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Criticism may not be agreeable, but it is necessary.
—Winston Churchill
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Revise for global and local concerns.
2. Know how to ask for and get good feedback from a reader.
3. Edit and polish your work.
4. Know where to find resources to ensure that your research paper is properly formatted using APA manu- script and citation style.
8Revising and Finishing the Research Paper
Huntstock/Thinkstock
CHAPTER 8Section 8.1 Revision Is Not Editing
Now that you have a freely written draft of your essay in hand and have given it some shape by working to meet the needs and expectations of your readers, it is time to evaluate what you have written and prepare to rewrite it. Many student writers are used to writing and submitting one draft of their papers. They write what they want to say, read it over, add a couple of lines here and there, change a few words, run spell check, and submit it. This can work well for simple assignments on simple topics, but you are writing a complex essay on a problem with many dimensions about which people may disagree. Consequently, the one-draft-and- clean-up process that may have worked in other writing situations is
unlikely to work well in this one. For this project, you should expect to thoroughly rewrite your essay, perhaps two or more times. You should also expect your ideas to change, develop, and grow between drafts, to rearrange the sequence of sections, and for whole paragraphs (or more) of your essay to drop out and be replaced by entirely new ones.
8.1 Revision Is Not Editing
In order to understand the kinds of changes that are expected of you between your initial draft and the final submission of your research essay, we will start the chapter by discussing the difference between the two main kinds of rewriting: revision and editing.
© Sophie Bassouls/Sygma/Corbis American writer Susan Sontag once said, “I don’t write easily or rapidly. My first draft usually has only a few elements worth keeping. I have to find what those are and build from them and throw out what doesn’t work, or what simply is not alive.”
CHAPTER 8Section 8.1 Revision Is Not Editing
What Do Writers Do When They Revise?
When writers revise, they evaluate how well what they’ve written serves their reader and suits their purpose.
Then they:
• Add • Delete • Replace • Rearrange • Separate • Combine
in order to:
• Clarify • Illustrate/exemplify • Define concepts and terms • Complicate • Qualify • Develop • Extend • Claim • Support • Elaborate • Acknowledge another viewpoint • Make implications explicit.
Editing Versus Revision In revision, you assess, reconsider, and improve the content and organization of your essay. When you edit, you improve the clarity of your work and correct mistakes of tone, grammar, spelling, or logic. Revision goes beyond adding more information, details, or examples to your draft. It entails evaluating your draft to see how well it functions as an artifact of your best thinking on the chosen topic.
Later in this section, we will offer you specific guidelines on how to evaluate your draft to see what changes to make. But for now, you should understand that as you reread your essay in preparation for revision, you should look for both promising moments that can be built on and problematic moments that need to be changed. During your first reading of your draft for revision, it is important not to stop and try to rewrite every time you see an opportunity. Instead, just mark the places where you want to make changes and label the types of change you think you will need to make. For example, when you notice places where ideas are beginning to emerge in kernel form, make a note in the margin, mark- ing them for development. When you see that you have taken a wrong turn and gotten sidetracked into a minor issue, mark that passage for deletion. If you realize that similar ideas are dealt with in different sections of your essay, mark them for rearrangement.
CHAPTER 8Section 8.1 Revision Is Not Editing
When you notice a spot where your examples, sources, or evidence do not support your claims, mark it for replacement with other, better examples, sources, or evidence. If you notice that one of your local purposes remains unfulfilled, mark the section for elabora- tion. Emma’s Draft Marked up for Revision displays how Emma has marked up the paper in preparation for revision.
Draft Marked up for Revision
In Hilary Stouts article posted in The New York Times called, "How Does Technology Affect Kids' Friendships?" she talked to parents, children and a psychologist to get an arrange of perspectives surronding the question. Stouts article provides us with a framework for discussing some of the issues mentioned above. Of the interviewees, Beth Cafferty, a high school Spanish teacher and mother of a 15-year-old daughter discussed how she believes that her daughter is closer with her friends because they are more in contact with each other by texting constantly. However, like others have noticed, Laura Shumaker, a mother of three sons has recently noticed that her 17-year-old son has become "skittish" when forced to have face-to-face interactions. When she asked if he had called his friend to wish him happy birthday he said no, saying that he would post it on his Facebook wall instead. This story also suggests the desire that teen's have to have a popular Facebook page where people are constantly adding posts, commenting on pictures, and liking status' because it shows popularity. Skyler Sierra, an 18-year- old from Colorado, was interviewed in Dan Boyd's chapter of Hanging Out, Messing Around and Geeking Out. Sierra expressed the importance of new media to these teens' social lives when she explained to her mother that, "if you're not on MySpace, you don't exist" (p. 79). For many contemporary teenagers, losing access to social media means losing their whole social world.
On the other hand, to some children technology can allow shy children to have a social life. Robert Wilson was also interviewed in the article, the father of Evan, who is a timid 14-year-old who doesn't participate in a lot of social activities. After watching his eldest son interact with so many friends via Facebook, Robert suggested that Evan sign up and try it. Evan seemed to like Facebook and chat with old friends. These stories allow us to recognize some of the different opinions there are surrounding mobile communication and it's impact on children. Perhaps instead of identifying the effects of mobile communication on all adolescents, we should be more specific and look at the pros and cons on children with different behaviors and personalities. Kenneth J. Gergen credits mobile communications for drawing its users into smaller and tighter groups:
The undermining of face-to-face communities is largely the result of the twentieth century developments in communications technology. . . . At the same time that communication technology has hastened the erosion of civil culture, mobile communications in particular has played a critical role in bringing about transformation. Essentially we are witnessing a shift from civil society to monadic clusters of close relationships. Cell phone technology favors withdrawal from participation in face-to-face communal participation. (p. 273)
In other words, Gergen has recognized that mobile communication devices are shifting the way's communities and cultures interact. Gergen lays the blame with our inabilities to hold conversations and confront people in person on the features of the mobile telephone. However, I don't believe Gergen is correct to summarize the electronic and face-to-face interactions represent a "zero- sum game," where the gains are balanced completely with the losses. As Stout displayed in her article, different people have different opinions based on their various upbringings and beliefs. Stout would suggest that for the children who seem to take advantage of Facebook, like Shumaker's son who wouldn't make a
Both exhibits need ELABORATION
Develop
Develop
Weak Delete + Figure out what these 3 stories mean when taken together
Rewrite, this sounds positive but Gergen’s idea is that those smaller groups are dangerous
vague, delete
Develop This point in my own voice
CHAPTER 8Section 8.1 Revision Is Not Editing
You may notice that Emma’s draft still has some typos and many rough patches. You may have also wondered why she did not mark these issues for correction. Because she knows that her ideas will develop as she rewrites, and that she may yet cut whole paragraphs, there is little point in polishing her writ- ing at this time. As you assess your essay during revision, do not yet worry whether your grammar and spelling are entirely correct, or how well the essay flows. That comes later, in the editing stage. For now, you are concerned with focusing your draft and developing the ideas, examples, and discussions of other researchers’ work so that you can answer your questions, support your thesis, and fulfill the purpose of your essay. As you begin revision, you may not yet know exactly how your changes will play out and your ideas develop, but after the first read-through, you should know where in your draft you need to focus more attention.
In order to do the essential work of revision, you cannot be afraid to make large-scale changes in your draft. Adding or deleting a line or two here and there is unlikely to signifi- cantly improve the quality of thinking in your essay. Remember, improving the quality of the thinking in your draft is the point of revision. You will need to cut or add whole paragraphs and multiparagraph sequences in order to discover your best thinking on the topic. Likewise, you should expect to rearrange your paper to improve the sequence of your local purposes. Writ- ers who leave the structure of their initial draft intact during revision are often reluctant to make the kinds of changes necessary to improve their thinking. So be willing to alter the structure of your essay to suit the needs of the reader to understand your ideas as they develop in revision.
Fotosearch/SuperStock One common mistake writers make is to avoid making large-scale changes. In order to truly revise, you must not be afraid to delete content or make changes to your argument structure.
Whenever you start revising, save a new copy
of your file and make your changes there, leav-
ing a copy of the original file intact in case you
later decide to revert back to an earlier draft.
When you read your draft in preparation for
revision, print it out and mark it up using pen-
cil or pen instead of reading it on the screen,
because the limited real estate of the screen
can make it difficult to get a sense of how
larger sections of the essay come together.
To better understand why we do not rec-
ommend reading on screens for research
purposes, consult the “Keep a Research Note-
book” section of the Appendix.
CHAPTER 8Section 8.1 Revision Is Not Editing
Global Revision Revision takes place on two different levels: global and local. When you are working on global revision, you will want to evaluate how well the structure and content of your essay work to enable you to fulfill the global or overall purpose of your essay. You will remember that the global purpose of your essay explains what outcome you expect your essay to have. Examples of global purposes include filling a gap in knowledge or chal- lenging the conventional wisdom. Refer to Figure 8.1 for the sequence of steps involved in this process.
Before you can start revising globally, you must be clear about your overall purpose for writing. Print out your paper and identify the one or two sentences in your draft that define your overall purpose in writing this research essay. If you cannot find such sen- tences, look at your research project proposal to see what you proposed as the purpose of your essay. If you did not define your purpose there, make a note in the margins of the introduction reminding yourself that your first task in global revision is to define your global purpose. For more on global purposes, including more examples, see Chapter 7.
Figure 8.1: The steps involved in the global revision process
2. Go through your essay paragraph-by-paragraph and make a list of each local purpose
1. Identify your global purpose - look for one or two sentences in your essay that explain your overall purpose in writing
3. Evaluate whether each local purpose contributes to your global purpose to see whether you need to delete, refine, or modify any sections of your essay
5. Evaluate the sequence of local purposes to see how well your essay meets the needs and expectations of your academic reader
4. Evaluate the comprehensiveness of your set of local purposes to see whether you need to add any new sections to your essay
Global Revision
2. Go through your essay paragraph by paragraph and make a list of each local purpose.
1. Identify your global purpose—look for one or two sentences in your essay that explain your overall purpose in writing.
3. Evaluate whether each local purpose contributes to your global purpose to see whether you need to delete, refine, or modify any sections of your essay.
5. Evaluate the sequence of local purposes to see how well your essay meets the needs and expectations of your academic reader.
4. Evaluate the comprehensiveness of your set of local purposes to see whether you need to add any new sections to your essay.
Revising globally requires you to know what all of your local purposes are and the logic by which you have sequenced them. As we discussed in Chapter 7, each small section of your essay should be governed by a local purpose. By “local purpose,” we mean the spe- cific work you expect a particular section to do for a reader. Examples of local purposes include providing and analyzing an example, introducing a concept, or countering the view of another researcher. So the next step in revision is to go through your essay para- graph by paragraph, section by section, to locate and identify the local purpose (not the topic) of each paragraph or section. Ideally, you should be able to locate local purpose–defining sentences in each section of your draft. If you have a hard time identifying the local pur- pose of a paragraph or section, you likely have produced some material that does not
CHAPTER 8Section 8.1 Revision Is Not Editing
yet have a purpose in your essay. Make a note to remind you that that paragraph has no apparent purpose. If you cannot immediately figure out what purpose that section was meant to fulfill, you will need to decide later what purpose it was meant to serve or delete it. Once you have all of the local purposes identified, make a list of all of them in the sequence they occur in the paper. You will use the list to analyze how well the overall (or global) structure of the essay serves your global purpose and meets the needs of the reader. The following is an excerpt from Emma’s global and local purpose analysis of her essay.
Global Purpose: To challenge the conventional wisdom that teens’ use of social network sites is stunt- ing their development.
Intro:
Local Purpose Paras. 1–2: Establish the conventional wisdom about teens’ SNS use.
Local Purpose Paras. 3–4: Assess the uses and limits of the conventional wisdom.
Local Purpose Para. 5: ???? [Need to figure out the purpose of the “Evan” story or move or delete it.]
Local Purpose Para. 6 [NEED TO ADD!!]: Establish the issues I need to address and the essential ques- tions I need to answer to challenge the conventional wisdom.
Local Purpose Para. 7: Convey the simple version of my thesis.
By reducing her essay to its essential purposes, Emma can look beyond all the detail and easily see where she has missed a step in her introduction, and where she has offered an example without making a point about it.
Assess Comprehensiveness As you examine the structure of your essay, look to see whether the entire set of local pur- poses in your essay is comprehensive. To evaluate whether your set of local purposes is “comprehensive,” ask yourself these questions:
1. Does your set of local purposes give your reader everything he or she will need to understand and evaluate your argument? If not, what is missing?
2. Are there missing steps in your chain of logic? 3. Have you failed to consider significant relevant evidence or perspectives? 4. Are there important aspects of the problem that you have not addressed? 5. Are there sections of your essay that do not seem to have a clear purpose?
If your set of local purposes is not comprehensive, you will need to add one or more new local purposes. Write a brief description of each new local purpose you think you will need to add to your essay, and add it to your list of local purposes.
CHAPTER 8Section 8.1 Revision Is Not Editing
Assess the Sequence During global revision, you should also ask whether your reader will be able to make sense of the sequence of local purposes in your essay. Use these questions to evaluate the sequence of your local purposes:
1. Do later local purposes build on ideas, information, or perspectives devel- oped in earlier ones?
2. Do any local purposes seem out of place? 3. Are the connections between local purposes clearly articulated as you transi-
tion between one local purpose and the next? 4. Can the overall purpose of the sequence of local purposes be readily perceived
by your reader?
If you see problems in the sequence of your local purposes, you will need to rearrange them. Once you have your new sequence of local purposes, make a new list of local purposes and assess it to see how well it serves the requirements of your global purpose and the needs of your reader. It is likely that you will discover new gaps and therefore the need to add new local purposes or cut or modify ones that are not functional in the new arrangement.
Once you have decided what global changes you need to make in your essay, go ahead and rewrite a new rough draft attending as best you can only to global concerns. (This advice does not mean that you should ignore the new local ideas that will inevitably come to you as you rewrite. By all means, make some notes to capture those ideas. But, instead of developing your new ideas, return to the work of rearranging your sequence of local purposes and filling in whatever gaps you or a reviewer have perceived.)
Local Revision Once you have a new rough cut of your essay, make a new list of the sequence of local purposes and identify needs for local revision. While in global revision you assessed how your local purposes functioned in an overall sequence, in local revision you assess how well each of your local purposes works as a standalone unit.
To assess each local purpose, ask yourself the following:
1. How well does it fulfill its designated purpose? 2. How well does it convey your best thinking? Is it comprehensive? Does it
represent the problem with enough complexity? Have you represented other writers’ ideas fairly, accurately, and purposefully?
3. Would a reader understand it without further elaboration, clarification, exam- ples, or development?
Once you have identified the places in your draft needing local revision, you will need to begin doing the work of revision. Like global revision, local revision depends on the basic moves of adding, deleting, replacing, and removing. Beyond adding, deleting, rear- ranging, or replacing, you may find yourself needing to revisit your notes on sources or
CHAPTER 8Section 8.1 Revision Is Not Editing
reread the sources themselves. You may even need to do a limited amount of new research to locate one or more new sources to help you fulfill one of your local purposes. If so, go ahead and return briefly to the research and reading stage, but be disciplined. Target your research, read selectively, and return to revising as quickly as you can. You should also be aware that changes you make revising one local purpose can have consequences for another local purpose or your global purpose. You may have to make changes to other sections of your paper as a result.
After you have completed one round of global and local revision, you should reassess your draft to see how well it delivers what you intended it to by completing the activities in the global and local revision sections again. After you have determined that your essay says most of what you mean it to, use the following assessment guide to gauge the content and organization of your essay from a reader’s point of view.
Assess From A Reader’s Point of View
Introduction—Can your reader:
1. Understand the nature of the problem or issue under study in your essay? 2. Identify and understand the main threads of the scholarly conversation you intend to join? 3. Identify and understand the global purpose of the essay? 4. Identify and understand your essential and supporting questions? 5. Identify and understand your thesis? 6. Find and use your roadmap?
Body—Can your reader:
1. Identify the local purpose of each section and understand how it contributes to the global pur- pose? Is each local purpose carried out and completed well enough?
2. Make sense of the examples and exhibits in the body of the essay, and thereby, understand your argument?
3. Locate the place in each body section where you explicitly connect it back to the previous section?
4. Locate the place in each body section where you explicitly connect it forward to the next section?
5. See you engage other writers in conversation, or are other writers used only for proof or as straw men whose arguments you simplify in order to contradict?
Conclusion—Can your reader:
1. Identify where you articulate your most sophisticated version of your argument? 2. Explain how the more sophisticated version of your argument differs from the simpler version
that you wrote in your thesis? 3. Identify and explain your contribution to the scholarly or public conversation on your topic? 4. Identify and explain the implications or significance of your contribution to the conversation? 5. Explain what questions remain? Identify the limits of your study? 6. Leave the essay ready to think for him- or herself on the topic?
(continued)
CHAPTER 8Section 8.2 Receiving Feedback
Reader outcome checklist:
• Is your essay written to fulfill a global purpose? • Have you made it clear to your reader why it is important to think about your topic? • Will your reader be able to name the key participants in the discussion and give a rich
nutshell of each participant’s position with regard to significant aspects of the issue? • Will your reader be able to understand the nuances (key concepts, major examples,
complications, and implications) of one or more significant aspects of the discussion, such that he or she could critically evaluate and respond to one or more of the positions in the discussion?
• Will your reader be able to understand the implicit values or assumptions that participants rely on to justify their judgments; to understand how these implicit features of the discussion create a partial (in both senses of the term—not comprehensive and having a particular interest informing) representation of the issues under discussion; and to see and interpret the impacts (skewing, heightening of emotion, distorting, obscuring) of these values or assumptions on the discussion?
• Will your reader be able to understand what you think is a useful way of thinking about the issues under discussion?
• Will your reader understand the implications of thinking about some aspect of these issues in the way you say is most useful?
8.2 Receiving Feedback
It should be clear from the preceding sections that revision is an important business that goes far beyond changing a few words or sentences. Many writers (even very experi-enced ones) find it difficult to evaluate drafts of their own work to see what changes they should make. That is why most writers seek the help of an outside reader once they have a workable draft. In order to get the best help from an outside reader during the revi- sion (not editing) stage, you should not simply hand them your text and tell them to mark everything they see. You really want them to help you assess how well you are fulfilling your global and local purposes. So during revision, you do not want your outside reader focusing on spelling, grammar, or word choice. It does not make sense to spend much time polishing ideas that may change substantially, or even drop out of the essay. Those concerns can be addressed later in the editing stage. Instead, if your reader is willing, ask her or him to assess your draft using the questions in the Assess From a Reader’s Point of View guide above. If your reader has limited time, ask him or her to help you in one or more of the following ways:
• By helping you find your essential questions, ideas, and interests in the paper. What does the paper seem to want to be about or to say? What appears to be its purpose or global project?
• By helping you develop your essential ideas by making them more complex, clearer, or more easily understood, or by putting them in dialogue with the ideas of another writer.
Assess From A Reader’s Point of View (continued)
CHAPTER 8Section 8.2 Receiving Feedback
• By helping you evaluate the aptness of your choice of materials (sources, concepts, examples, passages, lines of thought) to fulfill your local purposes, and by helping you evaluate your use of the materials. Have you gotten the most out of them? Are there elements of the materials that could spur further thought?
• By helping you decide what things to work on going forward in the time available for revision. Where should you spend your time and energy? Given your global and local purposes, are there parts of the essay that need to be elaborated on, or which can be cut? What changes would most benefit a non- expert reader of your essay?
Below are some useful sentence templates for reviewers to use when reviewing your draft.
Sentence Templates for Reviewers
• I think your paper wants to be about ______. • Your essential questions are ______. • Your argument is that ______. You have two main claims, (a) ______, and (b) ______.
You support your claims with the following evidence: ______. • Your argument seems to be a response to ______, who argues ______. • It seems that you agree with ______, who writes “______.” Like him/her, you think
______. You could take your agreement farther and say ______. • It seems that you disagree with ______, who writes “______.” Unlike him/her, you think
______. The roots of your disagreement seem to lie in your different views of ______. • I want to better understand what you mean when you write “______.” What I think you
are saying is ______. You could also say ______. Someone else might say, “______.” • The passage from ______, which you discuss on p. #, seems useful/confusing/
problematic/revealing/______ because ______. • I think the following passage (______) from ______ could really help you when you write
about ______. In particular, the section of the passage about ______ seems particularly relevant to your concerns about ______. Here’s how I think you could apply the idea that ______ [summary of useful idea]: ______ [way to use it].
Once you have feedback from an outside reader, your online tutor, or your instructor, you need to take some time to understand what your reviewer has said and to consider what use to make of his or her comments and suggestions. Remember, as the writer, you are responsible for the final content of your paper. So it is your responsibility to think care- fully about the advice you receive from reviewers. Ultimately, it is your decision how to use any feedback.
Accepting feedback on your writing can be difficult. Your writing represents your hard work and your thinking. Hearing someone else’s suggestions for improving it can feel like personal criticism. But it is important not to take criticism of your draft personally. Remember, everyone’s goal is to help you produce the best possible essay you can in the
CHAPTER 8Section 8.2 Receiving Feedback
allotted time, with the resources you have at your disposal. With that in mind, approach your feedback with the following rules of thumb:
1. Do not revise your essay only to fix errors or address spe- cific recommendations in the comments. Instead, take the opportunity to consider the implications of the feedback for your global and local purposes of your essay. Changes that you make in one place will cascade throughout your essay. New or more complicated ideas will require further revision elsewhere in the essay.
2. Do not avoid the hard complicated rethinking that some comments ask you to do by simply cutting the paragraph to which it refers. Instead, see those com- ments as an indication that you are on to a good idea, but that it needs com- plication, development, further elaboration and exploration, and maybe some concrete examples to work with.
3. Do not try to address conceptual or complicating comments by changing only a word or two, or adding a few sentences. Instead, think about the complications and redevelop the whole paragraph (or section) to accommodate your richer conception of your ideas.
4. Do not keep the structure of your draft intact. This structure is an artifact of its being an idea-generating draft, and cannot support the more complex argu- ment you are trying to make in your revision. Instead, construct a new pat- tern of organization based on the needs of your reader as he or she tries to make sense of your argument.
5. Do not avoid cutting words, paragraphs, or sections that are not useful to your reader just because they “sound” good to you, or because you worked hard to write them. Instead, use the comprehension needs of your reader as the major criteria for inclusion or exclusion. You can always generate more words fairly rapidly. So do not fall in love with already-written words for the sake of meeting the word count.
6. Do not consider uncommented-on text as error-free, interesting, final, or untouch- able. Consider what work any piece of text does for you and your reader. Evaluate even uncommented-on text for its utility.
7. Do not mistake “tweaking” your draft for real revision. You can recognize that you have “tweaked” your draft rather than revised it if (a) the vast majority of your changes were additions, especially additions of three lines or less; (b) you looked at your reviewer’s comments and tried to resolve the comment
Blend Images/SuperStock Once you have feedback from an outside reader, you can decide how to make use of his or her comments and suggestions.
CHAPTER 8Section 8.2 Receiving Feedback
Revision Checklist
❏ Does your title help readers understand the relationship among key content in your essay, and inspire them to read on?
❏ Does your essay have a purpose that the reader can clearly identify in the early stages of reading?
❏ Does your introduction meet the need of your reader to be oriented to the field of the discussion?
❏ Does your introduction narrow the field of discussion to an aspect that is particularly relevant to your specific reader?
❏ Is there a clearly recognizable thesis in your introduction? ❏ Do your body paragraphs lead readers through a well-planned, coherent series of claims,
examples, and passages toward a conclusion? ❏ Can you identify the local purposes each body paragraph serves in your paper? ❏ Do your body paragraphs acknowledge complications and ambivalence, and make them part
of a productive experience for your reader? ❏ Are examples and data offered in support of claims? Does your reader know what point you
mean an example to exemplify? Does your reader know what you mean the data you present to mean?
❏ Are key concepts defined and elaborated on such that a reader could understand how to use them in another setting?
❏ Do your body paragraphs use well-chosen passages from your sources—not to “back up” your points, but to serve as jumping-off points to enable your reader to think for her- or himself?
❏ Have you set up, presented (in sufficient detail), analyzed, and followed up every quotation and paraphrase you use?
❏ Does your conclusion follow from the ideas, examples, and discussion presented in the body of the paper?
❏ Does your conclusion explore the implications of the ideas, examples, and discussion presented in the body of the paper for the reader?
by qualifying individual sentences or words in an attempt to “fix” the “prob- lem”; (c) your primary motivation was to save your sentences and basic ideas rather than considering the comment as a push to rethink your assumptions and ideas; and (d) you could not bring yourself to cut whole paragraphs or to interrupt the original flow of your first draft.
A revision checklist has been included below to help you decide whether your revised draft—from title to conclusion—is complete.
CHAPTER 8Section 8.3 Editing and Polishing
8.3 Editing and Polishing
Once your essay has been revised such that it says what you want it to and you have reason to believe a reader is likely to be able to make sense of it more or less accurately, it is time to start edit- ing. When you edit, you are rewrit- ing to improve the clarity of your work and correct mistakes of tone, word choice, style, grammar, spell- ing, or logic.
The key to editing is to locate and fix moments where the writing can cause problems for readers. The difficulty for many writers is that having spent so much time with their own writing, they sometimes cannot easily see the mistakes they have made. So, all writ- ers need strategies to help them better see the mistakes in their writing. Since different strategies tend to catch different problems, you should use multiple strategies to edit your work, and you should expect to reread your paper several times during the editing stage.
When you edit, it is helpful to limit your attention to just a few elements at a time. The first time reading through your paper, you might look for omitted or repeated words. The sec- ond time through, you look for misspelled words or word errors. The third time through, you circle every punctuation mark and check to make sure it is correct. As you edit your essay, at least one reading should be devoted to assessing how well your tone, word choice, complexity of thought, and use of illustrations and examples meet the expectations of your audience. Remember, you are writing a college-level research paper for nonexpert but academic readers. Your writing choices should convey to your reader that you have been rational, persistent, and open-minded about your topic. The writing should also sug- gest that you have thought carefully and rigorously about your topic, and that your conclusions are based on evidence, rather than personal opinion. Since the words you choose convey your academic personality to your readers, be sure the message you are sending suggests that your ideas are worth considering in an academic context.
iStockphoto/Thinkstock Once your paper is revised, you can begin editing and polishing your work by fixing minor mistakes such as word choice, style, grammar, and spelling.
Changing the appearance of your essay can help you see your errors better. Try changing the size and color of your font and then print out your paper for editing.
CHAPTER 8Section 8.3 Editing and Polishing
Here are some strategies to help you get the most out of your editing process:
• Begin revision with fresh eyes. Give yourself a minimum of several hours between the time you finish revision and start editing. You will read your essay more attentively and catch errors that you might have missed.
• Read your essay aloud. This can help you spot word choice errors, grammar mistakes, omitted words, repeated words, gaps in logic, distracting patterns of sentence length and complexity, and sentence fragments.
• Read your essay from the end to the beginning, sentence by sentence. This helps catch typos, spelling and grammar mistakes, punctuation errors, noun–verb agreement issues, and more.
• Run a spelling checker. This can help you locate typos, misspellings, and repeated words, but beware: Spelling checkers can introduce wrong-word errors by suggesting words that sound alike, or are spelled similarly to the word you meant. Be sure that the word that ends up in your essay is the word you meant.
• Read one paragraph at a time, checking each paragraph for the following: topic sentences, a local purpose, claims, support, length, and sentences written in your own voice analyzing and interpreting the ideas and perspectives you conveyed.
• Check that every quoted, summarized, or paraphrased passage is attributed to its original writer and appropriately cited in the text and in the references section.
• Check the accuracy of passages that you quote, summarize, or paraphrase against the originals.
Since you are writing for college and beyond, you should start keeping a list of the mis- takes you frequently make. Write down words that you tend to misspell and pair them with the words spelled correctly, pair wrong words with right words, and so on. An edit- ing and polishing checklist has been provided for you below.
Editing and Polishing Checklist
You can use the following checklist to help you decide what to look for as you edit your essay:
❏ Are sentences clear and direct, able to be understood by a member of your audience on first reading?
❏ Is each sentence complete? ❏ Is there a natural variation of sentence length, structure, and complexity? ❏ Can long sentences be broken apart and made easier to read? ❏ Have you mainly used standard words straightforwardly, except where accuracy and precision
require you to use a more complex or specialized vocabulary? ❏ Have you deleted slang or nonstandard uses of language that detract from the serious,
disciplined open-mindedness that characterizes academic writing? (continued)
CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 APA, MLA, and Chicago Manuscript and Citation Styles
❏ Is your tone formal but not stiff? Is it thoughtful, helpful, gracious, and authoritative (without being arrogant, condescending, or defensive)?
❏ Are the words you have chosen to use clear and precise? ❏ Are all words spelled and used correctly? ❏ Has your word processor’s spelling checker or thesaurus encouraged you to use the wrong word? ❏ Can readers tell to which nouns it, this, that, and other pronouns refer? ❏ Do verbs agree with their subjects? ❏ Have you punctuated your essay properly?
8.4 APA, MLA, and Chicago Manuscript and Citation Styles
As we discussed in Chapter 4, citing your sources appropriately does far more than merely “give credit” to other writers when you use their ideas. It signals to your readers that you have approached your work in a serious and disciplined manner and that you see your work as a contribution to an ongoing conversation. So before you submit your essay, be sure that it meets the specific manuscript and citation style require- ments for your course. You may be wondering why researchers use more than one cita- tion style. The answer is that each citation style was developed for use in specific fields of interest. Researchers who publish in journals focusing on literature and language tend to use MLA (the Modern Language Association) style. Historians, librarians, and scholars of business use the Chicago style. Many of the social sciences have adopted APA (the Ameri- can Psychological Association) style for their work.
Before we get started on the differences between the three citation styles, let us focus on the similarities. All three citation styles expect you to use language in a bias-free way, to be sensitive to the labels you use to categorize groups of people, and to recognize the active participation of the people who may have participated in your research as subjects of study.
In the following discussion of these issues, we are going to illustrate using APA style, but the principles apply to all.
Use Language That Is Specific, Bias Free, and Participatory APA and the other citation styles expect writers to use language that is both objective and fair to the people and groups about whom they are writing. In order to achieve these stan- dards, the APA tutorial recommends that you follow three guidelines:
• Guideline 1: Describe at the appropriate level of specificity. Strategies: Refer to the population under study as adolescent girls between the ages of 12 and 17, not young girls. The APA tutorial reminds us that “part of
Editing and Polishing Checklist (continued)
CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 APA, MLA, and Chicago Manuscript and Citation Styles
writing without bias is recognizing that differences should be mentioned only when relevant. Marital status, sexual orientation, racial and ethnic identity or the fact that a person has a disability should not be mentioned gratuitously.” (2013, slide 10)
• Guideline 2: Be sensitive to labels. Strategies: APA recommends “calling people what they prefer to be called, keeping in mind that these preferences can change over time. For example, if your paper discusses Native Americans, you should determine how they would like to be described. Many Native American groups prefer their name to be in their native language, for instance, Dine rather than Navajo.” (2013, slide 11)
• Guideline 3: Acknowledge participation. Strategies: Be sure to reflect the active participation of your subjects, rather than portraying them as passive objects of study. This example from the tuto- rial makes clear how: “Students completed the survey instead of the survey was administered to the students.” (2013, slide 12)
APA Manuscript and Citation Style You will use APA style in some of your courses. The online interactive tutorial introduced above covers the nuances of APA style in far more detail. So if you are confused about how to format a Level 2 heading, or how to format a citation of an online journal article, be sure to visit http://www.apastyle.org/learn/tutorials/basics-tutorial.aspx.
APA Manuscript and Citation Style details three aspects of your essay to consider:
1. The format of the manuscript, including the title page, body pages, and refer- ence page;
2. How you refer and cite sources within the essay itself; and 3. The construction of the references page.
Formatting Your Manuscript Properly—APA APA provides considerable guidance on what your manuscript should look like. Here are some of the essentials:
• Font: Use serif fonts (such as Times New Roman) for the text, and sans serif fonts (such as Arial) for figure labels.
• Line spacing: Double space the entire manuscript. • Paragraph: Indent the first line of every paragraph one half inch. • Justification: Text should be aligned left with a ragged right margin.
As a quick reference on some of the most essential manuscript formatting fundamentals for the title, body, and reference pages, consult Figures 8.2, 8.3, and 8.4.
CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 APA, MLA, and Chicago Manuscript and Citation Styles
Figure 8.2: Sample APA title page
Running Head: FACEBOOKING INTO ADULTHOOD
Facebooking into Adulthood: How Social Network Sites Help Teens Grow Up
Emma Q. Student
ENG 122
Dr. Gloria Hippolyta
August 23, 2017
Full title appears halfway down the page, center aligned.
Running head should be aligned left. Simple title formatted in ALL CAPS.
CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 APA, MLA, and Chicago Manuscript and Citation Styles
Figure 8.3: Sample APA first page
FACEBOOKING INTO ADULTHOOD
Facebooking Into Adulthood: How Social Network Sites Help Teens Grow Up
Today's teens have unprecedented access to one another through the use of social
network sites and mobile Internet devices. Unlike previous generations' teens, whose socializing
was interminent, ephemeral, and to a degree regulated by parents, today 's digitally equipped teens
are always connected to one other, and their socializing leaves permanent public traces in the forms
of online posts and pictures, and is very difficult for parents to police.
Parents and pundits alike fear that teens' online socializing exposes adolescents to
experiences they may not be prepared to handle. They also worry that text-obsessed teens are
failing to develop the face-to-face social skills they deem essential to the functioning of a vital
society. In a representative article titled "Surfing Alone: Is Digital Technology Destroying
Relationships?" cultural critic Liz Colville (2009) describes Americans' use of digital
communications technologies in startling terms. While Colville does not confine her remarks to
teens in the following passage, her description fits their behaviors aptly:
They use caller ID to avoid having unplanned and unprepared-for conversations.They
text message to shorten the length of time they have to talk to another person. They
e-mail to avoid the unpredictable flow of oral communication, or the time-consuming
task of writing a letter. By extension, unplanned encounters. . . can be seen as an intrusion,
or at the very least a nuisance, when before it might have been essential in forging and
fostering a relationship. (2009, para. 9).
While many parents will surely recognize their teens in Colville's text, scholars suggest that teenagers’
online socializing might actually have developmental value. According to such researchers boyd (2008),
Livingstone (2008), and Lenhart and Madden (2007), teens use social network sites to seek status,
experiment with identities, and separate from parental influence.
Full title, centered
Simple title in ALL CAPS, aligned left on same line as page number
In-text citation
One-inch margins all around
Give page or paragraph numbers of direct quotes.
1
CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 APA, MLA, and Chicago Manuscript and Citation Styles
Figure 8.4: Sample APA references page
Citing Sources in the Text—APA Every time you make reference to the words or ideas of another writer, you must properly cite them in the text. In Chapter 4, you learned how to use attributional phrases to signal to readers when you were using another writer’s ideas. APA requires you to include the writer’s last name and year of publication for all citations. For direct quotations, include the specific page or paragraph numbers where you found the quoted passage. Here is an example from Emma’s research paper that demonstrates a variety of ways of meeting these requirements:
FACEBOOKING INTO ADULTHOOD
Bergmark, K. H., Bergmark, A., & Findahl, O. (2011). Extensive internet involvement–addiction
or emerging life style? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public
Health 8, 4488-4501.
boyd, d. (2008). Why youth (heart) social network sites: The role of networked publics in
teenage social life. In D. Buckingham, (Ed.), Youth, identity, and digital media (pp. 119–142).
The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Series on Digital Media and Learning.
Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Colville, L. (2009). Surfing alone: Is digital technology destroying relationships? Pop
Matters. Retrieved from http://www.popmatters.com/pm/column/94800-surfing-alone-
is-digital-technology-destroying-relationships/
Lenhart, A., & Madden, M. (2007). Social networking sites and teens. Retrieved from
http://www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2007/Social-Networking-Websites-and-
Teens.aspx
Livingstone, S. (2008). Taking risky opportunities in youthful content creation:
Teenagers' use of social networking sites for intimacy, privacy, and self-
expression. New Media & Society, 10, 393–411.
Turkle, S. (2008). Always on/always on you: The tethered self. In J.F. Katz, J. F. (Ed.),
Handbook of mobile communications studies (pp. 121–137). Cambridge, MA:
The MIT Press.
Start a new page. Title is center aligned. No other formatting.
References Initials only
Double-space citations. Capitalize only the first words of titles and subtitles.
Format book and journal titles in italics.
Journal article handles journal title capitalization differently.
Online article. Give volume and issue number if available.
Article in book. Give page numbers.
9
CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 APA, MLA, and Chicago Manuscript and Citation Styles
In The Dumbest Generation, Bauerlein claims that “instead of opening young American minds to the stores of civilization and science and politics, tech- nology has contracted their horizon to the social scene around them” (2010, p. 10). According to Bauerlein (2010), the degree to which today’s youth are immersed in a self-centering popular youth culture is unprecedented: “Young people,” he writes, “have never been so intensely mindful of and present to one another, so enabled in adolescent contact. Teen images and songs, hot gossip and games, and youth-to-youth communications no lon- ger limited by time or space wrap them up in a generational cocoon reach- ing all the way into their bedrooms” (p. 10).
The APA online tutorial provides a helpful chart (slide 15) showing how to format in-text citations for multiple and group authors.
Constructing the References Page—APA Figure 8.4 conveys the basics of formatting a reference page. Table 8.1 provides you with details about how to format three kinds of references you are most likely to encounter in your project.
Table 8.1: APA references
Book Author’s last name, Author’s first initial. (Year of Publication). Book title: Capitalize the first word of title and subtitle. Place of Publication: Publisher.
Example: Baym, N. (2010). Personal connections in the digital age. Malden, MA: Polity.
Journal Article Author’s last name, Author’s first initial. (Year of Publication). Article title: Capitalize the first word of title and subtitle. Journal Title, volume number, page numbers. doi: numbers [If no doi, use Retrieved from http://_______]
Examples: Livingstone, S. (2008). Taking risky opportunities in youthful content creation: Teenagers’ use of social networking sites for intimacy, privacy, and self-expression. New Media & Society, 10, 393–411. doi: 10.1177/1461444808089415
Coleville, L. (2009). Surfing alone: Is digital technology destroying relationships? PopMatters. Retrieved from http://www.popmatters.com /pm/column/94800-surfing-alone -is-digital-technology-destroying -relationships/
Article or Chapter in a Book or Edited Collection
Author’s last name, Author’s first initial. (Year of publication). Chapter title. In Editor’s first initial, Editor’s last name (Ed.), Book title: Capitalize first word of title and subtitle (pages of chapter). Place of Publication: Publisher.
Example: Turkle, S. (2008). Always on/always on you: The tethered self. In J. F. Katz, (Ed.), Handbook of mobile communications studies (pp. 121–137). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 APA, MLA, and Chicago Manuscript and Citation Styles
MLA Manuscript and Citation Style The MLA manuscript and citation style is also widely used in university courses. Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab (OWL) covers MLA style in considerable detail. When you have questions, visit http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/01/. Like APA, the MLA Manuscript and Citation Style asks you to pay attention to the formatting of your manuscript, how you refer to and cite sources in the text, and the construction of a works cited page (what APA calls the references page).
Formatting Your Manuscript Properly—MLA MLA provides substantial guidance on what your manuscript should look like. Here are some of the essentials:
• Font: Choose a 12-point font, one where there is a sharp distinction between italic and regular font type.
• Line spacing and margins: Double-space the entire manuscript; margins should be one inch on all sides of the document.
• Paragraph: Indent the first line of every paragraph one half inch. • Formatting of titles of works cited in the text: Long texts such as books and
novels are in italics; short texts such as journal articles and short stories are enclosed in quotation marks.
• Justification: Text should be aligned left with a ragged right margin. • Page numbers: Number all pages in the upper right-hand corner. • Title page: No title page. • Reference page: Is known as works cited in MLA.
For a quick reference on MLA manuscript formatting for body and works cited pages, consult Figures 8.5 and 8.6.
CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 APA, MLA, and Chicago Manuscript and Citation Styles
Figure 8.5: Sample MLA pages
Emma Q. Student
Dr. Drown
English 122
25 May 2015
Teens’ Internet Immersion in M. T. Anderson’s Feed
Recent novels have explored the degree to which young people are immersed in an
electronic world of their own. In his 2002 novel Feed, M. T. Anderson imagines a future where
teenagers have an implanted chip in their head that gives them always-on access to the Internet.
The chip feeds them data it deems relevant to their current location and activities. While it may
seem that such context-sensitive information might be useful, the teens in the novel are
sometimes overwhelmed with data, as in this scene in a dance club: "There were all these frat
guys that were wearing these . . . tachyon shorts . . . , which were $789.99 according to the feed, and
they were on sale for like $699 at the Zone, and could be shipped to the hotel for an additional
$78.95, and that was just one great thing that people were wearing. When I looked around, I
wanted so much, that all of the prices were coming into my brain, and it was bam bam bam"
(Anderson 34-5).
The problem for Anderson is that much of the content being delivered through the feed is
sponsored, driving teenagers to see the world through a consumer lens. Anderson tries to capture
the consumer logic of the feed by writing disjointed paragraphs where elements are juxtaposed as
in television commercials:
Images of Coke falling in rivulets down chiseled mountainsides, children being held
toward the sun; blades slicing grass; a hand, a hand extended toward the lemonade like
Identification block
Names of long works in italics
Last name 1
Drowning in Data:
No separate title page. Title starts one double-space below identification block.
Period comes after parenthetical citation, except in a block quote.
Attributional phrase
One-inch margins all around
Ragged right
margin
CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 APA, MLA, and Chicago Manuscript and Citation Styles
Figure 8.5: Sample MLA pages, continued
Figure 8.6: Sample MLA works cited page
Last name 2
God's at Creation; boys in Gap tees shot from a rocket; more lining up with tin helmets;
Nike grav-gear plunging into Montana; a choir of Jamaican girls dress in pinafores and
strap-on solar cells; dry cleaners ironing the cheek prostheses of the rich; friends
clutching at birds made of alloys; law partners jumping fences; snow; altitude; tears; hugs;
night. (27-8)
Header continues
Direct quotations of more than five lines are formatted as a block quote.
Period goes before the parenthetical citation in block quotes.
Last name 9
Works Cited
Anderson, M. T. Feed. Cambridge, MA: Candlewick, 2002. Print.
Bergmark, Karin Helmersson, Anders Bergmark, and Olle Findahl. "Extensive Internet
Involvement–Addiction or Emerging Lifestyle? " International Journal of
Environmental Research and Public Health 8.12 (2011): 4488–4501. Print.
Colville, Liz. (2009). "Surfing Alone: Is Digital Technology Destroying Relationships?"
Pop Matters. N.p. 15 June 2009. Web. 13 April 2012.
Lenhart, Amanda, and Mary Madden. Social Networking Websites and Teens: An
Overview. Pew/Internet, 2007. Print.
Livingstone, Sonia. "Taking risky opportunities in youthful content creation: teenagers'
use of social networking sites for intimacy, privacy and self-expression." New
Media & Society 10.3 (2008): 393–411. Print.
Turkle, Sherry. "Always On/Always On You: The Tethered Self." Handbook of Mobile
Communication Studies. Ed. James E. Katz. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press,
2008. 121–137. Print.
Works Cited starts on new page.
Page numbers continue from body of paper.
Centered, no formatting Book
Article in online magazine
Always indicate whether your source is print or web.
Journal article
Article in edited anthology
CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 APA, MLA, and Chicago Manuscript and Citation Styles
Citing Sources in the Text—MLA MLA uses an author–page parenthetical citation system. All citations must include the last name of the author and the page number where the directly quoted or paraphrased passage is located in the text. Notice that MLA style does not use “p.” or “pp.” for page numbers. Notice too, that end-of-sentence punctuation is handled differently depending on whether the passage quoted is longer than five manuscript lines. Here is an example of MLA in-text citation:
Recent novels have explored the degree to which young people are immersed in an electronic world of their own. In his 2002 novel Feed, M. T. Anderson imagines a future where teenagers have an implanted chip in their head that gives them always-on access to the Internet. The chip feeds them data it deems relevant to their current location and activities. While it may seem that such information might be useful, the teens in the novel are sometimes overwhelmed with data, as in this scene in a dance club: “There were all these frat guys that were wearing these . . . tachyon shorts . . . , which were $789.99 according to the feed, and they were on sale for like $699 at the Zone, . . . and that was just one great thing that people were wearing. When I looked around, I wanted so much, that all of the prices were coming into my brain, and it was bam bam bam” (Anderson 34–5).
The problem for Anderson is that much of the content being delivered through the feed is sponsored, driving teenagers to see the world through a consumer lens. Anderson tries to capture the consumer logic of the feed by writing disjointed paragraphs where elements are juxtaposed as in tele- vision commercials:
Images of Coke falling in rivulets down chiseled mountainsides, children being held toward the sun; blades slicing grass; a hand, a hand extended toward the lemonade like God’s at Creation; boys in Gap tees shot from a rocket; more lining up with tin helmets; Nike grav-gear plunging into Montana; a choir of Jamaican girls dress in pinafores and strap-on solar cells; dry cleaners ironing the cheek prostheses of the rich; friends clutching at birds made of alloys; law partners jumping fences; snow; altitude; tears; hugs; night. (27–8)
Constructing the Works Cited Page—MLA Figure 8.6 conveys the basics of formatting a works cited page. Table 8.2 provides you with details about how to format three kinds of references you are most likely to encoun- ter in your project.
CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 APA, MLA, and Chicago Manuscript and Citation Styles
Table 8.2: MLA references
Book Author’s last name, Author’s first name. Book Title: Capitalize Using Title Case Rules. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication. Media.
Example: Baym, Nancy. Personal Connections in the Digital Age. Malden, MA: Polity, 2010. Print.
Journal Article Author’s last name, Author’s first name. “Article Title: Subtitle.” Journal Title volume number.issue number (Year of Publication): page numbers. Media. Date accessed if Web.
Examples: Livingstone, Sonia. “Taking Risky Opportunities in Youthful Content Creation: Teenagers’ Use of Social Networking Sites for Intimacy, Privacy and Self-Expression.” New Media & Society 10.3 (2008): 393–411. Print.
Coleville, Liz. “Surfing Alone: Is Digital Technology Destroying Relationships?” Pop Matters. N.p. 15 June 2009. Web. 13 April 2012.
Article or Chapter in a Book
Author’s last name, Author’s first name. “Chapter Title.” In Book Title: Subtitle. Ed. Editor’s First name Editor’s last name. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication. Page numbers. Media.
Example: Turkle, Sherry. “Always On/ Always On You: The Tethered Self.” Handbook of Mobile Communication Studies. Ed. James E. Katz. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2008. 121–137. Print.
Chicago Manuscript and Citation Style Chicago style is used most often in history courses, though you will see it occasionally in some social science courses, such as political science. Purdue’s OWL provides a useful guide to Chicago at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/717/01/. Like MLA and APA, Chicago style asks you to pay attention to the details of how you format your manu- script, cite sources, and construct a bibliography.
There are two main variations of Chicago style. One, used most often in the social sci- ences, is very much like APA style in that it uses the author–date system. The other, more frequently used in the humanities, uses a notes–bibliography system. The key to the Chi- cago notes–bibliography system is that it does not use the parenthetical citation method that you find in both APA and MLA. Instead, all information about your sources is given in the bibliography and in notes at the foot of the page or end of the paper.
In this section, we will be focusing on the notes–bibliography system. To learn more about Chicago author–date system, visit http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/717/10/.
Formatting Your Manuscript Properly—Chicago The manuscript formatting guidelines are somewhat looser in Chicago, but your manu- script should look serious, neat, and professional. Here are some of the essentials to Chi- cago manuscript style:
CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 APA, MLA, and Chicago Manuscript and Citation Styles
• Font: Choose a readable font of at least 10 points, though a 12-point font is preferred.
• Line spacing and margins: Double-space the entire manuscript; margins should be a minimum of one inch, but no more than an inch and a half, on all sides of the document.
• Paragraph: Indent the first line of every paragraph one half inch. • Formatting of titles of works cited in the text: Long texts such as books and
novels are in italics; short texts such as journal articles and short stories are enclosed in quotation marks.
• Quotations: Passages of more than five lines should be single-spaced block quotes; leave a blank line between your text and the quoted passage before and after the quote.
• Justification: Text should be aligned left with a ragged right margin. • Page numbers: Number all pages in the upper right-hand corner. • Title page: No running head. Title centered one-third of the way down;
identity block starts two-thirds of the way down and is centered and single-spaced.
• First body page: No title on first body page. • Reference page: Is known as bibliography or references in Chicago.
For a quick reference on Chicago manuscript formatting title, body, endnotes, and bibliog- raphy pages, consult Figures 8.7, 8.8, 8.9, and 8.10.
Figure 8.7: Sample Chicago title page
No running head
Title centered about one-third of the way down the page
Facebooking Into Adulthood: How Social Network Sites Help Teens Grow Up
Emma Q. Student ENG 122: Research
August 23, 2017
Single-space identity block
CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 APA, MLA, and Chicago Manuscript and Citation Styles
Figure 8.8: Sample Chicago body page
Continuous page numbering 2
No title on first body page
Today's teens have unprecedented access to one another through the use of social
network sites and mobile Internet devices. Unlike previous generations' teens, whose socializing
was intermittent, ephemeral, and to a degree regulated by parents, today's digitally equipped teens
are always connected to one other, and their socializing leaves permanent public traces in the
forms of online posts and pictures, and is very difficult for parents to police.
Parents and pundits alike fear that teens' online socializing exposes adolescents to
experiences they may not be prepared to handle. They also worry that text-obsessed teens are
failing to develop the face-to-face social skills they deem essential to the functioning of a vital
society. In a representative article titled "Surfing Alone: Is Digital Technology Destroying
Relationships?" cultural critic Liz Colville describes Americans' use of digital communications
technologies in startling terms. While Colville does not confine her remarks to teens in the
following passage, her description fits their behaviors aptly:
They use caller ID to avoid having unplanned and unprepared-for conversations. They
text message to shorten the length of time they have to talk to another person. They-email
to avoid the unpredictable flow of oral communication, or the time-consuming task
of writing a letter. By extension, unplanned encounters . . . can be seen as an intrusion, or at
the very least a nuisance when before it might have been essential in forging and
fostering a relationship.”1
While many parents will surely recognize their teens' in Colville's text, scholars suggest
that teenagers’ online socializing might actually have developmental value. According to such
researchers as boyd, Livingstone, and Lenhart and Madden, teens use social network sites to seek
status, experiment with identities, and separate from parental influence.2 In "Always On/Always On
You: the Tethered Self,” the preeminent psychologist of the Internet experience Sherry Turkle argues
that "[t]he job of adolescence is centered around experimentation—with ideas, with people, with notions
of self. When adolescents play an online role playing game they often use it to recast their lives."3
Single-space block quotes of more than five lines.
Footnote/endnote number
One- to half- inch margins
While this paper uses endnotes, your instructor may prefer footnotes. If so, create a separator between the body of the page and the notes, like this:
1. Liz Colville . . . . . .
CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 APA, MLA, and Chicago Manuscript and Citation Styles
Figure 8.9: Sample Chicago endnotes page
Figure 8.10: Sample Chicago bibliography or references page
Start Notes on a new page.
Centered, no formatting
Article in online magazine
Subsequent reference to a source
Multiple sources in one note; separated by a semi-colon
1. Liz Colville, "Surfing Alone: Is Digital Technology Destroying Relationships?" Pop Matters, last modified June 15, 2009, http://www.popmatters.com/pm/column/94800-surfing- alone-is-digital-technology-destroying-relationships/
2. danah boyd, "Why Youth (Heart) Social Network Sites: The Role of Networked Publics' in Teenage Social Life," in Youth, Identity, and Digital Media, ed. D. Buckingham, The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Series on Digital Media and Learning (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2009); Sonia Livingstone, "Taking Risky Opportunities in Youthful Content Creation: Teenagers' Use of Social Networking Sites for Intimacy, Privacy, and SeIf-Expression," New Media & Society 10, no. 3 (2008); Amanda Lenhart and Mary Madden, Social Networking Sites and Teens: An Overview (np: Pew/Internet, 2007).
3. Sherry Turkle, "Always On/Always On You: The Tethered Self," in Handbook of Mobile Communication Studies, ed. James E. Katz (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2008), 125.
4. boyd, 120.
Notes
9
Chapter in an edited collection
Book
Indent
Journal article
Bergmark, Karin Helmersson, Anders Bergmark, and Olle Findahl. (2011). "Extensive Internet Involvement—Addiction or Emerging Life Style?" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 8, no.12 (2011): 4488–4501.
boyd, danah. "Why Youth (Heart) Social Network Sites: The Role of Networked Publics in Teenage Social Life." In Youth, Identity, and Digital Media, edited by David Buckingham, 119–142. The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Series on Digital Media and Learning. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2009.
Colville, Liz. (2009). "Surfing Alone: Is Digital Technology Destroying Relationships?" Pop Matters. Last modified June 15,2009. http://www.popmatters.com/pm/column/94800-surfing-alone-is-digital-technology- destroying-relationships/
Lenhart, Amanda and Mary Madden. Social Networking Sites and Teens: An Overview. Pew/Internet, 2007.
Livingstone, Sonia. "Taking Risky Opportunities in Youthful Content Creation: Teenagers' Use of Social Networking Sites for Intimacy, Privacy, and Self- Expression." New Media & Society 10, no. 3 (2008): 393–411.
Turkle, Sherry. " Always On/Always On You: The Tethered Self." In Handbook of Mobile Communications Studies, edited by James E. Katz, 121–317. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2008.
Start on new page. Journal article with multiple authors
10
Bibliography
Book
Hanging indent
Last name first
Journal article
CHAPTER 8Section 8.4 APA, MLA, and Chicago Manuscript and Citation Styles
Citing Sources in the Text—Chicago Unless you are asked to use the author–date variation of Chicago style, you will not use in-text citations in Chicago style. Instead, insert a superscript number (1) at the end of the quoted or paraphrased passage. It is still good practice to use attributional phrases to ensure that your reader knows whose ideas are being used.
Constructing Notes and Bibliography Pages—Chicago Figures 8.9 and 8.10 convey the basics of formatting notes and bibliography pages. Table 8.3 provides you with details about how to format three kinds of references you are most likely to encounter in your project. Notice that notes and bibliography entries are styled very differently.
Table 8.3: Chicago style references
Book Note Note number. Author’s first name Author’s last name, Book Title: Capi- talize Using Title Case Rules (Place of Publication: Publisher, Date of Publication), page number.
Example: 1. Nancy Baym, Personal Connec- tions in the Digital Age (Malden, MA: Polity Press, 2010), 36.
Bibliography Author’s last name, Author’s first name. Book Title: Capitalize Using Title Case Rules. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication.
Example: Baym, Nancy. Personal Connections in the Digital Age. Malden, MA: Pol- ity Press, 2010.
Journal Article Note [Print] Note number. Author’s first name Author’s last name, “Article Title: Article Subtitle,” Journal Title volume number, no. issue number (Date), page number.
[Web] Note number. Author’s first name Author’s last name, “Article Title: Article Subtitle,” Journal or Magazine Title, last modified date, URL or doi.
Examples: 2. Sonia Livingstone, “Taking Risky Opportunities in Youthful Content Creation: Teenagers’ Use of Social Networking Sites for Intimacy, Privacy, and Self-Expression,” New Media & Society 10, no. 3 (2008), 397.
3. Liz Colville, “Surfing Alone: Is Digital Technology Destroying Rela- tionships?” Pop Matters, last modi- fied June 15, 2009, http://www .popmatters.com/pm/column /94800-surfing-alone-is-digital -technology-destroying-relation ships/
CHAPTER 8Chapter Summary
Journal Article, cont.
Bibliography Author’s last name, Author’s first name. “Article Title: Subtitle.” Journal Title volume number.issue number (Year of Publication): page numbers. Media. Date accessed if Web.
Examples: Livingstone, Sonia. “Taking Risky Opportunities in Youthful Content Creation: Teenagers’ Use of Social Networking Sites for Intimacy, Privacy and Self-Expression.” New Media & Society 10.3 (2008): 393–411. Print.
Colville, Liz. (2009). “Surfing Alone: Is Digital Technology Destroying Relationships?” Pop Matters. Last modified June 15, 2009. http://www .popmatters.com/pm/column /94800-surfing-alone-is-digital -technology-destroying -relationships/
Article or Chapter in a Book
Note Note number. Author’s first name Author’s last name, “Article Title: Article Subtitle,” in Title of Collection or Anthology, ed. Editor’s first name Editor’s last name (Place of Publica- tion: Publisher, Year of Publication), page number.
Example: 3. Sherry Turkle, “Always On/Always On You: The Tethered Self,” in Hand- book of Mobile Communication Stud- ies, ed. James E. Katz (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2008), 125.
Bibliography Author’s last name, Author’s first name. “Chapter Title.” In Book Title: Subtitle, edited by Editor’s first name Editor’s last name, page numbers. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication.
Example: Turkle, Sherry. “Always On/Always On You: The Tethered Self.” In Hand- book of Mobile Communications Studies, edited by James E. Katz, 121–37. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2008.
Chapter Summary This chapter distinguishes between revision—the multistep process by which you rethink and improve the ideas and arguments of your essay—and editing—the process by which you improve how well your essay communicates to your reader. It also guides you through the work of global revision, in which you assess how well the sequence of your local purposes fulfills the overall purpose of your essay. You also learned how to conduct local revision, during which you assess each individual section of your essay to see how well it fulfills your specific local purpose. The chapter introduces you to proven tactics and strategies for editing and polishing your essay to ensure that it conveys the serious, disciplined, and authoritative tone of academic writing. Additionally, you learned how to view your essay through the eyes of your reader, and how to solicit and receive good feed- back from a third-party reviewer. Be sure to use the checklists, guidelines, and templates in this chapter to make the task of revising and editing your work more effective and efficient. Finally, this chapter introduces you to the essentials of APA, MLA, and Chicago citation and manuscript formatting styles, while directing you to further resources when your citation needs become more complicated.
CHAPTER 8Web Sites for Further Reference
Key Terms deletion A key moves of revision, in which you cut any material that seems to have no purpose in or relevance to your essay. Do not delete relevant ideas from other writers that complicate your argu- ment, or with which you disagree. Instead, account for them in your discussion.
development A key move of revision, in which you build on an idea expressed in kernel form in your draft, with the goal of making it more substantial, nuanced, and purposeful.
edit The process by which writers improve the clarity of their work and correct mis- takes of tone, grammar, spelling, or logic.
elaboration Another key move of revi- sion, in which you add nuance and detail to an existing point in order to more fully flesh out what you mean. Elaboration often means adding further examples, defining terms, exploring complications and com- plexities, and considering other viewpoints.
rearrangement A key move in revision, whereby you move sections of your essay from one location to another in an effort to improve the logic and clarity of your sequence of local purposes.
replacement A key move in revision, whereby you replace a weak or purpose- less section of your essay with a stronger or more purposeful section.
revision The process in which you assess, reconsider, and improve the content and organization of your essay. Global revision focuses on the comprehensiveness and sequence of the series of local purposes you wrote to fulfill your global purpose. Local revision improves the content of each local purpose.
Web Sites for Further Reference http://www.apastyle.org/learn/tutorials/basics-tutorial.aspx The APA Style web site, sponsored by the American Psychological Association, provides multiple resources on APA style formatting. Of particular use is this interactive tutorial on the basics.
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/01/ The entry page to the Purdue OWL’s guide to MLA citation and manuscript formatting style.
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/717/01/ The entry page to the Purdue OWL’s guide to Chicago citation and manuscript format- ting style.
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/section/2/ Purdue’s OWL provides students with a number of different resources on how to con- duct research and write about it. We also recommend visiting the General Writing section.
CHAPTER 8Web Sites for Further Reference
http://www.sbcc.edu/clrc/writing_center/wc_files/handout_masters/20%20Most %20Common%20Formal%20Errors.pdf Santa Barbara City College Writing Center’s “Twenty Most Common Errors Found in Student Papers: With Sentences Containing Example Errors and Corrections” can help you understand and spot the errors that plague student writing and irritate college writ- ing teachers everywhere.
