities and assignments including Awareness Checks,

Checkpoints, and Collaborative Learning Activities. ● Media resources such as Web Links (explore communica-

For more information or to access this book’s online resources, visit cengagebrain.com.

Collaborative Learning Activities 1. In groups of four to seven, pick a good topic for a persuasive

presentation. Determine the following: (a) a well-worded position statement; (b) the type of organization that would work best with your topic and why; (c) at least two spe- cific ways to create audience involvement with your topic— be creative. Be prepared to share your results with other groups.

2. Career Activity: In small groups, discuss the use of logos and ethos in presenting a persuasive presentation in the workplace. Identify two key pointers for each factor that you think would be the best advice for employees new to the workplace. Be sure to discuss the different ways to cite evidence in a presentation. Would the advice on citing evi- dence given in your text really apply to sales presentations? Why, or why not?

3. Career Activity: In small groups, discuss the types of falla- cious reasoning included in the box on page 403 to make sure everyone is clear on all seven of them. Next, locate several lo- cal newspapers, at least one national newspaper like the Wall

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14 DETERMINE the four functions of effective written communica- tion, and list specifics on writing successful email messages and letters.

DISCUSS guidelines for writing effective resumes including conventional, scannable, email, and web resumes.

PINPOINT guidelines for writing to inform—especially informative outlines and informative reports.

SUMMARIZE guidelines for writing to persuade—especially persuasive outlines and persuasive reports.

As you read chapter 14...

POLISHING YOUR WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

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CASE STUDY

Writing is difficult; writing well is even more difficult. Add a dead- line and stress can cause people to do unethical things like pla- giarize, exaggerate, or fabricate information whether in an email to potential clients, a business report, an oral presentation, or a resume. Throughout this text in our case studies, communication dilemmas, and chapter examples, we have presented business- people who have paid the price for plagiarizing, exaggerating, and fabricating information. In this chapter we will discuss a case that began when a writer was 25 years old and continues to this day—in fact, you will be asked to use your understanding of eth- ics and cast a vote to decide this person’s fate. The information in this case study comes from several articles (Bissinger, 1998; DeKay, 2009; Nocera, 2011; Penenberg, 1998; Shafer, 2003).

When Stephen Glass was 25 years old, he was an up-and- coming journalist who worked for The New Republic and wrote freelance articles for such magazines as George, Harper’s, and Rolling Stone. He started out as intern for The New Republic doing mostly administrative tasks; while there, he got to know most everyone and was liked for his friendliness. Next, he be- came a fact-checker and impressed people with his dedication in finding errors and reporting them. People who knew him liked him and viewed him as a hardworking but insecure person who wanted to please. Even after he began writing, he was critical of his work, causing colleagues and editors to feel protective of him—wanting to help him gain confidence. Although his writing skill may not have been above average when he began writing, his colorful stories and anecdotes were intriguing, and he al- ways seemed to find the perfect person to interview and the most interesting and even shocking facts to report. Glass’s suc- cess grew rapidly so that two and a half years after starting at The New Republic, he was turning out amazing stories.

What no one realized at the time was that Glass was exag- gerating and fabricating some or all of the facts, stories, and interviews he included in his articles—if the real facts weren’t interesting enough, he made up ones that were. Sometimes the entire situation and everyone involved in it were invented by Glass, including company and people names, emails, hand- written notes, websites, phone conversations, phone numbers, and sources interviewed. According to Billinger (1998), Glass even invented fake mistakes for his stories to give the fact- checkers something to find.

Although some complaints about the honesty of Glass’s facts had appeared and been rebuffed by the editor as

Deception: Journalism and the Law

unsubstantiated, it was Forbes Digital Tool searching into an article called “Hack Heaven” that brought the true extent of the fabrications to light. The story dealt with a young comput- er hacker who was supposedly blackmailing a software com- pany called Jukt Micronics by threatening to destroy valuable database information. According to Penenberg (1998), Forbes Digital Tool couldn’t verify a single fact in the story and presented their findings to the editor of The New Republic, Charles Lane. Lane began his own investigation ending in the firing of Glass. At least 27 of the 41 stories written by Glass for The New Republic were found to include substantial or com- plete fabrications. George and Harper’s also found fabricated information in one or more pieces written by Glass.

From 1998 until 2003, when his book The Fabulist was published and he appeared on 60 Minutes, Glass dropped completely out of sight. During that time he was completing a law degree from Georgetown University, undergoing inten- sive psychotherapy, and writing a book about his life, which reportedly earned him a six-figure advance (Shafer, 2003). He fell in love and moved to California, where he passed the bar exam and essentially dropped out of sight again. One lawyer gave Glass a job as a law clerk. In 2010 Glass tried without success to get accepted to the California bar. His case is now before the California State Supreme Court, who should reach a verdict sometime in 2012 or 2013. According

As you read this chapter... Decide whether (a) the California Supreme Court should vote for or against Glass becoming a member of the California Bar, and why; and (b) if the California Supreme Court has already made a deci- sion, decide whether you agree with it and why or why not.

For more details on this sto- ry, Google “Stephen Glass” to read the sources cited in this case study as well as any current articles.

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Effective communicators need to know more than just how to communicate orally; they must also know how to use written communication. Sometimes your first contact with people is through written messages such as email or a letter of application. Therefore, the first impression you make on a person is often written as well (Maggiani, 2012). How impressive are your written messages? If you aren’t sure or already know that your writing needs some improvement, the specif- ic written skills covered in this chapter should help. We will cover email messages, letters, resumes, writing to inform, and writing to persuade. By polishing each of these skills, you will improve your business and professional communication by enriching both the clarity of your writing and the impression you make with it.

Before we look at specifics on each type of written communication, let’s refer to some general information that relates to most all written messages.

EFFECTIVE WRITTEN COMMUNICATION The best written communication performs at least four important functions: it adapts to the audience, makes a good first impression, is effectively organized, and looks professional with proper formatting and typeface.

Adapts to the Audience The key to all communication, whether spoken or written, is to know your au- dience. Therefore, effective written communication adapts to the audience. For example, your language and specific references should differ when writing to a college friend, a business professional, or a retired adult. This means that you will have to do enough research to discover their needs, preferences, and ex- pectations. Once you have a clear picture of your readers, imagine them sitting across from you while you write. When you imagine that you are talking to an actual person as you write, your tone will sound more natural and friendly.

Consider how your audience is likely to react while reading your message: how would you react if you received this same email or letter? Remember that because there are no facial expressions or gestures to accompany a written mes- sage, it is more difficult to interpret it accurately. It’s a good idea to read your message out loud and think of possible misinterpretations, especially if you are angry or disappointed as you write the message. When possible, adapt to your audience by giving them the benefit of the doubt and a way to save face—you never know what impact you may have.

to Nocera (2011), people who have known Glass since his journalism disgrace say that he is completely changed and is now a “relentlessly honest” person who won’t “tell even the tiniest of white lies” (p. A19). Nocera ends his article in The New York Times with these words, “The California Bar should be so lucky as to have him as a member.” Yet, the editor of The New Republic who fired Glass made this

comment: “If it was Sunny outside and Steve and I were both standing outside in the sun and Steve came to me and said, ‘It’s a sunny day,’ I would immediately go check with two other people to make sure it was a sunny day” (DeKay, 2009). So, what do you think—if you were asked to determine whether Glass should be a lawyer in good standing with the California bar, how would you vote?

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434 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

In an online class, I received an assignment that was so well written and witty, so far above anything a freshman would turn in that I was certain that the student had either plagiarized or had a more experienced student write the assignment for her. I thought about giving the student a failing grade, but at the last moment I decided to give her the benefit of the doubt and assigned her an “A” and wrote the following: “Your poem analysis is so far above the normal freshman writing that I am amazed. If you actually wrote this analysis, I want you to know that you have a special writing talent that I hope you nurture because it is outstanding.” She replied: “I just wanted to say thank you for the comments you left about my poem analysis. I have always loved writing. My father and one of my brothers are very gifted writers, combining subtle wit with clever insight. I especially needed that shot of confidence right now, while I’m struggling with my thesis in my Comp class. Maybe your uplifting comments will help me to tap into the writer that exists in me and apply that talent to my writing class.”

Makes a Good First Impression Once you are writing to a specific audience, it is easier to make a good first impres- sion. Just like an effective personal interview or oral presentation captures attention and motivates the listener to pay attention, it is important to make a good first im- pression in written communication if you hope to grab the reader’s interest. Why is reader interest important? Because “writing that isn’t interesting usually isn’t read” (Newsom & Haynes, 2008). Also, writing that creates a negative first impression is unlikely to get the response you were seeking, whether from a colleague, a client, or a job interviewer. There are several ways to make a good first impression:

● Focus on the receiver’s interests and needs. A cover letter that accompanies a resume should focus on how you can meet the needs of the organization; an email addressed to team members should also focus on team benefits. Limit your use of I and we and use more of you, your, and our.

● Keep your tone friendly yet professional. In general, this means keeping your words and sentences relatively short, using correct grammar, and avoiding spelling and punctuation errors. If you have to include some bad news, try to include something pleasant in the same sentence (Lehman & DuFrene, 2008). Which would you rather read:

1. Your overall grade on the exam was satisfactory. 2. Your overall grade on the exam was satisfactory; however, your written

analysis on the case study was excellent. ● Get to the point quickly making key ideas obvious. Using bullets and boldface

will highlight key ideas and present an organized and professional appear- ance to an email message, a memo, or a letter.

● Proofread at least twice after completing the message to check for sentence structure, misspellings, and typos. As the cartoon on next page so effectively il- lustrates, the best of us make errors, and these do not make a good impression.

Is Effectively Organized: Proper Clarity and Length The basic information on organization that we covered in the speaking chap- ters applies to written communication as well. Effective written communication

CHAPTER 14 POLISHING YOUR WRITTEN COMMUNICATION 435

contains a greeting that grabs the reader’s attention and makes the purpose of the message clear; a body that presents the main points in an organized manner and clarifies and supports them with materials such as statistics and examples; and a closing that summarizes your purpose and main points and ends with a final thought or reference to any needed action.

Ineffective writers often leave off the introduction and conclusion and con- centrate on the body, which makes the content more difficult to understand. It is the introduction and conclusion that add clarity and give the reader direction, which allows for fast reading and better memory of your content. Content that takes too long to read or understand is often ignored and certainly not read all the way to the end. If people are asking you the same questions that you an- swered in your written message, it’s pretty clear that they didn’t read all that you wrote. Check your writing style. Did you include the introduction and conclu- sion? Did you use bullets to speed up reading of the content?

In addition to lack of organization and clarity, length is a problem in written communication. Ideally, an email or memo should include only one major idea or purpose—you might be able to include two or possibly three different ideas or purposes if you separate each with boldfaced titles and use good transitions between them. If there are more than three, it’s best to send multiple email or mes- sages. You can include more ideas in a letter but still need to segment each idea with a clear title and easy-to-read paragraphs or bullets. If your communication is sent in two or more messages, be sure to label each as Part 1 of 2 or Part 2 of 2.

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436 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Looks Professional: Proper Formatting and Typeface Much of the advice for effective formatting and typeface choices you have already read about in Chapter 12, “Verbal and Visual Supporting Materials.” For example, we discussed the differences between a serif typeface, which has small lines that extend from letter stems used to move the eyes along when reading text, and a sans serif typeface, which is a geometric-looking, simple typeface that is easy to read and great for titles. Either works for written messages, but normally no more than two type- faces should be used in a single message—perhaps a serif such as Times New Roman or Century for your text and a sans serif such as Arial or Verdana for titles.

Another suggestion from Chapter 12 is to avoid using all capitals in your writ- ing unless a single word or short phrase is needed for emphasis. Words in all capitals are more difficult to read than words in upper and lower case because the instant recognition we gain from letter extensions such as the l and f and the dot over the i are missing (Adams et al., 2001). In addition, in email, words in all capitals look like you are shouting and may offend the reader. In Chapter 12, we also discussed

the importance of not overloading a page with text and of leaving empty space (white space) around the docu- ment. White space keeps the docu- ment from looking cluttered and speeds reading comprehension. Be- sides setting your margins to allow for at least 1 inch, using ragged right margins instead of justified margins allows for more white space. All these suggestions apply to all types of written messages as well as Pow- erPoint slides. One additional point deals with the size of type to use in your written messages. This will be discussed later in the section on writ- ing resumes, but in general the best advice is to use 11-point or 12-point

type for your text. Any smaller is too difficult to read, especially if the print quality is poor; any larger looks like you didn’t have enough to say and wanted to fill more space. Titles can use a larger size such as 14-point or even 16-point type.

Includes Accurate Sources—No Plagiarism, Distortion, or Exaggeration Effective written communication is accurate and honest without distortion, ex- aggeration, or plagiarism. For most people, ethical lapses tend to occur when a deadline is looming and they feel pressured or are too rushed to check their sources carefully. When interviewed by Steve Kroft for 60 Minutes in 2003, Stephen Glass explained that his stories would start with a few true facts and quotes. But truth is not always interesting. To add interest and make the stories something that people would enjoy reading, he distorted and exaggerated the

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CHAPTER 14 POLISHING YOUR WRITTEN COMMUNICATION 437

facts and even fabricated complete lies (DeKay, 2009). Some of his stories were complete fiction. Keep in mind the following definitions (Hamilton, 2012, p. 17):

● Distortion: “Misrepresenting or twisting facts or stating that they are true when they are only partially true.”

● Exaggeration: “Overstating or presenting facts as more important than they are.” ● Plagiarism: “Using the ideas of

others (whether paraphrased or word for word) without giving them credit.”

Put your written email, reports, and letters aside for a day if possible—a couple of hours only if time is short. Then, with a fresh eye, read the item looking for areas that need a source or may be distorted or exaggerated and require some rewriting.

WRITING SUCCESSFUL EMAIL MESSAGES Although instant messaging (IM) and text messaging have their place, email is the preferred method of communication in the business setting when face-to- face isn’t possible and there’s no time to mail a written letter or memo. Although personal friends may overlook misspelled words, use of lower case in place of capitals, and shorthand abbreviations used in text messages and chat rooms, your business associates won’t.

How would you feel if you received the email message in Figure 14.1? It isn’t professional and certainly doesn’t send a good impression, does it? Here are just a few things that are wrong with this email:

● It has no subject line to indicate key information. ● It was sent from a personal email address with a nonprofessional handle.

To: GROVE, JACKSON From: [email protected] Date: Fri 4/23/2013 Subject:

________________________________________

You missed the last two planning meetings!! You really need to make the effort to be at are meeting this Wensday—i will save you a seat. Bring your design research *IF* you have it completed. TTFN

________________________________________

FIGURE 14.1 Inappropriate email

Michael Schwartz/WireImage/Getty Images

Revisiting the Case Study... Could Glass have remained honest and ethical while still turning out interesting pieces for publication? Which is the most difficult to avoid—distortion, exaggeration, or plagiarism, and why?

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438 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

● It has no greeting or closing. ● It is too brief to include all necessary information, such as where the

meeting will be held and the time of the meeting. ● It has a misspelled word, an incorrect word, and a lower-case “i.” ● It has a negative and accusatory tone that will likely make the recipient angry. ● It includes shorthand more appropriate to a text message.

The worst part of this email may be the tone that is used. As mentioned in Chap- ter 6, Friedman and Currall’s 2003 dispute-exacerbating model of email (DEME) shows how easy it is for readers to judge an email message as being more critical than the sender intended especially if the sender and receiver did not know each other prior to the email contact. To minimize tone problems the authors recom- mend that we avoid long email messages, use short paragraphs, include titles and bullets to simplify the feel of our messages, and remind the reader of previous con- tacts or groups we have in common so they will give us “the benefit of the doubt” if something we said seems negative to them. Also, before sending an email we should read it from the receiver’s view point listening for tone and possible interpretations. Rephrase questionable sentences into more friendly-sounding ones. Take a look at Figure 14.2 for an email that takes a more professional, friendly approach.

To: GROVE, JACKSON From: Russell J. Hampton ([email protected]) Date: Fri 4/23/2013 Subject: Important planning meeting on Wednesday, May 5 at 1:00 p.m.

_____________________________________

Dear Jackson,

Please arrange your schedule to attend our next Strategic Planning Meeting on Wednesday, May 5 at 1:00 p.m. in Building B, Room 29.

I know that you have been extremely busy working on the Yarley project and hope it is wrap- ping up as you and your customers anticipated. Your design expertise has undoubtedly made this an outstanding landscape. I am looking forward to the tour this Friday.

It is your design expertise that is so needed in the Strategic Planning Meeting on May 5th. We concentrated on other issues in the previous meetings because you were unable to attend and have them almost completed. However, to stay on budget, our next meeting should be our last meeting and we need your input. Two weeks remain before the meeting, so please call me or drop by the office if I can help you in any way.

Hope to hear from you soon, Russ

Russell J. Hampton Chair, Strategic Planning Yard Construction Services E-Mail: [email protected] Phone: (817) 515-9934 Cell: (972) 229-7227

FIGURE 14.2 Appropriate email

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CHAPTER 14 POLISHING YOUR WRITTEN COMMUNICATION 439

WRITING A SUCCESSFUL LETTER Although letters are more formal than emails, they still have tone and carry an impression. The letter of application or cover letter that accompanies a resume was discussed in Chapter 8 (see Figure 8.7 on page 241 for a sample cover letter). Let’s look at two additional types of letters you are likely to send: the thank-you letter sent after an interview and the follow-up letter used if you do not receive an invitation for an interview.

The Thank-You Letter After every interview, whether for an actual job or for information seeking, you will want to send a thank-you letter or card (Figure 14.3). A survey of 150

1355 Edna Street Napa, CA 94558

October 15, 2013

Mr. John F. Schmitz, Owner Schmitz Furniture & Carpet 705 North Locust Street Dulsura, CA 94661

Dear Mr. Schmitz:

Thank you for the delightful interview on Friday, October 8 for the position of carpet salesperson. If you recall, you had just received a shipment of allergy-free carpet made from bamboo and we looked through it together. It was my first time to feel and smell this new carpet and I can’t wait to sell it to people like my sister who has put off buying new carpet because of her allergies. In fact, I called her as soon as I got home and she may have already come by the showroom to see it.

You mentioned that you were hoping to double your sales this year. With my experience as top salesperson for the past three years and my communication skills in handling a wide variety of customers, I think I am just the person to help you achieve your goal. In addition, you have many Hispanic customers who do not speak English and I am fluent in Spanish.

You will find me a diligent and enthusiastic employee and I look forward to working with you and your outstand- ing staff. For your convenience, an updated copy of my resume is enclosed. Please contact me at my home or cell phone as referenced on my resume or you may leave a message at (415) 666-4332.

Thank you for your consideration. I hope to hear from you soon.

Sincerely,

Joel C. Reyes

Enc: Resume

FIGURE 14.3 Thank-you letter

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440 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

interviewers found that almost 90% of them “consider a written thank you influ- ential in evaluating candidates” (Lublin, 2008, B1). Although an email thank you may be effective, a handwritten card or letter shows more professionalism and indicates that you are really interested in the position. For effective thank-you messages, consider the following suggestions (adapted from Guffey & Loewy, 2013, and Lehman & DuFrene, 2012):

● Keep the tone of your thank-you message formal yet friendly—avoid sounding chummy.

● Your message should be fairly short but include enough details so the inter- viewer will recall your specific interview.

● Begin by thanking the interviewer for the interview—mention the specific job and the date of the interview.

● If something out-of–the-ordinary occurred during the interview, be sure to mention it to help the interviewer recall your specific interview. Otherwise, remind the interviewer of one or two key issues or problem areas discussed and how your skills, communication abilities, and experience could help solve those problems. If the interviewer is having difficulty deciding between you and one or two other candidates, your letter reinforcing your strengths may be just the persuasive nudge needed to get you another interview or a job offer.

● Be sure to mention your interest and enthusiasm for the position. ● If the interviewer asked for any additional information or you thought of

something that you forgot to mention during the interview, be sure to cover it now or include an enclosure.

● End with something similar to “I am looking forward to hearing from you soon.”

The Follow-up Letter If a few weeks have passed since your interview and you have not heard from the interviewer even after sending a thank-you note and after calling the office to restate your interest, it most likely means that you were not selected for the posi- tion. Whether you received an official rejection notice or not, don’t overlook the importance of a follow-up letter that stresses your continued interest in work- ing for the company (Figure 14.4). You never know—the person hired may not work out or may take another job, or additional jobs may become available. If the job seemed to be a perfect fit for you or you are especially interested in the particular company, a follow-up letter is a must. Here are some suggestions for effective follow-up letters:

● Express your disappointment at not receiving the position but thank the person for interviewing you and for notifying you promptly (if they did).

● If you suspect that you did not get the position because of lack of experience or skill and are taking steps to correct the problem (such as working with a mentor or enrolling in a course), be sure to mention it. You may want to include a revised resume as well.

CHAPTER 14 POLISHING YOUR WRITTEN COMMUNICATION 441

● If, in your reading, you come across an article that relates to a problem area discussed during the interview that you think will interest the interviewer, include a two-sentence review and the link to access the article. If the article isn’t too long, make a copy and include it with your letter. Sharing information is a good way to make your name stand out and it shows your professionalism.

● End by expressing your interest in working for the person or company and ask that your resume remain in the active file. You might suggest that you will call in a couple of months to touch base and see if any new job openings are available.

WRITING AN EFFECTIVE RESUME The basic types of resumes were discussed in Chapter 8—the conventional paper resume, the scannable resume, the email resume, and the web resume. Regard- less of which resume you decide to use, there are important writing skills that will make your resume more likely to get read and more likely to get you an interview. Let’s look at some specifics on how to write effective resumes.

Effective Resumes Grab Immediate Attention Once an interviewer picks up your resume, you have between 45 seconds and a minute to grab their attention. Begin your resume with the most impressive

Mr. John F. Schmitz, Owner October 25, 2013 Schmitz Furniture & Carpet 705 North Locust Street Dulsura, CA 94661

Dear Mr. Schmitz:

Thank you for interviewing me for the position of carpet salesperson. I’m very disappointed that someone else was hired for the position because I think my sales experience and communication skills are a good fit for your company and goals of doubled growth. Even though I wasn’t hired, I appreciate your letting me know so quickly. Please keep my resume in your active file and let me know if you have another opening. Your showroom and product lines are excellent and I look forward to the possibility of working with you in the future. I will call you later in the year to see if any new job openings are available.

Sincerely,

Joel C. Reyes 1355 Edna Street, Napa, CA 94558 (415) 555-5760

FIGURE 14.4 Follow-up letter

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442 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

information about you to grab the interest and attention of the interviewer. If your education is not especially impressive, begin with something else, such as your work experience. If neither your work nor education is impressive, begin with a brief keyword summary or a longer qualifications summary that lists your skills and qualifications (see page 234 for a more detailed explanation) or a section called “Educational Highlights” that lists recent courses you have taken that relate to the job (see Figure 8.2 on page 232 for a sample). See Figures 14.5 and 14.6 for the do’s and don’ts of writing an attention-grabbing resume.

Effective Resumes Are Easy to Read One problem with most resumes is that they are difficult to read. Use wide mar- gins to make the resume appealing to the eye. Use phrases and bullets instead of complete sentences when possible. The reader should be able to skim the page to

FIGURE 14.5 Ineffective resume

Joel C. Reyes 1355 Edna Street Napa, CA 94558 415.555.5760 (Home) 415.229. 5745 (Cell) [email protected] Attended Richland College in Dallas, Texas from 2010 to 1012 12800 Abrams Rd., Dallas, TX 75243 Grade Point Average 3.0 on a 4.0 scale Graduated with an AA degree in business with an emphasis in sales and communication, May 2012

Objective: Since my degree was in sales and communications, I hope to continue in these areas that interest me. I am willing to start out in sales but hope to move to sales supervision. I am good at working with people and working in groups and would like to use my abilities supervising others.

Is there anything in this resume that grabs your interest?

FIGURE 14.6 Attention-grabbing resume

CHAPTER 14 POLISHING YOUR WRITTEN COMMUNICATION 443

get basic information. See Figures 14.7 and 14.8 for the do’s and don’ts of making your resume easy to read.

Effective Resumes Provide More than Basic Information To impress an interviewer, you need to add more than just basic information or job abilities or duties—when possible show how successfully you complet- ed the job or solved a problem. For example, saying that you “handled job complaints” isn’t specific enough to grab an interviewer’s attention. How- ever, saying that you “developed a faster procedure for handling customer complaints” or that “customer complaints dropped by 30 percent” not only shows what you can do, but it also indicates how well you can do it. See

FIGURE 14.7 Difficult-to-read resume

FIGURE 14.8 Easy-to-read resume

444 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Figures 14.9 and 14.10 for the do’s and don’ts of providing more than just information in your resume.

Email and interviewing aren’t the only places that written communication plays an important role in the workplace. Informative oral presentations and

FIGURE 14.9 Resume with ineffective content

FIGURE 14.10 Resume with effective content

CHAPTER 14 POLISHING YOUR WRITTEN COMMUNICATION 445

reports are regular occurrences in the workplace and require careful thought and preparation. A survey of employers conducted by the National Associ- ation of Colleges and Employers (NACE) reported that the skills/qualities most sought after by employers are oral and written communication skills; however, communication skills were also reported as the “number one skill that is most lacking in new college graduate hires” (Job Outlook, 2009, p. 24). Improving your oral and written communication skills can definitely improve your employability.

WRITING TO INFORM Informative presentations or reports promote understanding of an idea or a body of related facts through a well-organized presentation of data. There is no per- suasion involved—the reader or audience member is expected to reach his or her own interpretation and possible application of the data. Recall the general pointers for effective writing given at the beginning of this chapter—adapt to the audience, impress with your opening words, organize for clarity and brevity, and create a professional look with proper formatting and typeface choices. These pointers apply to informative messages, whether used to organize a report or an oral presentation.

In messages to inform there are four suggested tools that aid understanding:

● Use a definition if your audience is unfamiliar with your topic or if the topic is complicated. According to the New World Dictionary, a definition is “a statement of what a thing is; being definite, explicit, and clear; absence of fuzziness.” Defining the word entrepreneur as “to undertake or to set out on a new mission or venture” (Platt, 2004, p. 541) is an example of a definition. To ensure clarity, follow each definition with one of the following: a comparison or contrast, one or two examples, the etymology or root meaning of the word, a synonym, or a list of essential features needed if the definition is to be complete and correct.

● Use a description to paint a vivid, detailed picture of the topic if clarity and maintaining audience attention are especially important. Effective descrip- tions use concrete words and figures of speech such as similes, metaphors, and onomatopoeia. Similes compare items using the word like or as—“your eyes work like a camera”; metaphors are implied comparisons and do not use like or as—“the pupil of the eye is the camera aperture”; and onomatopoeias sound like their meanings, such as buzz, bark, swish, ring—“the hiss of the snake was worse than its slither.”

● Use explanations when your subject matter is complex, may be difficult to comprehend, or requires the clarification of some process. As discussed in Chapter 12, an explanation that is a type of verbal supporting material is a statement about the relationship between certain items and often an- swers the questions how, what, and why. Good explanations are enhanced by quality visual aids, use of clear connecting words (like because or for example), and comparison of old knowledge with new (Rowan, 1995).

446 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

With complex topics, it’s best to start with the “big picture” and then show how the parts or processes work and interrelate. When speaking on a topic that listeners may find difficult to believe, it is best to first discuss the “lay” theory or belief and why it seems plausible, then discuss why it is inaccurate, and then present the more acceptable concept or theory (Rowan, 1991).

● Use a narration to improve under- standing and grab audience interest— also called “illustrations” or “story- telling” (Ballard, 2003). A narration is a story about real or imagined things, people, or events told with detail and enthusiasm. Narrations are even used in business to enliven “speeches, sales pitches, training ses- sions, and other presentations on otherwise dry or technical topics” (Quinones, 1999). In fact, Quinones reports that executives pay as much as $4,000 for an “executive storytell- ing” seminar (p. 4). According to Fisher (1987), an outstanding nar- ration or story should have two im- portant qualities: (a) Probability— the story is easy to follow and makes sense, and (b) Fidelity—the story rings true to the audience.

Informative Outlines Whether used with a written report or an oral presentation, informative outlines are important. Don’t make the mistake of thinking that you can just “wing” oral presentations because they are spoken. An informative presenta- tion given without a carefully written outline is unlikely to impress the audi- ence. When used correctly, an outline can be an effective planning tool. An outline tells you at a glance how the main points are organized. When you

Is It Ethical to Embellish a Story beyond the Truth? In his book A Million Little Pieces, James Frey describes overcoming his addictions to alcohol and drugs. Oprah picked up the book, and in October 2005 she added it to her book list, saying how deeply it had touched her. Oprah interviewed Frey on her October 26, 2005, show and in front of millions of viewers he discussed the book and what Oprah called his “gut-wrenching memoir of detox, pain, blood, vomit . . . and hope” (“A Powerful Story,” 2005, para. 2).

However, an investigation by The Smoking Gun—a website devoted to posting documents relating to various controversies and scandals— revealed that large portions of Frey’s facts were “wholly fabricated or wildly embellished” (“A Million Little Lies,” 2006). This information created an ethical dilemma for both Oprah and for Frey.

Therefore, in 2006, Oprah asked Frey and several journalists to ap- pear on her show, titled “The Million Little Pieces Controversy,” to give Frey a chance to answer questions about his actions. When asked if he felt he had conned everyone, Frey replied, “No . . . because I still think the book is about drug addiction and alcoholism and nobody’s disputing that I was a drug addict and an alcoholic” (“Did He Con His Readers?,” 2006, para. 6). Richard Cohen, a columnist for the Washington Post responded that Frey’s approach “was a betrayal of his readers” and that the publishing industry needs to take more responsibility for checking facts. “A fact checker would have found out in a half an hour that some of this book didn’t work.” (“Journalists Speak Out,” 2006, para. 2).

QUESTIONS What do you think? In his book (which has sold close to 3 million copies) and in a media interview, Frey misrepresented the facts. Is it ethical to embel- lish a story about your life beyond the truth to make more of a point? How about in an interview—is it ethical to embellish your credentials just a little?

DILEMMAS IN COMMUNICATION

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see your presentation in outline form, it’s easy to see the big picture and to know what changes are needed. To be effective, outlines need to follow a few basic guidelines:

● Use standard numbering. Roman numerals, capital letters, and Arabic numerals are recommended. The levels most typically used in outlines are:

I. First main point A. Subpoint or supporting material

1. Supporting material ● Indent for faster comprehension. When each main point and level is indented (in-

stead of all left-aligned), you can spot your main and supporting points quickly. ● Include at least two supporting items per level, when possible. In other words,

if you have an “A,” you need a “B”; if you have a “1,” you need at least a “2.” However, don’t force an unnatural division just to have two parts.

● Use parallel wording for each level. If the item in “A” is a sentence, then “B” should also be a sentence (or both could be phrases). The items need to have similar structure, and sentences should be in the same voice (either active or passive). For example, in a speech on the common cold, the following main points are not parallel:

I. Many remedies have been tried. II. Modern therapy is best.

III. Curing the cold with vitamin C The first two points are sentences (I is passive voice and II is active voice) and the third one is a sentence fragment. To make them parallel, you could use the fol- lowing noun phrases: Ancient remedies, Modern therapy, and Vitamin C cure.

● Capitalize the first word in each level. It takes only a glance to know where a new level begins when the first word in each level is capitalized.

● If your outline is intended for an oral presentation, it should also include the following: transitions between main points, sources, and a list of your references.

For a sample informative outline, check out Figure 14.11. How well does this sample outline follow the guidelines for effective outlines?

Informative Reports Informative reports play an important role in the business communication of both supervisors and employees. Employees’ informative reports are the only way supervisors can stay up to date on all the information they need to make sound decisions. Employees also use informal and formal reports to communicate ideas and proposals horizontally to fellow workers and to present information or demonstrate product use to clients. Supervisors use reports to communicate company policies and operational procedures downward to employees. In ad- dition to the suggestions for quality written messages given at the beginning of this chapter and the suggested ways to add clarity to informative messag- es included in this section, effective informative reports, whether informal or

448 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

formal, generally include these items: ● Present a brief, clearly worded statement of purpose. The best statements take

a reader-centered approach to get the reader involved from the beginning. ● Follow a deductive approach and make the purpose and perhaps even the

results of the report clear from the beginning. The rest of the report would then include facts, examples, and data to support and expand the purpose and results presented at the beginning of the report.

● Organize the supporting information and subtopics into brief, clearly divided paragraphs. Each paragraph should include data and information with

Title: “Retail Theft” by Mark Stephenson Exact Purpose: After listening to my presentation, the audience will know the three types of retail theft and how to recognize (and hopefully deter) each type.

A. Organized Retail Crime (ORC) groups have stolen millions of merchandise. 1. These groups travel to cities and work in groups—one group scouts the store, another enters and prepares the merchandise (by removing sensors or moving merchandise toward the entrance), a final group enters and conceals the goods. B. Methods of concealment used by professionals are the most advanced. [Slide 5] 1. Bags lined with foil to defeat security systems are popular and easily obtained. 2. Hidden pockets and expandable waistbands have also been successfully used. C. ORC groups seldom go further than 20 feet from the entrance. [Slide 6] 1. They prefer to remove merchandise from the front area (tables, etc.) 2. The closer to the front, the quicker the escape.

Transition: Professionals aren’t the only shoplifters.

Attention-getter: Who has stolen from a store? A candy bar? A shirt? [Slide1] A CD you thought you couldn’t live without? The fact is, theft in retail is abundant. It remains the common string that affects all merchants from malls to flea markets. Qualifications: As a retail store manager, I’ve seen countless attempts at theft and I’ve partnered with my company’s Retail Loss Department to minimize theft. Audience motivation: According to the University of Florida’s National RetailSecurity survey, U.S. retailers lost over $10 billion due to shoplifting last year. [Slide2] What this study really shows is that theft prevention produces a more stable economy so people like you and I won’t have to face inflated prices and will want to purchase that CD or candy bar. [slide3]

Thesis: Retail theft is caused by three main types of individuals: professionals, amateurs, and employees. By recognizing and understanding the various methods used to conceal merchandise, stores can more aptly deter retail theft.

INTRODUCTION

I. The first type of retail theft is caused by professional shoplifters. [Slide 4]

II. The second type of retail theft is caused by amateurs. A. Usually, amateur shoplifters are younger than the professionals. [Slide 7] 1. They tend to steal for the thrill rather than lack of funds. 2. They usually steal in groups of two or more—if opportunity arises. B. Methods of concealment are more basic and spontaneous. [Slide 8] 1. The back of the store is preferred to the front—more concealment. 2. Fitting rooms are especially useful because of their privacy. 3. Amateurs prefer to steal small items that fit into a pocket or purse.

Transition: In additional to professionals and amateurs, there is a third type of shoplifter.

BODY

Sample Informative Presentation

FIGURE 14.11a Informative outline for oral presentation

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sources cited and illustrated with quality visual aids (see Chapter 12 for suggestions for preparing effective visual aids).

● Use concrete, vivid words and a variety of supporting materials to keep reader interest. Take a reader-centered approach as you try to answer the questions that a reader might have and use a variety of supporting materials to keep interest and clarify by including definitions, descriptions, explanations, and narratives discussed previously. See Chapter 12 for types of supports that add proof and interest to reports and presentations.

● Additional items: In formal reports, you may wish to add a title page (including title, names of participants, and date), table of contents (including headings with page numbers and a list of tables and figures), and even an abstract or

Employees compose the final group of shoplifters [Slide 9] A. Internal theft contributes to 78% of retail theft. B. Methods of concealment are carefully planned. [Slide 10] 1. Employees have more opportunity to remove security devises. 2. Employees may put merchandise in the trash before taking it out. 3. Now a personal story about an employee and her “disposable” cup . . .

Transition: Now that we’ve discussed types of shoplifting, let’s focus on prevention.

Knowing the “alert signals” of each type shoplifter increases prevention. A. Recognizing alert signals for professionals is very difficult. [Slide 11] 1. Professionals avoid employees, wear sunglasses, and talk on cell phones. 2. They also seem uninterested in merchandise sizes or styles. 3. They communicate by leaving pennies or toothpicks on the floor. B. Spotting alert signals used by amateurs is easier. [Slide 12] 1. Amateurs seem nervous and look at employees more than merchandise. 2. They form tight groups to limit visibility by employees and others. C. Recognizing alert signals for internal theft is very important. [Slide 13] 1. Look for employees who frequent the restroom (especially before leaving work), who bring large bags or purses to work; and who have friends who visit often. 2. Use tools such as Microsoft’s Smarter Retailing Initiative program.

CONCLUSION

Theft is a plague that hurts businesses, individuals, and the economy. The National Retail Federation is working with law enforcement to crack down on retail theft. [Slide 14]

The Retail Loss Prevention Ltd. estimates a total of 60,000 cases will be handled successfully in 2006. May be you should re-think stealing that CD . . .

REFERENCES:

1. Herbst, M. (2006, March 12). Hello, we’re keeping an eye on you. Fort Worth Star-Telegram, G7 (Sunday Life).

2. Microsoft technology helps Trax tackle inventory shrinkage problems. (2004, August 25). Accessed at http://www.microsoft.com/industry/retail/LossPrevention.mspx. .

3. Organized Retail Crime, A Growing Trend. (2005). Retail Industry.com. Accessed at http://retailindustry.about.com/b/a/203293.htm.

4. About RLP: Background. (2006). Retail Loss Prevention Ltd. Accessed at http://www.lossprevention.co.uk/background.html.

III.

IV.

FIGURE 14.11b Informative outline for oral presentation (Continued )

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450 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

synopsis (placed at the beginning; briefly states the problem, the process fol- lowed, and the conclusions and recommendations that were reached).

For a sample informative report, check out Figure 14.12. How clearly does this in- formal report follow the suggested guidelines and how well does it communicate?

FIGURE 14.12a Sample Informative report

Sample Informative Report

January 10, 2010. Retail Theft Report for Toys Ahoy. Prepared by Mark Stephenson

Introduction

Retail theft and shoplifting are a serious problem for businesses of all sizes. This is especially true for new businesses because they are unaware of what to expect. Because of my experience in retail and management, a new children’s store named Toys Ahoy has asked me to prepare a report discussing the main types of retail theft for which they should prepare prior to opening their first store this coming summer. My research on this topic found that the three main types of retail theft have not changed since my presentation to the city council on the topic four years ago. The three types of retail theft to be discussed in this report include: Professional shoplifters, Amateur shoplifters, and Employees.

Background

The most recent retail loss statistics were presented in July 2009 by the University of Florida’s National Retail Security Survey (NRSS) at the National Retail Federation Loss Prevention Conference in Los Angeles. According to NRSS retail theft accounted for approximately $36 billion in losses in 2008 (Hollinger, 2009). Also, the 21st Annual Retail Theft Sur- vey prepared by Hayes International (“Shoplifters and Dishonest Employees,” 2009) found that 22 major retailers with over 19,000 stores lost $6 billion in 2008. Over 904,000 thieves were apprehended and $182 million recovered. Retail theft remains a serious problem that retailers need to recognize and, deter.

Findings

Finding One: Retail theft is conducted by three different types of individuals: the professional, the amateur, and the employee:

● The first type of retail theft is caused by professional shoplifters.

1. Organized Retail Crime (ORC) groups have stolen millions of merchandise. 2. These groups travel to cities and work in groups—one group scouts the store, another enters and prepares the mer-

chandise (by removing sensors or moving merchandise toward the entrance), a final group enters and conceals the goods.

● The second type of retail theft is caused by amateurs.

1. Usually, amateur shoplifters are younger than the professionals. 2. They tend to steal for the thrill rather than lack of funds. 3. They usually steal in groups of two or more—if opportunity arises.

● Employees compose the final group of shoplifters

1. Internal theft contributes to 78% of retail theft. 2. Employees tend to steal seven times more per theft than other types of shoplifters—$969 per employee versus

$135 per non-employee (“Shoplifters and Dishonest Employees,” 2009).

Finding Two: Each type of thief tends to use different methods of concealment:

● Methods of concealment used by professionals are the most advanced.

1. Bags lined with foil to defeat security systems are popular and easily obtained. 2. Hidden pockets and expandable waistbands have also been successfully used. 3. ORC groups seldom go further than 20 feet from the entrance.

a. They prefer to remove merchandise from the front area (tables, etc.) b. The closer to the front, the quicker the escape.

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Writing to Persuade Although information may be used more often in the workplace than persua- sion, persuasive oral presentations and reports run a close second. Convincing employees or management to take a particular course of action or presenting how a particular product will meet the needs of a client require carefully prepared

FIGURE 14.12b Sample Informative report (Continued )

● For the amateur, methods of concealment are more basic and spontaneous.

1. The back of the store is preferred to the front—more concealment. 2. Fitting rooms are especially useful because of their privacy.

● Employees carefully plan their methods of concealment.

1. Employees have more opportunity to remove security devises. 2. Employees may put merchandise in the trash before taking it out. 3. One employee even put jewelry items in her “disposable drinking cup.”

Finding Three: Each type of thief can be spotted using different “signals.”

● Recognizing alert signals for professions is very difficult.

1. Professionals avoid employees, wear sunglasses, and talk on cell phones. 2. They also seem uninterested in merchandise sizes or styles. 3. They communicate by leaving pennies or toothpicks on the floor.

● Spotting alert signals used by amateurs is easier.

1. Amateurs seem nervous and look at employees more than merchandise. 2. They form tight groups to limit visibility by employees and others.

● Recognizing alert signals for internal theft is very important.

1. Look for employees who frequent the restroom (especially before leaving work), who bring large bags or purses to work, and who have friends who visit often.

2. Use tools such as Microsoft’s Smarter Retailing Initiative program

Summary

Theft is a plague that hurts businesses, individuals, and the economy. The National Retail Federation is working with law enforcement to crack down on retail theft (“2009 Organized retail crime survey,” 2009). Law enforcement is important, but well-trained employees—employees who know the findings presented above—are a better bet for lowering retail theft. Well-trained employees realize that there are three different types of individuals who com- mit retail theft, that each type of thief uses different methods of concealment, and that each can be spotted using different “signals.”

Works Cited

1. About Us: Statistics. (2009). Retail Loss Prevention Ltd. Accessed at http://www.lossprevention.co.uk/stats.aspx http://www.lossprevention.co.uk/stats.aspx.

2. Herbst, M. (2006, March 12). Hello, we’re keeping an eye on you. Fort Worth Star-Telegram, G7 (Sunday Life). 3. Hollinger, R. (2009, July). 2008 National Retail Security Survey: Preliminary Results. Presented at the 2009 NRF

Loss Prevention conference & Expo in Los Angeles. Retrieved from http://www.nrf.com/Attachments.asp?id=25036&rid=984555 http://www.nrf.com/Attachments.asp?id=25036&rid=984555.

4. Microsoft technology helps Trax tackle inventory shrinkage problems. (2004, August 25). Accessed at http://www.microsoft.com/industry/retail/LossPrevention.mspx. .

5. 2009 Organized Retail Crime survey. (2009). National Retail Federation. Accessed at http://www.nrf.com/modules.php?name=Documents&op=showlivedoc&sp_id=3137 http://www.nrf.com/modules.php?name=Documents&op=showlivedoc&sp_id=3137.

6. Shoplifters and dishonest employees are apprehended in record numbers by US retailers. (2009). Hayes Interna- tional. Retrieved from http://www.hayesinternational.com/ts_rtl_thft.html http://www.hayesinternational.com/ts_rtl_thft.html.

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arguments. Persuasive presentations and reports take a definite position and pres- ent arguments to convince the audience either to agree with the position or to take a particular action. Presenting information on both sides of an issue and then asking the audience or reader to make up their own minds is not persuasion. Al- though persuasive messages definitely need to include information, the overall in- tent is to change opinions and encourage action without trickery or manipulation. Don’t forget to use the general pointers for effective writing given at the beginning of this chapter—adapt to the audience, impress with your opening words, orga- nize for clarity and brevity, and create a professional look with proper formatting and typeface choices. In addition, effective persuasive messages do the following:

● Use an inductive pattern of organization. If you begin your persuasive mes- sage with a specific request or recommendation as is done in informative messages, the audience is likely to be more resistant to your position. There- fore, persuasive messages are usually more successful when you convince the audience that a serious problem exists before suggesting any solution or recommendations. Such approach is called inductive because it presents arguments building up to a conclusion or position; the deductive approach more often used in informative messages begins with the conclusion or po- sition and follows with arguments to support it.

● Clearly spell out one or more problems that need to be addressed. Why should your target audience change their beliefs or actions unless there is a compel- ling reason to do so? It is up to you to show that a situation exists that is serious enough to require a change by presenting quality evidence and citing impressive sources. See Chapter 12 for effective ways to cite information from authorities.

● Clearly spell out recommended beliefs or actions needed to solve the problems presented. Don’t assume that an audience will arrive at the same conclusion as you after hearing the problem. They may be unsure which solution would be best or may arrive at a completely different conclusion if left on their own. Therefore, messages are more persuasive when they clearly specify recom- mended beliefs and actions that will help solve the problems presented.

● Show incentives and additional benefits if your recommendations are fol- lowed. Any type of audience, from a client reading your proposal to people listening to an oral presentation, is more likely to be persuaded if you give them a personal incentive or show that your recommendations not only will solve the problem, but will also provide additional benefits. These benefits may occur immediately or slowly over time; they may be personal, relate to the organization, or benefit society as a whole. For additional approaches to organizing persuasive messages, see Chapter 13.

● Support all recommendations with carefully researched and ethical evidence, relate it to the psychological needs of the audience, and demonstrate your credibility. Effective persuasive messages contain logos (logic and reasoning), pathos (emotional appeal), and ethos (ethical appeal)—all three are needed for persuasion. First, instead of asserting that problems exist, prove that they do by presenting evidence such as examples, statistics, quotations, and comparisons connected by logic that is clear and persuasive. Second, show how the prob- lem and the evidence relate directly to the audience’s needs—evidence will be persuasive to the extent that the audience feels personally involved or emo- tional about it. Audience analysis is a must in order to know the needs of your

CHAPTER 14 POLISHING YOUR WRITTEN COMMUNICATION 453

audience and how to relate your position or product to them and their needs. Third, demonstrate your credibility as a writer or speaker toward the specific topic. In other words, how can we know that you are trustworthy, knowledge- able, and fair? People with little knowledge or involvement with the topic are especially persuaded by your expertise—your experience with the topic; peo- ple with knowledge and experience want to know that you have expertise but are especially persuaded by the evidence you present (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). All audience members want to know that you are trustworthy. Presenting both sides of the argument while showing why one side is the better position re- veals to an audience that you are trustworthy and knowledgeable and have a complete grasp of the topic (Chaiken, 1986). Using active instead of passive sentence structure is another way to add to your trustworthiness (Hosman, 2002). For more specifics on logos, pathos, and ethos, see Chapter 13.

Persuasive Outlines Effective persuasive outlines follow the guidelines presented previously for informative outlines but follow an inductive overall pattern. The conclusion of a persuasive message is important because it is your last chance to per- suade. Therefore, careful planning of your conclusion is a must. All persuasive outlines include an introduction and conclusion and many include these major headings: (1) Problem, Solution, Benefits or (2) Problem, Solution, Action.

Persuasive outlines expand the conclusion beyond the summary and the closing thought used in informative outlines to include a visualization of the future and a call for belief or action. Let’s look at each of these:

● Visualize the future for the audience. At this point in trying to persuade your audience, there may be a few or many people who are still undecided. Visual- izing the future for your audience may be what finally makes them decide to support your position. Therefore, using evidence and available authorities to predict the future will show what is likely to happen if your recommendations are not adopted—here is the time to paint a vivid picture showing how bad things may get for your audience. Contrast this dire prediction with how good things will likely become for the audience if your recommendations are adopt- ed—again painting a vivid picture of the future. If the predictions are unlikely to affect the people in your audience, appeal to their sense of fair play and desire to help others, for example, by building a strong economy and country.

● Call for belief or action. Many persuasive messages end in a general sum- mary assuming that the audience will make the right decision. People are much more likely to make a decision requiring a change of belief or action when they are directly asked to do so. Not only should you ask for a change of belief or action, but you should also show how this can be done easily and quickly if possible. If you have made the change yourself, be sure to mention it. If you can do it, so can they.

For a sample persuasive outline, check out Figure 14.13a, b, and c. How does this sample outline differ from the informative outline presented in Figure 14.11? How persuasive do you think the oral presentation represented by this outline would be for the typical audience?

454 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

FIGURE 14.13a Sample persuasive outline for an oral presentation

Title: “Endometriosis” by Rebecca DeCamp Position Statement: Endometriosis is a dominant cause of pain in women and immediate industry and individual

action is needed.

INTRODUCTION

Attention-getter: --At the age of 26, Laurie Calcaterra was ready to start a family but after a few years of trying, she was unable

to conceive. --Laurie started having pelvic pain that the doctors couldn’t figure out. She started missing work around her

periods since she couldn’t walk. Finally, one day, she was in so much pain her husband rushed her to the emergency room.

--After an ultrasound, the doctors discovered that she had a large cyst on her right ovary. Taken directly to surgery, they found that Laurie has late stages of endometriosis.

Audience Motivation: Nearly 5.5 million women in the United States are affected by endometriosis according to The Contra Costa Times of Walnut Creek California on February 20th, 2009. That is twice the amount of patients with Alzheimer’s and seven times as many as those with Parkinson’s. Thesis: To help us understand the affects of endometriosis, let’s look at what endometriosis is, then the new cause and finally what the government, industry and even we can do to solve this problem.

BODY I. Endometriosis is a crippling disease with three ineffective real cures.

A. The definition of endometriosis in the July 21, 2009 Irish Times is a condition in which cells from the lining of the womb travel to other parts of the body, and often adhere to the ovaries, fallopian tubes and abdominal cavity. 1. These patches respond to the hormones of the menstrual cycle and each month they thicken, build

up with blood and then break down. 2. But, unlike the lining of the womb, they have nowhere to go and can cause damage, like

inflammation, internal scarring and adhesions. 3. The most common symptoms include increasing levels of pain before and during periods, unusually

long and heavy periods, painful urination, inability to have sex, and in most cases, infertility. B. To some, these symptoms can sound like normal period pain or “cramps.” Let me assure you that women

with endometriosis are in pain well beyond the normal limits. 1. During their periods, women with endometriosis usually don’t move around much. The increasing

levels of pain manifest into days that they are unable to walk. 2. If it isn’t the pain that has these women stay home, then it is the heavy bleeding that keeps them close

to a bathroom. In many cases they change a tampon or pad every thirty minutes as opposed to every 4 to 6 hours.

3. Endometriosis can cause pain depending on where the adhesions are located. There may be only a little on a sensitive internal organ that can cause severe pain, but there can also be internal scarring that attaches the organs together sometimes causing the uterus to completely flip over.

C. So, how do we cure such terrible affects of this disease? Certainly there must be some good medical research going on to prevent a disease of this magnitude. But there isn’t a cure. Women with endometriosis are given only three options. 1. First includes taking continuous birth control which prevents a period at all, causes many side effects,

and doesn’t help when a couple is trying to conceive. 2. For later stages of endometriosis, there is a shot doctors can administer that is called Lupron, which

shuts down estrogen production and causes your body to go into early menopause. Lupron has a whole other set of side effects, like early osteoporosis.

3. And the third option is having a hysterectomy, which is the complete removal of a woman’s uterus and ovaries. Surprisingly, after a hysterectomy, some women still suffer from the pain of adhesions not removed in the abdominal cavity.

Transition: Now that we’ve seen what endometriosis is, how it affects women, and what cures are available, I want to talk about a new dominant cause that has recently emerged.

II. Surprisingly, dioxins and feminine hygiene products appear to contribute to endometriosis.

Sample Persuasive Presentation

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FIGURE 14.13b Sample persuasive outline for an oral presentation (Continued )

A. According to the EPA, on September 22nd, 2009, dioxins are an accidental byproduct of a multitude of industrial processes in which chlorine is present —such as chemical and plastics manufacturing, pesticide and herbicide production, and pulp and paper bleaching.

B. This may seem like something that wouldn’t affect anyone who doesn’t live directly by a plant that produces these products, but there is something that women use once a month that is. 1. According to the US Food and Drug Administration on January 27, 2009, tampons and sanitary

pads made of rayon or bleached cotton contain low levels of dioxins. 2. These levels are tested in parts per trillion, so the risk was originally thought of as low. The

National Institutes of Health has been researching health risks to women, including counts of endometriosis from the presence of dioxins.

3. They found that dioxins build up in the body over time in a process of bioaccumulation and it concentrates in fatty tissues. If the National Institutes of Health know about this, why are these dioxins still allowed in our most sensitive products you may be wondering?

C. Companies haven’t changed because of the money being made on these products. 1. Proctor & Gamble reported that the Tampax brand is one of their half-billion dollar brands in their

2008 yearend report. 2. “Let’s do the math” says the November 10, 2008 The Gazette from Montreal, “If a woman used

four tampons and four pads per day, five days a month for about 35 years, that adds up to 16,800 tampons and pads…” Now, for a woman with endometriosis, changing every half hour for even 12 hours results in 24 tampons and pads for five days for 35 years…this adds up to 50,400 tampons and pads.

3. Companies like Kimberly-Clark, producer of Kotex, report in their annual financials that they net 8.3 billion; Playtex Products Inc, and McNeil-Personal Products Company, who produce O.B. tampons, also report in the millions.

4. You see why the big companies are not willing to change—we really are talking about millions and billions of dollars these companies are making on feminine products.

Transition: Now that we have talked about what dioxins are, where they come from, and why big companies aren’t doing anything to change from what they are currently producing, I want to talk about solutions on a government, industry, and personal level.

III. Solutions require immediate action on the part of our government, the companies that make tampons, and from each of us. A. As stated in our very own Constitution, our government is here to “establish justice, insure domestic

tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity.”

B. The research is out there, it is just not being enforced. 1. There is legislation, introduced in Congress back in January 2003 about health risks to women from

tampons. 2. But rules don’t make one bit of difference if they are not enforced. The USFDA was put in place to

make sure those ingredients, purposefully in a product or not, are safe for use. C. The National Center for Toxicological Research has a goal to “Strengthen and improve scientific and

human capital management and expand training and outreach to retain and train scientific experts critical to address FDA’s scientific needs” as reported on their website last updated on July 10, 2009. 1. If the legislation and government enforcement were effective, the companies would have to follow suit.

a. Go to any of the companies’ websites that I mentioned before and you will see on all of them a section about Toxic Shock Syndrome, a disease that is related to the absorbency of a tampon and the length of time you leave a tampon inside your body, but not anywhere will you see anything about dioxins.

b. These companies should have an organic option and start putting information on their web pages about the dangers of dioxins.

2. As for the rest of us, our action should be in education. a. As a whole, women’s periods are still a “hush-hush” subject. We all should be talking about it.

Not just mother to daughter, but single father to daughter as well.

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456 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

like Seventh Generation and Natracare are two producers of organic non-chlorine bleached tampons. They are usually found in upscale supermarkets like Whole Foods and Market Street and are more expensive than their dioxin-carrying counterparts. But if we all start asking for them, those big companies may find that they have to change to the new market trends and accommodate us.

c. The more we talk about it in public the more women and young girls will know about the seriousness of not talking and not knowing. We could have a huge impact.

CONCLUSION Today, we have discussed what endometriosis is, the new, dominant cause, dioxins, and what solutions there are. Women are creatures of habit; the products that your mother first bought you, you will buy your growing daughter when the time comes. I believe that the only way to change our current path is through research and education. Laurie Calcaterra, my sister, is currently on her first round of Lupron. Every day is a new experience for her. Between the mood swings, bone pain, and night sweats, she is learning how to make her way through this ordeal. Let’s all be a part of the solution so that cases like Laurie’s become a thing of the past.

REFERENCES 1. Beaudin, M. (2008, November 10). Time of the month revisited; ‘Women look at the DivaCup like it fell from

outer space,’ but reusable feminine hygiene products earn good reviews – and converts – among a group of local women. The Gazette (Montreal). Retrieved from http://thegazette.canwest.com.

2. DeVito, M.J., & Schecter, A. (2009, January 27). Exposure assessment to dioxins from the use of tampons and diapers. Environmental Health Perspectives, 1(1), 23-28. Retrieved from http://www.endometriosisassn.org.

3. The Irish Times. (2009, July 21). East meets west for treatment of endometriosis. 4. Proctor & Gamble yearend financial report (unaudited). (2008, December 22). Retrieved from

http://www.pg.com/investors/annualreport2008/financials. 5. U.S. EPA. (2009, September 22). Risk characterization of dioxin and related compounds—Draft Dioxin

Reassessment. Washington D.C., Bureau of National Affairs. Retrieved from http://www.endometriosisassn.org. 6. U.S. Food and Drug Administration Report. (2009, January 17). Tampons, asbestos, dioxin & toxic shock

syndrome. Retrieved from http://www.endometriosisassn.org. 7. Yadegaran, J. (2009, February 20). Endometriosis a painful, puzzling reproductive disease. Contra Costa

Times (Walnut Creek, California). Retrieved from http://www.contracostatimes.com.

b. There are some alternative products out there. Neither are these organic products advertised nor are they readily available, but we can all start asking for them at our local grocery stores. Products

FIGURE 14.13c Sample persuasive outline for an oral presentation (Continued )

Persuasive Reports Persuasive reports are often referred to as analytical reports because they do more than just present data and information on a problem; they also analyze the problem and offer suggested solutions in the form of recommendations. Although reports differ in specific topics included, effective persuasive reports include a form of the following:

● A problem section clearly defining the problem. Not only should the prob- lem be clearly stated and demonstrated through prior research and quality sources, but you will also want to conclude this section with a statement of

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CHAPTER 14 POLISHING YOUR WRITTEN COMMUNICATION 457

purpose giving the goal of your report and its scope or boundaries. This is especially difficult when there are multiple closely related problems—you will want to limit your report to a manageable size.

● A methods section describing how the information was collected. When re- searching for information, include only credible Internet sites such as gov- ernment or organization sites, electronic databases such as Lexis-Nexis or ABI/Inform, first-hand surveys you plan to conduct by mail, telephone, or personal interviews, and other collection methods.

● A results section describing the data and information collected with explanatory charts and graphs to simplify data.

● A conclusions and recommendations section listing and explaining all recommendations.

● A reference section listing the sources used in APA or MLA style. ● Additional items: If your report is formal, you may want to add a title page

(including title, names of participants, and date), table of contents (in- cluding headings with page numbers and a list of tables and figures), and even an abstract or synopsis (placed at the beginning; briefly includes the problem, the process followed, and the conclusions and recommendations that were reached).

For a sample persuasive report, check out Figure 14.14, which shows the first part of most pages. To read the entire report, go to the CourseMate Website for Communicating for Results.

Report presented during business videoconference.

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FIGURE 14.14a Sample persuasive report

The Crippling Effect of Endometriosis: What Industry and Individuals Can Do To Minimize It

Prepared by Rebecca DeCamp February, 2010

INTRODUCTION At the age of 26, Laurie Calcaterra was ready to start a family but, after a few years of trying, she was unable to conceive. Laurie started having pelvic pain that the doctors couldn’t figure out. The pain was severe and caused her to miss work on the days surrounding her periods. Finally, one day, she was in so much pain her husband rushed her to the emergency room. After an ultrasound, the doctors discovered that she had a large cyst on her right ovary. Taken directly to surgery, they found that Laurie had severe endometriosis. The chances are that you know someone with endometriosis because nearly 5.5 million women in the United States experience its painful effects according to The Contra Costa Times of Walnut Creek California (February 20, 2009). This is twice the number of patients with Alzheimer’s and seven times as many as those with Parkinson’s.

PROBLEM No one wants to experience or stand by while others experience the excruciating pain involved with endometriosis. I certainly don’t—Laurie is my sister and watching her painful struggle led me to be- gin researching this problem and to begin searching for a cure. As this report will show, there appears to be no effective cure for endometriosis, but one of the causes of endometriosis is something that can be changed with action on the part of government, industry, and individuals. To help us understand the affects of endometriosis, this report will include:

A clear definition of endometriosis. A look at current, ineffective cures for endometriosis. A new, startling cause of endometriosis. Why involved industries are not taking corrective action. Recommendations that may save young women from endometriosis in the future.

FACTS & RESULTS The following facts and results are based on current research (see list of sources at the end of the report) and validated through discussions with Laurie’s doctors and five other women with endometriosis.

Endometriosis Defined According to the July 21, 2009 Irish Times, endometriosis is a condition in which cells from the lining of the womb travel to other parts of the body, and often adhere to the ovaries, fallopian tubes and abdominal cavity.

1. These patches respond to the hormones of the menstrual cycle and each month they thicken, build up with blood, and then break down.

2. Unlike the lining of the womb, these cells have nowhere to go and can cause damage, like inflam- mation, internal scarring, and adhesions.

3. The most common symptoms include increasing levels of pain before and during periods, unusu- ally long and heavy periods, painful urination, inability to have intercourse, and in most cases, infertility.

If you are thinking that these symptoms sound like normal period pain or “cramps,” you would be wrong. Let me assure you that women with endometriosis are in pain well beyond the normal limits.

1. During their periods, women with endometriosis usually don’t move around much. The increasing levels of pain manifest into days that they are unable to walk.

2. If it isn’t the pain that has these women stay home, then it is the heavy bleeding that keeps them close to a bathroom. In many cases they change a tampon or pad every thirty minutes as opposed to every 4 to 6 hours.

3. Endometriosis can cause differing amounts of pain depending on where the adhesions are located. There may be only a little on a sensitive internal organ that can cause severe pain, but there can also be internal scarring that attaches the organs together sometimes causing the uterus to com- pletely flip over.

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CHAPTER 14 POLISHING YOUR WRITTEN COMMUNICATION 459

Ineffective Cures for Endometriosis What is the cure for her disease? Certainly one thinks there must be some good medical research go- ing on to prevent a disease of this magnitude. Currently, there is no cure. Women with endometriosis are given only three options.

1. One ineffective cure to endometriosis includes taking continuous birth control, which prevents a period at all, causes many side effects, and doesn’t help when a couple is trying to conceive.

2. For later stages of endometriosis, there is a shot doctors can administer that is called Lupron, which shuts down estrogen production and causes your body to go into early menopause. Lupron has its own set of side effects, like early osteoporosis and growth of facial hair.

3. The third ineffective option is having a hysterectomy, which is the complete removal of a woman’s uterus and ovaries. Surprisingly, after a hysterectomy, some women still suffer from the pain of adhesions not removed from the abdominal cavity.

A Startling Cause of Endometriosis Surprisingly, dioxins in feminine hygiene products appear to contribute to endometriosis. According to the EPA on September 22, 2009, dioxins are an accidental byproduct of a multitude of industrial processes in which chlorine is present—such as chemical and plastics manufacturing, pesticide and herbicide production, and pulp and paper bleaching. This may seem like something that wouldn’t af- fect anyone that doesn’t live directly by an industrial plant that produces these products, but feminine hygiene products, tampons, and sanitary pads are created using these processes and are used by women once a month.

1. According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration on January 27, 2009, tampons and sanitary pads made from rayon or bleached cotton contain low levels of dioxins.

2. These levels of dioxins are tested in parts per trillion, so the risk was originally thought to be low. The National Institutes of Health has been researching health risks to women, including counts of endometriosis from the presence of dioxins.

3. Researchers found that dioxins build up in the body over time in a process of bioaccumulation and are concentrated in fatty tissues. If the National Institutes of Health know about this, why are these dioxins still allowed in our most sensitive feminine hygiene products?

Why Involved Industries Are Not Taking Corrective Action It appears that companies that produce and sell tampons and sanitary pads are not taking corrective action because of the money being made on these products.

1. Proctor & Gamble reported that the Tampax brand is one of their half-billion dollar brands in their 2008 yearend report.

2. “Let’s do the math” says in the November 10, 2008 The Gazette from Montreal, “If a woman used four tampons and four pads per day, five days a month for about 35 years, that adds up to 16,800 tampons and pads…” Now, for a woman with endometriosis, changing every half hour for even 12 hours results in 24 tampons and pads for five days for 35 years…this adds up to 50,400 tampons and pads.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Millions of women experience the crippling pain of endometriosis. Although there is no effective cure, there is a cause of endometriosis that could be eradicated if the companies that produce and sell tampons and sanitary pads would remove all traces of dioxins from these products. Immediate action is needed from the companies that make sanitary products, our government, and the Ameri- can public.

Action needed by Industry Companies are not unaware of the effects of dioxins; they have chosen to ignore them. Go to any of the companies’ websites (mentioned above) and you will see on all of them a section about Toxic Shock Syndrome, a disease that is related to the absorbency of a tampon and the length of time a tampon remains inside a woman’s body. However, nowhere will you see anything about the dangers of dioxins. It is past time for the tampon and sanitary pad industry to take responsibility for their role in contributing to endometriosis, to post information about the dangers of dioxins, and offer organic, non-chlorine bleached tampons and sanitary pads.

FIGURE 14.14b Sample persuasive report (Continued )

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460 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Action Needed by Government If the sanitary product industry refuses to do what is right, the federal government must step in. As stated in our very own Constitution, our government is here to “establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity.”

1. In January 2003, Congress introduced legislation about health risks to women from Toxic Shock Syndrome. This legislation does not include information on dioxins. This legislation needs revision.

2. Rules, or legislation, don’t make one bit of difference if they are not enforced. The USFDA was put in place to make sure those ingredients, purposefully in a product or not, are safe for use.

3. The National Center for Toxicological Research has a goal to “Strengthen and improve sci- entific and human capital management and expand training and outreach to retain and train scientific experts critical to address FDA’s scientific needs” as reported on their website last updated on July 10, 2009.

Action Needed from American Public We can’t just stand by and hope that industries and the government will take the appropriate action. Now that we are informed of the problem, cause, and possible solution, we need to inform others.

1. As a whole, women’s periods are still a “hush-hush” subject. We all should be talking about it. Not just mother to daughter, but single father to daughter, and in the larger public arena as well.

2. There are some alternative products out there. Although these organic products are not advertised or readily available, they will be if we start asking for them at our local grocery stores. Products like Seventh Generation and Natracare are two producers of organic, non-chlorine bleached tampons. They are usually found in upscale supermarkets like Whole Foods and Market Street and are more expensive than the products that contain dioxins. But if we all start asking for them, industries may find that they have to change to the new market trends and accommodate us.

3. The more we talk about it in public the more women and young girls will know about the serious- ness of dioxins and endometriosis. We, the American public, could make a huge impact.

SUMMARY This report has included what endometriosis is, ineffective cures, a new, startling cause—dioxins,

why industries are not removing these dioxins from tampons and sanitary pads, and needed actions. Women are creatures of habit; the products that your mother first bought you, you will buy your

growing daughter when the time comes. I believe that the only way to change our current path is through research and education. Laurie

Calcaterra, my sister, is currently on her first round of Lupron. Every day is a new experience for her. Between the mood swings, bone pain, and night sweats, she is learning how to make her way through this ordeal. Let’s all be a part of the solution so that cases like Laurie’s become a thing of the past.

REFERENCES

1. Beaudin, M. (2008, November 10). Time of the month revisited; ‘Women look at the DivaCup like it fell from outer space,’ but reusable feminine hygiene products earn good reviews – and converts – among a group of local women. The Gazette (Montreal). Retrieved from http://thegazette .canwest.com http://thegazette.canwest.com.

3. The Irish Times. (2009, July 21). East meets west for treatment of endometriosis. 4. Proctor & Gamble yearend financial report (unaudited). (2008, December 22). Retrieved from

http://www.pg.com/investors/annualreport2008/financials http://www.pg.com/investors/annualreport2008/financials.

5. U.S. EPA. (2009, September 22). Risk characterization of dioxin and related compounds—Draft Dioxin Reassessment. Washington D.C., Bureau of National Affairs. Retrieved from http://www.endometriosisassn.org http://www.endometriosisassn.org.

6. U.S. Food and Drug Administration Report. (2009, January 17). Tampons, asbestos, dioxin & toxic shock syndrome. Retrieved from http://www.endometriosisassn.org http://www.endometriosisassn.org.

7. Yadegaran, J. (2009, February 20). Endometriosis a painful, puzzling reproductive disease. Contra Costa Times (Walnut Creek, California). Retrieved from http://www.contracostatimes.com http:// www.contracostatimes.com.

FIGURE 14.14c Sample persuasive report (Continued )

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CHAPTER REVIEW14 KEY TERMS definition (445) description (445) Dispute-Exacerbating Model

of Email (438) distortion (437) email (437) exaggeration (437)

explanation (445) fidelity (446) follow-up letter (440) formatting (436) keyword summary (442) narration (446) outline (446)

plagiarism (437) probability (446) qualifications summary (442) thank-you letter (439) typeface (436)

SUMMARY In this chapter, we discussed how to polish a variety of written communication projects that you will find in today’s workplace, including email; resumes, cover letters, and thank-you letters; in- formative letters and reports; and persuasive or sales letters and

reports. Effective written communication adapts to the audience, makes a good first impression, is effectively organized, and looks professional regardless of what specific type it is. The more you practice, the better your writing will become.

Check your understanding of Chapter 14 at the Speech Commu- nication CourseMate for Communicating for Results. CourseMate gives you quick and easy access to this text’s resources to help improve your communication skills and prepare you for quizzes and exams. These resources include: ● Study tools including the student companion workbook,

digital glossary, flashcards, and review quizzes. ● Activities and assignments including Awareness Checks,

Checkpoints, and Collaborative Learning Activities. ● Media resources such as Web Links (explore communication

concepts); Speech Builder Express (develop your speech

outlines); Interactive Video Activities (watch and critique videos of professional communication situations and sample speeches); and Speech Studio (upload your speech videos for peer reviewing and critique other students’ speeches).

For more information or to access this book’s online resources, visit cengagebrain.com.

Collaborative Learning Activities 1. Career Activity: In small groups have each group mem-

ber bring three or four email messages received either at home or at work. At least one of these email messages

COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS ONLINE

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should be one that caused the member to get angry or be confused. As a group, read through all the email samples and select one that was the worst written and one that was the best written. Make a list of what made each email ef- fective or ineffective. Last, take the worst-written email and have each group member rewrite it into an acceptable format. Select the best of all those written and discuss what makes it the best. Be prepared to share your examples with other groups.

2. Divide into groups of four to six members. Each member should prepare a conventional, paper resume and print enough copies for each person in the group. As a group, look at each resume and do the following:

a. Select the two that are the most likely to grab the im- mediate attention of the interviewer. Why are they more impressive than the other resumes? Be specific and list at least four reasons.

b. Which resume is the easiest to read? Specifically, why is it easier to read than the other resumes? Be specific.

c. Which resume provides more than basic information, and why was it best? Be specific.

d. Look at the areas of knowledge, educational highlights, and keyword summary sections when used. Select the best in each category and discuss why it was outstanding.

e. Select the best overall resume and be prepared to share it with the class or other groups saying why it was best.

3. In teams, select a problem on campus or in the community. Research the problem and prepare a persuasive report with recommendations. Prepare a formal copy of the report to turn in to your professor. Also, plan to give a 5- to 7-minute team presentation using PowerPoint slides that describes your problem, process, results, and recommendations. Make sure that all team members play a role in research and preparation of both the report and the presentation.

4. In teams, prepare a 200- to 300-word informative report on a topic you deal with regularly. Prepare a formal copy of the report with visual aids to turn in to your professor. Be prepared to present your report to other groups.

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Answers to Awareness Check Quizzes

CHAPTER 1 COMMUNICATOR QUIZ (PAGE 21) Results: If you have 7 or more A answers, you are an outstanding communicator. If you have 7 or more A + B answers, you are an average communicator. If you have 7 or more C answers, you need immediate im- provement. Begin by rereading Chapter 1.

CHAPTER 2 ORGANIZATION MODELS (PAGE 41) 1. E (transformational); 2. A (traditional); 3. D (systems/ contingency); 4. F (none of these); 5. B (human relations); 6. C (human resources)

CHAPTER 3 STYLES SURVEY—SHORT FORM (PAGE 85)

Results: Add the points from 7 and 8: total = Open Style. Add the points from 5 and 6: total = Sociable Style. Add the points from 3 and 4: total = Dominant Style. Add the points from 1 and 2: total = Private Style. Analysis: Your largest total represents the communication style you use when things are going smoothly. The next larg- est total (or two totals if the scores are very close) is the style or styles you jump back to under stress.

COMMUNICATOR STYLES (PAGE 93) 1. A (private); 2 B (Dominant); 3. D (open); 4. C (sociable); 5. B and D (Dominant and open); 6. C (Sociable); 7. B (Dominant); 8. D (open); 9. C (sociable); 10. A (Private)

CHAPTER 4 LISTENING SKILLS (PAGE 111) If you answered “yes” or “sometimes” on less than three questions, you perceive yourself to be a good listener. If you answered “yes” or “sometimes” on three to six ques- tions, you are an average listener. If you answered “yes” or “sometimes” on seven or more questions, you need immediate improvement of your listening skills.

GENDER BARRIERS (PAGE 123) 1. Men. Despite the folklore that women talk more,

research shows that in the classroom and the work- place, men talk more than women (Mulac, 2006). In one experiment, male and female subjects were asked to orally describe pictures. The women’s average description was approximately 3 minutes, while the average time for men was 13 minutes. Deborah Tannen (1994) reports a study of seven university faculty meetings that concluded that men “spoke more often

and, without exception, spoke longer. . . . The longest contribution by a woman was still shorter than the shortest contribution by a man” (pp. 278–280).

2. Women. Women generally tend to be more profi- cient than men at nonverbal decoding (Wagner et al., 1993). In a meta-analysis of 61 relevant studies, J. A. Hall (1979; 1984) found that women were more accu- rate decoders than men. Women’s success at decoding may be due to the high priority they tend to place on relationship development.

3. Same. Past research was inconclusive, but leaned to- ward women using more tag questions (Mulac, 2006) either in a nonassertive, hedging style, or to exhibit po- liteness. Palomares (2008) found that use of tentative- ness depends on the topic of discussion—men are more tentative when the topic is feminine; women are more tentative when the topic is masculine; when the topic is gender-neutral, both men and women are equally ten- tative. Calnan and Davidson (1998) found that pow- erful people of either gender use tags more often than powerless people, and they use them to confirm, sup- port, or soften their verbal comments. Because of the importance of teams in today’s work environment, tag questions would seem to be valuable tools (McCowen, 1989)—they leave “open the door for others to respond and express their opinions” (Wood, 2009, p. 130).

4. Men. According to Julia Wood, communication rules taught during child play differ for men and women. Females are encouraged to develop interpersonal connections with others whereas males are encour- aged to develop “independence and status” (Wood, 2009, p. 238). As a result, women tend to use talk cooperatively—“and regard communication as a pri- mary way to establish and maintain relationships with others”—whereas men tend to use talk competitively— “and regard communication” as an arena for proving oneself and negotiating prestige” (p. 128–130).

5. Women. Women work much harder than men to maintain a discussion: They initiate more topics than men (Fishman, 1978), and show attention and inter- est by using listening responses such as “Tell me more” or “How was your day?” (Wood, 2009, p. 129). Men, on the other hand, are less likely to be responsive and may even “kill” topics by failing to respond or by giving only minimal response cues, such as, “yeah” or “um” or “uh-huh” (Guerrero et al., 2006; Maltz & Borker, 1982). Such minimal response cues signal lack of involvement to women. Julia Wood (2009) attributes these gender differences to the cultural rules each is taught while young: Women are taught the importance of empathy and support; men generally are not.

6. Men. Researchers found that men are more likely to interrupt others (Borisoff & Merrill, 1992; Mulac et al., 1988) and are especially likely to interrupt women

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(Borisoff & Merrill, 1992). Judy Pearson and colleagues paired men and women and found that men inter- rupting women accounted for 96% of all interruptions (Pearson et al., 1991). On the other hand, after review- ing the current research on interrupting behavior, Deborah James and Sandra Clarke (as cited in Tannen, 1994) found the results inconclusive.

7. Men. Although both genders certainly ask questions, Deborah Tannen notes that men tend to be more aware that asking a question is a public statement of lack of knowledge and that they may be judged less capable by those in power—reputation and even career may be af- fected. As a result, men are less likely to ask questions (Tannen, 1994). The problem is illustrated by an intern who received a low grade from her supervising physician:

It took her by surprise because she knew that she was one of the best interns in her group. She asked her supervisor for an explanation, and he replied that she didn’t know as much as the others. She knew from her day-to-day dealings with her peers that she was one of the most knowledgeable, not the least. So she asked what evidence had led him to his conclusion. And he told her, “You ask more questions.” (Tannen, 1994, p. 26)

8. Women. Although 69% of adults consider men and women to be equally good leaders (pewresearch.org, 2008)—women are seen as slightly more supportive and better listeners. In a 2006 study by Copernicus and Brandweek magazine (“Discovery of the Month,” 2006), 57% of the people surveyed considered women to be better listeners. Both male and female subordinates report higher morale and job satisfaction when super- vised by a woman (Rozema & Gray, 1989).

CHAPTER 5 Answers will vary.

NONVERBAL SYMBOLS ACROSS CULTURES (PAGE 158) Situation 1. Africans enjoy parties and usually are happy to reciprocate with parties that include both food and drink. Although your guests may have been surprised by your American-style (drinks only) party, it is doubtful that this was more than a slight influence in this situation. The best answer is probably Answer b. When they get to know you better, you will probably be invited to their homes. Be patient. Situation 2. Although the English managers may be upset that an outsider has been sent to solve one of their prob- lems, eye blinking is not the way the English show unhap- piness. Actually, the British use prolonged eye contact and eye blinking as a way to show that they are paying attention (answer c). Absence of eye contact and eye blinking might be a nonverbal sign that you were not getting through to the managers. Because private offices are rare in England,

the noises Americans make to show they are listening would intrude on nearby conversations almost as much as loud talking. Both are considered examples of extremely poor manners and low class!

CHAPTER 6 FACTS VERSUS INFERENCES (PAGE 188) 1. F The assembly plant is in Taiwan. 2. ? The story does not say whether he was or not. 3. ? It’s not clear whether Barkley was present at the

Skype meeting or not. 4. ? The gender of the managers is not mentioned. 5. T The story says that he did. 6. T That’s what the story says. 7. ? J.R. sent two people to Taiwan—Nguyen and a

translator; however it is not clear that J.R. was male or that Nguyen was a manager.

8. F The story says the person responsible for reporting was a manager.

9. T The story says that the problem was related to scheduling.

10. ? The games could be online games, but they also could be computer or board games.

11. ? The story does not say.

MEANINGS OF TERMS (PAGE 189) Answers will vary.

CHAPTER 7 TYPES OF QUESTIONS (PAGE 216) 1. B (open); 2. E (loaded); 3. D (closed); 4. A (open); 5. H (verbal probe); 6. F (leading); 7. H (verbal probe); 8. B (hypothetical open); 9. C (direct/specific); 10. C (direct/ specific); 11. G (third-person); 12. D (closed)

CHAPTER 8 LAWFUL AND UNLAWFUL QUESTIONS (PAGE 253)

1. Unlawful. Unless absolutely necessary to obtain infor- mation for a preemployment investigation, this ques- tion is unlawful. How can the maiden name of a man’s wife in any way relate to his job qualifications?

2. Lawful. This information is necessary to ensure that the applicant has a legal work permit that allows perma- nent stay in the United States. It is unlawful, however, to ask if a person is a naturalized citizen of the United States or to ask when the person acquired citizenship.

3. Unlawful. Arrest does not necessarily mean conviction. An applicant could have been arrested simply because he or she happened to be driving the same type of car as a reported robbery getaway car. Should this be on the ap- plicant’s record? Unfortunately, some employers might feel that the applicant is suspect, regardless of the reason for the arrest, and refuse employment. It is lawful to ask if the applicant has been convicted of a felony, but this can be used for employment rejection only depending

ANSWERS TO AWARENESS CHECK QUIZZES 465

on the number of convictions, the nature and time of the convictions, and if the conviction is job-related (e.g., if the position requires the employee to be bonded).

4. Questionable. There is probably nothing wrong with asking this question, but if challenged the burden of proof would be on the employer to show that the question was job-related.

5. Unlawful. The Age Discrimination in Employment Act prohibits discrimination against persons between the ages of 40 and 60, and in most cases, to 70 years of age. Because of child protection laws in most states, it is legal (even required) to ask if the ap- plicant is 21 or older. The exact age, however, should not be asked.

6. Unlawful. Both documents contain information that is unlawful to obtain. Even if the employer owned a li- quor store and could not legally hire anyone under the age of 21, the employer could not ask for proof of age in the preemployment interview. Once the applicant has been hired, it is legal to obtain proof of age.

7. Lawful. This information would be job-related if the job requires the applicant to type. The employer may ask the applicant to take a standardized typing test if all applicants are given the same test.

8. Unlawful. This question is unlawful unless the job requires certain physical skills for successful perfor- mance of duties. It would be better to ask, “Do you have any physical or health problems that may affect your job performance?”

9. Questionable. The employer must be able to prove that the question is job related.

10. Lawful. The response would tell of the applicant’s skill and abilities.

11. Lawful. This is necessary to determine an applicant’s qualifications. The employer should request the appli- cant to sign a release form so that the schools in ques- tion may legally release this information.

12. Unlawful. Even men could be discriminated against by this question. Some employers consider a young man who is married to be more stable and therefore a better employee than a young man who is single.

13. Unlawful. Questions referring to pregnancy, marital status, number or names of children, care of children when sick, and other similar questions are illegal be- cause they are mainly used to discriminate against women and are not job related. An employer who is worried that a woman may take off too much time to tend sick children merely needs to ask for the woman’s attendance record for the past year.

14. Lawful. As long as the information is job related, it is lawful. However, to ask how the applicant acquired the ability to speak, read, or write a foreign language is unlawful. If a definite competency level is required, all applicants can be given a language test.

15. Lawful. The response would tell of the applicant’s job- related skills and knowledge.

16. Unlawful. Type of discharge is not job related; neither is the branch of the military in which the applicant served. It is lawful to ask, “Are you a veteran?”

17. Unlawful. This could reveal personal information used to discriminate against the applicant.

18. Unlawful. A photograph could easily be used to dis- criminate against the applicant on the basis of race, sex, age, or national origin. Sometimes, a job applicant will send a photograph even when not requested. Nor- mally it is advisable not to send a photograph because employers aware of federal regulations will separate it from the application and destroy it anyway. Once an applicant has been hired, the company can request a photograph or have the employee photographed.

19. Unlawful. This question could be used to discrimi- nate against an applicant because of his or her reli- gion. However, if the applicant has voluntarily stated religious preferences, the interviewer may ask, “Do you expect to have your religious holidays off?”

20. Lawful. This question is job related if the job requires the operation of machines.

21. Questionable. Asking for names of clubs, lodges, or or- ganizations that relate to sex, race, or religion is unlaw- ful. It is also unlawful to ask if the applicant is or was a member of a fraternity or sorority. However, it is lawful to inquire about any unions or trade or professional or- ganizations that are job related.

22. Unlawful. This is not job related and tends to discrimi- nate against the poor, young, and minority groups. For the same reasons, it is also unlawful to ask if an appli- cant owns a car (unless it’s a job requirement) or has an established credit record.

23. Unlawful. Such personal data are used to discriminate against applicants for the same reasons listed in answer 18. Personal data have rarely proven to be job related. Applicants are not advised to include such data in their resumes or personal data sheets.

24. Unlawful. The Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) prohibits discrimination based on national origin. Areas given special consideration by EEOC and IRCA include discrimination against a person who is foreign looking, who speaks with an accent, who fails to meet company height and weight requirements, and who speaks a language other than English in personal conversations and on breaks.

25. Questionable. Although not actually unlawful, it would be hard for the employer to prove that the applicant’s an- swer was not used in a discriminatory manner. The safest policy would be to omit questions such as this one, or ask, “What types of people do you least like working with?”

CHAPTER 9 USE OF CRITERIA (PAGE 279) 1. A (want); 2. D (operational); 3. D (operational); 4. C (task); B (want); 5. C (task); A (must); 6. D (operational); A (must)

466 ANSWERS TO AWARENESS CHECK QUIZZES

CHAPTER 10 Answers to all Awareness Checks in Chapter 10 will vary depending on personal opinions.

CHAPTER 11 ORGANIZATION PATTERNS (PAGE 335) 1. c (spatial or geographic); 2. a (topical); 3. d (causal); 4. b (chronological); 5. a (chronological); 6. d (causal)

CHAPTER 12 SUPPORTING MATERIALS (PAGE 362) 1. f (expert opinion); 2. d (examples); 3. a (explanation); 4. e (statistics); 5. c (hypothetical illustration); 6. b (figura- tive comparison)

EFFECTIVE VISUAL AIDS (PAGE 389) 1. F (false); 2. F (false); 3. T (true); 4. F (false); 5. T (true); 6. T (true); 7. F (false); 8. T (true); 9. T (true); 10. F (false)

CHAPTER 13 IDENTIFYING BASIC NEEDS (PAGE 409) 1. a (physiological need of sexual attraction); 2. d (esteem need of sense of achievement); 3. d (esteem need of status and prestige); 4. c (social need to give and receive love); 5. e (self-actualization need of being the best person pos- sible); 6. b (safety need of protection from injury).

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Author Index

A Abela, A.V., 353 Abraham, K., 264 Adams, C., 75, 77 Adams, H. R., 115, 116, 122 Adams, J. M., 377 Adams, K., 266, 271, 278 Adams, S., 353 Addington, D. W., 405 Adler, N. J., 157, 269, 270 Adler, R. S., 192 Agarwala-Rogers, R., 43, 55 Aggarwal, P., 112 Aguinis, H., 202, 227, 228 Ajzen, I., 397 Albert, R. D., 269 Albrecht, T., 37 Alesandrini, K. L., 366 Allen, C. T., 115 Allen, G. S., 205 Allen, J. G., 201 Allen, M., 180, 399, 401 Allen, S., 358 Allen. J. W., 75 Alpert, N. M., 181 Alvey, R. J., 305 Amason, A. C., 67, 71 Ambady, N., 122 American Hearing Researach

Foundation, 121 American Management Associa-

tion, 26 American Program Bureau, 316 Anatol, K. W., 43 Andersen, P. A., 123, 140 Angwin, J., 3, 404 Antonoff, M., 366 Applbaum, R. L., 43 Argyle, M., 11, 140 Arkowitz, H., 202 Ashkenas, R., 333, 334 Atkinson, C., 353 Attner, R. F., 205 Augstums, I. M., 17 Aune, K., 243 Avila, R. A., 170, 192 Avilas, J., 22 Avolio, B. J., 307 Axtell, R. E., 136, 137, 142, 143 Ayman, R., 271 Ayres, D. M., 180 Ayres, J., 180, 181

B Babrick, H. P., 365 Babrick, P. O., 365 Bachman, G., 279 Bachner, J., 342 Bahamonde, M., 290 Baker, B., 264 Balfantz, G. L., 176 Ballard, B., 446 Baltes, B. B., 271 Bamford, J., 204

Banas, J. A., 402 Barge, J. K., 300 Barker, D. A., 152 Barker, J., 326 Barker, L., 110, 152 Barker, L. L., 125 Barki, H., 280 Barnard, C. I., 48 Barnett, G. A., 78 Barnlund, D. C., 4, 137 Baron, R. A., 203 Bartimo, L., 35 Bartoo, H., 176 Baskette, F. K., 378 Bass, B., 298 Bass, B. M., 307, 313 Bastianutti, L. M., 280 Baumeister, R. F., 142 Bayer, C. C., 271 Bazarova, N., 309 Beamer, L., 117, 264 Beamer, T., 264 Beatty, M. J., 176, 179, 183 Beebe, S. A., 159, 261 Behling, D. U., 406 Behnke, R. R., 178 Belcher, J., 169 Bell, A., 26 Bell, A. H., 201 Bell, D., 83 Bellavance, F., 280 Bellezza, F. S., 187 Bendapudi, N., 146, 150, 175, 247 Benne, K. D., 294, 295, 299 Bennett, S., 172 Benson, P. L., 146 Bergeron. J., 112 Berman, A., 8 Bernoff, J., 168, 170, 171, 361 Berry, L. L., 146, 150, 175, 247 Berscheid, E., 404 Berson, Y., 307 Bertz, C., 226 Betrus, M., 235 Bettinghaus, E. P., 398 Bezos, J., 263 Binkley, C., 146 Bippus, A. M., 177 Birdwhistell, R. L., 10 Birk, T., 243, 406 Biro, M. M., 129 Bissinger, B., 432 Blake, R., 69 Blanchard, K. H., 57, 305 Blau, P., 37 Block, J. A., 235 Block. G., 360 Bluni, T. D., 153 Bochner, A. P., 81 Bodie, G. D., 183 Bohlken, B., 110 Bohman, H. R., 264 Boland, R., 117 Bolles, R., 205, 227, 228, 229, 246,

247, 248, 252 Bond, M. H., 76, 77

Boone, G., 205 Boor, M., 147 Boorstin, J., 410 Booth-Butterfield, M., 176, 180 Booth-Butterfield, S., 176, 180, 403 Borenstein, S., 260 Bormann, E. G., 9, 16, 406 Bostrom, R. N., 177, 398 Bourhis, J., 180 Bovee, C. L., 14 Boyle, R. C., 110 Boyle, S., 160 Brandel, M., 48, 174 Bray, C., 22 Bredeson, D. A., 24 Breen, B., 247 Brembeck, W. L., 394 Brenner, J., 168, 172 Brethauer, S., 264 Brilhart, J. K., 266 Brinkley, D., 290, 291 Bristow, L., 359 Brockner, J., 19 Brody, M., 126, 423 Brooks, B. S., 378 Brown, C., 264 Brown, J. D., 144 Brown, M., 290 Brown, P. B., 112 Brownell, J., 115, 117, 125, 404 Bruce, S., 192 Bruce, S. D., 202 Bruflat, R., 399 Bruno, A., 75, 77 Bryan, M., 290 Bryden, M. P., 364 Buckingham, M., 57 Buhler, P. M., 202 Buller, D. B., 137, 243 Bumiller, E., 353 Bunge, J., 22 Burgoon, J. K., 11, 137, 141, 146,

149, 154, 159, 242, 243, 406 Burgoon, M., 398 Burke, L. A., 36 Burnett, J. R., 243 Bush, B., 361 Bush, G. W., 136, 361 Butcher, K. R., 364 Butler, J., 176 Buzzanell, P. M., 174 Buzzotta, V. R., 210, 408

C Cacioppo, J. T., 271, 396, 398, 403 Cal, A. V., 398 Caldwell, D., 36 Calero, H. H., 144, 145, 156 Callarman, W. G., 121 Cameron, J., 60 Camposano, S., 181 Caputo, J. S., 81 Carlson, L. T., 110 Carroll, D., 166 Carr-Ruffino, N., 55, 155, 193

Carson, C. L., 88 Cascio, W. F., 202, 227, 228 Casey, E. K., 219 Cash, W. B., Jr., 201, 202, 207,

248, 252 Cashdan, E., 155 Casselman, B., 32 Cassidy, C. M., 57 Castleberry, S., 110 Castleberry, S. B., 112 Caudron, S., 36 Chaiken, S., 403, 405, 453 Chambers, L. W., 264 Champy, C., 39, 58 Chan, A., 137 Chao, E. L., 355 Chaplin, W. F., 144 Chell, E., 79, 80 Chemers, M., 55 Chen, G., 67, 77 Chen, M., 207, 208 Chertoff, M., 290 Chervany, N. L., 80 Choi, S. H., 75 Chollet, F., 181 Chory-Assad, R. M., 80 Christian, D., 130 Chua-Eoan, H., 145 Church, J., 423 Cialdini, R. B., 404, 406 Clampitt, P., 15 Clanton, J., 361 Clanton, N. R., 144 Clark, R. C., 353, 364, 365, 367,

369, 379 Cleveland, J. N., 207 Cody, M. J., 398 Coffman, C., 57 Cohen, A., 19 Cohen, A. R., 398 Cohen, R., 76, 77, 446 Cohen, S. G., 308 Collins, J., 57 Collins-Jarvis, L., 175 Collom, L., 173 Comer, L. B., 126 Conditt, C. M., 179 Conger, J. A., 307 Conklin, F., 406 Conner, B., 122 Conrad, C., 22, 33, 34, 36, 43, 45,

46, 47, 53, 55, 58, 59, 71, 78, 81, 82, 91, 113, 124, 129, 191

Conway, J. A., 385 Cook, K., 331 Cook, M., 150 Cooke, J., 393 Cooper, K., 143, 152 Cooper, L. O., 110 Cooper, W. H., 280 Corvino, F., 360 Couric, K., 177 Couts, A., 404 Covey, S. M. R., 57 Covey, S. R., 111 Cowan, N., 128, 333

497

498 AUTHOR INDEX

Cox, G., 338 Craig, E., 402 Cravens, D., 53, 170 Cravens, D. W., 49, 60, 168 Creel, B., 363 Croucher, S. M., 75, 77 Crowder, R. G., 128 Cummings, L. L., 80 Cunningham, C., 159 Cupach, W. R., 88 Curral, S., 15 Currall, S. C., 72, 73, 169, 438 Curry, C., 22

D Daft, R. L., 12, 33, 36, 46, 53, 55,

59, 79, 91, 172, 264, 293, 307 Dailey, J. C., 279 Dailey, P., 147 Daly, J. A., 176, 177 Damer, T. E., 403 Damhorst, M., 146, 147 Damp, D. V., 228 D’Andrade, R., 10 Dartnell Corporation, 35 Darweesh, L., 145 Davenport, T. H., 174 Davidson, J., 414 Davis, D. C., 262 Davis, D. L., 75 Davis, K., 298 Davis, S., 56 Dawson, K. E., 142 Deal, T. E., 15 Dean, J. W., Jr., 266 Deatrick, L., 402 Decker, B., 413 De Dreu, C. K., 72, 409 Deetz, S., 36, 60 de Janasz, S. C., 244 DeKay, S. H., 12, 432, 433, 437 Delbecq, A. L., 280 deMare, G., 127 Denman-Vitale, S., 183 Denning, L., 32 Dennis, A. R., 280 Dentzer, S., 83 Detz, J., 337 Deutschman, A., 50, 192,

263, 310 de Valck, K., 15 DeVito, J., 419 Dewey, J., 272 Dezember, R., 31 Diacoyanni-Tarlatzis, I., 137 Dickson, G. W., 366, 385 Dickson, M. W., 271 Dickson, W. J., 47 Diehl, L. A., 192 Dillard, J. P., 408 Dimmick, S., 137 Dixon, A. L., 115 Dohahoe, J., 19 Douglas, J., Jr., 136 Dowd, K. O., 244 Downs, C., 15 Drake, J. D., 203

Drollinger, T., 126 DuBois, N. F., 130 Duck, S. W., 81 Duff, D. C., 183 DuFrene, D. D., 235, 238, 245, 440 Dusa, G., 181 Dwyer, K. K., 183

E Eagly, A., 453 Eagly, A. H., 403 Eckrich, D. S., 110 Eden Alternative, 83 Edginton, R,, 3 Edinger, J. A., 154 Edmondson, D., 170 Edmunds, H., 203, 245 Edwards, R., 110, 180 Efrati, A., 226 Ehninger, D., 417 Einhorn, L. J., 244, 246 Eisenberg, E. M., 36, 53, 60, 78 Ekman, P., 137, 140, 143 Elkind, P., 34, 310 Ellard, G., 355 Ellis, A., 183 Elsea, J. G., 320 Enelow, W. S., 230 Ensign, R. L., 229, 230 Erb, G., 8 Erbert, L., 283 Esterl, K., 172 Ethics Resource Center, 167 Ewing, S. E., 338, 339

F Falkenstern, S. K., 183 Farrell, G. M., 294 Fast, J., 142 Fastow, A., 310 Faux, D. D., 377 Fayer, J. M., 176 Fayol, H., 44 Federal Emergency Management

Agency, 290 Feeley, T. H., 78 Felician, O., 181 Fernandez-Araoz, C., 247, 249 Ferrari, B. T., 110, 112 Ferraro, G. P., 9, 117 Ferris, G. P., 243 Festinger, L., 397 Fiedler, F. E., 55, 303, 304 Fill, C., 137 Finkelman, D., 88 Finnigan, D., 173 Fiore, A. M., 146, 147 Fishback, B. W., 152 Fishbein, M., 397 Fisher, A., 78 Fisher, A. B., 122 Fleisher, W. L., 206 Floyd, K., 11, 137, 146, 149, 154 Ford, C. H., 272 Forsythe, S., 147 Foss, K. A., 126, 396, 397

Foster, J., 180 Fox, S., 95 Frackowiak, R., 181 Frank, M. S., 147 Frankel, R. M., 112 Frantz, C., 67, 269 Fraser, B., 169 Freeman, J., 31 Freiberg, J. A., 49 Freiberg, K. L., 49 Frey, J., 446 Frey, L. R., 267 Friedman, R. A., 15, 72, 73, 169,

438 Friedman, T., 39 Friedrich, G. W., 176 Friesen, W. V., 137, 143 Friston, L., 181 Fry, R. W., 246, 247 Frymier, A. B., 178, 344 Fucilla, R., 399 Fulk, J., 175 Fusaro, P. C., 34 Futrell, D., 142

G Gaines, C., 110 Galanes, G. J., 266, 271, 278 Galle, W. P., 115 Gallo, C., 353, 363 Gallupe, R. B., 280 Galss, S., 432 Galupe, B., 280 Ganis, G., 181 Gao, G., 70 Gao, H., 71 Gates, B., 34, 368 Gattiker, U. E., 35 Gay, G., 125 Geddes, D., 123 Gelfand, M. J., 72 Geoff, C., 410 George, J., 24, 25, 263, 264 Getting Smart, 167, 168 Gibson, C. B., 308 Gilbert, D., 31, 32 Gilbert, S., 81 Gillingham, B. L., 264 Gilovich, T., 147 Ginossar, Z., 399 Gioia, D., 26 Gittell, J. H., 49, 73 Gladney. K., 110 Gladwell, M., 50, 57, 137, 142,

150, 153, 228, 336 Glanz, J., 260, 261 Glass, J. L., 174 Glass, S., 432, 436 Glatthorn, A. A., 115, 116, 122 Goby, J., 110 Godin, S., 377 Goethals, G. R., 142 Goland, T., 88 Gold, R., 31, 32 Golden, N., 153 Goldhaber, G. M., 33, 35, 45, 51,

52, 54, 78

Gonzalez, J. L., 157 Goodall, H. L., Jr., 53, 60, 78 Goodson, J. R., 156 Gordon, J., 409 Gordon, N. J., 206 Gore, B., 50 Goree, K., 24 Gorham, J., 159 Goss, B., 127 Graesser, A., 364 Grant, A., 307 Gray, G., 156 Green, B., 393 Green, D. J., 264 Greenberg, J., 25, 26, 53, 55, 56,

60, 174, 203, 304, 306, 307 Green-Hernandez, C., 183 Greenleaf, C. T., 147 Grieshaber, J., 371 Grise, M., 280 Gronbeck, B. E., 417 Grotz, J., 81 Groysberg, B., 247, 249 Gruner, C. R., 337 Guerrero, L. K., 11, 137, 146,

149, 154 Guffey, M. E., 230, 234, 239, 309,

440 Guillen, O., 4 Gundersen, A., 157, 269, 270 Gupta, S., 291 Gurak, L. J., 404, 406 Gustafson, D. H., 280 Gutek, A., 192 Gutek, B. A., 192 Gutowski, C., 403

H Haber, R. N., 365 Hackel, M., 364 Hackman, M. Z., 53, 337 Hadar, U., 181 Haddock, S. M., 169 Hair, J. F., 250, 278, 279 Halahan, M., 122 Halkias, M., 17 Hall, B., 37 Hall, B. J., 78, 117 Hall, E. T., 75, 138, 148,

150, 153 Hall, J. A., 140, 146, 150 Hall, M. R., 75 Halpern, D. F., 364 Hamilton, C., 325, 331, 332, 339,

359, 363, 385, 437 Hamilton, D., 178 Hamilton, S., 344 Hamm, S., 59 Hammer, M., 39, 58 Haney, W. V., 8, 190 Hansen, K., 247 Hansen, M. T., 57 Hansson, T., 138 Hansson, U., 184 Harcourt, J., 36 Hare, R., 310 Harmon, N. A., 267

AUTHOR INDEX 499

Harp, S. F., 369 Harper, R. G., 140 Harrell, M. S., 394 Harrell, T. W., 394 Harris, T. E., 144, 407 Harrison, A. W., 67 Hart, P., 226 Haynes, J., 434 Hazel, H. C., 81 Heath, D., 124 Heerden, I., 290, 291 Heider, F., 127 Heider, K., 137 Heisel, A. D., 179 Heller, R., 13 Hellweg, S. A., 76 Hembrooke, H., 125 Hempel, J., 2 Henley, N., 123 Hensen, N. D., 236 Hersey, P., 305 Hewitt, H., 170 Hirokawa, R., 274 Hirokawa, R. Y., 265, 267, 268, 283 Hishitani, S., 365 Hitt, M. A., 53, 55, 59 Hochman, S. H., 153 Hochwarter, W. A., 67 Hodgson, L., 172 Hoffman, R., 117 Hoffner, E., 181 Hofstede, G., 76 Hogan, G. W., 156 Holcombe, M. W., 372, 381 Hollenbeck, J. R., 14, 15, 37, 58, 301 Holley. F., 110 Holm, J. H., 19 Holschuh, J. P., 332 Holsey, M., 147 Holt, K., 281 Honeycutt, J. M., 180 Hoobler, G. D., 11, 141, 242, 243 Hopf, T. S., 180, 181 Horne, J., 290 Horvat, A., 145 Hoskisson, R. E., 53, 55, 59 Hosman, L. H., 405 House, R., 55 Houston, J., 181 Hovland, C. I., 397, 401 Howell, W. S., 9, 16, 394, 406 Hubbell, A. P., 80 Huber, M., 280 Huckins, A., 75, 77 Hudson, A., 290 Human Resource Institute, 26 Humphrey, J., 419 Humphrey, R. H., 298 Hurst, A., 283 Hutson, D., 110 Hwang, J., 78 Hylmö, A., 174 Hymowitz, C., 36, 275

I Iacocca, L., 340 Ideus, H., 244

Ingham, R., 140 Ingram, T. N., 110, 170, 192 Internet Activities, 168 Inui, T. S., 153 Ireland, R. D., 53, 55, 59 Issac, A. R., 181 Ivancevich, J. M., 41, 56, 269

J Jablin, F. M., 35, 79, 249, 252 Jackson, C. V., 166 Jackson, S. E., 16 Jaffe, G., 353 James, D. L., 137 Janis, I. L., 268, 269 Janus, T., 156 Janusik, L. A., 110 Jarboe, S., 265 Jason, P. G. W., 202 Jen, M., 95 Jin, K., 67, 269 Job Outlook 2012, 317, 394, 445 Jobs, S., 363, 405 Johnson, C., 53 Johnson, D. D., 385 Johnson, D. E., 305 Johnson, D. W., 299 Johnson, F. P., 299 Johnson, K., 57 Johnson, S., 57 Johnston, L. M., 71 Jones, B., 410 Jones, G. R., 24, 25, 263, 264, 266 Jones, J. M., 23, 24 Jones, S., 146 Jourard, S. M., 144 Judge-Ellis, T., 183 Jung, D. L., 307

K Kacmar, K. M., 243 Kagan, D., 291 Kahn, C., 31 Kahn, R. L., 55 Kahneman, D., 409 Kaiser, S. B., 156 Kameda, N., 190 Kamer, F., 174 Kamins, M. A., 401 Kanter, D., 80 Kanter, R. M., 113 Karlin, B. E., 152 Karlins, M., 144 Karmarkar, U. R., 404 Karraker, D. L., 210, 408 Katz, D., 55 Kazoleas, D. C., 399 Keaten, J. A., 183 Keenan, J. P., 181 Kelery, J. E., 243 Kelleher, H., 48, 49 Keller, K., 72 Kellett, J. B., 298 Kelly, C., 219 Kelly, G., 48, 49 Kelly, L., 183

Kelly, T., 50 Keltner, V., 147 Kendon, A., 143 Kennedy, J. G., 142 Kennedy, J. L., 230, 234, 235,

238, 240 Kennedy A. A., 15 Kepner, C. H., 274, 276 Kepner, T., 4 Kerfoot, K. M., 59 Ketcham, H., 151 Keyton, J., 267, 294, 295, 299 Kidwell, R. E., Jr., 239, 244, 393 Kiel, P., 316 Kiesler, S., 37 Kiewra, K. A., 130 Kilmann, R., 69 Kim, H. S., 70 Kimble, C., 308 Kimble, G. A., 180 Kinnick, K. N., 115 Kirk, D., 192 Kirkpatrick, S. A., 298, 299 Kirkwood, W. G., 202, 212, 243 Knapp, M. L., 140, 146, 150 Koballa, T. R., Jr., 399 Koehler, J. W., 43 Konopaske, R., 41, 56, 269 Konrad, M., 192 Korabenick, S. A., 146 Korda, M., 153, 154 Kosslyn, S. M., 129, 181, 332, 353 Kostner, J., 59 Kotchka, C., 364, 383 Kouzes, J. M., 298 Kowinski, W., 152 Kozier, B., 8 Kozinets, R. V., 15 Kramarae, C., 123 Kramer, M., 399 Kramer, M. W., 279 Krames, J. A., 34, 48, 49, 112 Krannich, C., 240 Krannich, R., 240 Kreitner, R., 57 Kreps, G. L., 79, 80 Krewson, C., 152 Kristof, A. L., 242, 243 Kroft, S., 436 Krone, K. J., 79 Kunda, G., 59 Kuo, C. L., 279 Kursmark, L. M., 230 Kuwabara, A. Y., 176

L LaFasto, F. M. J., 292 LaForge, R. W., 170, 192 LaFrance, A., 167 LaGanke, J. S., 271 Laird, S., 172 Lamb, C. W., 250, 278, 279 Lancaster, H., 49 Lane, C., 432 Lane, I. M., 79 Lane, L., 402 Lapakko, D., 10

Laroche, M., 112 Larson, C. E., 292 Larson, C. U., 404 Lashinsky, A., 19 Lawlor, M., 175 Lay, K., 22 Lee, F., 35 Lee, T,, 2 Leech, T., 346 Lefton, R. E., 210, 408 Lehman, C. M., 235, 238, 245, 440 Lehman, J. A., 366, 385 Lemay, E., 115 LeMessurier, W. J., 109, 132–133 Lencioni, P., 68, 309 Lengel, R. H., 12 Lenhart, A., 95 Le Poire, B. A., 149, 242 Lerner, M. A., 11 Lerner, R. M., 146 Leslie, L. M., 72 Lesser, L. M., 416 Levine, L. R., 153 Levine, T. R., 183 Levin-Epstein, A., 208 Lewis, H., 110 Ley, R. G., 364 Li, C., 168, 170, 171, 361 Likert, R., 49 Lilla, K., 172 Lin, S., 70 Lipkin, M., Jr., 153 Lipsman, A., 170 Littlejohn, S. W., 126, 396, 397 Liu, C., 67, 77 Liukin, N., 180 Locke, E. A., 298, 299 Loehr, J., 180 Loewy, D., 234, 239, 309, 440 Logan, C., 115 Louden, A., 398 Love, B., 344 Lowy, S., 78 Loyd, B., 22 Lublin, J. S., 226, 440 Lumsdaine, A. A., 401 Luntz, F. I., 8 Lutz,. B., 171

M Machaver, W., 34 Mack, D., 147 Mackenzie, M. L., 33 Madoff, B., 22, 316 Madoff, P., 22 Maggiani, R., 433 Magner, N., 69 Mahar, L., 55 Maher, K., 228 Malandro, L. A., 152 Maltz, M., 180 Malveaux, S., 291 Manz, C. C., 301 Maraniss, D. A., 393 March, J., 36 Marcic, D., 33, 46, 53, 59, 91, 172,

264, 293, 307

500 AUTHOR INDEX

Marcus, A., 385 Maremont, M., 32 Markopolos, H., 316 Marks, D. F., 180, 181 Marks, L. J., 401 Marsnik, N. C., 120, 128, 364 Marx, E., 157 Maslow, A., 52, 408 Mason, A., 402 Masterson, J. T., 261 Mastropieri, M. A., 187 Matarozzo, J. D., 140 Matteson, M. T., 41, 56, 269 Mauk, J., 403 Maxwell, J. C., 57 Mayer, R. E., 353, 364, 365, 367,

369, 379 Mayo, E., 47 Maysonave, S., 146 McAllister, H. A., 81 McCarthy, C., 174 McCartney, W. W., 121 McClendon, A., 31 McClung, T., 332 McCroskey, J. C., 153, 176,

178, 179, 183, 396, 398, 404, 406

McCusker, C., 409 McDaniel, C., 250, 278, 279 McDaniel, E. R., 138, 145 McGahan, C., 75, 77 McGarvey, R., 172, 181 McGovern, T., 244 McGrath, P., 75, 77 McGregor, D., 49, 51 McGuire, W., 402 McKellips, S., 399 McKerrow, R. E., 417 McKnight, D. H., 80 McLean, B., 34, 310 McMahon, C., 81 McNamara Hilmer, K., 280 McShane, A., 130 Meer, J., 152 Mehrabian, A., 143, 150 Meister, J. C., 129 Merkel, J., 228 Merx, K., 146 Meserve, J., 291 Metz, J., 403 Meyerhoffer, M., 130 Michelsen, M. W., Jr., 146 Miell, D. E., 81 Miles, R., 50 Miller, G. A., 128, 333 Miller, K., 36 Miller, R. M., 34 Miller, W. R., 202 Minkhoo, H., 266 Mirvis, P., 80 Mitchell, T., 55 Molloy, J. T., 153 Monge, P., 36 Monk, C. A., 125 Monroe, A. H., 417 Moore, J. R., 110 Moore, M., 344 Morago G., 145

Morgan, P., 160 Morgenstern, J., 109,

110, 133 Morley, D. D., 398 Morphis, G., 95 Morris, M. H., 75 Morris, W. C., 35, 54 Morrissey, J., 19 Mortensen, E., 353 Motley, M. T., 140, 176 Motowidlo, S. J., 243 Mottet, T. P., 159 Mouton, J., 69 Muchinsky, P. M., 207 Muck, P. M., 84 Mudrack, P. E., 294 Mullen, B., 142 Murphy, K. R., 207 Murrow, E. R., 177 Murtha, R., 67 Mutzabaugh, B., 166

N Nadler, R., 168 Nagin, R., 290 Narine, N., 264 Nash, K. S., 263 National Retail Federation, 24 Navarro, J., 144 Nebergall, R., 397 Nelson, K. A., 25, 26, 27 Nelson, T., 264 Newsom, D., 434 Newstrom, J., 261 Nichols, M., 112, 113 Nichols, R. G., 9, 16, 120,

128, 364 Nickerson, R. S., 365 Nierenberg, G. I., 144 Nisbett, G., 402 Nishids, T., 70 Nist, S. L., 332 Nocera, J., 432, 433 Nohria, N., 247, 249 Noonan, M. C., 174 Northouse, P. G., 307 Norton, C., 331 Novak, W., 340 Nunamaker, J. F., 280

O Oat, J. S., 56 Obama, B., 413 Obama, M., 145 O’Brian, B., 49 O’Keefe, D. J., 398, 399, 403,

404, 419 Olson, J. M., 398 O’Reilly, C., 36 O’Reilly, C. A., 33 O’Rielly, B., 17 Orlitzky, M., 274 Ortiz, J. L., 4 Osborn, A. F., 279 Ostermeier, T. H., 398, 399 O’Sullivan, M., 137

Ouchi, W., 56 Overman, S., 157

P Pace, R., 267, 268 Paivio, A., 365, 366 Palan, E., 95 Palmeri, C., 49 Papageogis, D., 399, 402 Paradi, D., 369 Park, H. S., 183 Parker-Pope, T., 125 Parker-Raley, J., 159 Parton, S. R., 115 Pascula-Leone, A., 181 Pastoor. S., 385 Paterson, S., 22 Patterson, M. L., 154 Paul, I., 2 Pearce, W. B., 81, 406 Pearlson, K., 174 Pedersen, D. J., 273 Peirce, E. R., 192 Penenberg, A. L., 432 Peoples, D. A., 372 Perecman, E., 365 Perry, K., 112 Peters, T. J., 57 Peterson, R. S., 72 Petty, R. E., 271, 396, 398,

403, 406 Petzinger, T., Jr., 58 Pfau, M., 243, 398, 402,

406, 408 Pfeffer, J., 266 Phillips, G. M., 273 Phillips, J. B., 144 Philpott, J. S., 10 Piercy, N., 53, 170 Piercy, N. F., 49, 60, 168 Pinel, J. P. J., 180 Pinsonneault, A., 280 Pitts, L., Jr., 36 Planty, E., 34 Platt, L., 445 Pletcher, B., 178 Plunkett, W. R., 205 Poole, M. S., 22, 33, 34, 36, 43, 45,

46, 53, 55, 58, 59, 71, 78, 81, 82, 91, 113, 124, 129, 191

Pornpitakpan, C., 403 Porter, K., 180 Porter, L. W., 249 Porter, R. E., 76 Porter, R. R., 138, 145 Posner, B. Z., 298 Powell, G. N., 192 Power, C., 266 Powers, V., 205 Pratkanis, A. R., 268 Preston, P., 53, 272 Priester, J. R., 406 Primeauz, R. O., 168 Pryor, B., 176 Purdy, M., 117 Putnam, L. L., 58, 249 Putnam, S. M., 153

Q Quackenbush, R. L., 123 Quinn, A. A., 183 Quinones, E., 446

R Raby, M., 404 Radloff, C. E., 142 Rahim, M., 69 Raice, S., 3, 35, 37, 173,

254, 404 Rain, J. S., 79 Rainey, D., 147 Rains, S. A., 402 Ralston, S. M., 202, 212, 243 Ramsey, R. P., 110 Ray, G. B., 243 Reardon, K. K., 141 Reckford, J., 358 Reed, J. A. P., 147 Reeves, E., 228 Reeves, E. G., 228, 229, 240 Reiffenstein, K., 322 Reilly, R., 22 Reinard, J. C., 399 Reingold, J., 364, 383 Reisner, R., 117 Reivity, L., 338 Remland, M. S., 153, 154, 155 Reuben, D. B., 147 Reynolds, G., 353 Reynolds, J. L., 398 Reynolds, R., 398 Reynolds, R. A., 398 Rhee, P., 264 Rice, R. E., 35 Richerson, V., 36 Richmond, V. P., 153, 176,

178, 183 Richtel, M., 125 Ricks, D. A., 8 Ridnour, R., 112 Rieber, L. J., 377 Riger, S., 191 Riggio, R. E., 307 Riggs, T., 371 Riordan, C. A., 142 Roberts, K. H., 249 Robertson, A. K., 125 Robey, D., 266 Robinett, B., 131 Robinson, J., 115 Roch, S. G., 271 Rockoff, J., 25 Rockwood, K., 264 Roethlisberger, F. J., 47 Rogers, E. M., 43, 55 Rokeach, M., 228, 397 Rollnick, S., 202 Roosevelt, F. D., 159 Rose, S., 208 Rosenberg, R. S., 129, 332 Rosenfeld, P., 142 Rosenthal, B., 2, 169 Roskelley, D., 130 Ross, L. D., 127

AUTHOR INDEX 501

Rost, K., 265 Roter, D. L., 153 Rothfeder, J., 35 Roulin, N. I, 76 Rouner, D., 399 Rowan, K. E., 445, 446 Rowe, P. M., 147, 243 Roy, C. S., 138, 145 Ruettgers, M., 355 Rusch, J. J., 406 Russell, P., 364 Ryan, D. J., 399 Ryfe, D. M., 159

S Salopek, J. J., 110 Salter, C., 83 Samovar, L. A., 76, 138, 145 Sample, K., 264 Sandberg, J., 353 Sandler, B., 191 Sandusky, J., 22 Sashkin, M., 35, 54 Saunders, F., 325, 326 Sawyer, C. R., 178 Sayles, L. R., 299 Scaffidi, N. M., 262 Schab, F. R., 128 Schlender, B., 307 Schneider, B. Z., 244 Schramm, W., 4 Schumer, A. A., 57 Schwamberger, J., 115 Schwartz, H., 56 Schwartz, J., 261 Schwepker, C. H., 110 Schwepker, C. H., Jr., 170, 192 Scrimshaw, N. S., 415 Scruggs, T. E., 187 Segrin, C., 137 Seibold, D. R., 58 Seiler, W. J., 366 Selig, B., 4 Semmler, S. M., 402 Sevon, G., 36 Sewell, C., 112 Shafer, J., 432 Shan, R., 129 Shannon, C., 4 Shapiro, G. L., 9, 16 Sharp, H., Jr., 332 Sharp, S. M., 81 Shaw, A., 113 Sheats, P., 294, 295, 299 Sheffield, F. D., 401 Shelton, H., 353 Shephard, J. M., 26 Shepherd, C. D., 112 Sherberg, M., 210, 408 Sherif, C., 397 Sherif, M., 397 Sherman, M. P., 271 Sherman, S., 58 Shlala, D., 331 Shockley-Zalabak, P., 22, 263,

308, 419 Sias, P., 79

Sias, P. M., 176 Silbett, L. J., 184 Silverman, R. E., 95, 254 Simmons, D. B., 36 Simon, A. M., 122 Simons, T. L., 72 Simonson, I., 19 Simpson, L., 275 Sims, H. P., 266, 301 Sissors, J. Z., 378 Sites in the World, 168 Skilling, J., 22 Slater, M. D., 399 Sleeth, R. G., 298 Smeltzer, L. R., 243, 244 Smith, A., 167, 168, 172 Smith, C., 26 Smith, G., 25, 67 Smith, K., 48, 88, 174 Smith, P. B., 76, 77 Smith, R. G., 405, 406 Smith, R. V., 337, 340, 409 Smith, T. E., 178, 344 Smucker, R., 410 Smucker, T., 410 Snyder, S., 8 Sohi, R. S., 110 Solomon, D., 192 Sommer, R., 150 Sommerhoff, E. W., 175 Sommers-Flanagan, J., 202 Sommers-Flanagan, R., 202 Sorenson, S., 267 Spiegelhoff, M., 399 Sproull, L., 37 SSM Health Care, 53 Stairs, D., 142 Starks, C., 337 Staw, B. M., 19 Steele, F., 90 Stefani, L. A., 76 Steil, L. K., 125, 127 Stein, J. K., 372, 381 Stein, J. L., 144 Steinberg, J., 22 Steiner, D. D., 79 Steiner, J. L., 83 Steinfield, C., 13 Steinfield, C. W., 168 Stelter, B., 2 Stengel, J. R., 115 Stepanek, M., 280 Stephens, G.J., 184 Stephenson, H. B., 412 Stettner, M., 130 Stevens, C. K., 242, 243 Stewart, C. J., 201, 202, 207,

248, 252 Stewart, J., 115, 184 Stewart, M., 153 Stiles, W., 153 Still, D. J., 201, 202 Stogdill, R. M., 298, 313 Stolberg, S. G., 146 Stone, B., 2 Stone, J., 342 Stoop, B. A. M., 202 Stubbins, H., Jr., 109

Suits, A., 75, 77 Sullivan, J., 190 Summerfield, J., 127 Swab, C., 413 Swanborg, R., 115 Swanson, S. L., 404 Szabo, E. A., 402

T Tamaki, J., 193 Tanner, J., 110 Tapscott, D., 78 Taylor, F., 43, 46 Tengler, C. D., 252 Teven, J., 404 Teven, J. J., 159 Thayer, J., 361 Therrien, L., 35 Thill, J. V., 14 Thomas, D., 136 Thomas, D. C., 140 Thomas, J., 3 Thomas, K. W., 69, 71, 73 Thomas, W. H., 83 Thompson, K. R., 67 Thompson, S., 226 Thompson, V. A., 365, 366 Thompson, W. L., 181 Thorne, B., 123 Thornton, M., 145 Tice, D. M., 142 Tice, L., 180 Tichy, N., 58 Tidd, S. T., 72, 73 Timm, P. R., 13 Tindell, K., 205 Ting-Toomey, S., 70, 75 Tiscoll, D., 78 Titsworth, B. S., 332 Tjosvold, D., 67, 77 Tomplins, C., 31 Tormala, Z. L., 404 Tracey, P., 79, 80 Tracey, W. S., 120, 128, 364 Trafton, J. G., 125 Tregoe, B. B., 274, 276 Trend Data-Adults, 167, 168 Trethewey, A., 53, 60, 78 Treviño, L. K., 25, 26, 27 Triandis, H. C., 75, 269 Trope, Y., 399 Trottman, M., 49 Trubisky, P., 70 Tsai, J. C., 72, 73 Tubbs, S. L., 301 Tucker, R. K., 398 Turco, J., 146 Turkle, S., 35 Turner, D., 33 Turner, M. E., 268 Tversky A., 409

U Underhill, J., 402 U.S. Department of Homeland

Security, 290

U.S. Department of Labor, 122 U.S. Equal Employment

Opportunity Commission, 190, 192

Usunier, J., 76

V Valacich, J. S., 280 Van de Ven, A. H., 280 Vangelisti, A. L., 177 Van Maanen, J., 59 Varner, I., 117 Veiga, J. F., 266 Veninga, R. L., 355 Verschoor, C. C., 25 Veruki, P., 244 Vicers, M., 245 Virtural Connection, 308 Vogel, D. R., 366, 385 Vogels, W., 263 Volokh, E., 192 von Bertalanfy, L., 54

W Wagner, J. A., 14, 15, 37,

58, 301 Wagner, V. A., 410 Waitterk, M. J., 36 Waldherr, A., 84 Walker, K. B., 398 Walker, P. M., 173 Wallack, T., 95 Wallis, C., 110 Walters, F., 416 Walters, L., 177 Walther, J. B., 309 Wang, H., 140 Wardell, C., 266 Wartman, S. A., 147 Wasendorf, R., Sr., 22 Waterman, R. H., 57 Watson, K. W., 125,

243, 244 Weaver, R. L., II, 72 Weaver, W., 4 Weber, D. J., 177 Weber, L., 254 Weber, M., 44, 45, 46 Weddle, P. D., 227, 228,

229, 230 Weinstein, B., 228 Weintraub, D., 229 Weitz, B., 110 Welch, J. F., 57 Werner, E. K., 110 Westra, H. A., 202 Whalen, D. J., 402 Wheeless, L. R., 81 Whitcomb, S. B., 234 Whitehead, J. R., 406 Whitma, M., 19 Whitman, M., 114 Whitney, P., 95 Wicklander, D. E., 206 Wiegand, R., 338 Wiens, A. N., 140

502 AUTHOR INDEX

Wilcox, R. P., 403 Wilkins, B. M., 123 Williams, A., 192 Williams, C., 26, 49, 53, 78, 203,

264, 268, 271, 280, 282, 284, 307, 310, 410

Williams, E. A., 406 Williams, M. R., 170, 192 Williams, R., 371, 382, 383 Williams, R. E., 207 Willyerd, K, 129 Wilner, J.S, 15 Wilson, B., 166 Wilson, D. O., 35 Wilson, E., 346 Wilson, G. L., 252 Wimbush, J. C., 26 Wine, S., 4

Winfrey, O., 59, 413 Winn, P., 331 Wiojnicki, A. S., 15 Wise, J. M., 36 Wise, R., 181 Wittlinger, R. P., 365 Wolff, F. I., 120, 128, 364 Wolvin, A. D., 110 Women in U.S.

Management, 122 Wood, J. T., 123, 142, 148,

273, 283 Woodall, W. G., 137 Woodward, J., 54 Woolbright, J., 183 Wooldridge, E. T, III., 353 Worldwide Facts, 46 Worthen, B., 114

Wright, J., 115, 170, 171 Wrobbel, E. D., 213

X Xerox Corporation, 168

Y Yager, J., 78 Yang, J. L., 228 Yang, Z., 70 Yate, M., 229, 230, 235, 240, 245,

246, 247, 248 Yormark, B., 172 Young, D. J., 169 Young, K. S., 273

Young, T. J., 406 Yrle, A. C., 115

Z Zagacki, K. S., 180 Zeiss, R. A., 152 Zelazny, G., 368 Zhang, Y., 176 Zickuhr, K., 167 Zillmann, D., 68 Zima, J. P., 215 Zinczenko, D., 363 Zuckerberg, M., 2 Zulawski, D. E., 206 Zumwalt, E., Jr., 148 Zunin, L., 208, 242 Zunin, N., 208, 242

SUBJECT INDEX 503

Subject Index

A Accommodating strategy, 70, 71 Accounting scandals, 22, 34 Active listening, 292. See also

Listening Adaptors, 143 Ad hominem fallacy, 403 Ad ignoratam fallacy, 403 Ad populum fallacy, 403 Advertising, 404 Agreeableness, 293 Alignment, 383–384 Amazon.com, 60, 263 American Airlines, 203 Anchors, as reference points, 397 Androgynous communicators,

123–124 An Engineer’s Experience with

Listening (case study), 109–110

Anxiety communicator, 176–183 methods to reduce, 177–179,

180–183 situational, 176, 177–179 trait, 176, 179–183 when delivering a speech, 345

Apologies, in speeches, 345 Arguments, presentation of,

401–402 ASCII resumes, 236 Assertion, 399–401 Asynchronous technologies, 271 Attire. See Clothing Attitudes

explanation of, 397 for interviews, 242

Attitudinal biases, 122 Attribution theory, 126, 127 A-type conflict, 67 Audience

analysis of, 319–320, 411 capture attention of, 336–337 involvement of, 409–410 motivating, 337 opinions of, 410 psychological needs of,

407–410 speaker credibility, 403–407 types of, 320–321 for written communication,

433–434 Audiovisual aides, 366–367 Authoritarian leadership style,

300–301 Authority, persuasive technique,

407 Autocratic leadership style, 302 Avoiding strategy, 69, 71

B Baby Boomers generation, 129 Basic problem-solving procedure,

272–283

Begging the question fallacy, 403 Behavioral questions, 247 Beliefs, 397 Bethlehem Steel Company, 43 Biases, attitudinal, 122 Big Five personality factors, 292 Blogrolls, 171 Blogs

company, 115, 170 employee, 170 explanation of, 168, 169–171 inappropriate use of, 95 research using, 329–330 shorthand codes, 12 at Southwest Airlines, 48

Blogsphere, 170 Blog swarms, 170 Board interviews, 203, 204, 245 Body

of informative presentations, 332–336

personal interviews, 330 Body movements, 143–144 Boolean operators, 327 Boomerang effect, 397 Boundary spanners, 55 Brainstorming, 279–280 Brief notes, 130 Bullets, in presentations, 379, 387 Bureaucratic managers, 42 Bureaucratic theorists, 44–46 Business cards, 145 Business casual attire, 146 Business presentations, 395–396 Buzz groups, 423–424 Bypassing, 188–190

C Case studies

Chesapeake Energy Corporation, 31–32

Deception: Journalism and the Law, 432

Dysfunctional Persuasion, 371 An Engineer’s Experience with

Listening, 109–110 Facebook Falters, 2–3 False Information on Resume

Brings Down CEO, 226 Feedback—Is eBay Still

Listening, 19 FEMA Leadership in

Hurricane Katrina Problematic, 290–291

Goldman Sachs Resignation Letter, 66–67

Groupthink and the Columbia Space Shuttle Disaster, 260–261

Harry Markopolos: Why Didn’t Anyone Heed His Warnings? 316–317

Hook em Horns Gesture Causes Problems at 2005 Inauguration, 136

PowerPoint Poisoning? 339 Technology, a Songwriter, and

United Airlines, 166 A True Tale of a Case

Interview Gone Bad, 200–201

Casual confusion syndrome (CCS), 146

Casual pattern of organization, 334

Causal pattern, 414 Cell phones, 167 Central route, 396, 397 Chain of command, 44, 118 Chalkboards, 368 Channel richness, 12 Channels

explanation of, 11–15 selection of, 13–15 word choices, 15

Charismatic leaders, 306, 310 Chesapeake Energy Corporation

(case study), 31–32 Chronemics, 152 Chronological pattern, 334 Chronological resume, 230 Cisco Systems, 58 Citing sources, 331, 363–364,

436–437 Citygroup, 26 Citygroup Center, 109–110 Civil Rights Act (1964), 191 Claim/reason pattern of

organization, 414 Classical model. See Traditional

model Climate, organization’s, 20 Clip art, 370 Closed questions, 211, 213 Closing phase, interviews, 210–

211, 251 Closing thoughts, informative

presentations, 338 Clothing

for employment interviews, 219, 242–244

nonverbal communication and, 146–148

as status symbols, 153 CMC (computer-mediated

communication), 271 Coaching leadership style, 305 Codes, communication

employment interviews, 243 explanation of, 10–11

Cognitive restructuring, 182–183 Collaborating strategy, 70, 72 Collectivistic cultures

explanation of, 74–75 nonverbal communication,

138, 144 Color

in business attire, 147 response to, 151–152 in visual aids, 385–386

Columbia Space Shuttle, 260–261

Combination resume, 230 Commitment

credibility of speaker, 407 on teams, 291–294

Communibiology, 179 Communicate Clearly (Heller), 13 Communication. See also Face-

to-face communication; Nonverbal communication; Workplace communication; Written communication

codes used in, 10–12 computer-mediated, 271 defined, 3–4 ethics and, 22–27 formal, 32–35 generational traits, 129–130 human relations model, 60–61 human resources model, 61 informal, 35–36 oral, 119–120 role of, 2, 3 small group, 262 systems/contingency model,

61 on teams, 291–294 traditional model, 60 transformational model, 61 virtual organizations and

teams, 174–176 Communication codes

employment interviews, 243 explanation of, 10–11

Communication models circular, 5 one-way, 4–5 transaction. See Transaction

model Communication obstacles

anxiety, 176–183 bypassing, 188–190 inadequate preparation,

177–178 jumping to conclusions,

187–188 sample conversation

illustration, 193–196 sexual harassment, 190–193 technology as, 167–176 vague instructions, 183–187

Communication styles business relationships, 82–91 explanation of, 82–84, 91 flexibility in, 96–97 survey on, 84–86, 100–107

Communication technology blogs, 169–171 electronic meetings, 173–176 email, 168–169 explanation of, 167–168 Facebook, 172–173 instant messages, 171–172 Twitter, 172–173 viral events, 174

Communicator anxiety, 176–183 Communicator quiz, 21

503

504 SUBJECT INDEX

Communicators androgynous, 123–124 anxiety in, 176–183 dominant-style, 87–89, 92–93 neurotic dominant, 88 open-style, 90–91, 94–96 private-style, 86–87, 92 sociable, 89–90, 94

Comparative advantages pattern of organization, 415–416

Comparisons, as supporting material, 355–356

Competency, 404, 405–406 Competing strategy, 70, 71 Comprehension, visual aids and,

364–366 Compromise, 72–73, 283 Compromising strategy, 70,

71–72 Computer-mediated

communication (CMC), 271

Conclusions for informative presentations,

338–339 jumping to, 187–188 personal interviews, 330

Confidence, in speakers, 345–346 Conflict management

business relationships, 82–91 choosing strategies, 71–72 communication styles, 82–97 consensus in, 72–73 cultural differences in, 74–78 interpersonal relationships,

78–79 relationships, building and

maintaining, 79–82 strategies for, 68–70

Conflict of interest, 31–32 Conflict strategy, defined, 69 Confrontation interviews,

202–203 Conscientiousness, 294 Consensus, 72–73 Consensus decisions, 283 Consistency, persuasive

technique, 407 Consistency theories, 397 Constant summary, 130 Container Store, 205 Content, of team presentations,

421–422 Context, defined, 75 Contiguity principle, 364 Contingency theory, 55 Contrast, 383 Controlling style, 242–243 Conventional paper resume,

230–234 Coordination, methods in

organizations, 38–39 Counseling interviews, 201–202 Counterpersuasion, 400 Cover letters, 240–241 Coworkers, listening to, 117 Credibility

determining your, 412–413

fraud and, 406–407 of speakers, 337, 360, 363, 366,

403–407 strategies to improve, 407

Criteria effective use of, 278 explanation of, 275–276 types of, 276–277 when to establish, 277–278

Criteria satisfaction pattern of organization, 415

C-type conflict, 67 Cultural diversity and differences

in accommodating strategy, 70 bypassing and, 189–190 communication anxiety, 176 in conflict management, 77–78 frame of reference and, 8–10 greetings, 144–145 management of, 269–270 in nonverbal communication,

136–138, 156–158 on problem solving teams,

269–270 types of conflicts, 67–68 in view of time, 153

Cultural values, 9–10 Culture

collectivistic, 74–75, 138, 144 explanation of, 56–57 high-context, 76, 117 individualistic, 74–75, 138, 144 levels of, 138–139 low-context, 75–76, 117 monochromic, 76, 138 polychromic, 77, 138 time dimension of, 76–77

Culture shock, 156–158 Cummins Engine Company, 53 Curvilinear relationships, 81 Custom bullets, 387 Customers, listening to, 111–113

D Databases, electronic, 328 Dayton-Hudson Corporation, 56 Deception: Journalism and the

Law (case study), 432 Decision making, 131, 272 Decoding, 7–8 Deductive reasoning, 414 Deep breathing, 178 Deere and Company, 59, 266 Definition, 445 Delegating leadership style, 305 Delivery characteristics, 341–345 DEME (dispute exacerbating

model of email), 169, 438 Democratic leadership style, 300,

301, 302 Description, 445 Descriptive feedback, 18 Diagrams, 379 Diamond sequence, for

questions, 218 Dilemmas in communication. See

also Ethical dilemmas

charismatic leadership, 310 cultural norms, 145 generational diversity, 129–130 images in presentations, 369 personal appearance, 219 resumes, 254 teamwork, 284 visual aids, 369

Direct questions, 212–213 Direct supervision, 38 Disclosure

communication styles and, 84 explanation of, 80–81

Dishonest reporting, 432, 437 Disney World, 56 Dispute exacerbating model of

email (DEME), 169, 438 Distance, personal space and,

148–150 Distortion, of facts, 239, 437 Diversity

cultural. See Cultural diversity and differences

generational, 129–130 Division of labor, 44 Dominant-style communicators,

87–89, 92–93 Downward communication,

32–33 Dynamism, 406 Dysfunctional behaviors,

295–296 Dysfunctional Persuasion (case

study), 371

E EBS (electronic brainstorming

systems), 280 e-Commerce, 170 EEOC (Equal Employment

Opportunity Commission), 191, 251, 252

Effective habits, 159–160 Elaboration likelihood model

(ELM), 271, 396, 397 Elderspeak, 8 Electronic aids, 367–368 Electronic billboards, 404 Electronic brainstorming systems

(EBS), 280 Electronic Communications

Privacy Act (1986), 169 Electronic databases, 328 Electronic meetings, 173–176 Eli Lilly, 56 ELM (elaboration likelihood

model), 271, 396, 397 Email

in business setting, 437–438 codes used in, 12 credibility of sender, 403 decoding, 8 explanation of, 168–169, 437 netiquette for, 13, 436 sexual harassment and,

192–193 team use of, 271

word choices in, 15 Email resumes, 236–238 Emotional stability, 294 Emphasis, voice, 343 Employees

ethics and, 24, 26 listening to, 113–115

Employee teams, 53 Employment interviews. See

Interviews Employment market, 227–229 Employment recruiting, 173 Employment search

letter of application, 240–241 locating specific jobs of

interest, 229 methods for, 227–229 resume preparation, 229–239

Empowered teams, 35 Encoding, 7–8 Enron Corporation, 22, 34, 169 Environment

explanation of, 19–20 for interviews, 249 physical, 20, 150–152 social, 20

e-Portfolio, 238–239 Equal Employment Opportunity

Commission (EEOC), 191, 251, 252

Esteem needs, 408 Ethical dilemmas

advertising, 404 blogs as, 95, 174 charismatic leadership, 310 dishonest reporting, 432, 446 executive compensation,

31–32, 34 Internet citations, 331 nonverbal communication, 145 politically-correct speech, 4

Ethics codes of, 24–26 defined, 22 explanation of, 22–27 organizational responses

related to, 24–27 of persuasive presentations,

419–420 public opinion related to,

23–24 rules of, 24 training programs for, 26 traps to avoid, 26 unethical practices, 34

Ethos, 396, 403, 406. See also Credibility

Evaluating stage of listening, 127 Evaluative feedback, 18 Evidence

explanation of, 396–397 factors influencing, 398–399 methods of using, 399–400

Exact purpose statements, 322– 324, 411–412

Exaggeration, of facts, 239, 437 Examples, as supporting material,

357–359

SUBJECT INDEX 505

Exit interviews, 202, 210 Expectancy violations theory,

158–159 Expectations, 79 Expert opinions, as supporting

material, 360–362 Explanations

in informative writing, 445 supporting materials for,

354–355 Extemporaneous speech, 340 External noise, 20 External stimulus, 7 Extroversion, 293 Eye contact

cultural differences in, 140, 142–143

during interviews, 243, 244 meanings associated with,

140–143

F Facebook

explanation of, 172–173 inappropriate use of, 95 prevalence of, 168 privacy issues, 404

Facebook Falters (case study), 2–3

Face-to-face communication channel selection and, 13–15 codes used in, 12 videoconferencing vs., 175 virtual teams vs., 271

Face-to-face meetings, 262, 309–310

Facial expressions explanation of, 140–143 during interviews, 243, 244

Facts, citations for, 363 Facts vs. inferences, 188 Factual illustrations, 356 Fallacious reasoning, 403 False Information on Resume

Brings Down CEO (case study), 226

Fayol’s bridge, 44 Feasibility reports, 319 Federal Emergency Management

Agency (FEMA), 290–291, 297, 305

Federal Express, 53 Federal Trade commission

(FTC), 404, 3 Feedback

advantages of, 15–16 communication styles and, 84 descriptive, 18 disadvantages of, 16 effective use of, 16–19 evaluative, 18 example of, 19 explanation of, 15 giving, 18–19 relationship building and, 80–81

Feedback - Is eBay Still Listening (case study), 19

FEMA. See Federal Emergency Management Agency

FEMA Leadership in Hurricane Katrina Problematic (case study), 290–291

Fiedler’s contingency theory, 53

Figurative comparison, 355 Final summary, 338 First impressions, 434 The Five Dysfunctions of a Team

(Lencioni), 68 Flat organization, 45 Flexibility, 96–97 Flowcharts, 379 Follow-up letters, 440–441 Fonts, for visual aids, 371–372 Forcing strategy, 70, 71 Formal communication

downward, 32–33 explanation of, 32 horizontal, 35 upward, 34–35

Formal level of culture, 139 Formatting, for professional look,

436 Forums, 421 Four ethical rules, 24 Frame of reference, 8–10, 359 Fraud, credibility and, 406–407 Friendly audience, 321 FTC (Federal Trade commission),

3, 404 Functional resume, 230 Function theory, 299 Funnel sequence, for questions,

216–217

G GE Healthcare, 263–264 Gender

personal appearance and, 146–147, 243

reasonable person rule and, 191–192

sexual harassment and, 190–193

status symbols and, 154 Gender barriers, to listening,

122–124 General design principles,

382–385 General Electric, 58, 59 General Motors, 169, 170, 171 Generational diversity, 129–130 Generation X, 129–130 Geographical pattern, 334 Gestures

explanation of, 143–144 of speakers, 343 as status symbols, 154

Global organizations, 117 Goldman Sachs Resignation

Letter (case study), 66–67 Google Plus, 168 Graduate Management

Admission Council, 3

Grapevine communications, 35–36

Graphic visuals, 367, 370, 379–382

Graphs, 381–382 Greetings, 144–145 Grievance interviews, 202–203 Group decision making, 261 Grouphate, 267 Group interviews, 203–205, 245 Group morality, 268 Groups. See also Teams

coordination of, 38–39 discussion, example of,

285–286 maintenance roles, 295 opinion leaders, 410 small groups, 262 task roles, 294 types of, 264

Groupthink, 268–269 Groupthink and the Columbia

Space Shuttle Disaster, (case study), 260–261

H Handouts, 369 Handshakes, 144–145 Haptics, 144 Harassment, sexual, 190–193 Harpo Productions, 59 Harry Markopolos: Why

Didn’t Anyone Heed His Warnings? (case study), 316–317

Hasty generalization fallacy, 403 Hawthorne studies (Western

Electric),, 47 Hearing-impaired people, 176 Hearst Magazine, 59 Hewlett-Packard, 56, 114, 170 Hierarchy of needs, 408–409 High-context cultures, 76, 117 Honeywell, 53 Hook em Horns Gesture

Causes Problems at 2005 Inauguration (case studies), 136

Horizontal communication explanation of, 35 in transformational model, 61

Hostile audience, 321 Hostile interviews, 245 Hostile work environment, 191 Hourglass sequence, for

questions, 217–218 House’s path-goal theory, 53 Hue, 385 Human relations managers, 40 Human relations model

Chester Barnard and, 48 communication in, 60–61 explanation of, 39, 46–47 human resources model vs., 51 Elton Mayo and, 47 in today’s world, 48–49

Human resources managers, 40

Human resources model communication in, 61 explanation of, 39, 49–50 human relations model vs., 51 Theory Y, 51–52 in today’s world, 53

Humor, self-disparaging, 337 Hurricane Katrina (2005), 290–

291, 297, 305 Hybrid resume, 230 Hypothetical illustrations, 357 Hypothetical open questions,

211, 212

I IBM, 172 Illustrations, as supporting

material, 356–359 Imagery

nonverbal, 148 positive, 180–182

Immediacy behaviors, 159 Impression management,

242–244 Impressions, first, 434 Impromptu speaking, 341–342 IMs (instant messages), 171–172 Individualistic cultures

explanation of, 74–75 nonverbal communication,

138, 144 Inductive reasoning, 414 Inference-observation confusion,

187 Informal communication, 35–36 Informal level of culture, 139 Informational interviews,

205–206, 210 Informational writing

explanation of, 445–446 outlines, 446–447 reports, 447–451

Information and communication technologies (ITCs), 46, 81–82

Information-giving interviews, 205

Information-integration theory, 397

Information overload and underload, 33, 34

Information-seeking interviews, 205, 228–229

Informative outlines, 446–447 Informative presentations

audience analysis, 319–321 body of, 332–336 conclusion to, 338–339 delivery of, 340–346 example of, 347–349 explanation of, 317–318, 445 informative samples, 448, 449 introduction to, 336–338 notes and visual aids, 340–341 organization of, 331–340 outline for, 333, 336, 446–447 persuasive vs., 318

506 SUBJECT INDEX

researching, 324–331 topic selection, 321–324 transitions in, 339–340 types of, 318–319

Informative reports, 447–451 Inoculation theory, 402–403 Inside Bureaucracy (Downs), 34 Instant ethos, 406 Instant messages (IMs), 171–172 Instructions, vague, 183–187 Instructive reports, 319 Intel, 56 Internal noise, 20 Internal stimulus, 7 Internet

credibility of sender, 403 fraud, 406–407 grapevine and, 37 job searches and, 229 netiquette, 13 prevalence of, 167–168 as research source, 325–328 sexual harassment and, 192 website designs, 76

Interpersonal relationships. See also Relationships

communication styles and, 82–91

conflicts in, 78–79 between coworkers, 117 elderly individuals, 83 ICTs and, 81–82 listening skills and, 131 reciprocal nature of, 80 trust and respect in, 80–81

Interpreting stage of listening, 126

Interrogation interviews, 206 Interviewees, preparing for

interview, 241–248 Interviewers

conducting interview, 251–255 planning for interview,

249–251 Interviews

attitude for, 242 board, 203, 204, 245 body of, 330 case study of, 200–201 closing phase, 210–211, 251 clothing for, 219, 242–244 communication codes, 243 conclusion phase, 330 confrontational, 202–203 counseling type, 201–202 defined, 201 employment, 202, 225–227 environment for, 249 exit, 202, 210 eye contact during, 243 facial expressions during,

243, 244 follow up to, 248 grievance, 202–203 group, 203–205, 245 hostile, 245 informational, 205–206, 210,

228–229

interrogational, 206 motivational approach,

209–210 nonstructured, 244 nonverbal communication

during, 243–244 opening phase, 208–210, 250 orientation type, 209 panel type, 203, 204, 245 performance, 206–207 personal, 330 personal appearance for,

147, 219 persuasive, 207 phases of, 208–211 planning answers to questions,

246–248 question-response phase, 210,

250–251 questions to ask, 211–220, 248 Skype, 207–208, 221–222 stress type, 245 structured, 244–245 telephone, 207–208 types of, 200–201 video or virtual, 245

Intimate distance, 148 Intranets, 37 Introduction

to informative presentations, 336–338

personal interviews, 330 Inverted funnel sequence, for

questions, 217 Invulnerability, illusion of, 268 ITCs (information and

communication technologies), 46, 81–82

J J. M. Smucker, 410 Job boards, 236 Job hunting, 227–241 Job Outlook 2011, 3 Job satisfaction, clear

expectations of, 79 Johnson & Johnson, 24–25, 58

K Key words, 129–130, 234 Keyword searches, 327 Keyword summary, 234, 442 Kinesics, 140 Kodak, 53

L Laissez-faire leaders, 300,

301–302 Language

encoding, 7–8 verbal code, 10

Language use, by speakers, 344–345

Latitude of acceptance, 397 Latitude of noncommitment, 397

Latitude of rejection, 397 Leadership

authoritarian, 300–301 autocratic, 302 charismatic, 306, 310 democratic, 300, 301, 302 explanation of, 299 laissez-faire, 300, 301–302 responsibilities of, 308–310 styles, 305 on teams, 297 transformational, 306–307

Leadership styles, 300–303 Leadership theories

function, 299 situational, 305–306 situational contingency,

303–304 three-dimension, 300 trait, 297–298

Leading questions, 214 Learning groups, 264 Least preferred coworker (LPC),

303–304 Letters

of application, 240–241 follow-up, 440–441 thank-you, 439–440

Library resources, 328–329 Lighting, 152 Likability, 407 LinkedIn, 168, 173, 228, 246 Listeners. See Audience Listening

barriers to, 121–125 to coworkers, 117 to customers, 111–113 to employees, 113–115 explanation of, 110–111 guidelines to improve,

129–130 improvement techniques,

120–121 to interviewees, 254–255 payoffs to effective, 131 signs of poor, 117–121 skills quiz, 111 stages of, 125–129 to supervisors, 115–116

Literal comparisons, 355 Loaded questions, 213–214 Location of meetings, 20 Lockheed Martin, 26 Logic, 398 Logos, 396, 398 Lose-lose, 73 Low-context cultures, 75–76, 117

M Maintenance roles, 294 Managers, organization models

and, 40 Managing Business Ethics

(Treviño and Nelson), 26 Manuscripts, speaking from, 341 Maps, 380 Markerboards, 368, 371

Mayo Clinic, 146, 150, 174–175 Meetings

electronic, 173–176 environmental factors, 20 face-to-face, 309–310 virtual, 308–309

Meishi case (for business cards), 145

Memory speaking from, 341 visual aids and, 364

Memory stage of listening, 128–129

Memos codes used in, 12 word choices in, 15

Microsoft Corporation, 34, 264 Microsoft PowerPoint, 339,

367–368, 386–388 Millennials generation, 130 Miller Brewing Company, 56–57 Mind guarding, 269 Mobile apps, 404 Models, as visual aids, 369 Monochromic cultures, 76, 138 Monster.com, 115 Motivated sequence, 417 Motivation, 6–7, 209–210, 410 M-time (monochromic),

76, 138 Multimedia aids, 367–368 Multimedia principle, 364 Multiunit organizations, 58 Must criteria, 276 Mutual adjustment, 38 Mutual respect, 80 MySpace, 404 MySQL, 271

N National Association of Colleges

and Employers, 3 Needs

of audience, 411 hierarchy of, 408–409

Netiquette, 13 Networks and networking,

227–228 Neurotic dominant

communicators, 88 Neutral audience, 321 Newell Rubbermaid, 264 Noise, 20–21 Nominal group technique

(NGT), 280–281 Nonfluencies, 405 Nonstructured interviews, 244 Nonverbal communication

body movements, posture, and gestures, 143–144

clothing and personal appearance, 146–148

culture and, 136–138, 156–158 defined, 137 distance and personal space,

148–150 effective habits, 159–160

SUBJECT INDEX 507

expectancy violations theory, 158–159

eye contact, 140–143 facial expressions, 140–143 immediacy behaviors, 159 during interviews, 243–244 overview, 137–138 physical environment,

150–152 skills development, 158–160 of speakers, 342–343 status symbols as, 153–156 time, 152–153 touch, 144–145

Nonverbal cues, 10 Nonverbal imagery, 148 Nonverbal probes, 215 Nonverbal symbols across

cultures, 158 Northwest Airlines, 131 Notes, informative presentations,

340–341

O Objectives (clothing and personal

appearance), 146 Objectivity, 406 Objects, as visual aids, 368–369 Odor, responses to, 152 Office location and size, 153–154 1-800-GOT-JUNK.com, 203 One-way model, 4–5 Online research. See Internet Open discussions, 423 Open-ended questions, 212 Opening phase, interviews,

208–210, 250 Open-mindedness, 292 Openness, 294 Open-style communicators,

90–91, 94–96 Open systems (organizations), 55 Operational criteria, 276 Opinion leaders, 410 Opinions, 396 Oral briefings, 318 Oral communication, 118,

119–120 Oral reports, 319 Organizational communication,

2, 3 Organizational rank, 406 Organizational structure, 44 Organization charts, 379 Organization models

categories of, 39–42 communication differences

in, 60–62 explanation of, 39 human relations, 39, 46–49 human resources, 39, 49–53 management techniques and

assumptions, 40 systems/contingency, 39, 54–57 traditional, 39, 42–46 transformational, 39, 57–60

Organization patterns, 334, 335

Organizations. See also Workplace communication

global, 117 listening in, 111–117 multiunit, 58 standardization in, 38–39 virtual, 59

Orientation, interviews, 209 Outlines

guidelines, 447 informative presentations, 333,

336, 446–447 informative writing, 446–447 persuasive presentations,

417–419 persuasive writings, 453–456

P Pacifying behaviors, 144 Panel interviews, 203, 204, 245 Panel presentations, 421 Paralanguage, 10 Paraphrase

citing source of, 363 defined, 10

Participating leadership style, 305

Path-goal theory, 53 Pathos, 396, 407 Pennsylvania State University, 22 Peregrine Financial Group, 22 Performance, team presentations

and, 422–423 Performance interviews, 206–207 Peripheral route, 396, 397 Personal appearance

interviews and, 243–244 nonverbal communication

and, 146–148 Personal barriers, to listening,

121–122 Personal distance, 148 Personal interviews, 330 Personality types, 293–294 Personalization principle, 367 Personal space, 148–150 Persuasion

audience opinions and, 409–410

in business, 395–396 evidence and logic, 396–403 explanation of, 394 eye contact and facial

expressions, 142 psychological needs of

listeners, 407–410 speaker credibility, 403–407,

412–413 theories of, 396–410

Persuasive interviews, 207 Persuasive presentations

audience analysis, 411 credibility level, 412–413 ethics and, 419–420 organization of, 413–417,

434–435 practice of, 420

purpose and position statement, 411–412

research and evidence, 413 sample of, 424–428 speaker credibility, 403–407,

412–413 team, 420–424 types of, 394–395

Persuasive writing function of, 451–453 outlines, 453–456 reports, 456–460

Phones, mobile, 404 Physical barriers, to listening, 121 Physical environment, 20, 150–152 Physiological needs, 408 Pitch, 343 Plagiarism, 330–331, 436–437 Points (font size), 371–372 Polychromic cultures, 77, 138 Positive imagery, 180–182 Post hoc fallacy, 403 Power, signs of, 155 PowerPoint. See Microsoft

PowerPoint PowerPoint Poisoning? (case

study), 339 Practice, speech, 345 Predetermined criteria, 267 Preparation, inadequate, 177–178 Presentations. See also

Informative presentations; Persuasive presentations

to actuate, 395 to convince, 395 evidence and logic, 396–403 informative samples, 448, 449 organization of, 331–340,

413–417, 434–435 sample of, 424–428 team, 420–424

Pressure, in group thinking, 268 Printed material, for research,

329–330 Private-style communicators,

86–87, 92 Probes, 214–215 Problem solving, 70, 72, 271 Problem-solving panels, 421 Problem-solving pattern, of

presentations, 415 Problem-solving procedures

criteria checklist, 275–278 evaluation of possible

alternatives, 281–282 explanation of, 271–272 listing possible alternatives,

278–281 problem definition, 272–274 research and analysis, 274–275 selecting best alternative, 283

Problem-solving symposium- panels, 421

Problem-solving teams assumptions and opinions

examined by, 267 avoidance of groupthink,

268–269

characteristics of, 265–271 cultural diversity in, 269–270 evaluation of possible

solutions by, 267–268 explanation of, 264 organization of, 265–266 periodic training for, 266–267 virtual operation of, 270–271

Process loss, 38 Procter & Gamble, 53, 115, 383 Progress reports, 319 Proposals, 319 Proxemics, 148 Proximity, 383–384 Psychological distractions, 122 Psychological needs, 407–410 P-time (polychromic), 77, 138 Public distance, 148 Public opinion, on ethics, 23–24 Purpose, exact, 411–412 Putting out fires, 119

Q Q & A discussions, 423 Qualifications summary, 234, 442 Quality circles (QCs), 53 Question-response phase,

interviews, 210, 250–251 Questions

to ask interviewer, 248 behavioral, 247 closed, 211, 213 direct, 212–213 of fact, 273 funnel sequence for, 216–217 hypothetical open, 211, 212 for interviews, 211–220 lawful, 251–254 leading, 214 loaded, 213–214 open-ended, 212 organization of, 215–218 planning answers to, 246–248 of policy, 273 preparing for, 218–220, 246–248 specific, 212–213, 217 standard, 247 third-person, 214 of value, 273 verbal and nonverbal prompts,

215–218 Quid pro quo harassment, 191 Quotations, 363

R Radio communications, codes

used in, 12 RadioShack, 170 Rapport, 208–209 Rate, of speech, 343–344 Rationalization, 268 Reasonable person rule, 191 Reasoning, 403, 414 Receivers

of feedback, 16–18 of messages, 6

508 SUBJECT INDEX

Reciprocal, 80 Reciprocation, 407 Reengineering the Corporation

(Hammer and Champy), 39, 58

Refereed journal articles, 329 Referrals, employee, 228 “Reflections of the Pinto Fires

Case” (Treviño and Nelson), 27

ReGen Technologies LLC, 59 Regulators, 143 Relationships. See also

Interpersonal relationships building and maintaining,

79–82, 246 curvilinear, 81 elderly individuals, 83 explanation of, 78

Repeating information, 119 Repetition, 383 Reports

feasibility, 319 informational, 447–451 instructive, 319 oral, 319 persuasive, 456–460 summary, 319

Research informative presentations,

324–331 problem-solving procedures,

274–275 Respect, 80 Responding stage of listening,

128 Resumes

content and accuracy, 239–240 conventional paper, 230–234,

441–445 email, 236–238 example of, 231–233 information on, 231–234,

443–445 organization of, 442–443 preparation of, 229–239 scannable, 234–236 types of, 230–239

Rockwell International, 56 Room size, responses to, 152 Rule of Three, 228

S Safety needs, 408 Sans serif typeface, 371, 436 SAR method, 247 Saturation, 385 Scannable resumes, 234–236 Scarcity, persuasive technique,

407 Schematic drawings, 379 Scientific managers, 42, 43–44 Search engines, 326 Seating arrangements, 150, 151 Self-actualization needs, 408 Self-censorship, 268 Self-disclosure, 80–81

Self-disparaging humor, 337 Self-fulfilling prophecies, 80 Self-maintenance groups, 264 Self-talk, 182–183 Selling leadership style, 305 Semantic barriers, 124 Senders, 6 Sensing stage of listening,

125–126 Serif typeface, 371, 436 7-Eleven, 35 Sexual harassment, 190–193 Sexual scandals, 22 Situational anxiety, 176, 177–179 Situational contingency theory,

303–304 Situational leadership theory,

305–306 Skills training

listening, 111 nonverbal communication,

158–160 public speaking, 182–183

Skype instant messages, 172 interviews, 207–208, 221–222

Slippery slope fallacy, 403 Small group communication,

262. See also Problem- solving teams

Smartphones, 167, 172 Smoothing strategy, 70, 71 Sociable-style communicators,

89–90, 94 Social distance, 148 Social environment, 20 Social judgment theory, 397 Social media and networking

blogs. See Blogs contacts turned to

relationships, 246 customer comments, 166 customer relationships, 113 employee misuse of, 24, 95 ethics, 24 Facebook. See Facebook grapevine, 36 horizontal communication,

35, 37 human relations model, 48 ICTs, 81–82 instant messages, 171–172 for job hunting, 227–228 LinkedIn, 168, 173, 228, 246 prevalence of, 168 privacy issues, 404 Twitter. See Twitter virtual organizations, 59, 79

Social needs, 408 Social proof, 407 Southwest Airlines, 48–49, 73 Span of control, 44 Spatial pattern, 334 Speakers

credibility, 337, 360, 363, 366, 403–407, 412–413

nonverbal communication of, 342–343

Speaking extemporaneous, 340 impromptu, 341–342 from manuscripts, 341 from memory, 341 from visual aids, 340–341

Speaking notes, 345 Specific questions, 212–213, 217 Speech template, 387–388 Springfield Manufacturing

Corporation, 59 SSM Health Care, 53 Standardization, 38 Standard questions, 247 Statistics, as supporting material,

359–390 Status, methods to convey,

155–156 Status symbols, 153–156 Stereotypes, in group thinking,

268 Stimulated triggers, 6–7 Storyboards, 422 Stress interviews, 245 Structured interviews, 244–245 Stuttering, 344 Submissive style, 242 Summaries, 338 Summary reports, 319 Supervisors, listening to, 115–116 Supporting materials

citing sources, 363–364, 436–437

comparisons, 355–356 defined, 354 example of, 357–359 expert opinions, 360–362 explanations, 354–355 illustrations, 356–359 for informative presentations,

321, 324 purposes of, 354 statistics, 359–360, 363

Supreme Court, U.S., 191 Symposiums, 421 Synchronous technologies, 271 Systematic desensitization, 182 Systems/contingency

managers, 40 Systems/contingency model

communication in, 61 contingency theory and, 55 explanation of, 39, 54 systems theory and, 54–55 in today’s world, 55–57

T Tablet computers, 404 Tall organization, 45 Task criteria, 276 Task roles, 294 Team presentations, 420–424 Teams. See also Groups

commitment and preparation, 291–294

employee, 53 empowered, 35

interactions, example of, 311–312

leader responsibilities, 308–310

leadership, 297–308 member selection, 284 personality types, 293–294 problem-solving. See Problem-

solving teams small group, 262 task and management roles,

294–297 virtual, 270–271

Technical level of culture, 138 Technology, a Songwriter, and

United Airlines (case study), 166

Technology barriers, 124–125 Telecommuters, 174 Telephone communications,

codes used in, 12 Telephone interviews, 207–208 Television communications,

codes used in, 12 Telling leadership style, 305 Terms, meaning of, 189 Texas Instruments, 25–26 Text messaging

codes used in, 12 credibility of sender, 436 decoding, 8 privacy issues, 404

Text visuals, 370 Thank-you cards, 248 Thank-you letters, 439–440 Theory X, 51–52, 56 Theory Y, 51–52 Thesis statement, 337 Third-person questions, 214 Three-dimensional theory, 300 360 degree feedback method, 17 Time

as indicator of status, 154 as nonverbal communication

factor, 76–77, 138, 152–153 Time-motion studies, 43 Time of meetings, 20 Time pattern, 334 Title VI and VII, Civil Rights

Act, 191 Topical pattern, 334 Topics, for informative

presentations, 321–324 Touch, 144–145 Toys “R” Us, 60 Traditionalists generation, 129 Traditional managers, 40 Traditional model

bureaucratic theorists, 44–46

communication in, 60 explanation of, 39, 46 scientific managers, 43–44 in today’s world, 46

Training programs ethics, 26 for problem-solving teams,

266–267

SUBJECT INDEX 509

scientific management, 43–44 skills development, 182–183

Trait anxiety, 176, 179–183 Transaction model

channel and, 11–15 codes and, 10–11 decoding, 7–8 environment and, 19–20 feedback, 15–19 frame of reference, 8–10 motivation, 6–7 noise and, 20–21 overview, 5–6 receivers, 6 senders, 6 stimulated triggers, 6–7

Transformational leaders, 306–307

Transformational managers, 40 Transformational model

communication in, 61 explanation of, 39, 57–58 multiunit organizations, 58 in today’s world, 59–60 virtual organizations and

teams, 59 Transitions, 339–340 True Tale of a Case Interview

Gone Bad (case study), 200–201

Trust, 80 Trustworthiness, 404, 405 Tweets, 329 Twitter

as analogy for presentations, 333–334

customer relationships, 113, 174

explanation of, 172–173 inappropriate use of, 95 prevalence of, 168 shorthand codes, 12

Typeface for visual aids, 371–372, 378 for written communication, 436

U Unanimity, illusion of, 268 Uninterested audience, 321 United Airlines, 166, 264 United Parcel Service (UPS),

46, 79 Upward communication, 34–35 U.S. Armed Services, 264

V Valence, 397 Values, 397 Verbal communication,

importance of, 3 Verbal probes, 214 Verbal supporting materials

comparisons, 355–356 examples, 357–359 expert opinions, 360–362 explanations, 354–355 illustrations, 356–359 statistics, 359–390

Videoconferencing, 174, 207– 208, 262

Video interviews, 245 Videotape, speech, 345 Viral events, 174 Virtual interviews, 245 Virtual job fairs, 229 Virtual meetings, 262, 280,

308–309 Virtual organizations

communications in, 174–176 expectations in, 79 explanation of, 59 social networking and, 59, 79

Virtual teams, 270–271, 308 Visual aids

benefits of, 364–366 color, 385–386 defined, 364 design of, 372–382 design principles, 382–385

examples of, 373–377, 380–382

formula for number of visuals to use, 370

informative presentations, 340–341

Microsoft PowerPoint, 386–388

to reduce anxiety, 179 selection of, 369–372 speaking from, 340–341 for team presentations, 472 type size and typeface,

371–372 types of, 366–369

Visualization, 180–182 Voice, of speakers, 343–344 Volume, voice, 343 Voting, 283

W Wai (Thai bow), 145 Walmart, 192 Want criteria, 276 Weakness, signs of, 155 Web logs. See Blogs Web resumes, 238–239 Website designs, 76. See also

Internet Weight (credibility), 397 Whiteboards, 368, 371 Wildcards, 328 Win-lose, 72–73 Win-win, 73 Wipro, 59 Withdrawal strategy, 69, 71 W.L. Gore & Associates, 50 Words

choices of, 15 identifying key, 129–130

Workplace. See also Organizations

clothing and personal appearance, 146–148

conflicts in. See Conflict management

coordination of people and groups, 38–39

cultural differences in, 77–78 interpersonal relationships,

78–79 organization models, 39–61 sexual harassment in,

190–193 Workplace communication. See

also Communication downward, 32–33 formal, 32–35 horizontal, 35 informal, 35–36 upward, 34–35

The World is Flat (Friedman), 39 Written communication

adapted to audience, 433–434

email messages, 437–438 first impression, 434 formatting and typeface, 436 importance of, 3 informational, 445–460 informative reports,

447–451 letters, 439–441 organization of, 434–435 outlines, informative,

446–447 outlines, persuasive, 453–456 persuasive, 451–453 poor listening and, 119–120 reports, persuasive, 456–460 resumes, 441–445 sources, accuracy of,

436–437 tools to aid understanding,

445–446

Y YouTube, 113

Brief Contents��
Contents��
About the Author��
Preface��
Acknowledgments��
Ch 1: The Communication Process: An Introduction��

As You Read Chapter 1...��
Case Study��
Communication Defined��
Models of Communication: An Overview��
The Basic Transaction Model Expanded��
Communication and Ethics��
Chapter 1: Review��

Ch 2: Communication in the Workplace��

As You Read Chapter 2...��
Case Study��
Communication Inside the Workplace
Coordination of People and Groups��
Organization Models��
Chapter 2: Review��

Ch 3: Conflict, Culture, and Relationships��

As You Read Chapter 3...��
Case Study��
Managing Conflicts in the Workplace��
Cultural Differences in the Workplace��
Interpersonal Relationships in the Workplace��
Chapter 3: Review��

Ch 4: Effective Listening��

As You Read Chapter 4...��
Case Study��
Effective Listening in the Workplace��
Signs of Poor Listening��
Barriers to Good Listening��
Listening Skills: Improvements Lead to Payoffs��
Payoffs of Effective Listening��
Chapter 4: Review��

Ch 5: Nonverbal Communication��

As You Read Chapter 5...��
Case Study��
Nonverbal Communication: Definition, Culture, and Principles��
Types of Nonverbal Communication and Their Effects on Business Communication��
Status Symbols��
Nonverbal Messages and International Business Transactions��
Improving Nonverbal Skills��
Chapter 5: Review��

Ch 6: Overcoming Obstacles to Communication in the Electronic Age��

As You Read Chapter 6...��
Case Study��
Communication Technology��
Communicator Anxiety��
Vague Instructions��
Jumping to Conclusions��
Bypassing��
Sexual Harassment��
Chapter 6: Review��

Ch 7: Basic Information for All Types of Interviews��

As You Read Chapter 7...��
Case Study��
Types of Interviews��
Basic Interview Organization��
Using Questions Effectively in the Interview��
Chapter 7: Review��

Ch 8: The Employment Interview��

As You Read Chapter 8...��
Case Study��
Interviewee: Preparing for the Job Hunt��
Interviewee: Preparing for the Interview��
Interviewer: Planning the Interview��
Interviewer: Conducting the Interview��
Chapter 8: Review��

Ch 9: Small-Group Communication and Problem Solving��

As You Read Chapter 9...��
Case Study��
Definition of a Small Group��
Use and Value of Teams in the Effective Organization��
Characteristics of Effective Problem-Solving Teams��
The Basic Problem-Solving Procedure��
Chapter 9: Review��

Ch 10: Participation and Leadership in Teams��

As You Read Chapter 10...��
Case Study��
Effective Team Participants Have Good Communication Skills��
Effective Team Participants Perform Needed Task and Maintenance Roles��
Effective Team Leadership��
Leader Responsibilities��
Chapter 10: Review��

Ch 11: Informative Presentations: Plan, Research, Organize, and Deliver��

As You Read Chapter 11, Decide How to: ...��
Case Study��
Informative Presentations: Planning��
Informative Presentations: Researching��
Informative Presentations: Organizing��
Informative Presentations: Delivery��
Chapter 11: Review��

Ch 12: Verbal and Visual Supporting Materials��

As You Read Chapter 12...��
Case Study��
Verbal Supporting Materials��
Visual Supporting Materials��
Chapter 12: Review��

Ch 13: Persuasive Presentations: Individual or Team��

As You Read Chapter 13...��
Case Study��
Persuasive Presentations: Definitions and Types��
Persuasive Presentations: Theory��
Persuasive Presentations: Preparation Steps��
Team Presentations��
Chapter 13: Review��

Ch 14: Polishing Your Written Communication��

As You Read Chapter 14...��
Case Study��
Effective Written Communication��
Writing Successful Email Messages��
Writing a Successful Letter��
Writing an Effective Resume��
Writing to Inform��
Chapter 14: Review��

Answers to Awareness Check Quizzes��
References��
Author Index��
Subject Index��