Philosophy paper

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Chapter1.Poets and Myths. Presocratic 苏格拉底前的哲学家- democritus. thales. anaximenes. Pythagorus. Socratic Method.

lecture1. POETS诗⼈人 In Greek culture, poets passed down truths of the time: History, Cosmology宇宙学. religion， ethnic Myths to explain mysterious by what is familiar and observable such as human motives and actions. Immature and petty未成熟的和琐碎的, lustful and deceitful 好⾊色和欺骗的. jealous and vengeful复仇的—Hera. Homer荷⻢马史诗: conception of universe. both order and （nature）unpredictabilities不可预测的 of universe due to the gods. subject of the fates: Men and gods are subject to the random 随机的inescapable 不可避免 的amoral与道德⽆无关的 power of the fates Zeus：power but limit。 sometimes driven by passion激情 and lust, sometimes by justice.

Homer’s Moral Ideal 道德观点：Virtues of warrior hero. excellence: success， honor ， power ，wealth, moderation节制 security. Goal: protect one’s honor and status, not concern 关⼼心 for others. God shows Favoritism偏袒，偏爱, not reward good and punish evil . Flattery奉承 and bribes贿赂. Worship of gods motivated by self-interest.

chapter1. Thales泰利斯: First Western philosopher. astronomer. Material Monism⼀一元论 : everything made of one element- water. WATER IS ESSENTIAL TO LIFE. seeds need water, water is the source of all things. Liquid- Gas- solid(ice melts into)- Liquid what causes change? tiny God. Accomplish: did not appeal to tradition or authority. defended a theory on rational ground set an example of new way of thinking. Attempt to reduce Multiplicity多样性 of Nature to a simpler unity sustain life. Air Change process ? Rarefaction稀薄化( expansion 膨胀) Condensation凝结( Compression压缩).

Anaximenes: also from Miletus: air and water. why air: air is more pervasive. central to all nature. self-supporting

Pythagoras毕达哥拉斯： 570-495BC born in Samos. Reality is mathematical Pre-socratic mathematical and religions philosopher. the first to use the title of Philo(lover)sopher. IMMORTAL SOUL He founded a school and ensure that his female students received the same basic education as his male students. the pythagorean system: Divine leader , School of Math. religions order. oral teachings,

Vow of secrecy. The pythagorean community belied that there was no separating religion from science科 学. being in harmony 和谐with the universe.

Pythagoras’ school, Students could congregate for the dual purpose of(双重⺫⽬目的) expanding their minds and saving their souls. worship to the god especially to Apollo. magical rites and deviation.

The theory of purification净化. the souls of both human and animals are immortal不朽的. Feminism. White Robes Community Property. Purify body- Health. Purify Soul - study mathematic, living in ascetically禁欲的 life. person’s soul could reincarnated转世. Soul imprisoned in body. Escape wheel of rebrith. Purification of the the intellect思维能⼒力 required meditation on cosmic harmony. (body living in a well-banlance, stress-free life with healthy habits, right amount of exercise, vegetarian diet.）

Physical world was underlying order that was mathematics in nature. (P School system) Pythagoras believed that numbers not only defined the pattern in music but also explained patterns in the heavenly天堂的 bodies. “the harmony of the spheres. " Numbers have a reality of their own: objective properties.

Adopted a theory of metaphysical 形⽽而上学，超⾃自然理论and normal dualism ⼆二元并存理 论.(opposing fundamental forces vied foe power in the universe. )————the force of order verse the force of disorder.

we understand physical objects as made of line and figures. Cosmos- order, fitness, beautiful. Fibonacci: music and math. musical tone are functions of exact numerical ratios. music is based of numbers. the force of order (being straight, light, male, and right is good )versus the force of disorder(crooked坏蛋, dark, female, left are evil). order is better and stronger than disorder. limit, odd, one, rest, Square is better than unlimited, even, many motion cycle. the mathematical harmony in the cosmos helps to develop the inner harmony of the soul.

good rational order is stronger and will win than evil order. what are what you eat. you comtemple mathematical harmony of universe. trapped in body. mathmatics and phiosophy free mind from sense and physical world.

Empedocles恩培多克勒：scientific/ rational mindset./ deep spiritual longing.He was both a scientist and religious mystic. Presocrates. he was concerned with metaphysical形⽽而上学 questions 关于regarding the true nature of reality or being. His own theory about the underlying nature of reality.and the force of change in the world.

Reality consist of four basic root elements or substance (air, water, fire, and earth)and two basic change or motions forces (love and strife冲突)in the world. The four roots : eternal, immutable and indestructible. these elements internal in the cense that they always existed. do not transform into other things but remain what they are , they do not change and cannot be destroyed. (nothing can come form nothing and nothing can be destroyed.) (bone is made of two parts earth, two parts water and four parts fire).

the two forces of the cosmos: love an strife. Love act as principle of unification统⼀一.power of bring things together(elements combine.) elements mingle together. Strife causes elements separating.(separate things into their basic elements), is the principle of individuation. personifies拟⼈人化 the forces of nature as humanlike qualities. The ever-changing world is interaction of two opposing fource. anthropomorphic拟⼈人化的: the world is anthropomorphic.

Empedocles rejected the idea of empty apace. nothing can come to nothing. it has something here , such as air. they can change places with each other.

The theory of Sense Perception感官知觉: the objects contain particles of matter fly off objects and hit our sense organ. He introduced a version of evolution and natural selection: all manners of creatures were born on earth by chance. only these creatures with good survival abilities would reproduce and the other creatures would die off.

the theory of evolution 进化: The eternal cosmic cycle. The Rule of love: At the beginning of the world cycle all the elements were intermingled together by the force love. (strife exerted little power over the world.) the first stage personifies as a God. the cosmos is in its divine state. The advance of strife. At the second stage that our cosmos appears. Strife began to gain increasing power, forced the different elements apart domains (Love is still operative in the variety of animals and plants) the stage our cosmos is actually in. The Rule of strife. At the third comic stage will see the force of strife dominate, without the influence of love. all the root elements will be completely segregated隔离. The advance of love. At the fourth stage will form and new creatures will come into being by the growing force of love.

The moral or psychological forces that propel creatures toward good and evil. The past golden age. Man is a fallen Creature. Apotheosis神话- elevation to divine status.

people can free themselves from the prison of the body and become divine.

Empedocles denied the existence of a void or empty space. he thinks things do not move in empty space but exchange place with each other.

Democritus:德谟克利特（460-370bc）discovered (Teach and helped) Protagoras Reality is composed with atoms and void. Democritus assumes the existence of a void or nothingness. (different with Empedocles.) everything in the world is physical, made of matter.

Atoms(indivisible, eternal, unchanging, infinite) vary in size and shape, weightless. neutral to color, taste,smell and temperature. atoms have no sensible qualities in themselves. no up. no down. no final resting place. they directionless in avoid. atoms eternal, they different in shape, arrangement, and in position. atoms can be combined in the universe by hooking together. things move according to laws of motion. with rough surfaces or hooks become interlocked. there is no reason why things happen, suppose to no god and power to control the universes for some purpose or goal.

Democritus: Emanation散发 Theory of sense perception. Atoms fly off of objects and hit our senses. Experience is produced by objective spatial qualities of atoms and subjective effect主观效 果 on our sense organ. Objective spatial qualities of atoms produce a subjective effect on sense organ.

Epistemology认识论: Sense do not give us direct knowledge of world two kind of knowledge: true born :Real, objective things are they are, quantitative nature of reality. atoms and void. Bastard:opinion gotten through sense experience. subjective, Things as they appear, Qualities: colors, sounds, smalls, tastes. textures.Sense reveal just appearances. Rationalism理性主义：the source of knowledge is reason.(not rely on the senses.)to arrive at the truth, human must depends on reason and not rely on senses.

His prudent hedonism theory 谨慎的快乐主义:pleasure as good and pain or the absence of pleasure as bad. All experience is produced by the movement of atoms. this theory built upon his materialistic theory 唯物主义. pleasant experiences are caused by gentle motions in soul, rough and tumultuous motions product Chaos and pain.

Prudent hedonism: is the theory that pleasure is the only value in life. The good life is one in which this experience is pleasing. Tranquility of the soul (gentle motion) is more pleasing than all the pleasures of the body (large-scale motions) Tranquil 安静的Soul- gentle Motions-Eating healthy foods, getting plenty of sleep,or meditating. Disturbed 扰乱的Soul- Chaotic混乱的 Motions.-Taking drugs, partying hard. Avoid disturbing motions goal: peaceful life.

soul bundle 捆of fine atoms.

large scale⼤大规模 motions.

Protagoras普罗塔格拉:490-420 BCE. The first and most prominent sophist. Moral Relative. two sides to every question. there is no right or wrong. marked you ideas They charging a fee for their services. Sophist are popular because they were meeting a real need in greek society, an oral- based culture.

Sophists诡辩家- taught rhetoric to son of rich athenian citizen. how to become a lawyer . Protagoras: making the worse argument seem the batter. sophist- professor. Greek world “Sophia” skilled at Persuasion regaredless

Protagoras: was a skeptic about religion. agnostic不可知论者, neither affirming nor denying the existence of gods.

Skepticism怀疑论- knowledge is unattainable. we do not have knowledge and we cannot be certain that any of our beliefs are true. Protagoras was a skeptic about religion.

Pragmatists实⽤用主义- be Practical do what works for you. Advised his students To accept social conventions and worship the gods of their land. we do not know whether the gods in fact exit. but culture and religious practices served a role of society. they ere necessary for social harmony and stability. The sophist Critics believed that the religion was a toll to keep the otherwise unruly and violent masses in line. Pragmatic reason, human should observe the religious customs and follow the rules of morality. Sophist- goal is not truth.

the javelin thrower ----what caused the man death? what caused the death. Javelin thrower- supervisor The Javelin. depends on you thinking, no objective truth, no ethics for all.

Traditional morality is based on Convention. 习俗，公约

Ethical relativism伦理相对论:there are no universally valid moral principles. All moral principle only hold true for a given culture or individual.Everything is relative. conventionalism: conventional ethical relativism. Morality is determined by convention. Right or wrong is determined by culture. different culture have different idea. Subjectivism: The individual decides which moral rules are valid for himself or herself. There is no objective truth that holds for all people.

----- no one can judge or condemn the moral views of other individuals. there is no

objective truth that holds for all people ; truth is i the eyes of the beholder.

Man is the measure of all things. Human is the creature of morality. Morality is determined by each individual. what you feel is right. there is no right all wrong within individual, we can not judge it. Protagoras provide a standard for choosing what is true relative to the individual or society. idea is true to the extent that they work for us and achieve our goals. Agnostic. As to the gods, i cannot know. Obscurity of subjects, shortness of man’ s life. the way we life is not follow religion. Protagoras on relagion - religion is necessary on Conservative position in ethnics Follow law because they work for our won good, not because they are right. The goal of all human beings is to be happy. what makes people happy include wealth, fame, beauty, friendship. these can be attained by power.

CHAPTER2. Socrates 苏格拉底: father of philosophy. 469-399BC. father is a stone mason. mother was a midwife- helps deliver a baby, give birth. Married to Xanthippe has three sons. Debated sophists and athenian citizens followed by Youths e.g. Plato. Socrates- no writings. The socratic problem: Plato’s Socrates. Republic- Plato. Plato write dialogue. plato’ s later dialogues will wrote his name

SOCRATIC METHOD OR DIALECTIC 辩证法 Socratics poses question” what is X? X offers definitions Socrates finds problem with each of X’s definition.

dialogue with socrates end with person frustrated

Guilty of corruption and impiety.

Apology---- i have two accusers: past and recent. to explain past rumors and why many are mad at me, let me begin with the oracle of delphi

Plato柏拉图: was a student of Socrates and a teacher of Aristotle. Crito克⾥里托; friends of Socrates. page18-28. aecapte or -==deach, wite foe shii must wait ofr in the dialogues 对话as generally as early (Socratics). Socratics is presented as extremely agile in question and answer, to be known as “ socratics method of teaching, or the “elenchos"

-oracle. Socrates gained a divinely ordained mission in Athens to expose the false conceit of wisdom.

what is Socrates’ problem? he is in jail and refused to escape.

the opinion of the many doesn’t matter only that of good mem. if you don’t escape , i will lose a friend. my reputation,

Socrates: only the opinion of good men counts. fallacy / bad argument appeal to the people. the opinions of some men

The pupil …of gymnastics supposed to attend the praise and blame… of one man only his physician or trainer. the opinion of the many dose matter, they can kill you, the greast evil. that’s not the great evil you soul is more valuable. S: the many cannot make you "wise or foolish” soul over body.

more reasons to escape: don’t feel guilty, no great cost to friends do not fear many places you can live? do not let your enemies win. do not abandon your children?

jury got it wrong why listen to verdict? Socrates says should not break the law because of underserved sentence. one ought to live rightly, flow principles.

Child parent analogy: A child is to parentas S IS TO THE STATE. CHILD HAS NO RIGHT TO HIT PARENT EVEN IF

EXAM2: The Euthyphro.(one of the Plato’s earlier dialogues 对话） The Crito: Whether in battle or in a court of law, or in many place, he must do what his city and his country order him. In the Crito Part. Socrates says to escape is to break the law and to harm the state.citizens have duty to obey their city and their country. he believes citizens have more of duty loyally to his country. that child has to tourist his parents. Child parent Analogy. citizens have more of duty to loyalty his country. a child has to towards his parents. A child is to parent as Socrates is to the state. Child has no right to hit parent even if the parents beat them. So Socrates should not harm state, even if unjust 不公正的 punishment.

what is nature of piety虔诚？the Definitions from Euthyphros.

First: Socrates:Wow, then, you must really know what Piety is! Euthyphro: i am taking my father to court for the muder of his slave.(doing as i do --- prosecuting his father for murder) Definition one: Doing as I do Prosecuting起诉 my father. Socrates says : i did not ask you to give me 2 or 3 examples of piety. Explain the General Idea which makes all pious things to be pious: not three examples:

Definition two: what is great-able or dear to the gods. Holy love, that is one be loved, love and approved love.( what is dear to the god.)

Socrates: the god also accrue. agreeable to one may not agreeable to all. examples; Aphrodite: love affairs are good. if we Ask the Gods: is prosecuting you father for manslaughter过失杀⼈人 loved by the gods/ dear to the gods? some say yes, some say no! Then the same things are hated by the gods and loved by the gods, and are both hateful and dear to them? so the same things will e pious 虔诚的and also impious. ———being contradiction⽭矛盾(Socrates) ——X is both P and NOT P. contradiction!⽭矛盾

Definition Three: What is dear to All the gods Socrates: —this is a problem of Accidental and Circularity 循环论证(Socrates)意外地，偶 然的.(Euthyphro’s dilemma) Ask The Gods: is honoring the gods dear to (loved by) the gods? Ask the Gods: Is disobeying you master loved by the gods/ dear to the gods? ------a definition should give the form or essence of piety? Euthyphro has just given an accidental attribute.

Euthyphro’s dilemma窘境. IS X loved by all the gods because X is pious / holy? OR Xis pious/ holy because X is loved by all the gods? Charity/ honesty/ courage/ wisdom = pious/ holy——that is why gods love it. we happen to love these things! and that’s what makes them holy= gods loves Charity, honesty/ courage/wisdom/ kindness.———— makes these things pious/ holy. it is means ———if the gods loves the opposite —Greed/dishonesty/cowardice/ stupidity/ torture—— make these pious / holy.

Euthyphro does choose his option, he chooses the act is pious because all the god love it.

what makes a definition good？ A definition should give the form or essence 本质of piety, Euthyphro has just given an accidental attribute属性.

Dialogues ends with the person finding excuse to leave or agreeing to investigate subject further. Euthyphro tries to leave.

Myth of gyges.——the republic, what is justice?

Glaucon: a story of shepherd, s shepherd of gyges: shepherd, storm, earthquake, chasm. corpse with ring, twisted转动 ring, invisible. guges decide to kill the king, gyges seduced king’s wife, killed the king with her help and become king of Lydia Glaucon says: if there were two rings, one own by the just man(good man ). the other by the unjust(bad man ), no one …..would be so incorruptible that he would stay on the path of justice.

what would you do with the powerful ring? Glaucon:no one woiuld stay on the path of justice when he could. take whatever he wanted from the market. go into house and have sexual relations with anyone he wanted. kill anyone he wanted. and do other things which would make him like a god among man. psychological egoism⼼心理学上的利⼰己主义: everyone does serves their own self-interest. it’s human nature-you cannot help but promote your own welfare. no choice. (the selfish gene)

injustice is far more profitable than justice. 不公正⽐比起公正更有利可图.（human beings are born selfish.） the man who did wish to do wrong,would be thought to be very foolish and miserable.

how is justice established? it is desirable to do wrong. but undesirable to be wronged. we would rather be aggressor than victim. justice arises out of fear of harms by other people.that may befall us from other people. social contract. morality arises from self interest and is founded by social contract. we agree to follow certain laws and rules as a society because we do not want to be harmed.

why do people act justly? the fear of punishment or loss of reputation keeps people safe from one another. according to glaucon, without this fear in society, the virtuous and the non-virtuous would no longer act morally.

would you cheat if you could get away with it? would you behave differently Socrates: with out fear of the society, both virtuous and non virtuous would on longer act morally Glaucon:people naturally tend to be selfish. Socrates: No one knowingly chooses to do wrong. Socrates:evil is chosen out of ignorance or sickness.

Socrates disagree with Glaucon that people naturally tend to be selfish and unjust. Socrates claims that a person never knowingly choose to do wrong. evil is chosen out of ignorance or sickness. Socrates offers the myth of the cave to show how most people are like the prisoners in the cave, ignorant of reality, unaware of the ultimate good.

the Augustine. Saint Augustine of Hippo. early church theologian and philosopher. Divine law theory.

city of god (divine, heavenly, love of god, seek glory of god, hope of afterlife,enjoy society, obey laws, earthly peace… as long as it does not injure faith.) and city of man(love of self, seek glory of men, love of pleasure and earthly goods, desirefor well- ordered society.). two different ways of life. two kinds of societies.

his mother is a Christian, his father is a pagan.异教徒 when he is young, he is study literature and rhetoric. he is pleasure- seeking youth. by his study, he is influenced by Plato and Scriptures. 圣经 later of his life, he became a Christian, priest and bishop主教. City of man: people value physical pleasure. people wanna be the first stage. love of self, seeks glory of men, love of pleasure and earthly goods. City of Gold. divine, heavenly. love of god seek glory go god. enjoy society, obey laws, earthly peace, as long as it does not injure faith.

salvation in heaven. By god’s grace. —— faith. not by human actions or virtues. heaven—day of rest, happiness.

plato

The Myth of the Cave: Allegory 预⾔言，反讽法 by plato（story with symbolic significance.） prisoners unaware of a higher reality outside of cave. in the cave— prisoners have mere opinion, not true knowledge. outside th cave—concepts: objects of mathematical reasoning general property applying to particulars. Socrates- what i am seeking: one definition of them all the common nature. they quality in which they are all alike. outside the cave— the forms: world of being, perfect, non-physical. the forms: it cannot be perceived by senses. it cannot be described in words.

perfect forms: eternal, unchanging, objects of knowledge, known through reason.

physical things: temporary, changing, object of opinion, known by sense.

Plato’s divided line: the highest forms形式:

the good ————understanding concepts概念————reasoning 推理，论证 physical Objects(things we perceive with our senses.)————perception(prisoner is unchained. now sees real objects which cast shadows.)知觉，感觉 shadows images———— imaginations( more opinion. chained in a cave. ignorant prisoners,believe shadows reality)——————lowest level of reality.

Access higher reality by examining审查 concepts观念，概念，思想 For Plato, the highest reality is abstract抽象的. world of becoming （the world of physical objects）is inferior次于 to world of being (the forms are supposed to exist in the world). philosophy liberates us from physical world. the Good is highest form of being. true reality is not subjective. true reality is objective.

The form of treeness: forms are archetypes or models. a thing has less reality the further removed from its form. forms for everything that has being: trees, rocks, circles. a cat is a cat because it imitates or participates in the form of catness. intelligible world more real: visible world less real:

Moral and Aesthetic forms审美形式: abstract qualities reflected in particulars. the more X imitates the form of Xness= more being / reality X has =more goodness X has.

the form of the good. the highest of forms: perfect, eternal, unchanging, more real, not physical.

Metaphor of the sun.= the good.= the sun is necessary for Vision and Life. like the sun, the good makes reality, truth, and existence of everything possible. the forms is not anything physical that you can find or touch. in the final stage, the mind soars beyond all assumptions and sensory crutches to a rational intuition of the pure forms. the final destination of this process of dialectic is the apprehension pf the first principle of the whole. plato calls this ultimate source of knowledge and reality “ the GOOD."

Augustine: The Confessions of St. Augustine. on the reading.——god

augustine uses a lot of plato’s ideas to consist what god could be. Augustine says god is one, eternal, and immaterial.(not physical) god is unchanging and perfection. source of being and truth. Simile of the sun=the form of the good=god. he describing god as “the one good."

god contrasted the things of the earth. oppose to the contrasted the multiplicity of things. god is describing as the clear brightness of love. oppose to the fog of lustfulness.(dark and hard to see.) god is describing the truth, bright and beautiful above all. the physical world we living is full of various and shadowy loves.

Yahweh: i am who am Moses asked the name of him who gave the command. reply: i am he who is. meaning: god alone Is. god is the fullness of being and of every perfection. all creatures receive all that they are and have from god.= we are made of god image, we are reflection of god’s perfection.

mystical 神秘的experience体验: multiplicity disappears. personal identity lost all is one, unity. as being ineffable= too great for words.(cannot describe the feeling) the commination诅咒 of terror恐怖, ecstasy 忘形, bliss极乐.

the problem of evil: god is omnipotent, ⽆无所不知的omniscient and perfectly good. （god be able to stop suffering and pain,could do anything . god would know when bad things happen to us. if god is perfectly good, is it assumed god would love human beings and not want his creatures to be harm. ）

how can evil exist? the manichaean explanation. two opposeing forces: good battle versus evil.

evil is caused by humans. god does not cause moral evil. humans freely choose to sin. evil is blessing in disguise伪装. something appears evil to us. just a means to achieve good. evil is a privation (evil does not exist): evil is a lack of being. absence of good. 并不存在， 只不过缺乏好的，显得evil. example: darkness, disease, ignorance, weakness, ugliness, cold, silence. the more you cat imitates the form of catness= more being/ reality it has = more goodness it has.

the confessions of St. Augustine like a diary, addressed to god. why did i steal those pears? with friends he stole pears just to throw to pigs, why? because of Pride. what is pride: wish to be godlike, not to be bound by rules, to show off to friends. Pride is the craving for undue exaltation. ——self-love Because of self-love: showing off his body that he is special.

original sin: augustine tool creation story literally.

Original sin—ignorance and wrong desire( pride—desiring one’s own glory rather than god's)

A darkened likeness of Omnipotency. trying to be like god— all pervertedly imitate thee. who is tobe feared but god alone?

will is pulled by desires. ===lust luxury, sloth. nothing more tender than thy charity. plenteousness of incorruptible pleasure what stable rest besides of lord.

we inherit originsl sin. our wills are bent away from god and are pulled in the wrong direction toward self-love.------envy, anger, fear. Original Sin: Augustine took creation story literally. Original sin is Ignorance and wrong desire. ——pisical is good

Augustine: we choosing the lesser good. we are ignorant, lack light of faith. plato: we can only choose what is good, no one intentionally choose evil. problem— people’s ignorance.

garden OF Eden. adam and eva had turned away from god. eva believed the serpent adam listened to wife’s request over god’s command. they turned away from god.

The fall of man: god made everthing and god made everything good. man not god, is responsible for evil in world. sin is a :falling away from god.

what is a good person> person with well-directied love, love of god. person with faith. not good works not virtues.

what is sin? we are motivated to act by our love. sin is disordered love: loving more the lower goods. loving less what is of higher value. example: money over people, gold over justice sex over self-control.

Happiness: all human desire. desire of god. to be happy= have what you desire and desire right things.

god is the supreme good.

Salvation: nearly impossible . given originals sin. to be saved a person has to have faith. how can we have faith, given our misdirected love? salvation through Undeserved grace from god + man’s free will.

Faith is like a box of chocolate a gift that may be accepted or rejected.

Salvation only by grace of god. God invites us to have faith faith is a gift from god. we can freely accept invitation not everyone is invited, not everyone accepts.

divine law theory— do god’s will Theory----god wills X because X is good or X is good because god wills X.

Car Robbery: parent: why is stealing bad? child: breaks gods law. you should follow god’s law. parens: what if god asked killing somebody? child: god would not ask you to do that. parent: why? child:because stealing is bad.

Thomas Aquinas: what do you think is the morally right action? divine law theory medieval period.1224-1274 summa, theologica.

is it always wrong to kill another human? self-defense— two effects: save life and kill attacker. wrong if out of proportion to the end. unnecessary violence is wrong. defend with moderation适度，节制

doctrine of double effect双重影响学说（DDE） divine law theory catholic 天主教的 principle. the Nature of act is good or neutral. the intention 意图is good. intention：（agent中介. wills good effect, only foresees预知 bad effect.） bad effect is not means意味着 to good effect. bad effect is proportional 成⽐比例的to good effect

bad not the means, action leads directly to the good. proportionality: bad effect <=good effect.

incoherent explanations不连贯的解释 i have no idea you can't just kill somebody

it’s fate. up to god.

divine law theoty: sanctity of life— human life is sacred. so no one should kill innocent person. intention? death of person. means? evil effect means to good effect. surgery—mary dies— jodie lives.

Exam3. Thomas Hobbes:1588-1679 he is a sciences and mathematica. tutoring for prince Charles( Charles II of England). he is a friend of Galieo. his politics gave him trouble in England and France.

He is famous of his social contract theory. a social contract consist of the political principles, arrangements a great pond irrational free and equal persons. in his theory, he concludes that argues for absolute sovereign 君主power.

Thomas Hobbes: he is an empiricist经验主义者. an empiricist claims that sensation ,out-mate source of knowledge. Knowledge from our senses. image from sense perception fades. he is also a Materialist. believes the world contains maters. Humans are also bodies in motion. Atheist⽆无神论者? not sure. Hobbes believes one man can believe in God, but can never know what God is, because humans only know things feel senses.

HUMAN BEINGS: Hobbes thinks that human beings are made of matter. Bodies in two types of motion: 1) vital motion— automatic activities(heart beating, breathing, digestion food) 2)Voluntary motions— desire or Aversion. desire: a motion toward something. Aversion厌恶: a motion away from something.

For Hoppes: Good = object of any man’s appetite or desire. Evil= object of his hate and aversion good is subjective主观的. each person has different likes and dislikes.

Morality道德 is subjective or relative. people are driven solely by appetites (desire and aversions) there is no absolutely good or bad, no absolutely good or bad. each individuals suppose by their different preferences.

Happiness: consists getting what we want (good , pleasure), avoiding what we do not want(evil, pain) Happiness is desire satisfaction. the problem of people is they have many desires too many desires. — no rest, constant striving to fulfill their desires.

Hobbes argued for psychological Egoism ⼼心理学上的⾃自我主义. A theory that people tend to act for their own interests, not for the sake利益of others.

Pessimistic 悲观主义View of human nature. the nature of man is to desire certain things, not least of all power, and to work toward those desire. people are fundamentally根本上的 self-centered⾃自我为中⼼心.

Altruism利他主义:— welfare of others before one’s own. is altruism possible for humans? some scholars claims Hobbes been a psychical egoism(a person should act as self- interest.) For Hobbes thinks Altruism is possible and it’s not a good idea. some scholars said Hobbes more ethical egoism. (rather than psychological egoism ) Ethical egoism: under the theory, Hobbes would say Altruism is possible but not a good idea. human beings should not Altruism. According to Ethical Egoism, we should add self- interest.

Hobbes says the natural condition of Man is self-centered, Vain⾃自负的, and Insecure不 安全的，不可靠的. Lord of the Flies:苍蝇⺩王，⼩小说—— natural tendencies趋势 towards Self-interest and Violence.

The natural condition⾃自然条件 of Man says by Hobbes: competitive, quarrelsome 喜欢争吵的and miserable卑鄙的， 悲惨的. Hobbes identifies, Principle Cause of quarrels. #1. competition— invade侵略 for gain利益. #2. Diffidence(feeling of distrust, fear )— invade for safety. #3. Glory— invade for reputation.

The State of nature⾃自然状况: Hypothetical condition of humanity. before law or government has been steplish. Hobbes: the state of nature : a war of everyone against everyone. everyone fears for his or her own life and tries to protect it. there is a scarcity of goods in the state of nature.

As long as human beings have not successfully arranged some form of government, they live in Hobbes’s state of nature.

Such a condition might occur at the beginning of time or in “primitive” societies or tomorrow in every modern society, for example, if the police and army suddenly refused to do their jobs on behalf of government(then the society could be in ca us)

the state of nature is the state of war.

There is no just or unjust in state of nature. to this war of every man against every man, Hobbes says, "nothing can be unjust. notions of right and wrong, justice and injustice have no place in the state of nature." in the state of nature, we each have a right to all things, “even to one another’s body"

“where there is no common power, there is no law: where no law, no injustice." there is no right or wrong in state of nature.

Hobbes writes: “without government, our lives would be nasty下流的, brutish粗野的 and short. "

Humans are equal: anyone can pose a threat. “the weakest has strength enough to kill the strongest." every human being is capable of killing any others.even the strogest must sleep; even the weakest might persuade others to help him kill anther. Adult are Equal in this capacity to threaten one another ’s lives.

Fear of violent death. we are more or less Equal in power, — equality of need(we are need protection). Left to themselves, everybody will compete and fight with everybody else. such a situation will lead to continual fear. as no one can be sure that his crop will not be stolen, or that he will be paid for his labor, no one will work.

The rational理性 thing to do: reason show us: Human Nature+state of Scarcity+Desire for Self-preservation==we must follow 3 laws of nature.

reason and passion: self-ptrservation— universal good. A law of nature= a duty that is obligatory by force of reason. (we must follow) Hobbes claims for the sake of self-preservation, rational person will wish to leave the condition of war, and it will be achieved in part y reason, in part by passion.

reason—recognition of the law of nature. Passion— emotions inclining a person to peace: fear of death, desire for things necessary to "commodious living” and hope by one's industry to be able to obtain them.

First law of nature: We ought to seek peace. and when we can not we should use all means to defend ourselves. Second law of nature: give up some of our rights or freedoms, as long as others will, too.

Hobbes: that a man be willing , when others are so too. as far forth, as for peace, and defense of himself he shall think it necessary, to lay down this right to all things; and be contented with so much liberty against other men, as he would allow other men against

himself. the solution is for everyone to agree to refrain for robbery, rape, murder, etc. in return for everybody else doing the same. All should then give up their right to act according to nature to a sole monarch, who would have absolute power to enforce laws. to prevent this war, men must choose to cede their power to a leviathan, who must them have absolute control over them and their lives. in exchange, they will receive protection from each other. this arrangement will last until such time as the sovereign is no longer able to provide protection, at which time it will dissolve.

Third law of nature: Social contrat to keep the peace. keep our world to follow social contract. “the man covenants(social contract) made."

No Divine right of Kings Monarchs do not have a natural or god-given right to rule over us. power of sovereign derived from the people Government established by social Contract.

Social Contract: Must give up some freedoms Gain protection and Advantages of Society. Psychological Egoism: Given that humans are self-interested, why would they enter into a social contract?

Role of government: a strong authoritarian government is needed to force obedience from selfish and violent people. Authoritarian power: leviathan- a sea monster a huge being. government can be a tyrant but, must protect life and physical well-being of people.

What is our obligation to law? Recall socrates: unjust sentence refused to disobey law must honor social contract drank hemlock

Hobbes— the death Penalty

was socrates right? if the law impose a death sentence, is one obligated to obey or try to escape. Hobbes says: if the sovereign commands a man, though justly condemned, to kill, wound or maim himself… yet hath the man the liberty to disobey.

Absolute power of government once in place , the monarch should be obeyed unless one was breaking the law in order to protect one’s own life, or until the monarch was no longer able to enforce his or her own laws. the suffering of individuals (if it occurred ) was the necessary side effect of social stability.

the safety of the people is the supreme law.

revolution justified the obligation of subjects to the sovereign is understood to last as long, and no longer, than the power casteth by which he can protect them.

the prisoner’s dilemma prisoner A and B have been captured for a minor crime, but the DA believes that they are guilty of a more serious crime which they committed together. the DA places them in separate rooms, and says to each one.

if you confess, while the other prisoner stays silent, you will be set free and the other prisoner will serve 20 years in prison. but if the other prisoner confesses while you keep silent, we will punish you with 20 years in prison. if you both confess, we will punish you less severely, both must serve 5 year prison terms eah. however, if neither of you confess, the most we can give each of you for your minor crime is one year in prison.

what should you do out of self-interest? no way to talk to other prisoner no way to cooperate cannot trust other prisoner.

option one: the other prisoner confesses if the other prisoner confesses, then i will face 5years or 20years. 5 years is better than 20 years. so I should confess.

option two: the other prisoner remains silent. if the other prisoner stays silent, then I will face 0years or 1 years in jail. no jail time is better than 1 year. so i should confess.

Constructive Dilemma: let R : other prisoner will Rat on me. Let C: I should Confess.

Either R or not R If R, then C. If not R, then C. conclusion? Either C or C. which means simply C.

individual good the rational thing todo is to confess. in this case, individual good does not lead to the collective good. pursuing our own self-interest can backfire on us. we miss out on the advantages of social cooperation.

how to correct this problems? we need to ensure that collective good coincide with individual good, so that they are not at odds with another. Hobbes’ political theory insists on a strong absolutist government that will force individuals to cooperate. enter the “Crime King” to the Prisoner’s dilemma.

Hobbes— solution add Crime king to the picture. this head boss threatens to kill prisoners who confess. Crime king forces each of you to cooperate. now what is the rational choice? crime king= leviathan=absolute government.

Epicurus Ethics:

hedonism: good=pleasure bad=pain. Teleological ethnics: consequence. Actions are right as they produce good consequences.

Ethical egoism: greatest good for oneself Action is morally right if it promote one's long term goods.

crude version of hedonism unbridled pursuit of pleasure. Eat, drink, and be merry. if it feels good, do it.

Epicurus— offers more enlightened hedonism. The hollywood lifestyle? indiscriminate pursuit of pleasure is difficult to maintain and to support financially.

as hollywood lifestyle illustrates, pursuit of pleasure often leads to addiction, disease, and destruction of talent.

short vs. long term results. all pleasures are good, and all pains are evil. but he says avoid the pleasure that will lead to great pains, but seek the pains that will lead to great pleasure.

some pleasures are greater than others. not all pleasures are to be sought. and not all pains are to be avoided.

no pain, no gain. we ought to choose the greater pleasure. for some pleasures, we must experience pain.

few desires, the better.

better to have fewer desire. too many desires leads to Anxiety, and frustration. seek to only natural and necessary desires.

there have three types of pleasures: type one: natural— body enjoys without training or effort Necessary— body must have unfulfilled leads to great pain easy to satisfy. type two: natural— unnecessary— body can do without no great loss/ pain no easy to satisfy. type three: you should avoid— vain, they are dangerous Unnatural— not rooted in nature, but instilled by society and false beliefs, often destructive. unnecessary— body can do without no great loss/ pain no easy to satisfy.

strategies for happiness fulfill desires: satisfy type 1 desires enjoy type 2 desires in moderation eliminate desires: eliminate type 3 desire completely. reduce type 2 desires.

friendships over sex greatest means of attaining pleasure. greatest source of security friendship requires trust and care no risk of heartbreak.

source of unhappiness unfulfilled desires fear or anxiety greatest human fear— one’s own death.

sacrifice the homeless man? Act utilitarianism say Yes, morally permissible. Rule Utilitarianism say NO, morally wrong. Act Utilitarianism. right action==action that leads to GGN greatest good for greatest no. must consider each situation unique must perform hedonistic calculu every time.

Rule utilitarianism: right action follows the best rule(wichh accords with the best rule) best rule= rule which lead to GGN if generally followed. a gengeral rule saves time.

which rule is better rule1. harvest organs from healthy person when more cn be saved.-- fear of doctors and

hospitals rule2: never harvest organs from healthy people

immanuel kant 1724-1804 german philosopher lutheran deontological ethnics duty ethnic.

morality based on reason god save humans reason, humans can discover moral rules with reason kant provides tests to determine moral rules.

kant disagree with theories that said humans should act from self-interest disagree with that humans should seek happiness diaagree with tranquility ataraxia benjemin quantity, quality,too

right intention it is not the consequences that give an action moral right right attention: wrong intention: desire for reward. fear of pinishiment , reputation, fame desirefor happiness. love or sympathy only one right intention: desire ro do one's duty for the seek of princciple out of

the good will the only rhing good without qualification is the good will to have good will= tobe rational being who does or do his duty. not good on its own.

duty to follow rules. why follow? hypothetical imperatives. versus categorical imperatives (moral rules)

one who wishes for a specific end, must will the means needed to reach that END.

universal or applies to all person.

absolutist-- no exceptions

categorical imperative first formulation: a general cri or test that determines which moral principle are correct. suicide

kant's first example: man is despair misfortunes sick of life. maxim:

can you will this to be a universal law? can not self-love seeks to preserve life and self-love seeks to destroy life. leads to a contradition cannot be both S and NOT S.

False promises kent's second example. man need to brrow money won't be able to repay. can only have loans of promise of repayment.

Apply CI-- contradiction there is no such thing as promise.

one 's rational nature seeks to develop gifts. contradicts one

forth exam; refuse help.

two ways to fail the CI test.