Critique
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,s… 1/77
Chapter 3
Individual Factors in Organizational Communication
When all other means of communication fail, try words.
—Anonymous
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,s… 2/77
Learning Objectives
What We Will Be Investigating:
Realize that encoding and decoding processes are unique to the individual. Appreciate how and why people misperceive messages. Understand the factors that help to create our self‐image. Understand the difference between introversion and extroversion. Appreciate that beliefs, attitudes, and values differ among people and cultures. Recognize the importance of acculturation in organizational life. Understand the psychological traits of self‐efficacy and empathy. Explain how perception operates and what selective perception involves. Understand the perceptual processes of habituation and closure.
Organizational communication begins with the individual. Indeed, the effectiveness of all levels of organizational communication—interpersonal, group, and multigroup—depends on our ability to communicate intrapersonally, to interpret messages reliably and develop appropriate and influential messages to share with others. It is at this basic individual, or intrapersonal, level of communication that we translate the messages we perceive into meanings about the world, in what is known as the decoding process, as discussed in Chapter 1. It is also at this intrapersonal level of communication that we design the strategic messages we plan to share with others, translating meanings into messages in what is known as the encoding process.
However, each of us performs decoding and encoding processes uniquely. That is, we each engage in intrapersonal communication in our own unique way. For example, we all interpret messages based on our own personal background, experiences, and orientations to organizational situations. We also compose messages in our own personal ways. Sometimes these decoding and encoding processes are conducted reliably and effectively, but often we make errors in judgment that can lead to serious problems in organizational communication. These errors include misinterpretations about the messages of others, incorrect judgments about the influence of our own messages on others (miscommunications), and even unintended (and sometimes dangerous) influences of our messages on others. If we have trouble communicating at the intrapersonal level, we will invariably encounter problems coordinating activities with others when we engage in organizational communication. That is why it is imperative that we develop a clear understanding and mastery of intrapersonal communication as an essential foundation for becoming strategic organizational communicators.
In many ways the individual, or intrapersonal, level of communication is the most important level of organizational communication. Yet most people take intrapersonal communication for granted. We assume that we have competently interpreted messages, created reliable and valid meanings, and developed appropriate messages to share with others. If only this were true, communication would be so much more effective. Furthermore, intrapersonal communication processes occur primarily within our own heads as we interpret messages and create our own message strategies. Unfortunately, most communicators fail to utilize knowledge about intrapersonal communication processes to guide strategic organizational interactions. In this chapter, we will demystify the
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,s… 3/77
intrapersonal level of communication by exploring the key processes that organizational participants bring to organizational life and that influence organizational communication. This chapter should help guide your own intrapersonal communication processes to help you achieve individual and collective organizational goals.
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,s… 4/77
How does the self‐image Oprah Winfrey has of herself affect the way she communicates with others?
3.1 Intrapersonal Communication and the Psychology of Self
There is a close relationship between intrapersonal communication and the ways we think about ourselves. Important individual psychological and personality factors such as the following are closely tied to the ways we communicate and make sense of our world:
our personal self‐image, our levels of extroversion and introversion (how important social interaction is to us), our psychological set (our beliefs, values, and attitudes), our sense of personal control over situations (often referred to as our locus of control) and our belief that we can accomplish our goals (often referred to as our sense of self‐efficacy), our level of empathy for others, and our orientation toward expressing different emotional states (like happiness or sadness).
Because it involves so many psychological and personal factors, intrapersonal communication is often referred to as the psychology of human communication. Let's take a look at each of these factors and see how they influence the ways in which we communicate in organizational life.
Self‐Image
Our self‐image involves beliefs about who we perceive we are, what we see as our personal and professional potential, and what we think our personal communication style should be. Self‐image is a critical intrapersonal factor that strongly influences the behaviors and interpretations of organizational actors. For example, individuals who have relatively positive self‐images are likely to see themselves as potentially successful and upwardly mobile organizational participants. This positive self‐image will indelibly influence their professional goals, orientations, and the ways they interact with others. Individuals with a positive self‐image are likely to be optimistic, confident, assertive, and willing to take risks. (These are some common traits of effective leaders.) Conversely, individuals with a more negative self‐image are likely to have limited expectations for themselves concerning their organizational success and upward mobility. They may behave cautiously as organizational participants, not take major risks, and be reticent about expressing their ideas, opinions, and suggestions.
Self‐image not only influences how we see ourselves but also shapes the ways we communicate with others and influences how others are likely to view us. In addition, our self‐image influences how we interpret organizational situations. If, for example, a supervisor asks an employee why he did something a particular way, the employee with
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,s… 5/77
a more positive self‐image might infer that the supervisor wants to learn from him, whereas someone with a negative self‐image might decide that he's about to be criticized. In the next chapter, we will discuss how the interpersonal responses we receive from others (interpersonal feedback) help to confirm, disconfirm, and change our perceptions and image of our self.
Extroversion and Introversion
Our sense of self is determined partly by whether we see ourselves as introverts or extroverts. Introverts get their energy from being by themselves; on the other hand, extroverts "recharge" themselves by being around other people. Introverts need more space to work on their own because too many people wear them out; extroverts look forward to being in social situations because they find such situations to be energizing. People who are introverted can be less outgoing than people who are extroverted. Our levels of extroversion and introversion have a large impact on how we interact with others and participate in organizational life. For example, highly extroverted organizational participants are likely to be outgoing, sociable, and friendly, whereas more introverted individuals may be more quiet, reserved, and reluctant to initiate conversations.
However, don't be fooled into thinking that a high level of extroversion is always appropriate in organizational life or that a high level of introversion is necessarily negative. Strategic organizational communicators gauge the communication demands of different organizational situations and make choices about how extroverted or introverted they need to be. For example, there are certain organizational contexts in which a highly extroverted person may be perceived as being too loud, disruptive, or perhaps even rude and in which it is preferable to communicate quietly and act in a reserved manner. For example, if you are part of a work group in which the manager is angrily admonishing group members about serious performance problems related to handling job demands, it is probably wise to listen carefully and quietly to what the manager is saying rather than respond boisterously. Strategic organizational participants learn how to manage their levels of extroversion/introversion to match the demands of different organizational situations.
Intrapersonal communication style factors, such as introversion and extroversion, can be good indicators about how well suited different organizational participants will be for handling the communication demands of different organizational roles. For example, highly extroverted organizational participants are likely to be good at initiating conversations and encouraging others to open up. These individuals may be well suited for jobs that demand frequent and effective interactions with others, such as sales, counseling, or customer service positions. More introverted organizational participants may be better suited to more self‐contained and solitary jobs, such as conducting individual laboratory research, performing word processing tasks, or handling accounting responsibilities. Levels of introversion and extroversion are important factors to take into account when selecting individuals for different jobs and tasks.
Strategic organizational communicators should also take into account other organizational participants' levels of extroversion and introversion when communicating with these individuals. For example, to elicit cooperation from relatively introverted individuals, it is often wise to respect their need to pull away from the group at times and work on their own while still trying to build social connections for them. On the other hand, an extrovert will enjoy longer conversations with more people; indeed, they may be disappointed if they don't or can't make such connections, and so their needs for social interaction must be taken into account.
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,s… 6/77
How do our cultural affiliations and cultural norms affect our beliefs, values, and attitudes?
So are you introverted or extroverted? There are probably times when you feel relatively outgoing and times when you feel relatively shy. However, most people develop general personal tendencies toward being more or less extroverted or introverted. These personality tendencies are often expressed through the roles they develop within specific organizational contexts and the ways in which they communicate. Yet it is important to note that individuals who act introverted within professional organizations may be extroverted in social or family contexts. This is an important point to keep in mind because it suggests that personal communication tendencies need not be unchangeable patterns of communication behavior. These communication patterns can, and often do, change as our roles within organizational life change. It also suggests that with appropriate nurturing, we can help organizational participants develop more confidence as communicators and take on important leadership roles and responsibilities. We will examine this issue more fully when we discuss leadership development in Chapters 5 and 6.
Our Psychological Set: Beliefs, Attitudes, and Values
Our psychological set refers to our personal beliefs about the world, as well as the values and attitudes we hold toward different situations, individuals, and objects. Beliefs are positions we hold about what is true or false; they tend to be more cognitive. We have a large constellation of beliefs, with some being more central (strongly believed) than other beliefs. Attitudes are predispositions we have to respond either positively or negatively to people, objects, or situations; they tend to involve a more emotional response. Some of our attitudes are very strong and motivate powerful responses, whereas other attitudes are mild. Values are judgments we make about the importance to us of different people and situations. Our beliefs, attitudes, and values change over time as we encounter new information and grow as people, although our values are generally considered the "deepest" of the three and the most difficult to change.
These key elements of our psychological set are strongly influenced by our different cultural affiliations. The cultural groups we identify with help us define who we are and typically establish cultural norms that influence our beliefs, values, and attitudes. If you were asked to describe yourself, your answer would most likely identify your different cultural group affiliations. For example, if you described yourself as a 30‐year‐old African American man from Chicago, working in retail management and finishing your degree in business administration, with strong personal interests in personal computing, jazz, and Japanese anime films, this brief description could provide some useful information about your cultural connections. Your gender, age, race, place of origin, job, education, and hobbies are all primary cultural factors in your life that not only
define who you are but also influence how you think and behave. Cultural influences are therefore
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,s… 7/77
critical factors to take into account when trying to understand an individual's beliefs, attitudes, and values. However, it is worth stressing that there is no magic, foolproof formula for accurately perceiving another person; it would be unwise to assume, for example, that just because the African American man we just described likes jazz, that he hates opera, or that because he has a degree in business administration, he must be a Republican.
Cultural group members are acculturated (reinforced) through their interactions with other cultural group members to accept central (culturally approved) norms and expectations through an ongoing process of socialization. Through our interactions with other cultural group members we receive continuous interpersonal reinforcement for accepting key cultural beliefs, attitudes, and values. For example, other cultural group members may inform us or react to us negatively when we violate cultural norms, such as when we say something inappropriate or dress in ways that challenge cultural expectations. They might say things such as, "That is not the way we speak around here," or "It would be nice if you would dress appropriately when you come here," to reinforce cultural expectations. Most times, however, feedback about cultural norms is fairly subtle, with other group members letting you know nonverbally whether you are following them. For example, they might smile and nod at you when you act in accord with cultural norms or frown or shake their heads disapprovingly when you violate cultural norms. (Note that these are fairly common strategies used to reinforce appropriate workplace behaviors as well. If you want to be successful in your job, it is wise to learn the centrally accepted culturally based norms of appropriate workplace behavior and follow these rules carefully.)
Clearly, cultural norms influence the ways we perceive the world and the behaviors we engage in. Cultural norms also influence communication, and in ways that are far more complex than we might expect. We each typically belong to a number of cultural groups at any time, and these group memberships change over time. We often change our cultural affiliations when we get new jobs or join different organizations. Each of our cultural affiliations exerts a different level of influence on us depending on how important (or central) the cultural group is to us at that time. Some of our cultural group affiliations are relatively permanent, such as our family memberships, our national origin, and our religious upbringing. However, even relatively permanent cultural affiliations change in terms of priority over time. Life changes. We take new jobs, begin new relationships, move to different cities, with each of these changes influencing our cultural affiliations.
Strategic organizational communicators play close attention to the key cultural factors that are likely to influence the ways other organizational participants interpret and react to different situations, using this information to guide their own communication to achieve individual and collective goals. They are aware of their own values, attitudes, and beliefs, but they also are mindful of the norms and rules within organizations, which may or may not be consistent with them.
Organizations in Action: Acculturation at the CIA
Most of us recognize the need for cultural adjustment if we travel to the other side of the planet. We expect that the language, the food, and the rules for behavior may well be different— sometimes shockingly different. In the same way, new members of organizations must become acculturated to the norms and rules of their workplace. Although this is a continuous process, it is experienced most intensely by the "newcomers." And in this acculturation process, the confusion and surprises can be no less than if you were to take a trip around the world.
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,s… 8/77
The term anticipatory assimilation has been used to describe the ways in which employees may misunderstand the norms and rules in organizations before they even start their jobs. Stephen H. Konya and Rob Johnston, writing about working for the Central Intelligence Agency, quote one newcomer as saying, "I know it sounds silly, but I had this image of James Bond before I started working here. The truth is, I just sit in a cubicle, and I write reports." (2007) Konya and Johnston elaborate by saying that when it comes to the CIA, "a newcomer's initial impressions stem from the fictional media portrayals, which tend to emphasize the supposed glamour of operational tasks and pay little attention to the reality of research‐based analytic work."(2007) In a nutshell, movie portrayals of everyday CIA operations are basically nothing like the real thing, and as with any organization, the possible consequences of this misunderstanding involve confusion, disappointment, and dissatisfaction, resulting in higher turnover.
Once they join an organization, employees go from anticipatory socialization to "accommodation," where group members experience the workplace firsthand. Within the CIA, Konya and Johnston contend, "A newcomer's experience is often contrary to initial expectations. Employees are discouraged from talking about the specifics of their work outside of the organization or with those who have not been ‘cleared.’ On an individual level, this experience translates into professional culture shock and social isolation." But because norms and rules are not static, this self‐imposed isolation has changed a bit since 9/11. According to Konya and Johnston, "The Intelligence Community has become more open about its role in government, its day‐to‐day working environment, and its employees' functions and responsibilities." (2007) Still, norms of confidentiality are at the heart of much intelligence work, and so the changes are probably still somewhat confusing and unclear to everyone involved.
Although the CIA may offer a more intriguing example of the dynamics of acculturation, every job involves disconnects between its imagined and its real nature. The next time you run into a teacher, a doctor, a lawyer, or a cop, ask them how what we see on TV about their work squares with their day‐to‐day real‐life experiences. You might be surprised.
Critical Thinking Questions:
1. What specific norms and rules are in force at places where you have worked? 2. Of these norms and rules, which ones are actually written down somewhere, and which ones
aren't? 3. What values are embedded in such norms and rules? What underlying message do they
communicate?
Sources:
Konya, S. & Johnston, R. (2007, March 16). Organizational culture: Anticipatory socialization and intelligence analysts. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/center‐for‐the‐study‐of‐intelligence/csi‐publications/books‐and‐ monographs/analytic‐culture‐in‐the‐u‐s‐intelligence‐community/chapter_8_organizculture.htm (https://www.cia.gov/library/center‐for‐the‐study‐of‐intelligence/csi‐publications/books‐and‐monographs/analytic‐ culture‐in‐the‐u‐s‐intelligence‐community/chapter_8_organizculture.htm)
Locus of Control and Self‐Efficacy
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,s… 9/77
How might self‐efficacy relate to the ways in which we communicate?
Employee Involvement and Empowerment
Our locus of control refers to our sense of personal mastery over situations. Sometimes locus of control is referred to as self‐efficacy—the confidence we have that we can accomplish specific tasks and achieve our goals. If you have a high locus of control, you are confident that you can be self‐ sufficient in accomplishing your goals and getting things done. Having a high locus of control is an important trait in organizational life, particularly for leaders. Organization members who possess high levels of self‐efficacy are likely to take on challenges, initiate calculated risks, and adopt new behaviors to achieve important organizational goals. Social psychologist Albert Bandura has suggested that self‐efficacy can be nurtured by helping individuals visualize and vicariously experience personal and organizational goal attainment (Bandura, 1986). He explains that by seeing others who are like ourselves engage in successful behaviors, we gain confidence that we can emulate such successful behaviors ourselves. The implication for organizational life is that leaders would be wise to show organizational participants how other organizational participants have been successful to encourage adoption of effective organizing activities.
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 10/77
As many companies increasingly recognize the value of employee involvement, the number of programs designed to encourage this involvement has steadily grown. To think about: how might this increase an employee's locus of control and self‐efficacy? How might this aid in employee retention?
What place do extreme emotions have in an organizational context?
Empathy
Empathy, the ability to demonstrate to others that we understand them and the situations they are encountering, is an important psychological characteristic for effective social organizing. Individuals with high levels of empathy have the ability to identify personally with other organizational participants and let them know they are understood. Empathy encourages the development of cooperative interpersonal relationships where individuals want to work together and help one another. Empathy is also a communication characteristic that can be nurtured in organizational life. The norm of reciprocity, mentioned in previous chapters and which we will discuss in more depth in Chapter 4, suggests that when we treat others in certain ways, it encourages them to reciprocate and treat us in similar ways. By showing other organizational participants that you understand and care about them, you are likely to encourage them to try to understand and care about you too.
Emotional States
Although traditional high‐control approaches to organizational management might suggest that there is no room for emotions in organizational settings, emotions are inevitable psychological factors that influence organizational participants and often perform important roles in communication and social organizing. For example, newer approaches to organizational leadership suggest that the most effective leaders are emotionally intuitive and expressive individuals who connect personally with and inspire coworkers. (We will discuss the emotional factors involved in leadership in more depth later in this book.)
As strategic organizational communicators, it is therefore important that we pay close attention to the emotional states of others to gauge their reactions to different situations and to enable us to choose the most effective communication strategies. Additionally, by expressing sincere emotions, organizational communicators can
demonstrate their commitment to and the importance of key issues in organizational life. For example, when presenting a new proposal to a decision‐making board, strategic communicators can often increase their influence by making a passionate emotional appeal regarding the proposal's potential to address important issues and achieve relevant goals. Increases in the emotionality of organizational interactions often increase attention to the issues under examination, enhance levels of involvement, and encourage active participation in the interactions. Yet it is also important to be able to keep the expression of emotions balanced to maintain professionalism in organizational life.
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 11/77
Organizations in Action: Emotional Intelligence in the Workplace
Traditionally, organizational theorists have focused on the business of getting tasks completed efficiently, paying more attention to the head than to the heart. The psychology of self—in particular, exploring the inner world of human emotions on the job—is a relatively recent concern. But lately, people such as Daniel Goleman, in his book Emotional Intelligence, have explored this inner world of the human psyche that resides within us all and affects both how we see ourselves and how we deal with others.
For example, Goleman (2006) cites research that involved testing salespeople as to their level of optimism. One study found that new salespeople "who were by nature optimists sold 37 percent more insurance in their first two years on the job than did pessimists."
In the chapter of Emotional Intelligence titled "Managing with Heart," Goleman tells the story of Malburn McBroom, an emotionally temperamental pilot who in 1978 approached the Portland, Oregon, airport believing that there was a problem with the landing gear of the plane he was piloting. He decided to put the jetliner in a holding pattern while he kept fiddling with the controls. McBroom's copilots were concerned; the plane was about to run out of fuel, and they weren't sure the landing gear was really malfunctioning in the first place. (It wasn't, by the way.) But, Goleman writes, the copilots were "so fearful of McBroom's wrath that they said nothing, even as disaster loomed. The plane crashed, killing ten people." The lesson? When people in positions of authority are emotionally unstable, everyone else will tend to walk on eggshells. In such situations, subordinates feel neither supported nor inspired.
Managers who lack empathy for their employees can be downright toxic to organizations. A 2011 study by CareerBuilder of some 5,600 workers found that 38 percent felt "harshly criticized," 24 percent said that they had been "yelled at in front of other co‐workers," and 23 percent reported "belittling comments" made about their work during meetings. And according to the survey, the most common culprit was "the boss" (CareerBuilder.com, 2011). With the norm of reciprocity in mind, it's clear that such negative messages from management can lead only to negative responses from employees.
What's the solution? According to Goleman, emotional intelligence involves the type of self‐ efficacy that enables us to recognize and name our emotions and to find ways to manage any aggressive, angry, or self‐destructive feelings. Empathy, he writes, "builds on self‐awareness; the more open we are to our own emotions, the more skilled we will be in reading feelings"— including the feelings of others.
Critical Thinking Questions:
1. In what ways might emotional intelligence help you do your job more effectively? 2. Are there any situations where expressing anger on the job might be justified? 3. If employees feel "bullied" by a coworker or manager, what steps should they take to deal with
it?
Sources:
Civil aviation disasters, United 173. (n.d.). In Pilotfriend. Retrieved from
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 12/77
http://www.pilotfriend.com/disasters/crash/united173.htm (http://www.pilotfriend.com/disasters/crash/united173.htm)
Goleman, D. (2006), Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam.
CareerBuilder.com. One‐in‐four workers have felt bullied in the workplace, CareerBuilder study finds. (2011, April 20). In CareerBuilder.com. Retrieved from http://www.careerbuilder.com/share/aboutus/pressreleasesdetail.aspx? id=pr632&sd=4%2F20%2F2011&ed=4%2F20%2F2099 (http://www.careerbuilder.com/share/aboutus/pressreleasesdetail.aspx? id=pr632&sd=4%2F20%2F2011&ed=4%2F20%2F2099)
Making Use of Psychological Factors
We have looked at a number of psychological factors that affect all members of an organization. Strategic organizational communicators carefully examine and take into account the psychological factors of those they interact with in organizational life and use this information to determine the most effective strategies for interacting with others. They also use this information to help them make reliable and valid interpretations of the motivations that guide the behaviors of other organizational participants. For example, being fully cognizant of other organizational participants' unique personalities and interpersonal communication styles can be a huge help to us to make sense of why they communicate the ways they do and to understand what motivates them, what their likely intentions are, and which message strategies are likely to be most influential with them. Understanding these powerful individual factors can be instrumental in helping us strategically determine the best ways to communicate with our coworkers, managers, and customers.
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 13/77
Selective Attention Research
3.2 The Selective Perception Process
Perception is the intrapersonal communication process by which organizational participants make sense of everything they encounter in organizational life, creating their own unique versions of organizational reality. Perception is a very selective process, with individuals making critical decisions from moment to moment about which messages to attend to and how to interpret those messages. Since it is impossible to attend to everything, perception is by nature selective. That means that even though you may work somewhere for 40 hours a week, your supervisor may be able to perceive only a tiny fraction of what you say and do—and that reality ought to concern you! Their perception of you is inherently incomplete.
A number of common misconceptions exist about the perceptual process. Many people tacitly assume that there is an objective reality of organizational life upon which all organizational participants agree. They assume that perception is like a video camera recording everything that happens. Nothing could be further from the truth. There is tremendous variation in how different organizational participants perceive organizational situations. Indeed, there may be many different organizational realities based on the unique perceptual perspectives of participants. Need proof? Simply ask many members of the same organization about the chief executive; chances are you will get a wide variety of answers as to what this person is "really like." Because perception can be so subjective, communication becomes essential for sharing these different versions of organizational reality and for negotiating shared interpretations and understandings.
Perception is complex process. All of us have cognitive limitations (or limits on our information processing power) regarding the number of messages to which we can pay attention at any given moment. If you are efficient and good with details, you may be able to attend to as many as 10 messages at any point in time. Ten different simultaneous messages can provide us with a lot of information to process. However, there are likely hundreds, perhaps thousands of messages we can potentially attend to in any given situation. That is too many messages for us to handle without experiencing information overload—a point at which there is too much information for us to make sense of. To avoid the discomfort of information overload, we must decide from one moment to the next which are the most important messages for us to pay attention to.
Selecting the key messages to pay attention to at any given time is referred to as the process of selective attention (Kreps, 1986). Not only do we prioritize our messages from moment to moment in the selective attention process, we also decide how much of our limited attention to apply to making sense of each of the messages to which we are attending. (Consider, for instance, your daily email and which messages are ignored, which are skimmed, and which are read carefully.) These active decisions that we make from one moment to another about which messages to attend to and how much attention to afford these
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 14/77
The link between attention and perception was demonstrated on a basketball court in which people were asked to count how many passes the players wearing white made. After about 40 seconds, a gorilla walked on the court, thumped its chest and walked off, clearly visible for five to nine seconds. Half the people did not notice the gorilla, and were shocked when they were told what they missed. Simply directing your gaze some place doesn't guarantee perception.
messages are strongly influenced by our past experiences, our cultural orientations, and our unique psychological attributes.
Consider a situation in which you are making a sales presentation to a new client. At any given moment during your presentation, you are likely to pay attention to many different messages, such as your presentation notes, your presentation slides, your thoughts about what you want to say, and your client's verbal and nonverbal reactions to what you are saying. These are all critical messages that provide you with information for interpreting the situation you are in and making decisions that guide your strategic presentation behaviors. But you could also be thinking about the artwork displayed on the walls of the room, the sounds coming from outside the room, as well as a host of your own internal messages, such as how hungry you are, your appointments scheduled for later in the day, the phone calls you need to make, and more. So, while you are focusing on the key messages at any given moment in time with selective attention, you are also trying to block out the extraneous messages available to you that will not help you make sense of the situation. And perhaps to make matters worse, your audience is engaged in the same perceptual process—for example, they may be focusing on your tie, or what's going on out the window rather than attending to the content of your presentation.
This blocking out part of the selective perception process is referred to as habituation (Kreps, 1986). Effective organizational communicators make good decisions every moment about which are the most important messages to focus on (selective attention) and which less important competing messages to block out (habituation). Recognize, however, as situations change from moment to moment and new information becomes available, strategic communicators update these selective perception decisions to make sure they are attending to the best available messages and blocking out the most distracting and least important messages. This is not always easy to do.
A final aspect of the selective perception process involves reviewing the information we have gleaned from the key messages to which we are attending and to draw conclusions about what all these messages mean. Recognize, however, that we will never have access to all the relevant information available for any given situation, so we will have to reach conclusions based on the limited information we can gather. Inevitably, we end up drawing conclusions based on limited information by filling in missing information with educated assumptions, our own individual sense of logic, and our past experiences. This process of making sense of the information to which we attend
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 15/77
What unique perspectives do you bring to organizational life?
is referred to as closure (Kreps, 1986). Closure is a very creative process that enables us to reach a sense of understanding for complex and sometimes ambiguous situations. But keep in mind that although closure is inevitable, it can be in error because it is always based on less‐than‐complete information. Further, the ways that we reach closure (build a sense of understanding) are strongly influenced by our cultural affiliations and psychological orientation. If, for example, you believe that women are by nature more emotional than men, and you come from a family where emotional outbursts were not tolerated, you will regard an angry comment by a woman differently than someone else might.
To summarize, there may be many differences in the selective perception decisions that individual organizational participants make based on their unique backgrounds, orientations, cultural affiliations, and psychological/cognitive makeups. Each of us is likely to make different decisions even in the same situations about which key messages to attend to (selective attention), which messages are extraneous and should be blocked out (habituated), and how to make sense of the limited information we collect in any given moment (closure). That is why as organizational participants we are all likely to have our own unique interpretations about organizational situations. These perceptual differences are compounded further when we recognize that each of us updates the selective perception decisions (selective attention, habituation, and closure decisions) we make in different ways from one moment to the next.
To this point, it may seem as if no one in organizational life will ever agree on anything since they perceive the world in different and selective ways. However, the perceptions of organizational participants concerning the same situations are rarely completely different. There are typically many potential bases for shared understanding in organizational life, such as shared frames of reference, similar backgrounds, and shared cultural affiliations. There are also likely to be shared selective perception decisions made between like‐minded organizational participants about what are the key messages to attend to, what messages are not centrally important and can be blocked out, and about how to make sense of key messages. This is especially likely if we
share similar cultural orientations.
So there is typically the opportunity for shared understandings and agreements in organizational life. However, there is still the potential for significant differences in the ways in which individuals interpret organizational reality. These conflicting views are often exacerbated by differences in cultural background and organizational perspective. For example, the chief financial officer (CFO) of a corporation is likely to focus on different issues when making sense of someone spilling coffee in the company lobby than the janitor who views the same situation. The CFO might be focusing on potential liability issues related to the coffee spill if someone is injured, whereas the janitor may be
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 16/77
focusing on the cleanup issues. Their different organizational vantage points encourage them to perceive the situation in relation to their jobs and responsibilities.
The selective perception process is least consistent when organizational participants have vested interests, divergent goals, and different personal stakes in similar situations. For example, workers competing for the same job may perceive their own qualifications for the job more favorably than the qualifications of their competitors. This is similar to what can happen at the scene of a car accident, where different drivers may focus more on how the other driver's actions led to the accident rather than focusing on their own culpability. There is a tendency for organizational participants to favor their own perspectives in times of conflict and negotiations. Later in the book we will discuss how vested interests can influence the selective perceptions of contested organizational situations and describe how strategic organizational communicators strive to promote shared meanings and common ground to facilitate conflict resolution.
Case Study: Negotiating a New Collective Bargaining Agreement for Professional Football: Why Can't We All Just Get Along?
The National Football League and the NFL Players Association were at an impasse in negotiating a new collective bargaining agreement, and that impasse was threatening the 2012 football season. The loss or delay of the 2012 football season would have had serious financial and employment consequences for both sides of this conflict (both the owners and players would have stood to lose a lot of money). It would also have hurt the many business owners and employees of organizations that support the NFL (such as food and beverage service companies, hotels, transportation organizations, sports memorabilia and clothing retailers, and more). This impasse could also have hurt the many football fans who look forward to any new NFL season.
Several complex and intractable financial and organizational issues were up for negotiation in this impasse separating the owners and players. These issues included negotiations about how to split between the owners and players the annual almost $9‐billion in game‐related revenues generated by the NFL. As part of the negotiations, the owners proposed to take an additional $1 billion off the top of the total annual revenues (in addition to the $1 billion they currently take off the top) to cover their business‐related expenses and investments. The NFL Players' Association (NFLPA) representatives seriously questioned the costs the owners said necessitated this change. The players' association representatives proposed a 50 percent split of the total revenues, but the owners rejected this proposal.
A related issue under negotiation was the players' association request for greater financial transparency from the owners. The players asked the owners to open their financial books to prove their increased business expenses, but the owners rejected this request and told the players' association representatives that all the financial information needed was already being provided. Some prominent players made incendiary public statements likening the NFL owners to slave masters who feel like they own the players.
NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell proposed expanding the regular season from 16 to 18 games and reducing the preseason from 4 to 2 games. This would increase annual television revenue and profits, the owners argued, for both parties (owners and players). The players were strongly against this expanded schedule suggestion, citing greater risks for player injuries with more real
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 17/77
games to play, and their need for preseason games to prepare for the rigors of the already long 16‐game NFL season. Individual players also called the owners' proposal to increase the length of the season hypocritical since the league had also been publicly promoting increased player safety. Players claimed that this proposal was indicative of the owners' lack of concern for the players' welfare. They claimed that the owners' real concern was for profit, at the expense of the players' health.
Finally, the owners wanted to impose a rookie wage scale that would limit the escalating salaries paid to new players. Both the owners and players acknowledged that entry salaries have expanded rapidly as the different teams vie for the services of new, promising players. The players' association responded that they were willing to negotiate on this rookie wage scale if the owners would accept a proposal that would guarantee that the savings on reducing rookie salaries would be spent on meeting the health and retirement needs of veterans and former players. The owners flatly rejected this potential area for compromise.
Both the owners and players were entrenched in their positions, and the outlook was not good for resolving this negotiation impasse. Both sides were preparing to go to court and engage in protracted litigation. The owners seemed to feel that since they were putting up the money to finance the NFL, they should be able to reap any profits from their large financial investments and responsibilities. Conversely, the players seemed to feel that since they were actually using their athletic prowess to play the games, were putting their lives and limbs on the line, and have limited longevity to their athletic careers, they should be benefitting from the popularity of the game and its huge financial revenues.
Some media analysts referred to this impasse as millionaires (the players) arguing about money with billionaires (the owners), while the fans and many others (who are typically of more modest means) stood to suffer. There appear to be a number of underlying cultural issues that may have influenced this conflict. The owners are a powerful group of wealthy business leaders who are used to making executive decisions and dictating terms to those who work for them. The owners are much more culturally homogenous than the players (primarily wealthy, older, and white). The players exhibit more cultural heterogeneity than the owners (with many representatives of minority groups among the players). While the players have begun to earn large salaries from the NFL (and related endeavors), many of them come from poorer socioeconomic backgrounds than the owners. These cultural differences seemed to polarize the two sides in this conflict.
Both sides in this conflict were solidly entrenched on a number of key negotiation issues, and there was very little trust between the owners and players. They both questioned the assertions and motives of the other group, and were becoming increasingly agitated and ruthless as the conflict progressed. For example, Jeff Pash, the NFL's lead negotiator, threatened that the longer the work stoppage, the lower the owners' offers will become. "We are cognizant of what is happening on the revenue side. It's why I've said, and many others have said, this doesn't get easier with time. This doesn't get better with time. It gets more challenging."
In the end, the players and the owners were able to reach a collective bargaining agreement, and not surprisingly, both sides made some concessions. For example, the NFL season will remain at 16 games, which the owners were hoping to change, but the Players' Association must now be consulted before any player is suspended or fined more than $50,000. Also, the first rookie chosen in the NFL draft is no longer guaranteed a $50 million contract, while on the other hand, NFL players are now subject to random testing for use of human growth hormones.
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 18/77
Critical Thinking Questions:
1. Why did the different parties in this conflict likely perceive this situation differently? Imagine the different perspectives on this conflict held by the owners, players, and fans. How did these different interpretations of organizational reality affect this conflict?
2. How effective do you think the owners and players' group representatives were in understanding the unique and differing underlying perspectives on this conflict? What level of empathy existed between the owners and players? How could these representatives have used greater understanding and empathy for one another to resolve the conflict more quickly?
3. What roles did the unique cultural backgrounds of the participants play in this conflict? How did the cultural differences between the owners and the players possibly influence their beliefs, attitudes, and values related to this situation?
4. How were the players (and their representatives) decoding the owners' contract negotiation proposals? Were these the meanings that the owners were intending to convey?
5. How were the owners (and their representatives) decoding the players' contract negotiation proposals? Were these the meanings that the players were intending to convey?
6. From a selective perception perspective, how do you think the players and owners differed on the key messages they were attending to, the available messages they were blocking out, and the ways they were making senses of the messages they attended to in this negotiation process? How does the selective perception process help to explain what was for many months an impasse between owners and players?
7. What is the level of self‐efficacy exhibited in this conflict by the owners and players? How could they have been encouraged to resolve their differences so that the negotiations moved forward more quickly?
8. What were the unique vested interests of the players and owners in this conflict? How did these vested interests influence the negotiation strategies being used by each group?
9. How could the emotional nature of this conflict have been used to promote accommodation and compromise?
10. What communication strategies do you suggest for the owners and players to use to improve this situation in the future?
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 19/77
Summary
This chapter investigates the internal, intrapersonal processes that are a part of communication. These internal factors include our self‐image; our beliefs, attitudes, and values; our sense of personal control over situations; our level of empathy for others; how we experience our emotions; and whether we see ourselves as more extroverted or introverted. All of these factors have a bearing on how we communicate—that is, how we behave and how others are likely to perceive us. Moreover, our beliefs, values, and attitudes are tested and influenced by our cultural affiliations and cultural norms. In that sense, individuals and organizations must negotiate shared understandings to enable organizational acculturation to occur. Additionally, perception itself creates interesting challenges for organizational communicators. Because perception is inherently selective and incomplete, errors in perception are always possible and must be seriously considered in the daily activities of organizational life. Overall, the key idea in this chapter is that our "internal" communication has real implications for how we engage with the external world.
Discussion Questions
1. According to this chapter, "each of us performs decoding and encoding processes uniquely. That is, we each engage in intrapersonal communication in our own unique way." In what ways do you think your "internal monologue" is distinctive or unique?
2. Can you think of a situation where your own self‐image had a connection to your communication behavior? How and why?
3. Do you see yourself as more of an extrovert, or more of an introvert? How do you know, and what impact does this tendency have on your social relationships?
4. What personal values do you embrace that was connected to how you communicate? Are some organizations a better fit for your values than others?
5. Some who write about "empathy" prefer the term "feeling understood," with the idea that empathy should not be considered in terms of what the "sender" claims to be doing, but instead, how the "receiver" feels and experiences the transaction. Why might this be an important distinction?
6. To what extent is it important for organizations to develop shared cultural understandings, and to what extent should we both tolerate and respect cultural differences?
7. Albert Bandura contends that by seeing others who are like ourselves engage in successful behaviors, we gain confidence that we can emulate such successful behaviors ourselves. Have you ever had such a "role‐modeling" episode in your organizational experience? If so, what happened? If not, what do you think that means?
8. What role can or should emotions play in the workplace? What separates an "acceptable" role for emotions from an "unacceptable" one?
9. Since we can't perceive everything, and perception is a selective process, what potential problems does this create in interpersonal communication?
10. If intrapersonal communication is by its very nature internal and unseen, how can we learn to understand what's going on in the hearts and minds of people who we work with?
Key Terms
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 20/77
Acculturated Process by which cultural group members are reinforced though their interactions with other cultural group members to accept central (culturally approved) norms and expectations through an ongoing process of socialization.
Attitudes Our predispositions to respond either positively or negatively to people, objects, or situations; they tend to involve a more emotional response.
Beliefs Positions we hold about what is true or false; they tend to be more cognitive.
Closure The process of making sense of the information to which we attend.
Cultural affiliations Cultural groups that we identify with and help us define who we are. Key to our psychological set.
Cultural norms Cultural standards that influence our beliefs, values and attitudes.
Empathy The ability to demonstrate to others that we understand them and the situations they are encountering, is an important psychological characteristic for effective social organizing.
Extroverts People who "recharge" themselves by being around other people. Extroverts look forward to being in social situations because they find such situations to be energizing.
Habituation Blocking out part of the selective perception process.
Introverts People who get their energy from being by themselves. Introverts need more space to work on their own because too many people wear them out. People who are introverted can be less outgoing than people who are extroverted.
Locus of control Our sense of personal mastery over situations.
Misinterpretations Incorrect judgments about the influence of our own messages on others.
Perception The intrapersonal communication process by which organizational participants make sense of everything they encounter in organizational life, creating their own unique versions of organizational reality.
Psychological set Our personal beliefs about the world, as well as the values and attitudes we hold toward different situations, individuals, and objects.
Selective attention Selecting the key messages to pay attention to at any given time.
Self‐efficacy The confidence we have that we can accomplish specific tasks and achieve our goals.
Self‐image Beliefs about who we perceive we are, what we see as our personal and professional potential, and what we think our personal communication style should be.
Values Judgments we make about the importance to us of different people and situations.
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 21/77
Chapter 4
Relational Processes in Organizational Life
Effective communication starts with listening. —Robert Gately
Learning Objectives
What We Will Be Investigating:
Establish the importance of dyadic interpersonal relationships in organizations. Understand the nature of implicit contracts that guide interpersonal relationships. Realize that relationships develop incrementally and reciprocally. Appreciate the dynamic upward and downward spiraling that occurs in relationships. Understand the difference between complementary and parallel relationships. Become familiar with the relational skills of active listening and reciprocal self‐ disclosure.
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 22/77
Consider relationships in terms of the human needs for affection, control, and inclusion. Understand the nature of co‐orientation as a communication competency. Develop a sense of how to improve your interpersonal conflict management skills. Consider ethical issues in relational communication in organizational life.
In the previous chapter, we described intrapersonal communication as the foundational process that underlies all other levels of organizational communication. Interpersonal communication is the next level of organizational communication. It involves interaction between two (or more) individuals who each have their own unique meanings and intrapersonal processes for making sense of the world. In interpersonal communication, we are challenged to negotiate these different individual perspectives to encourage shared understanding.
Interpersonal relationships and relationship development are the basic building blocks for establishing effective, cooperative, and ethical organizations. It is through interpersonal communication that we develop and maintain the relationships with other organizational participants that we depend on to achieve our organizational goals. We also use interpersonal communication to facilitate coordination between organizational participants and to encourage others to cooperate with us. Yet communicating effectively interpersonally and actually motivating others in organizational life to work cooperatively with us is not easy.
In this chapter we will focus on the centrality of interpersonal relationships and relationship development as the basic building blocks in establishing effective, cooperative, and ethical organizations. We will explore the process of relationship initiation, development, and maintenance and describe key relational communication skills that will help you communicate effectively and strategically with relational partners. Along the way, we will examine strategies for using communication to effectively manage relationships. Finally, the chapter case study will illustrate the need to develop cooperative and trusting interpersonal relationships for effective organizing. This chapter is therefore designed to help you understand the complexities of interpersonal communication and to develop strategic interpersonal communication skills to enable you to elicit social organization.
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 23/77
4.1 The Complexities of Interpersonal Communication
It is exceedingly difficult, if not impossible, for any one person to get anything of consequence accomplished in organizational life all alone. We depend on others to work with us to accomplish organizational goals. For example, if you worked as a sales representative for a custom home window manufacturing company, it would be essential for you to use strategic interpersonal communication to elicit cooperation from many different organizational participants. You could not do your job well and achieve your professional goals all by yourself. Let's look at a few of the people with whom you would need to use strategic interpersonal communication:
1. Customers. You would depend on strategic interpersonal communication with potential customers to convince them to buy custom window products and services from your company. As a good salesperson, you would have to adapt your interpersonal sales and information messages to different customers to meet their unique needs and orientations. You would need to provide them with credible and persuasive information about how the different products and services your company offers would fill their needs and budgets.
2. Other Organizational Participants. If you are effective at convincing a customer to order windows from your company, you would then need to coordinate efforts with other organizational participants:
You would need to get window installers to measure the windows in the customer's home to establish specifications for building the new windows. You would have to share these specifications with representatives from the production department to get them to build the windows. You would have to coordinate efforts with shipping department personnel to deliver the windows. You would need to interact with technicians to get the windows installed in the customer's home.
There are likely others you would need to interact with to coordinate this sale, including representatives from the billing department, the inventory control department, the quality control department, and more. It is clear that we depend on many others to work with us in organizational life.
Yet cooperation is not always easy to achieve. Most people are not eager, without good reasons and some convincing, to adopt others' ideas and goals in favor of their own. The individuals you are likely to interact with in organizational settings are typically more familiar with and attached to their own unique versions of reality and personal strategies for addressing organizational issues than they are with your perspectives on these issues. (Recall our discussion in the previous chapter about the individualistic nature of intrapersonal sense‐making and meaning creation.) It may take some work (or interpersonal influence and persuasion) to get the people we need to coordinate with to accept our ideas and suggestions, especially if they are comfortable with their own strategic approaches. Interpersonal communication is the medium for explaining our ideas to others and convincing them to accept our recommendations.
Let's be careful not to oversimplify this process. Interpersonal influence occurs in multiple directions simultaneously. While we are trying to persuade others to accept our ideas, these same people are likely using interpersonal communication to explain their ideas to us in an attempt to convince us to
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 24/77
follow their recommendations. This ongoing interpersonal exchange of ideas and suggestions is healthy for organization members. It provides them with new information about how other organizational participants perceive organizational reality and how they would solve organizational problems. These exchanges often result in synergistic (collaborative) sharing of ideas and strategies that can lead to productive compromises and innovations.
For example, imagine that you are a military leader working on a multinational peacekeeping mission to ensure fair elections in a foreign country that does not have a history of open elections. You want the other multinational military leaders to follow your recommendations for using your joint military presence to promote open access by voters to the polls, and you lay out your plans to accomplish this goal in a briefing meeting. A military leader from a partner country responds to your suggestions with new credible intelligence information that there is an emerging plot by insurgents to use violence to block access to voting booths and to influence the outcome of the election. Based on the new information gained from this interpersonal exchange, you and the other military leaders are able to develop a new responsive plan that incorporates both your recommendations and new strategies to thwart the threats of violence and achieve the multinational peacekeeping goals.
The Centrality of the Dyad
Interpersonal communication involves interactive and reciprocal exchanges of messages between two individuals. This basic two‐person unit for interpersonal interaction is known as the dyad. Dyadic communication involves two people exchanging messages, sharing relevant information, and adapting to one another. Scholars of interpersonal communication have argued that this two‐person unit, the dyad, is the central unit for all larger levels of communication. For instance, Joseph DeVito (2007), borrowing from interpersonal theorist William Wilmot, calls this phenomenon "dyadic primacy" and argues that dyads are always central to interpersonal relationships. In that sense, all other organizational units are composed of multiple dyads, and to understand the communication dynamics of these units you have to understand the unique characteristics of the different dyads within the unit. Regardless of whether we are examining triads (three‐person units of interaction), larger small groups, or even multiple groups of interactants, the basic relational component that comprises each of these units is the dyad. For example, within a triad (a three‐person social system), there are three different possible dyads. There is one dyad between person A and person B, another between person A and person C, and a third dyad between person B and person C.
Imagine you work within a strong, friendly, and cohesive work group, where all group members get along well. This work group is composed of multiple dyads, and there are inevitable differences in the unique dyadic relationships within the group that influence group interaction. For example, you may be friends with two of your coworkers, Andy and Brad. Although you have good relationships with both, each relationship is unique. You probably communicate differently with Andy than you do with Brad. At different points in time, you are likely to feel more intimate, trusting, or friendly toward either Andy or Brad. Andy may at times confide in you about something he does not tell to Brad, and you may share things with one and not the other. Sometimes you and Brad talk about Andy. Sometimes Andy and Brad talk about you. There may be times when you and Andy agree about something that Brad does not agree with you about. There may be times when you and Brad disagree with Andy. So even while you have similar relationships with Andy and Brad, these relationships are also different. These different dyadic relationships strongly influence communication within the work group. Because each dyad has, to some degree, its own history, norms, and unwritten rules, no two dyads are identical. If you tell a sarcastic joke about the boss to
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 25/77
Why has Bill Gates and Steve Ballmer's dyadic relationship been so important to Microsoft?
Andy, Andy might be amused—but the same joke told to Brad might be met with a response that it's inappropriate to make fun of someone else in such a manner.
Think about the different dyads you are a part of in the organizations you belong to, such as your classes, your job, and social and religious organizations in which you participate. Why are these dyads important to you? Why are they important to the organizations of which you are a part? How are they different from one another? How do the communication patterns you engage in with these dyadic partners differ within each of these dyads? What could you do to make these dyads more satisfying and productive?
Organizations in Action: A Dyadic Relationship at the Heart of Microsoft
When you're the chair and former CEO of a corporation with 90,000 employees and $70 billion in revenue, you have relationships with many groups of people in that firm, right? Well, certainly— but in this case, when the chair is Bill Gates and the company is Microsoft, you still need to develop and maintain special relationships with particular individuals.
As discussed in this chapter, dyadic/one‐on‐one relationships are the foundation of just about any organization—even a giant like Microsoft. And in Gates's case, that key individual relationship is with Steve Ballmer, the current Microsoft CEO and a personal friend of Gates for more than 30 years.
Ballmer has revealed that his partnership with Gates is not unlike that of a husband and wife. In an interview with the Daily Telegraph, cited on Gizmodo.com, Ballmer described "the husband‐wife‐brother thing" he has with Gates. He even took the family analogy one step further: "We participated together in giving birth to this amazing thing called Microsoft. We happen to have two children [Windows and Office] that are a little older, and they are great kids [who] are still developing. They are in high school, they are wonderful [and] have their whole future in front of them. Then we have these two young kids: online and devices. They are four or five, really at a formative stage, and they are building their muscles."(Romano, 2008) For Ballmer, he
and Gates are like proud parents trying to raise and nurture good kids.
As discussed in this chapter, some dyadic relationships are more "parallel" and others are more "complementary." Although both characteristics are evident to some degree in any dyad, Ballmer thinks that a key to his relationship with Gates is complementary. In a Seattle Times interview, Ballmer said, "You know, Bill is a wild ride. He's a roller coaster. We tend to balance each other
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 26/77
off nicely . . . He's up and down, and there's a lot of excitement that goes with that. Bill's got a lot of energy, which mostly you can feed off of." But, "sometimes he's got negative energy, and I've got to bring positive, or vice versa. We tend to figure out how to do that." (Romano, 2008) In other words, Ballmer believes he is a steadying influence whereas Gates is more emotionally volatile—a sure sign of complementarity.
Like any married couple, Ballmer believes that all these years of interaction with Gates have made their relationship work. As he puts it, "For me personally, I know what I know about Bill. And when he says something, I can mostly know where he's going, complete his sentence. I may not have the insight, but when he starts, I say, 'Oh, yeah, got it,' and I have so much context." (Romano, 2008)
Don't be fooled by their size and appearance: even large companies are comprised of hundreds of little offices and cubicles where just two people are trying to develop a personal relationship that works.
Critical Thinking Questions:
1. Do you think it is absolutely necessary for people in organizations to have close personal relationships with coworkers, or can organizations function just fine without them?
2. To the extent that self‐disclosure is a part of relational development, how much and what types of self‐disclosure are appropriate in the workplace?
3. Do you see any ethical issues connected to developing close personal relationships on the job?
Sources:
Romano, B. (2008, June 29). Steve Ballmer talks about his buddy Bill, his golf game and basketball. The Seattle Times. Retrieved from http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/businesstechnology/2008023282_ballmerqa29.html (http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/businesstechnology/2008023282_ballmerqa29.html)
The Implicit Contracts That Guide Interpersonal Relationships
Each dyad within a work group is unique due to the distinct relationships that develop between dyadic partners. Recall some of the distinctions that exist between the dyads you are a part of. Each relationship you establish is unique and changes over time. In fact, every time you communicate with another person, you exert some influence on your relationship. That is why every interpersonal communication exchange in organizational life is so important. These exchanges can be beneficial, helping to build the relationship and increase cooperation and mutual support. However, if you are not careful about how you communicate, your interactions can also undermine your relationships, reducing the potential for eliciting full cooperation and effective coordination. For example, if you make frequent references to your degree from a prestigious Ivy League school, others may regard you as a little pompous, and it will get in the way of a cooperative working relationship.
Relationships are built on a series of general agreements, like social norms, that we establish with others about how we are going to interact with them. The strongest relationships develop very comprehensive and well‐established agreements or norms that both partners abide by. Such relational agreements are typically established subtly, with minimal overt discussion. We often learn
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 27/77
What implicit contracts did Bernie Madoff violate?
about relational expectations by noticing nonverbal cues about how others react (positively or negatively) to behaviors we engage in with them. These responses to our behavior suggest that we should engage in certain behaviors and avoid others. Sometimes, however, relational agreements are established more explicitly, especially when the agreements cover important or sensitive subjects. For example, violations of relational rules concerning acceptable interpersonal touching may be established quite formally. Since the implementation of laws and policies regarding sexual harassment in the workplace, even subtle invasions of personal space can be construed as creating a "hostile work environment" subject to potential litigation.
Still, most of these interpersonal agreements are similar to informal contracts we establish with each other. These agreements are referred to as implicit contracts (as opposed to formal legal contracts), and they encourage relational partners to behave in certain ways with each other. As our relationships grow, we develop numerous implicit contracts that guide the ways we interact with our coworkers. These implicit contracts become expectations we have for how our relational partners will treat us and work with us.
When both relational partners abide by the implicit contracts that have been established, they tend to improve their relationships. By consistently fulfilling relational expectations, they gradually develop trust in one another and mutual confidence that they will fulfill each other's expectations. However, when we violate an implicit contract, even once, it can build distrust and sometimes result in anger, frustration, and disappointment. It takes a long time to build relational trust, but that trust can be shattered very quickly. Once serious implicit contracts are violated and trust is broken, it can take a long time to repair the relationship, if it can be repaired at all. If there is an implicit agreement of confidentiality between two employees, then leaking any "secrets" to others—for example, that your coworker is interviewing for positions at other firms—can result in a sense of betrayal that may taint the relationship for some time to come.
Let's look at an example. In a work organization, if a trusted employee is found to be embezzling funds from the company, it violates a central relational expectation between the employer and the employee of fiscal responsibility and loyalty to the company. This behavior will clearly result in serious and unhappy relational deterioration and other repercussions for the employee. Even minor relational violations, such as telling an embarrassing story about a coworker to other coworkers, can cause serious harm to a relationship. It is wise to consider carefully the demands on your behavior set by the different implicit contracts you have established with others in organizational life. What are the relational expectations others have for you? What relational expectations do you expect others to live up to? What could be the likely relational implications of violating any of these expectations?
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 28/77
What role does self‐disclosure play in relationship
4.2 Relationship Initiation, Development, and Maintenance
So relationships develop incrementally and reciprocally over time as members of dyads exchange messages, develop implicit contracts, and fulfill relational expectations with one another. Sometimes these relationships develop slowly. At other times, when there is a good deal of interaction between dyadic partners, the relationships develop quickly. Recall that every time you send another organizational member a message, you are influencing the development of your relationship. You may be facilitating the growth of the relationship by fulfilling expectations and building new robust implicit contracts, or you may be fostering the decline of the relationship by breaking implicit contracts and degrading relational coordination. It is important for you to be aware of the different ways that your message exchanges can influence relational development. In this section, we'll look at some of the ways in which we can initiate, develop, and maintain our relationships in order to enhance interpersonal communication. We'll start with self‐disclosure and reciprocity.
Relationship Initiation: Self‐Disclosure and Reciprocity
Self disclosure—providing others with relevant, revealing, personal, and/or private information—is an important aspect of relationship development, even in workplace settings. Part of establishing strong relationships with other people is getting to know them and helping them get to know you. By sharing relevant, personal, revealing, and/or private information with others, you are making a personal investment in them. You are telling them that you trust them and are willing to share important informational resources with them. You are also taking a calculated risk that the person who you disclose the information to will respond appropriately, maintain your privacy, and reciprocate by disclosing relevant personal information to you. Sometimes the information disclosed is about personal backgrounds, goals, and experiences. Other times, as is the case in many workplace interactions, the information is more task‐oriented and may concern business strategies, inside information, or tricks to accomplishing organizational activities. The value of self‐disclosure is ultimately in how useful that information is in helping relational partners get to know each other and learn about how they can work together to accomplish organizational goals.
As noted previously, for self‐disclosure to be truly beneficial, the partners typically have to engage in reciprocal self‐ disclosure.
When only one partner discloses personal information and the other fails to reciprocate, the relationship becomes unbalanced. The lack of reciprocity demonstrates a lack of relational trust between both parties. Luckily, there is a powerful social norm of reciprocity that encourages individuals to treat relational partners similarly to the ways the partners
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 29/77
building? treat them. For example, when a coworker greets you warmly and asks if you want to go out to lunch today, it is expected you
will respond with warmth and consider inviting them to lunch next week. And if, at lunch, your colleague wants to share something that happened to her in her performance appraisal meeting, you will feel an urge to do the same. This is not to suggest that everyone always honors the norm of reciprocity, but more often than not, the social pressure to reciprocate is powerful.
When both members of a dyad share relevant and revealing personal information, they will have shared demands to treat the information provided to them responsibly. The future growth and development of the relationship will depend on the relational partners both abiding by these demands for appropriate use of disclosed information. For example, if you tell a coworker that you have identified ways to accomplish organizational goals without following cumbersome bureaucratic regulations, you probably expect this colleague to keep this information private. If the person keeps the information you shared private, he or she will establish a bond with you. However, there is also a risk that the person you confided in will not respect your privacy expectations and will divulge this information to others. If this happens, it does not bode well for the development of a cooperative and trusting relationship. The shared vulnerability of holding personal information about the other person is what helps to make relationships work. There is a mutual investment and liability in the relationship.
Relationship Development and Maintenance
As long as mutual expectations are fulfilled and new implicit contracts are developed, relationships will grow and prosper. This is known as the process of relationship development. We can view the relationship development process as one that spirals up or down. When relational expectations are met and new implicit contracts are established, the relationship spirals up to higher levels of cooperation. However, when implicit contracts are violated, the relationship will inevitably spiral down to lower levels of cooperation. Relationships evolve over time to either higher or lower levels of cooperation based on message exchanges between partners. These message exchanges can take many forms: swapping email, stories over coffee, working on the same committee, carpooling together, or sharing jokes at the annual company picnic, for example. Generally, for a relationship to develop meaningfully, a long history of such interaction becomes a necessary investment in the relationship.
Often, in the early stages of relationship development, when everything about the relationship is new and interesting, people spend a great deal of time learning about their partners and are most attentive to identifying and fulfilling relational expectations. This early stage of relationship development is sometimes referred to as the honeymoon period. However, it is difficult to maintain this honeymoon period level of relational attention, and partners often become lazy and inattentive to one another. They often fail to recognize when old implicit contracts that once worked well are no longer meeting their partner's needs. In these cases, relationships inevitably suffer. They spiral down to lower levels of coordination.
Continuing to build strong and cooperative relationships—the process of relationship maintenance— takes a great deal of effort and strategic communication. When less attention is spent on fulfilling relational expectations, relationship development will invariably suffer. This is especially evident as our relational needs evolve. As organizational participants grow and change over time, they develop
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 30/77
new relational needs and expectations. It is therefore important to vigilantly monitor these changing relational needs and expectations and to adjust our interpersonal communication accordingly. Efforts have to be taken to reinvigorate spiraling down relationships to get them back on track and to spiral them up to higher levels of coordination. These relational reinvigoration efforts include actively communicating with relational partners about their changing relational needs, sharing feelings with them about the relative effectiveness of the relationship, and recommitting with relational partners to mutually update and meet new implicit contracts.
We most commonly associate all of these realities with friendships and romantic relationships, but they are also germane to the workplace. This is why, for example, many organizations send their employees to "retreat centers" from time to time, in order to provide a place where employees can reestablish and/or enhance their personal and professional relationships with each other. In short, organizations are not comprised only of tasks, but of people—and people need to develop meaningful connections with their colleagues as a key element of their organizational experience.
It is a good idea for each of us to consider the effectiveness of the key interpersonal relationships we have established with other organizational participants. How well are you meeting the relational expectations of your organizational colleagues? How have your colleagues' relational expectations changed over time? Are there new relational expectations that they have for you? Is your relationship in the process of spiraling up or spiraling down? What can you do to move your relationship to higher levels of cooperation and coordination? How might you help to promote relational development within the organizations you participate in?
Complementary and Parallel Relationships
As we have seen, relationships develop uniquely to serve the unique needs of members. Some relationships are complementary relationships, in which members perform different roles and have different responsibilities to fulfill different relational needs. In such complementary relationships, one partner often has more power than the other, serving as the leader within the relationship, while the other partner serves as a follower. Although such complementary relationships are often very efficient, with each partner performing different roles and having different responsibilities, they are often also taxing on relationship members. The member of the relationship who has less power may feel dominated and disrespected in the relationship. The member of the relationship who has more power may feel the stress of being responsible for making most of the decisions and handling a great deal of the difficult tasks within the relationship. It is therefore important in such complementary relationships to maintain a semblance of equity between the partners so that one partner does not feel totally overwhelmed by the other.
Let's look at an example. The doctor‐patient relationship can often develop as a complementary relationship, with the doctor taking on a lot of the decision‐making responsibilities for the patient's care due to the doctor's higher level of specialized knowledge. Patients often defer to doctors with regard to health care decisions. Yet research has shown that patients who participate more actively in health care decision making often do better and have better health outcomes than patients who defer to the doctor to direct their care. It is therefore important for physicians to encourage their patients to actively participate in directing their own health care and to provide them with relevant health information and support. In other complementary relationships, it is important for the higher‐ powered relational partner to provide the lower‐powered partner with opportunities to exert control and to participate in relational decision making. Although we commonly associate health care with
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 31/77
What effect do power dynamics have on the doctor‐patient relationship? What effect do power dynamics have on your organizational relationships?
medical procedures, those procedures begin with a mutual agreement regarding what needs to be done and how both parties can help ensure the best outcome. That won't happen without some degree of "buy‐in" by all concerned.
Not all relationships are complementary relationships. In parallel relationships, there is a high level of equity between relational partners. In such relationships, partners often perform many of the same activities, make shared decisions, and sometimes compete with each other. For example, two partners with the same level of seniority in a law firm may have very similar job responsibilities and make decisions together about the activities of the firm. They may serve some of the same clients or even compete for clients. These law partners are likely to have a parallel relationship. The competitive nature of parallel relationships can sometimes become a source of conflict and frustration for relational partners. It may be more difficult in these relationships to make quick decisions because both parties have to weigh in on these decisions. There is high potential for individual growth for relational partners within parallel relationships, but there is also high potential for relational competition and conflict. Care must therefore be taken to preserve cooperation between them.
Interestingly, some relationships begin as complementary relationships, with one relational partner exerting greater relational control than the other, and then change into parallel relationships as the partners grow in terms of expertise, confidence, and ability. For instance, when you first start a job, your relationship with your supervisor may be more complementary—she might talk more and you might listen more, simply because you're new and she's the "boss." But over time, that relationship might evolve into more like a "peer" relationship, where both of you see each other as basically "equals"—simply coworkers who talk to each other about pretty much anything. Sometimes the evolution of relationships from complementary to parallel can put a strain on relational partners, who struggle to redefine implicit contracts about relational expectations and have to learn how to cooperate on making decisions together. This is all part of relational growth and development.
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 32/77
Why is active listening important to relationship building? Are you an active listener?
4.3 Key Relational Communication Skills
Developing and maintaining effective interpersonal relationships demands strategic communication skills and competencies. In this section, we'll look at some key relational communication skills, starting with active listening.
Active Listening
One of the most important interpersonal communication competencies is active listening. Active listening means being fully engaged in paying attention to your relational partner's communication with you. It is not just hearing skills. It involves paying close attention to your partner's verbal and nonverbal behaviors, taking into consideration the full extent of what they are trying to communicate to you as well as what they may be communicating to you inadvertently. It also means doing your best to take the other person's personal perspective into consideration when interpreting the messages he or she sends. What is your relational partner's point of view on the issues you are communicating about? As an active listener, you do your
best to evaluate the relational implications of the messages your partner provides to you. You also let the other person know you are hearing and thinking about what they are saying to you. For example, if a coworker wants to tell you about feeling frustrated by a boss who does too much "micromanaging" of her work, then you will need to "be present" for her. That means things like closing the office door, not seeming to be in a rush, ignoring your vibrating cell phone, summarizing for her what she seems to be saying, and working alongside her to think about ways to manage the situation. Being a really good active listener takes time, energy, motivation, and skill.
Unfortunately, organizational participants often do not engage in active listening or pay close attention to others' messages. They are often too busy thinking about their own needs and planning what they want to say instead of focusing on what their relational partners have to say. Active listening enables you to gather relevant information about your relational partners and about their insights into organizational life. There is a lot we can learn from others, especially since they may have a different vantage point and different organizational experiences than us. Active listening is a critical factor in developing effective interpersonal relationships because it enables us to pick up on the relational expectations others have for us so we can identify new and effective implicit contracts to establish with other organizational participants. The use of active listening can also initiate the norm of reciprocity, encouraging our relational partners to pay close attention to what we have to say and to adapt to our relational needs.
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 33/77
Self‐Disclosure Skills
Earlier in this chapter, we discussed how developing reciprocal self‐disclosure skills is an important strategic interpersonal communication competency that helps to develop and maintain effective relationships. It is important for us to determine the right time, topic, and level for appropriate self‐ disclosure with potential relational partners. The information we share should not be too personal or revealing, or it may make the other person feel overwhelmed or uncomfortable. The information we share also must be appropriate to the organizational situation we are in and to the nature of the organizational relationship. For example, it most likely would not be appropriate in the midst of a department meeting to announce that you are having relational problems at home. This is too much information, provided to the wrong people, at an inopportune time. We must be judicious about what information is appropriate to share and whether that information is relevant for our relational partners.
Typically, information is disclosed gradually over time. It is often best to provide a little bit of appropriate, relevant, and revealing information to a colleague who may need to know the information to accomplish specific goals. If, for example, you are going through a divorce at home, you may want to spare everyone the gory details, but you may want others to know that working overtime for the next few months could be a problem. Rather than providing too much information at one time, it is wise to wait for some reciprocal disclosure from relational partners before providing additional revealing information. Reciprocal self‐disclosure is like a series of interconnected steps shared between relational partners, where one step leads to the next. It takes good judgment and patience to engage in appropriate and reciprocal self‐disclosure with others. With self‐disclosure, there are almost always potential risks, but there are also potential rewards. Thinking carefully and intentionally about your self‐disclosure behavior—rather than just "shooting from the hip"—and maybe even consulting with a trusted third party can help ensure that your self‐disclosure will reap the rewards that it can indeed provide while minimizing any risks.
Strategic interpersonal communicators learn how to manage the disclosure process, treat the information they learn about others confidentially, and develop trusting interpersonal relationships. Consider the ways you have shared information with your coworkers or other organizational team members. What have you learned about them? Have you established a productive relational balance in the information you have disclosed to relational partners and the information you have gathered from them?
Affection, Control, and Inclusion
Human relations theorist Will Schutz (1958) has suggested a model of interpersonal relational needs that suggests that three primary interrelated interpersonal needs govern the development of effective interpersonal relationships. The three relational needs he describes are affection, control, and inclusion. Schutz argues that to develop and maintain good relationships, relational partners need to both give and get affection from the relationships, exert some control over relational partners and allow their partners to exert reciprocal control over them, and to include relational others in activities while also allowing relational others to include them. Let's look at each of these three factors in a bit more detail.
Affection
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 34/77
Is this display of affection appropriate in a work setting? Why or why not?
In organizational life, communicators need to show each other affection—to express caring, concern, and friendship to others—in order to develop effective relationships. We also need to have our relational partners show affection to us. These messages can be communicated both verbally and nonverbally. Verbally, you can express affection by telling others that you like them, that you appreciate them, and that you are concerned about their welfare. Nonverbally, you can express affection by smiling at people, nodding at them while they are speaking, leaning toward them, and touching them appropriately (such as shaking hands with them).
Showing affection toward others may be difficult to do within some formal and bureaucratic organizational contexts that stress impersonal and professional behavior. Yet caring is a very powerful message to send in organizational life. When you let others know you care about them and that you appreciate them, it encourages them to reciprocally demonstrate caring and appreciation for you. A little caring goes a long way in organizations. It can encourage the development of a supportive organizational climate where organizational members feel good about participating in the organization and feel a commitment to each other. In his well‐known book The One Minute Manager, Kenneth Blanchard and Spencer Johnson (1982) discuss the need to "catch people doing things right" and to provide "one‐minute praisings" for one's subordinates. They believe that we spend too much time and effort catching people doing things wrong. They also think that the prevailing management style in most organizations is "leave alone—zap," meaning that we basically ignore subordinates unless they "screw up," and then we punish them. Blanchard and Johnson believe that people need a different type of message—one that is specific and supportive and recognizes people for their individual talents and accomplishments. In short, "caring" is more than a general pat on the back; and it requires sincere, positive, proactive communication.
Control
Relational partners also need to have opportunities to exert some control in organizational life. Depending on your formal position within the organizational hierarchy, you may be more likely to be controlled (especially if you are positioned on the lower rungs of the organizational hierarchy) or to exert control over others (especially if you are positioned at the top of the organizational hierarchy). Too often in organizations, employees feel like their managers control them and that they do not have opportunities to exert any control themselves. In effective organizational relationships—even between managers and employees—there should be some reciprocity between the amount of control one person exerts over another. For example, a manager may tell her employee what jobs to do and how to perform these jobs. The employee might in turn provide his manager with feedback
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 35/77
How do you establish a sense of inclusion, both verbally and nonverbally, with your organizational partners?
about new strategies for addressing unforeseen issues or constraints experienced in handling the job. In this way, both the manager and the employee are sharing control and working together cooperatively.
The need to share or even abandon control is especially important in organizations with skilled and motivated employees. For instance, the Fortune 500 company 3M has institutionalized what it calls "bootlegging," which not only allows but requires certain employees to spend 10 to 15 percent of their time working on their own pet projects, away from any corporate control. Such employee empowerment is largely responsible for a product developed by 3M in the 1970s that we all know and use today, the Post‐it note, which was developed by 3M employee Art Fry, who wanted to figure out a way to mark the songs in his church hymn book.
Note, however, that this sharing of control is not always easy to accomplish. Some organization members may have high needs for control, power, and authority. Others may not be fully invested in making decisions, preferring to be told what to do. Yet to develop good interpersonal relationships, it is important to maintain a balance between exerting control and being controlled. Think about your organizational relationships. How much control do you exert over your relational partners, and how much control do they exert over you? Is there a balance between situations where you are in charge and other situations where they are in charge? If there is an imbalance in control, it is likely that either you or your relational partner may feel slighted within the relationship. It may be wise for you to find ways to balance interpersonal influence and control within your organizational relationships if they are to develop effectively. Like most anything else, control is communicated by one's words and actions, and that gives us the opportunity to set a tone and create mutual satisfaction and understanding.
Inclusion
Relational partners also need to feel a sense of inclusion within the relationship. It is important for each relational partner to let the other partners know they are interconnected and welcomed to participate in formal and informal activities. These messages of inclusion help establish a bond between relational partners, helping them to see themselves as interconnected and fostering cooperation. Verbal messages that convey inclusion include inviting relational partners to attend social events, participating in meetings, and seeking input from others concerning organizational decisions. Nonverbally, you can communicate inclusion by spending time with the other
person. You can also include them by making eye contact and facing them when you are interacting.
It is disconcerting how often in organizational life we fail to communicate inclusion to others, especially since we depend so much on working with others to accomplish our organizational goals.
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 36/77
Richard Branson, British entrepreneur and Chairman of the Virgin Group of Companies, talks about the importance of putting workers first, even before shareholders and customers. With that priority in place, Branson argues, a company can achieve almost anything. To think about: what elements of Shultz' model of interpersonal relations does Branson use at Virgin?
Creating A Positive and Productive Work Environment
Do you go out of your way to include others, let them know you are partners, and show them they are important to you? Messages of inclusion can go a long way in organizational life to encourage cooperation and coordination. As with control, it is a mistake to assume that everyone in an organization feels automatically included. Inclusion is an action, not merely an idea, and it must be supported by messages that truly promote and evoke a feeling of being included.
Organizations in Action: What Happens When Needs for Inclusion, Affection, and Control Are Ignored?
If there is one dyadic relationship of critical importance in organizational life, it's the relationship you have with your boss. And if there is one thing that differentiates the boss/subordinate dyads from others, it's that the two people involved have different levels of power and authority. Unfortunately, power and authority can be abused, and the needs for inclusion, affection, and control discussed in this chapter can be blatantly ignored.
Ample evidence of such problems can be found on the Working America website affiliated with the AFL‐CIO. Working America sponsored a "My Bad Boss" contest, and readers submitted more than 700 stories. The following were among the "winners":
A woman just returned to work at a corporate coffee shop after having heart surgery. Back at work, she felt chest pains again and called for an ambulance. While in the ambulance, her boss called her several times "threatening to fire me because I was unable to do my job," and
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 37/77
saying that her health problems "were causing scheduling problems for the business." A woman worked in the online sales division of a nonprofit. Feeling pride because she and her group had met their sales goal, the boss nonetheless told her that "it wasn't enough," so to "teach us a lesson, the boss took away all of our chairs . . . FOREVER!" One of her employees was disabled and wasn't able to stand, and since it was now a "standing only" position, the woman was required to fire her for not being able to stand at her desk. A man went into his (highly paid) boss's office and mentioned that he couldn't afford his commute because gas was costing him one‐fourth of his weekly pay. The boss replied: "I know—when I take my Porsche out of storage for the summer, it's going to cost a lot to gas it up."
You might say, "These are extreme cases—this couldn't happen to me!" And you're probably right. But many relationships between individual bosses and employees are just as hurtful and toxic; they are simply more subtle and less dramatic, but every bit as real. Relationships at work—like any other relationships—can be fragile and painful when people's needs for inclusion, affection, and control are ignored.
Critical Thinking Questions:
1. What types of dysfunctional relationships have you witnessed or experienced in organizational life?
2. In what ways did these situations threaten needs for inclusion, affection, and control? 3. What is the most ethical and humane way for a boss to deal with poorly performing employees?
Source:
My Bad Boss Contest. (n.d.). In WorkingAmerica.com. Retrieved from http://www.workingamerica.org/badboss/winners.cfm (http://www.workingamerica.org/badboss/winners.cfm)
Co‐Orientation
Another key strategic interpersonal communication skill to develop is co‐orientation, the ability to appropriately match the kinds of messages that others send to us with our messages to them. It can be disconcerting to say something to someone only to have that person respond to you with a message that seems disconnected to what you were saying. For example, you might say to a coworker, "I hate these double shifts we have been assigned to work." In turn, this person might respond, "I'm ready for lunch." This response makes you wonder whether your coworker heard what you had to say about the double shifts, whether he thinks what you had to say was important, or whether he cares at all about your concerns. On a larger scale, a group of employees might be worried about possible layoffs, but management responds by promoting certain members of the group at a corporate event, leaving everyone else still confused about their status.
Developing good co‐orientation skills can provide benefits to organizational participants. When you respond appropriately to others, you demonstrate your interest in them and show them that you take their point of view seriously. You also provide an opportunity to help address the issues they have raised. Organizational theorist Karl Weick (1979) suggests that there are three parts to
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 38/77
Do you know how to effectively manage interpersonal conflict?
organizational interactions that help to solve problems: act, response, and adjustment. He calls this three‐part message process the double interact. Double interacts enable organizational participants to raise an issue (that is, act), get a reaction (or response) to the issue that informs the original statement, and enables an adjustment to the issue that reflects the new information. (We will discuss Weick's theories in more detail in Chapter 9.)
Weick argues that such double interacts are the basis for social organizing, yet without co‐ orientation, these double interacts do not work well. Think about how you can adjust your interpersonal interactions with other organizational participants to increase co‐orientation. By increasing co‐orientation, how can you enhance organizational learning and coordination?
Interpersonal Conflict Management Skills
Conflict is an unavoidable part of interpersonal relations and organizational life because each relational partner has different goals, ideas, and strategies for addressing organizational issues. Poorly managed interpersonal conflicts can hurt feelings, cause anger and hostility, and degrade interpersonal relationships. Conflict management skills are therefore an essential part of strategic interpersonal communication. Effective interpersonal conflict management involves mediating these differences and disagreements between individuals to develop solutions to problems. Unfortunately, such skills are often in short supply, and the ways in which many organizational participants engage in conflict can cause more problems and increase disagreements. Conflict management skills can help avoid these problems and make conflicts productive forums for solving organizational issues.
Interpersonal conflict, if handled effectively, is an opportunity to build relationships and to learn more about relational partners. We can learn about the different ways others see organizational life and about their unique strategies for solving organizational problems. We can also learn about our shared interests and build common ground for working together. When we use effective conflict management skills, we are setting a precedent for future cooperation. Let's look at the steps involved in effective interpersonal conflict management.
Step 1: Focus on the Other Person's Point of View
A first step toward effective interpersonal conflict management is to focus on the other person's point of view. Too often in conflict situations, we become focused only on our own positions, perspectives, and goals and fail to hear the other person's point of view. Active listening is a crucial part of this step. Not only do you need to hear the other person's perspective on the conflict, you
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 39/77
Management expert William G. Ouchi talks about the value of listening to other points of view, even if there is disagreement. Understanding and respecting other people's values and beliefs may not eliminate the disagreement, Ouchi says, but it will often take the acrimony out of the equation.
Reducing Conflict
need to let the other person know you understand their point of view.
Step 2: Avoid the Hostility Trap and Stay Focused on the Issues at Hand
Many conflicts become angry and emotional rather than staying focused on the ideational issues of disagreement. Effective conflict communicators avoid the hostility trap and stay focused on the issues at hand. Even if the person you are in a conflict with reacts angrily, you can help keep the discussion on topic by defusing the anger and focusing on sharing information about your areas of disagreement and agreement. For example, say you are arguing with a coworker about the best way to solve a problem. You suggest solution A and your coworker suggests solution B. Your coworker reacts angrily to you, completely disregarding your solution. It would be easy to fall into the hostility trap by reciprocating with an angry response. However, this response will do little to resolve the conflict. In fact, it will probably escalate the conflict and polarize the conflicting parties. Instead of an angry response, you might say something like, "Please tell me why your prefer solution B, and explain why you think it will work. I really want to understand your perspective." This response will encourage an exchange of relevant information.
Step 3: Look for Commonalities between Your Perspectives
Once you have shown receptivity to hearing the other person's perspective, you will encourage them to reciprocate (via the norm of reciprocity) to hear your point of view. To move the conflict forward, it is wise to look for commonalities between your perspective and the other person's. How do they overlap? Are there ways that the two perspectives are complementary and can be merged? Are there areas for compromise between the two different points of view? The more you focus on such compromises, the more likely the other person will be to work with you to solve the problem. It may take a while to work through the issues, but by focusing on the issues, encouraging compromise, and showing respect for the other person, you can encourage conflict resolution and set the stage for increased cooperation. In the next chapter, we'll discuss conflict management as it pertains to groups, since conflict is an important part of group process and group decision making.
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 40/77
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 41/77
4.4 Ethical Relational Communication in Organizational Life
Over the course of this chapter, we have discussed the importance of working cooperatively with others in organizational life. One of the best ways to promote this kind of cooperation is by treating others with respect, deference, and empathy. The best interpersonal relationships demonstrate genuine concern by relational partners for each other. This concern, respect, deference, and empathy is engendered by ethical relational communication.
There are many instances in which interpersonal relationships are abused in organizational life. Personal information that is shared is not kept privately. Relational partners intimidate their partners into complying with their wishes. Relational partners are dishonest and manipulative. Ultimately, these unethical communication behaviors will undermine interpersonal relationships, destroy trust between relational partners, and decrease cooperation and coordination. Unethical interpersonal communication may provide short‐term benefits to organizational participants who coerce their partners into doing what they want, but the long‐term effect of these unethical behaviors reduces organizational effectiveness and decreases personal satisfaction in organizational life.
Several guidelines for ethical interpersonal communication can enhance the development of effective relationships and increase organizational satisfaction:
1. Honesty is a primary ethical standard for effective relational communication. 2. Fairness and equity within relationships is needed to promote long‐term relational success. 3. Sensitivity to the unique needs of others is critically important to developing trust. 4. Adaptation to changing interpersonal needs is also important for helping relationships grow over
time. 5. Communicating with empathy, demonstrating understanding and concern for the perspectives of
others, is a major factor in demonstrating caring and respect in interpersonal relationships.
By engaging in ethical interpersonal communication with others, you are setting a standard for reciprocal ethical interpersonal communication from them. You are also raising the quality of communication in organizational life.
However, all of these issues can get quite complicated. For example, complete honesty is a dubious guideline for anyone concerned about ethical behavior; such a stance is simply not possible nor wise. Similarly, concepts such as "fairness" and "equity" sound good, but they mean different things to different people—what is "fair" to one person might very well be perceived as "unfair" by another. Nonetheless, organizations must be actively mindful of their ethical standards—not simply because they want to do the "right thing," but because it's usually in their best interests. Sometimes the consequences of unethical interpersonal behavior will lead to costly lawsuits or bad "PR," both of which can have serious economic consequences.
Case Study: The New Product
Bob Craft was a mid‐level software programmer for a well‐established business software
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 42/77
development firm, Empire Software Services (ESS), which specialized in developing human resource management systems for regional insurance companies. In his spare time, Bob developed computer games as a hobby. While he enjoyed programming, he found his day job at ESS pretty boring. There wasn't much opportunity for innovation at ESS, and he didn't feel that there was much interest in his ideas and creative talent. The software systems he developed for ESS were fairly standard products for the insurance industry. They basically collected and cataloged personnel record information such as benefits accrued and used. He longed to find more fulfilling work, somehow merging his interests in computer gaming with his regular work at ESS.
One of the companies that employed ESS, Apex Insurance, was encountering a unique human resource challenge that it needed to resolve. The company had been introducing new computer systems to use in its insurance offices that proved to be difficult for its employees to learn how to use. Because of these difficulties, many errors were cropping up in the insurance offices, efficiency was decreasing, and customer satisfaction was waning. The CEO of Apex Insurance, Otto Bendix, came to ESS with a request for ESS to develop new training software to help the company prepare its employees to use the new computer systems effectively. Otto wanted the new software program to be easy to use and engaging for his employees.
Bob had an idea. What about developing a computer game‐based training program to help employees learn about the new computer system? He could make the training system interactive, exciting, and fun to use. However, this was a novel idea that did not fit the expectations of his boss at ESS, Jane White, who did not think computer games were very professional and appropriate for use in an insurance company like Apex. When Bob told his boss about his new idea, Jane was not very interested. She told Bob to continue doing his regular software design work and to do computer gaming on his own time.
Bob was disappointed by Jane's response to his proposal. He decided to go directly to Otto Bendix with his new idea for a game‐based training system. Otto was interested in Bob's ideas. He liked the prospect of developing an innovative, engaging, game‐based training program that would be fun for his employees, many of whom were young gamers themselves. He told Bob how much he liked his ideas and offered him a job working directly for Apex to develop this new training software. Bob accepted the offer, hired a number of his computer game designer friends to join him at Apex, and began building the new training software. This was an exciting venture for Bob and his friends. They were given a lot of freedom to develop their new product to meet the training needs at Apex. Bob also felt encouraged by Otto's confidence in him and support to develop the new software product.
Bob and his colleagues threw themselves into the development of the new software. They worked closely with the personnel at Apex who would be using the new software to make sure the program fit their needs and was comfortable for them to use. He conducted a number of usability tests with the Apex personnel to help refine the training software. Eventually, the company implemented the new software with the help of Sue Fogarty, the personnel director at Apex, who had good relationships with many of the employees in the insurance offices who would be using the software. Together they introduced the new training program, encouraged the workers to use it, and before long the new training program was working exceedingly well. Bob was promoted to Director of Software Development at Apex, where he was given license to develop more innovative computer programs for the company. Apex decided not to renew its contract with ESS and instead gave all the software services business it had been contracting to ESS to Bob to
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 43/77
handle within his new division at Apex.
Critical Thinking Questions:
1. How does this case illustrate the importance of interpersonal relationships in organizational life? What are some of the effective and ineffective interpersonal relationships in this case?
2. How does Bob's relationship with his boss Jane influence his decision to leave ESS? How did Jane's interpersonal communication with Bob lead to Bob leaving the company? What could Jane have done differently?
3. How does Otto's relationship with Bob influence Bob's decision to leave ESS? How did Otto's interpersonal communication with Bob lead to Bob leaving ESS and joining Apex?
4. How well did Jane illustrate effective or ineffective conflict‐management skills in the way she responded to Bob's idea about developing the new game‐based software? What could Jane have done differently in her interactions with Bob about the new idea?
5. Describe instances of ethical and unethical interpersonal communication in this case. What were the implications of these ethical and unethical uses of interpersonal communication for these organizations?
6. There are a number of different relationships described within this case, such as the relationship between Bob and Jane, the relationship between Bob and Otto, the relationship between Bob and Sue, and the relationships between Bob and the other programmers. How effective are each of these different organizational relationships? What changes would you suggest in the use of interpersonal communication to make each of these relationships more effective? Which of these relationships are more complementary and which are more parallel?
7. Which of the individuals within this case demonstrate the best strategic interpersonal communication skills? Why?
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 44/77
Summary
Dyadic, one‐on‐one relationships are at the heart of organizational life, even in the largest of organizations. Such relationships involve people from within organizations as well as important stakeholders on the "outside," such as vendors and customers. All of these relationships are guided by implicit contracts that define the norms and expectations within the relationship. Relationships develop incrementally and reciprocally within these implicit contracts. Reciprocal self‐disclosure is one important way that relationships evolve and grow.
Some relationships are built on similarities and equality; they are considered parallel relationships. Other relationships are characterized by differences and some forms of inequality; those are referred to as complementary. Whatever the relationship, conflict can and will occur; when it does, active listening, co‐orientation, and conflict management skills can be helpful. Finally, any relationship brings with it various ethical issues involving such things as honesty, fairness, and trust that are important to address but not always easy to resolve.
Discussion Questions
1. What dyadic relationships are at the center of your organizational life? What particular one‐on‐one relationships are the most important to you in the workplace?
2. Considering these relationships, what "implicit contracts" are a part of them? What would be specific examples?
3. With respect to self‐disclosure, what topics would you generally regard as being "off‐limits" in an organizational setting?
4. Which of your relationships in organizations are more "complementary" and which are more "parallel"? In what ways?
5. If employees have human needs for inclusion, affection, and control, how specifically can organizations help people meet those needs?
6. How is conflict managed—or not managed—where you work? What unwritten rules and norms seem to govern how conflict is handled?
7. Ethical issues in communication can be analyzed from a number of perspectives. One of those perspectives involves whether one's ethical standards should be more "absolute" (unyielding and uncompromising) or more "relative" (based on the specific details of the situation and thus more "malleable"). Are your standards more absolute or more relative, and why?
Key Terms
Active listening Being fully engaged in paying attention to your relational partner's communication with you.
Affection To express caring, concern, and friendship to others. In organizational life, communicators need to show each other affection in order to develop effective relationships.
Complementary relationships Relationships in which members perform different roles and have
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 45/77
different responsibilities to fulfill varying relational needs.
Conflict management skills An essential part of strategic interpersonal communication. Poorly managed interpersonal conflicts can hurt feelings, cause anger and hostility, and degrade interpersonal relationships.
Co‐orientation A key strategic interpersonal communication skill; the ability to appropriately match the kinds of messages that others send to us with our messages to them.
Dyad The basic two‐person unit for interpersonal interaction.
Dyadic communication Communication that involves two people exchanging messages, sharing relevant information, and adapting to one another.
Ethical relational communication Respect, deference, and empathy. A key component of the best interpersonal relationships demonstrate genuine concern by relational partners for each other.
Honeymoon period Early stages of relationship development, when everything about the relationship is new and interesting, partners spend a great deal of time learning about their partners and are most attentive to identifying and fulfilling relational expectations.
Implicit contracts Interpersonal agreements or informal contracts we establish with each other that encourage relational partners to behave in certain ways with each other.
Inclusion Acts of each relational partner letting the other partners know they are interconnected and welcomed to participate in formal and informal activities.
Interpersonal communication The interaction between two different individuals who use communication to establish interpersonal relationships.
Model of interpersonal relational needs Theoretical model that suggests that three primary interrelated interpersonal needs—affection, control, and inclusion—govern the development of effective interpersonal relationships.
Parallel relationships Relationships with a high level of equity between relational partners.
Relationship Development Process in which mutual expectations are fulfilled and new implicit contracts are developed that allows relationships to grow and prosper.
Relationship maintenance A process of building strong and cooperative relationships that requires a great deal of effort and strategic communication.
Self disclosure Providing others with relevant, revealing, personal, and/or private information to help foster relationship development.
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 46/77
Chapter 5
Group Processes in Organizational Life
You can have brilliant ideas, but if you can't get them across, your ideas won't get you anywhere.
—Lee Iacocca
Learning Objectives
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 47/77
What We Will Be Investigating:
Recognize the importance of work groups in organizational life. Understand that there are different types of work groups. Identify the problems involved in working within groups. Understand the potential advantages and benefits of groups. Understand that groups operate as systems and what a systems orientation involves, including synergy, hierarchy, and group networks. Appreciate the need for team building in groups. Identify the various task roles, maintenance roles, and blocking roles that group members can perform. Understand guidelines for managing group conflict. Identify the common phases groups go through when making decisions.
Many of the most complex and challenging tasks in organizational life are performed by work groups. In fact, groups have become an inescapable part of organizational life. Even though it may seem that each department in an organization operates independently, each with its own goals and activities, different departments share the performance of larger organizational activities and need to be carefully coordinated to achieve organizational goals.
Let's look at an example. A university is comprised of academic departments, each of which has domain over a particular subject, such as biology, philosophy, or computer science. However, these academic departments are linked to one another within a larger academic curriculum, providing students with the courses they need to take to graduate. The courses must in turn be designed to meet the educational needs of students pursuing different major fields of study. The courses must also be scheduled at times when students can take them. And of course, enough courses must be offered to meet the needs of the broad student body. As you can see, the academic departments of a university must coordinate their activities to meet larger organizational needs. However, coordinating the efforts of different groups can be a major challenge in organizational life, one that demands effective leadership and intergroup coordination and communication.
This chapter will examine the intricate nature of group work in organization life. We will discuss the many challenges to working effectively in groups, as well as look at team building and teamwork, particularly within the context of group decision making. Along the way we will look at group processes and the roles needed for making good group decisions and reaching important organizational outcomes. We will also examine key factors that influence group outcomes and intergroup relations. The chapter ends with a case study that illustrates the effective use of communication processes and procedures in organizational groups. Let's get started by discussing the various types of groups operating in organizations.
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 48/77
5.1 Types of Groups in Organizations
Many different types of groups operate in organizations, including
advisory and governance boards, task forces, departments or divisions, committees, and teams or work groups.
The organizational groups in the preceding list are task oriented, meaning they are formed to accomplish a certain task or tasks. Other organizational groups, such as lunch groups, clubs, and interest groups, are socially oriented groups, formed to address a social need. Some organizational groups are formally designated within organizational structures; these are formal groups, such as departments and advisory boards. Other organizational groups, such as lunch groups, are informal groups, meaning they are not designated within organizational structures.
Still other groups develop to meet specific new goals; these are emergent groups, such as certain special‐issue committees and task‐oriented groups. No matter whether groups are task oriented or socially oriented, or whether they are formal, informal, or emergent groups, they all have the same basic communication demands. Group members need to share relevant information, coordinate their efforts, and work together to achieve group goals. As we'll see in the next section, this is not always an easy task.
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 49/77
5.2 Challenges to Working in Groups
Organizations depend on groups because of the unique expertise and insights that group members can provide when they share information, coordinate efforts, and work together to solve problems. The ugly truth, however, is that people don't always play nicely in groups, and groups often fail to achieve their goals. Sometimes group members don't get along, fail to take group goals and processes seriously, and sometimes even sabotage group activities. Many organizational groups are less than effective, waste the time of organizational participants, and make the problems faced in organizations worse instead of better. As we will discuss in this chapter, strategic organizational communication is imperative to help overcome these problems, since effective communication plays a primary role in achieving group goals.
As noted, one challenge that limits the effectiveness of groups is that group members may not always take their group responsibilities seriously. Have you ever worked on a class project where a group of students were supposed to work together as a team? More often than not, one or more team members does not take the group task as seriously as the other members do. Those team members do not put in as much effort; they drag down the productivity of the group, frustrate the harder‐working group members, and decrease the effectiveness of the team.
Group members not taking their responsibilities seriously enough is just one problem facing groups. Sometimes group members show up late for group meetings or fail to show up at all. They may also be unprepared to contribute meaningfully to group tasks. Even worse, they may fail to follow through with assigned responsibilities. And all too often, group members do not cooperate with one another. They don't share relevant information when their expertise and insights are needed and they don't pitch in willingly when their help is called upon. any of these recalcitrant organizational participants don't seem to recognize the importance of working effectively in groups to their own personal organizational success and to the greater success of the organization.
Another problem that regularly occurs in the context of group work is that organizational participants often do not enjoy working in groups. They don't like being in the group, and they don't seem to enjoy working with other group members. Have you ever heard someone complain about having to participate in "one more boring meeting"? (I may have uttered that complaint myself once or twice!) In fact, there is a stigma, or negative connotation, concerning group work in many organizations. Committees and group meetings are often thought of as a waste of time, as being boring, bureaucratic, time consuming, and even dehumanizing. Many people would prefer to just do the job themselves rather than have to coordinate efforts and work with others. However, much of the dissatisfaction and negative perceptions that organizational participants have with working in groups are related to communication problems within groups and to the rigid and unimaginative ways that many groups are operated as opposed to inherent problems with group work. Perhaps groups can be designed and implemented differently to leverage the interactive, creative, and problem‐solving advantages to working in groups. Perhaps organization members need to learn how to communicate effectively within groups. In this chapter we will examine some creative strategies for utilizing groups effectively in organizational life and outline some of the strategic group communication skills and competencies that organizational participants can use to promote group success.
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 50/77
How do the groups you belong to add value to the organizations they are a part of?
5.3 The Value of Groups in Organizational Life
Let's look at some of the ways in which groups are used most effectively in organizations.
To Address Important, Complex, and Challenging Problems
As we noted, group work provides organizations with certain advantages and opportunities for utilizing the expertise of people who work together to handle organizational tasks and issues. Unfortunately, groups are not always used wisely to achieve important goals. Too often, work groups are provided with limited challenges and responsibility, which wastes the unique talents and intelligence of group members. For example, some work groups have unclear goals, poorly specified procedures, and limited opportunities for collaboration between members. Groups are best suited for addressing important, complex, and challenging problems that would be difficult for any one person, no matter how
talented the person is, to handle alone.
For example, groups are well suited for making difficult and far‐ranging decisions that have significant implications for organizations. That is why advisory boards and governance committees are often formed to conduct challenging long‐range planning activities that chart the future goals and activities of organizations within complex and competitive markets. Members of these groups share insights into the different constraints and opportunities that may be facing their organizations so responsive decisions can be made for meeting these constraints and opportunities. Active deliberations are needed between group members to foster creative decision making to chart new courses of action and policy for organizations.
To Promote Responsible and Ethical Decision Making
Groups are also particularly well suited for promoting responsible and ethical organizational decision making. Ideally, in such decision‐making groups, the different members represent the unique perspectives of key constituents so that decisions can be made that are responsive to the needs of these different stakeholders. For example, ethics committees comprised of health care providers, patients, advocates, and ethicists are used increasingly by health care systems to help make responsible decisions about the use of limited health resources, such as decisions made about which candidates should get priority for receiving organ donations. Similarly, government agencies often utilize community review boards comprised of residents, business leaders, clergy, and community leaders to help guide responsible decision making about the best use of public resources, such as
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 51/77
What are some of the benefits you have experienced that have been produced by group brainstorming sessions?
decisions about construction sites and specifications, land use, delivery and distribution of social services, and environmental protection. Group members can help represent the needs of different community members in making these important public welfare decisions. However, these group members must be given the opportunity to voice their perspectives through active group communication to guide effective decision making.
To Brainstorm
Groups are also particularly well suited for brainstorming discussions, where members are encouraged to generate novel ideas and suggestions concerning complex issues. It is amazing how many creative ideas can be generated in a brainstorming session. There is something unique and valuable that occurs during group deliberations that can promote creative solutions. In group discussions, member comments often stimulate other members to conceptualize issues in new ways. Group interactions often facilitate contributions of new ideas and responses to addressing problems. However, for brainstorming groups to be effective, members need to be actively encouraged to share their ideas. Once the novel ideas are generated in brainstorming sessions, the ideas need to be summarized, and decisions need to be made about which are the best ideas and how they can be applied to address organizational issues.
Group communication theorist Ernest Bormann (1988) described the process of fantasy chaining that occurs within groups, and this process can be connected to brainstorming for ideas. Bormann was especially interested in the way human beings "dramatize" about the world, including our impulse, for example, to create "heroes" and "villains." For instance, a group might decide that their boss is like Benito Mussolini, and then embellish this idea with all kinds of "Mussolini‐like" stories and jokes as they interact. Such "fantasy themes," he argued, help us understand how the group thinks, what it values, and how it sees the world; and the sharing of these fantasies among group members is what Bormann referred to as "fantasy chaining." Bormann believed that one way to know that a group fantasy is really "chaining" is to look for a heightened sense of energy and excitement in the group as each group member adds another layer or piece to the dramatization. His point was that fantasy themes are group constructions shared by group members. Even though fantasy theme analysis was not designed as a guide for how groups should brainstorm, to the extent that brainstorming involves this type of energy and creativity, Bormann's sense of group dynamics is relevant.
For example, in a small group discussion one person might start with a fantasy of "group meeting as
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 52/77
TV game show" and as the self‐proclaimed "host" of the show, playfully pit one member of the group against another in a "lighting round" to see who can come up with the most ideas in 60 seconds and "win the grand prize." Hearing that, other members might chime in as the super‐nerdy contestant, or the super‐energetic contestant, and in the process, ideas would be generated from these group fantasies. Still other members of the group might act as the game show "judges," perhaps pointing out (probably tongue‐in‐cheek) that in this game, "the decision of the judges is final." In other words, fantasy themes can be embellished in a way that promotes and reflects creativity. Such a process can stimulate other group members to think of novel new ideas, which, in turn, often stimulate other new ideas in an emergent chain of innovative thinking. This is why it is a good idea to use work group discussions to address complex and challenging issues that demand creative solutions.
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 53/77
5.4 Groups as Social Systems: Systems Theory
Systems theory is a powerful and useful descriptive framework for understanding the unique dynamics of group communication in organizational life. According to systems theory, groups can be seen as social systems that are comprised of interdependent, interactive components (i.e., group members) who work together to achieve important system goals. The overall process by which these goals are attained is known as system transformation. In system transformation processes, raw inputs into the systems, such as complex organization issues and challenges to which the work group is mandated to respond, are transformed, through careful examination and deliberation, into outputs such as new strategies, policies, and solutions to address the organizational problems that were assigned to the group to solve.
Inputs involve anything that group members "bring to the table." That would include the issues that they have to address, the information that they have access to, and the raw materials—including money, personnel, and technology—that they have available to them. The transformation process involves the various problem‐solving activities of the group—that is, the way in which tasks are undertaken and communication occurs. In other words, how will they work with these issues, given the resources that they have? The outputs are the actual decisions made by the group. With sufficient inputs and a smart approach to transformation, groups can arrive at good solutions. But much depends on the quality of the inputs and the ability to communicate effectively about them; good outputs are dependent on good inputs, if you will. Figure 5.1 presents an illustration of this process. Let's look more closely at some systems theory concepts.
Figure 5.1: The System Transformation Model
Synergy and Nonsummativity
According to systems theory, each component within a social system must work with other system components to achieve system goals. As such, each system component is interdependent with other components. In terms of work groups, this means that group members (who are key system components) must work together cooperatively to transform inputs into desired outputs. Good group communication enables the cooperation and coordination among group members needed to
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 54/77
accomplish system transformation (handling complex organizational tasks). The more effectively group members are able to cooperate and coordinate with one another, the more effective and efficient they are, achieving extra energy and power, known as synergy. Synergy is one of the great advantages of social organization since it enables people who work together to achieve more than they could individually.
Synergistic activities in organizations result in better outcomes. The systems principle of nonsummativity is another way to express this idea; it suggests that in effective social systems, group output can often be more than just the combination of what could be accomplished by all the different group members independently. Added value is achieved through cooperation that makes the whole more than the sum of its parts. For example, let's say that five automotive workers can each build one component of an automobile in an hour alone. However, by working together, they can build far more than five components, and the quality of the components they build together will be better than the quality of the components built by each worker alone. Through cooperation they can help each other, provide feedback about the tasks they need to conduct, refine their activities, and accomplish much more together than they could accomplish individually.
Hierarchy
Another systems theory concept that is relevant to understanding the work of groups in organizational life is the principle of hierarchy, which suggests that there are multiple levels to social organization. All systems are comprised of smaller subsystems and operate within larger suprasystems. The same system transformation process of using communication to transform raw inputs into valued outputs operates at all levels of the system hierarchy, within systems, subsystems, and suprasystems. In fact, all levels of the systems hierarchy work together. The smaller level of social systems (subsystems) provides important outputs for the larger system level, and the system level, in turn, provides needed outputs for the suprasystem.
For example, let's say a production department within a manufacturing company is designated as the system level for our analysis. This system depends on the coordination of group members (subsystems) to take raw materials (inputs) and turn them into finished products (outputs) for the organization (system transformation). Each of the group members is a component of the system. However, they are each also subsystems that have specific jobs they do for the organization. To accomplish their jobs, they must transform different inputs into outputs that are then used within the production department (system) to accomplish their production activities. The production department also resides within a larger organizational entity, such as the manufacturing division of the company. There are probably several departments within the manufacturing division in addition to the production department, such as the materials acquisition department, the warehousing department, and the quality control department. All of these departments must work together as a suprasystem to accomplish organizational goals.
This hierarchical analysis enables us to not only understand the intricate microscopic activities performed by the different components (subsystems) of workgroups (systems) but also enables us to see how everything fits together on a larger macroscopic level. The activities of the workgroup (the system) contribute to the activities of the larger organizational division (the suprasystem). By seeing both the small picture and the big picture of social organization, we can examine the effectiveness of organizing activities and identify areas where greater coordination may be needed to increase the quality of organizational outcomes.
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 55/77
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 56/77
Who are the people who make up your personal network in the organizations you are a member of?
5.5 Group Networks
Communication networks are active patterns of communication within and between groups. These active patterns of interaction between group members and within organizations can be mapped using a research technique known as network analysis. With network analysis, we can easily see which group members are actively communicating with each other both within and between groups. Network analysis is the communication equivalent of a financial audit. In a financial audit, the organization tracks where all the money goes. With network analysis, the organization tracks all of its messages. In network analysis, employees will usually be asked how often they use the telephone, how many emails they send and receive each day, who they talk to face‐to‐face, what subjects they communicate about, and so on. When the responses from individual employees are tallied, it gives the organization an overall picture of communication patterns: who talks to whom, by what means, how often, and regarding what subjects. Network analysis data can reveal that patterns of interaction may be quite different from the planned patterns for communication that are dictated by the formal organizational hierarchy, usually illustrated by organizational charts.
Personal Networks
Each group member has his or her own personal network of individuals with whom he or she communicates regularly. Personal networks exert a great deal of influence over participants since they are a primary source of information for network members. Some personal networks are very exclusive and do not interact very often with other personal networks. These exclusive networks are often known as cliques. It is not uncommon for different cliques to compete for influence within groups and within the larger organization. By tracking the exchange of information across personal networks, we can see how information disseminates across and between groups in organizations. Think about your own personal networks within the organizations that you participate in. Who do you communicate with most often? What kinds of information do you share with these individuals? How valuable and trustworthy is the information that you get from these network partners? How do you use the information you get?
Leadership Roles
Network analysis also often helps us identify the different roles that group members perform by showing us who they communicate with and how this
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 57/77
Why is it important that a team such as the one pictured have a formal and informal leader?
communication influences group process. Group roles are patterns of communication that group members develop over time with other members. These communication patterns serve different functions for groups and become expectations for group member behavior (Benne & Sheats, 1948).
For example, perhaps the most obvious group roles within groups are leadership roles. As we discussed in Chapter 1, there are both formal and informal leaders. Formally designated leaders often hold titles such as managers, group leaders, supervisors, division heads, or department chairs. These formal leaders are assigned responsibilities for running group meetings, assigning group tasks, and evaluating group performance. However, unless these formally designated leaders establish strong and influential networks of communication with other group members, they will not be effective leaders. Being a true leader means that you are able to influence the activities of other group members, and that influence is achieved through communication.
As we discussed in Chapter 1, often, the most influential members of groups are informal leaders who develop active and influential networks of communication with other group members. These informal leaders typically emerge due to the strength of their personalities, communication skills, expertise, or other qualities that encourage other members to heed their advice and follow their lead. Formally designated leaders can also serve as informal leaders when they don't just hold the formal title of leader but actually demonstrate leadership behaviors. However, when the formally designated leader does not establish effective lines of communication within the group, informal leaders often emerge to fill the leadership void.
Sometimes there is competition between formally designated leaders and emergent informal leaders for control of the group. Although formal leaders have legitimate power within the group, since they supervise group members and may be able to reward or penalize member behavior, informal leaders often have expert power and social power with other group members, who may respect the knowledge of informal leaders or admire them in some way. The best leaders try to nurture all three sources of power within the group (legitimate, expert, and social power).
Support Roles
In addition to leadership roles in work groups, a number of support roles exist:
Individuals who support the leader and enforce the leader's decisions are referred to as lieutenants to the leader. Often there are individuals who connect different group members or who connect one group to another through the network of personal relationships. These individuals perform liaison roles for their groups. In some groups there are individuals who perform gatekeeper roles by providing or limiting access to different members of the group, particularly to leaders.
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 58/77
Some group members are loners and don't communicate well with other members. These individuals are known as isolates. Problems can arise if the formally designated leader is an isolate, because good leaders need to communicate actively with other group members.
Those group members who have active contact with other members establish strong network ties with these individuals. Individuals who do not have much contact with one another have weaker network ties. It is much easier to elicit cooperation between the individuals we have strong ties with because we are familiar with one another, have had opportunities to develop interpersonal relationships, and often have a good deal in common. It is more difficult to elicit cooperation with our weaker ties because these individuals have less experience and connection with us and often see things differently than we do.
Interestingly, well‐known sociologist Mark Granovetter (1973) suggested in his theory of weak ties that group members are likely to gain more useful information from interacting with their weak ties than they will from interacting with their strong ties. Why? Because strong ties are very similar to one another and share many of the same experiences and ideas. Weak ties are typically quite different from one another and therefore often have unique perspectives on organizational life. Unfortunately, it takes more effort for organizational members to connect with and communicate with weak ties since these weak ties are often in different parts of the organization and may communicate quite differently than they do. However, it is worth the effort to nurture connections with weak ties to gather insightful information from different perspectives to guide far‐reaching organizational decisions.
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 59/77
Have you ever participated in a team‐ building activity such as this ropes course? Was it effective? Why or why not?
Increased Teamwork and Worker Participation
5.6 Building Effective Work Teams
As mentioned previously, work groups are typically composed of interdependent individuals who bring unique ideas and talents to the group process. The best work groups tap into these different talents by establishing a strong spirit of connection and cooperation among group members. This spirit of cooperation is known as teamwork. As we have discussed, working as a team enables group members to demonstrate synergy and achieve nonsummative outcomes. Yet just calling a group a team does not mean that group members actually work as a team. Teamwork depends on good communication among group members to allow information sharing, coordination, and problem solving.
Too often, organizational groups overlook the importance of teamwork. It is assumed that group members will be willing and able to coordinate their efforts within these groups. Unfortunately, this is not always the case. It is therefore a good idea to establish team‐building activities in work groups. Team‐building begins with encouraging group members to get to know one another. They should learn about the unique skills, experiences, and expertise each member brings to the group process, particularly with reference to the specific tasks and issues the group is confronting. Ideally, there should be opportunities for group members to bond with one another, develop cooperative relationships, and learn how to work together
effectively.
Another critical component to team‐building is to help group members understand the goals of the work group and the nature of the specific organizational challenges the group is charged with addressing. Too often in work groups, the goals of the group are poorly defined, and group members may not agree with, or even understand, what they are supposed to accomplish within the group. Group members need a clear understanding of their group responsibilities and goals, as well as in‐ depth background information about the issues they are supposed to address. The better oriented the group members are to the tasks of the group, the more effectively they can focus together on these issues.
Group members also need to learn how to best work together as a team. There is no one best way for teams to achieve their goals; rather, there are many options for achieving group goals. Group members therefore need to develop their own best strategies for collaboration and problem
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 60/77
American managers have for some time followed their Japanese counterparts in emphasizing teamwork and worker participation in decision‐making. Studies have shown that this has increased performance, innovation, and efficiency.
solving. Developing a history of working together effectively can help groups develop a sense of teamwork, so it is a good idea to preserve as much consistency and continuity as possible among group members. It is also a good idea to preserve information about what has worked well in groups in the past so these effective processes can be used as a foundation to build on for the future.
Leadership plays a large role in building effective teams. Good leaders are instrumental in facilitating effective group interactions, encouraging active participation among group members, and promoting sharing of relevant information within the group. Effective group leaders also manage group conflict to promote problem solving and to generate creative solutions. The best group leaders also help to establish a supportive group climate where group members feel comfortable sharing information and working together to address complex issues. Group climate develops over time as a general emotional tone for group communication. Supportive group climates encourage group participation and cooperation. The more supportive communication is within the group, the more likely the group is to develop a supportive communication climate.
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 61/77
5.7 Task and Maintenance Functions
As was the case with interpersonal interaction, group communication has both task and relational dimensions. In the group communication literature, this is referred to as task and maintenance functions. Task communication functions are geared toward accomplishing the primary assigned activities of the group. On the other hand, maintenance communication functions are geared toward preserving emotional stability and personal satisfaction within the group. Task and maintenance functions are interrelated. For example, the effective performance of task activities typically influences the way group members feel about the group and group membership. Similarly, the way that group members feel about one another and about membership in the group will influence their commitment to work together on accomplishing group tasks. It is important to maintain commitment to both task and maintenance functions in organizational life.
Specific group roles develop to foster both task accomplishment and the maintenance of interpersonal relationships within work groups. Typical task roles include the following:
Initiators: group members who bring new ideas to the group concerning the accomplishment of group tasks Information seekers: group members who gather relevant information to guide group task activities Opinion seekers: group members who encourage other group members to share their perspectives on group task activities Information givers: group members who provide facts and evidence to guide group task activities Opinion givers: group members who share their personal opinions about group task activities Elaborators: group members who explain and give examples to increase group understanding about task activities Coordinators: group members who summarize and clarify the relationships between different ideas and courses of action to accomplish task activities Energizers: group members who stimulate the group to action to accomplish task activities Procedural technicians: group members who handle basic tasks for the group, such as setting up meetings, passing out materials, or recording group votes Recorders: group members who maintain a record of group process by taking notes and preparing minutes for meetings
While these task roles help the group to accomplish its formal activities, there is also a need for group roles that maintain effective group member relations. Typical maintenance roles include:
Encouragers: group members who promote solidarity within the group by agreeing with, praising, and accepting the points of view of other members
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 62/77
What task and maintenance roles do you play in the groups you are a part of?
Harmonizers: group members who relieve group tension and attempt to reconcile disagreements between group members Compromisers: group members who try to resolve conflicts they participate in by finding common ground with other conflicting parties Gatekeepers: group members who encourage interaction between other group members and who facilitate group participation Standard‐setters: group members who establish and enforce rules for acceptable behavior within the group Observers: group members who record group process and provide feedback about group performance Summarizers: group members who preserve and describe group progress and direction Reality‐testers: group members who compare group performance to external standards
Group members who play these task and maintenance roles perform important functions for the group, helping the group to accomplish its goals and to maintain harmonious relations among members. However, there are often a number of nonfunctional or blocking roles that group members exhibit in groups that detract from group performance. These dysfunctional blocking roles include the following:
Aggressors: group members who attack group members, denigrate group activities, and detract from the accomplishment of task activities Blockers: group members who obstruct the accomplishment of group tasks Recognition‐seekers: group members who call attention to themselves rather than focusing on group activities Self‐confessors: group members who bring up personal, and often irrelevant, information and disclosures to the group Playboys/playgirls: group members who show a lack of interest in group process and distract others from group activities Dominators: group members who try to assert authority and control over other group members
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 63/77
Why is team building so important to a company like Apple?
Help‐seekers: group members who seek sympathy and support from other group members by focusing on their own personal problems Special‐interest pleaders: group members who cloak their own special interests by invoking the perspectives of other constituents
Group members can perform many different group roles, but often they develop their own unique role patterns. Consider the kinds of roles that you perform in the different groups that you participate in. Do you typically perform task roles, maintenance roles, or blocking roles? How does your performance of these group roles influence group performance and group member satisfaction?
Organizations in Action: Apple Takes a Bite Out of Team Building
Personal computing is a lot more user friendly than it was 30 years ago, and the folks at Apple Corporation have played a significant role in making computers easier and more fun. Useful features of computers that we now take for granted—for example, the concept of using a "mouse" to select from drop‐down menus rather than typing in a series of random keystrokes— were revolutionary at the time and were primarily due to the team that created the original Macintosh computer in the early 1980s. Did the way Apple approached this project provide lessons for organizations interested in innovation and team building? The answer is an emphatic "yes."
Andy Herzfeld, a member of the original Macintosh team, has written about the process Apple used to get the best out of its Macintosh work group. To begin with, the group had a clear and passionate vision. Herzfeld says that the original Mac was designed by a small team who worked long and hard hours with a "passionate, almost messianic fervor," shaped by their leader, Steve Jobs. Herzfeld adds that "the excitement that we felt during its creation shines through in the finished product."
In addition, the Mac team was encouraged to work together without fear of criticism or excessive bureaucracy. Although Herzfeld believes that then‐CEO
Steve Jobs had some "autocratic tendencies," the Mac team, in Herzfeld's view, "was surprisingly egalitarian." Unlike other parts of Apple that were becoming more conservative and bureaucratic as the company grew, Herzfeld remembers that the early Mac team avoided "formal structure and hierarchy, in favor of a flat meritocracy with minimal managerial oversight, like the band of revolutionaries we aspired to be." And, Herzfeld notes, CEO Jobs actively encouraged the group's "rebel" spirit; in fact, in 1983, he flew an actual skull‐and‐crossbones pirate flag over the team's facilities as a visual symbol of their identity.
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 64/77
Apple also realized that groups have both "task" and "social" needs. Herzfeld notes that the Mac team tried to address both. He states, "You might think that impossible schedules and uncompromising perfectionism would lead to an oppressive work environment, but most of the time, the ambiance of the Mac team was spontaneous, enthusiastic and irreverent. Jef Raskin [Herzfeld's direct supervisor] had a playful management style, encouraging a workplace teeming with toys and semi‐organized games. . . . Most of the early team members were around the same age, in our mid‐twenties, and we enjoyed each other's company. We increasingly hung out together as the project demanded ever greater chunks of our time, abandoning the distinction between work and play. Despite the incessant pressure, we loved what we were doing."
Finally, and certainly worth noting, although the synergy of the group was emphasized—for example, Jobs took the entire team to an art exhibition to encourage them to think of themselves as artists—inside the front casing of every Mac, unseen to the user, are the signatures of every member of the Mac team. Even though it was a group project, every individual was formally acknowledged for their contributions.
Critical Thinking Questions:
1. What type of "group fantasy" did the Mac team seem to embrace? 2. All the members of the Mac team were bright and gifted people who had state‐of‐the‐art
knowledge about computers. Could such an independent work team succeed if the group were comprised of less talented members?
3. In a successful group, how does an organization strike a balance between "task" needs and "social" needs? How was that balance dealt with by the Apple team?
Source:
Hertzfeld, A. (n.d.). The Macintosh spirit. Retrieved from http://www.folklore.org/StoryView.py? project=Macintosh&story=The_Macintosh_Spirit.txt (http://www.folklore.org/StoryView.py? project=Macintosh&story=The_Macintosh_Spirit.txt)
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 65/77
5.8 Managing Group Conflict
In Chapter 4 we discussed the importance of conflict‐management skills in the context of interpersonal relationships. In this chapter, we'll look at some guidelines for managing conflict that apply more specifically to groups.
Conflict is an inevitable part of group processes due to the inherent differences in opinion, experience, and orientation of group members, who must reconcile their differences to make group decisions. Poorly handled group conflicts can seriously impede group performance and polarize group members. However, well‐handled group conflicts that focus on examining important issues and sharing information can provide many benefits that help work groups achieve their goals. Conflicts that are managed well typically lead to informed group decisions. Arguing about the merits of different courses of action is a healthy process that enables group members to deliberate the merits of different options when making difficult and far‐reaching decisions. Not only does well‐ managed conflict generally enhance the decision‐making performance of groups, it can also improve member satisfaction within groups. Developing effective strategies for working through conflicts, exploring different ideas, and making informed decisions can help build camaraderie and member pride in the effectiveness of group processes.
Guidelines for Managing Group Conflict
The guidelines for managing group conflict are much like those we established for managing interpersonal conflict:
1. Encourage group members to maintain open minds toward other points of view. Too often in group conflict, participants are concerned only with arguing their own perspectives and do not pay attention to the ideas presented by others. If conflicting group members do not hear and understand the perspectives of other group members, there is little chance for compromise and progress. Paying attention to the other person's position demonstrates respect and commitment to solving problems. And as we have already discussed, following the norm of reciprocity, others will be more interested in hearing your position if you pay attention to their point of view.
2. Promote fair fighting in group conflicts. Fair fighting involves arguing the issues at hand rather than degenerating into hostile personal attacks on conflicting parties. Arguing the issues at hand is known as ideational conflict, which focuses on the major topics of concern. On the other hand, personal conflict tends to focus on the personalities of the conflicting group members. Emphasizing ideational conflict and minimizing personal conflict is best for achieving group goals as it enables group members to examine the pertinent issues of concern to the group. It also minimizes hurt feelings and hostility within the group.
3. Encourage group members to look for productive areas of compromise between their own positions and the positions expressed by others.
Metacommunication
Sometimes, despite our best efforts, conflicts become hostile and intractable. Group members will not agree to fight fairly, and the conflicts escalate to increasingly higher levels of hostility. In these cases, it is often helpful to initiate metacommunication, which is the process of communicating
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 66/77
about the manner in which group members communicate. (Basically, metacommunication refers to talking about our patterns of communication.) Metacommunication is often a good way to point out when communication may be getting too hostile as well as suggest the adoption of fair‐fighting group communication strategies. In particularly hostile conflict situations, it is wise to step back from the conflict temporarily to talk about the way group members are communicating. For example, a group leader might say, "We seem to be interrupting each other quite a bit—maybe we need to listen to each other a bit more before offering an opinion. Or, if there was open conflict in the group, one conflicting partner might say something like, "I think our feelings may be getting in the way. Let's try to do more careful, objective analysis of the data." Such metacommunicative messages can help reframe the conflict and encourage the adoption of ethical conflict communication behaviors.
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 67/77
5.9 Decision Making in Groups
One of the most important functions that groups perform in organizational life is to help make complex and challenging decisions. Some decisions are best suited to individuals, such as personal decisions, decisions that will affect very few people, and decisions about small, mundane issues. It is a waste of time to saddle work groups with these small‐focus decision‐ making tasks. However, as we discussed earlier, work groups are particularly well suited for handling complicated and far‐ reaching decisions, such as decisions about issues that will affect many different stakeholders, issues that demand a great deal of knowledge and specialized expertise, issues that have long‐term implications for the organization, and issues that demand complex solutions that will take many steps to accomplish.
Effective group decision making depends on strong leadership and effective group communication. For well over a century, group theorists have identified several key communication phases to effective decision making. Invariably, these group decision‐making models start with identifying the task, gathering information, weighing alternative solutions, and then selecting the best plan of action as well as figuring out how to implement it. For example, communication scholar B. Aubrey Fisher (1970) describes four primary communication phases that lead to effective decision making in groups (see Figure 5.2):
Orientation: In this phase, group members learn about the key issues they need to make decisions about. This includes gathering background information about the issues, seeking input from those who may be affected by the decision, seeking expert input about the issues, and clarifying the scope of the decisions the group is charged to make. Conflict: In this phase, group members actively deliberate about the best solutions to the problems under examination, argue about the merits of different plans of action, and critically evaluate the strength of different decisions that group members suggest. Emergence: In this phase, the best solutions to the issues under consideration rise to the top, are agreed on by the preponderance of group members, and are clearly stated and recorded for implementation. Reinforcement: In this phase, the specific activities needed to implement the decisions the group has made are clarified, responsibilities for implementing these decisions are assigned to specific individuals or groups, and strategies for evaluating the effectiveness of the implemented decisions are developed.
Figure 5.2: The Four Phases of Effective Decision Making
For example, a group might be asked to formulate new plans for lowering energy costs at corporate headquarters. In the orientation phase, the group would need to gather all kinds of data about the firm's energy consumption, different available technologies, and so on. Then, in the conflict phase, they would need to take a hard look at the various options—in this case, for instance, whether solar energy is feasible, the pros and cons of geothermal heating, what architectural changes would be most effective, and the like. In the emergence phase, the group would agree on the specifics of the
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 68/77
Many organizations are intolerant of ideas and viewpoints that don't fit into their culture. The result in some cases is a kind of "group‐think" or conformity that can severely undermine an organization's effectiveness. Watch this video and then read "Group Decision Making art NASA" before answering the critical thinking questions in that box.
Organizational Culture: Rules and Conformity
plan, and in the reinforcement phase, they'd figure out a way to make it actually happen, including how any new energy plan would be implemented and its results evaluated.
Strong group leaders help to move the decision‐making group through these different phases of effective decision making. Good leaders make sure that group members clearly understand the issues they are charged with making decisions about and have all the relevant information about the issues of concern so that they can make informed decisions (the orientation phase). If group members don't have enough background knowledge among themselves to make informed decisions, the leader solicits information from other expert sources, including input from community representatives who may be affected by the decisions.
Once sufficient background information is collected, good leaders encourage active deliberation about the issues to elicit the opinions and suggestions of different members (the conflict phase). Sometimes this may involve brainstorming about different courses of action. Other times this may involve active conflict and argumentation about the merits of different decisions.
Leaders must be careful to avoid hasty decisions or groupthink (Janis, 1982). In groupthink, members fail to critically evaluate the best options for solving a problem. Instead, they go along with decisions they assume (often incorrectly) the leader and other members favor because they don't want to rock the boat and challenge these other members.
Sometimes leaders may need to play the devil's advocate role, in which they champion positions they may not even agree with just to make sure that group members examine important alternative approaches to important decisions. Decision‐making groups need to fully explore key perspectives about the issues under consideration.
After careful deliberation about the issues and potential solutions to problems, good leaders will help the group clearly identify the best solutions (the emergence phase). Sometimes this may involve seeking consensus. If consensus can't be easily reached, often group decisions are made based on majority rule, where most members agree on a course of action. Leaders make sure that the decisions reached are recorded clearly and fully so they can be effectively implemented.
Good leaders then assign specific responsibility to different individuals and groups for implementing the best decisions made by the group (the
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 69/77
What team failures led to the Challenger disaster?
reinforcement phase). They identify exactly what has to be done to put the best decisions into action, who needs to do what, and when and how the decisions will be put into effect. This may involve developing new policies, practices, or regulations. Good leaders also establish criteria and strategies for evaluating the effectiveness of implemented decisions to determine whether the decisions made are effective or if they need to be refined.
Organizations in Action: Group Decision Making at NASA
One of the most widely discussed and most tragic situations connected to group decision making involved the ill‐fated flight of the space shuttle Challenger. On January 28, 1986, Challenger was launched amid internal controversy about whether the launch should take place. Some engineers from Morton‐Thiokol, the company that designed and built the O‐rings on the Challenger's engines, believed that the weather on the date of the launch was too cold for the O‐rings to function properly. But under pressure from NASA, and pressure from within Thiokol, the launch went ahead. Challenger exploded shortly after launch, with all seven astronauts perishing—and the failure of the O‐rings to seal properly seems to have been the main cause of the disaster.
As indicated in this chapter, group members can face strong pressure to conform. Irving Janis, who coined the term groupthink, believes that groupthink has several symptoms, many of which were relevant to the Challenger situation. One of them, the illusion of invulnerability, creates excessive optimism that encourages taking extreme risks. In the case of the Challenger, NASA had completed 19 successive launches without a failure, and there was a sense of denial that anything bad could happen.
Additionally, there was direct pressure on dissenters—another groupthink symptom. The head of Thiokol was told to "take off his engineer's hat and put on his management hat," suggesting that he was too timid to make a decisive call and should have the guts to approve the launch despite the company's technical reservations.
There was also some degree of self‐censorship. Those at Thiokol who believed they were in the minority started to clam up because they felt they weren't being good "team players."
Finally, there were stereotyped views of out‐groups. The news media had played up the fact that
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 70/77
this Challenger launch had faced several delays already. NASA officials tended to view this news coverage as overly critical and tended to see reporters as part of the problem. At one point, NASA itself seemed to view its Thiokol partners as a kind of out‐group. Thiokol representatives recommended not launching until the outside air temperature reached 53° F, but the forecast for Florida did not show temperatures reaching that baseline for several days. NASA responded with pressure on Thiokol to change their decision. One of NASA's managers, Lawrence Mulloy, reacted to Thiokol's initial negative recommendation by asking, "My God, Thiokol, when do you want me to launch, next April?"
For the astronauts aboard the Challenger that day, the consequences of groupthink were tragic.
Critical Thinking Questions:
1. Why might groups be sometimes more tempted to make more "risky" decisions than individuals in an organization?
2. As discussed in this chapter, what is the role of a "devil's advocate"? Why do you think many organizations do not assign someone to this role?
3. Are there other real‐world situations where groupthink has come into play? Did our decision to invade Iraq, for example, reflect any of the symptoms of groupthink?
Sources:
Janis, I. (1972). Victims of groupthink. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
Janis, I. (1982). Groupthink: Psychological studies of policy decisions and fiascoes (2nd ed.). New York: Houghton Mifflin.
Forrest, J. (2005, October 7). The Space Shuttle Challenger Disaster: A failure in decision support system and human factors management. Originally prepared November 26, 1996. Retrieved from http://dssresources.com/cases/spaceshuttlechallenger/index.html (http://dssresources.com/cases/spaceshuttlechallenger/index.html)
Case Study: Team Spirit?
Susie was elected as the incoming president of her college sorority chapter of Lambda Alpha Phi (LAP). Part of her new responsibilities as incoming president was to plan the major service activities for the sorority for the coming year. All the sororities on campus competed to develop the best annual service activity, with the top‐rated activity awarded the coveted Sprit Award by the College Pan Hellenic Council. LAP had never won the award, and it was important to Susie to change that losing trend this year. Susie strongly believed in service activities as a way for the sorority to give back to the community, build good relations, and enhance the sorority's public image. Over the last few years, LAP had conducted a "Toys for Tots" drive as its service activity, where they collected donated toys for local charities. However, the Toys for Tots drives had not been received very enthusiastically by LAP members in the past and had resulted in minimal donations being collected.
Susie knew things had to change to make this year's service activity a success. To help her
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 71/77
determine the best course of action for this year's annual service activity, Susie appointed a Service‐activity Planning Committee (SPC) that she chaired. The SPC was composed of five sorority members who represented different major areas of study and cultural backgrounds within the organization. However, many of the sorority members appointed to the SPC were reluctant to participate. Anne told Susie she was too busy to put much time into the committee. Brenda said she wasn't particularly interested in service activities. Marsha complained that she did not like working on committees. Tricia said she didn't know much about service activities. Vicky said she thought participating was a waste of time. She added that she joined the sorority to have fun and not to do charity work. Susie had her work cut out for her to get this committee motivated to help plan a great service activity for the coming year.
At the first meeting of the SPC, Susie explained that the service activity was a good way to funnel team spirit at LAP into actions that could help members of the community. She stressed that she wanted to do something important as a service activity this year but something that would also be fun for sorority members to participate in. She told the committee members that she wanted to have LAP win the Spirit Award this year and asked them to suggest ideas for new service activities they could engage in for the coming year.
The reaction to Susie's request was underwhelming. Anne suggested they do something easy that wouldn't take up much time or energy. Brenda reacted angrily to Anne's suggestion, calling it stupid and saying it would not help LAP win the Sprit Award. However, Brenda didn't have any specific suggestions of her own about alternative service activities. Marsha complained that the meeting wasn't very much fun, saying it was exactly why she didn't like to work on committees. Tricia asked what a service activity was, still confused about the role of the group. Vicky didn't say anything but spent the meeting texting her friends. Susie was getting very frustrated.
Critical Thinking Questions:
1. How does this case illustrate the importance of group communication in organizational life? How effective is the Service‐activity Planning Committee (SPC) in this case?
2. Is the SPC a decision‐making group, and if so, what kinds of decisions is it charged with making? Is this an appropriate group for making these kinds of decisions?
3. What are some major challenges to the effectiveness of the SPC? How might these challenges be addressed? Who should address these challenges?
4. From a systems theory perspective, in what ways is the SPC a social system? What is the suprasystem for the SPC? What are the subsystems? How effectively is the SPC in accomplishing system transformation? What are the inputs into this system? What are the system transformation processes in this system? What are the desired outputs from this system?
5. Does this system illustrate synergy? Is it accomplishing nonsummativity? Where might the system transformation process be breaking down?
6. What team‐building strategies could be used with this group to improve its performance? 7. How effective is the leadership communication in this group? How could the leadership
communication be improved? 8. Can you identify any task roles being performed in the SPC? Are any maintenance roles being
performed? Are any blocking roles being performed? Which roles should be strengthened and which roles should be minimized? How can this be accomplished?
9. Is there any evidence of conflict communication within this group? How can this conflict be managed effectively?
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 72/77
10. What do you suggest for improving decision making in this group? What could be done to improve all four phases of decision making: orientation, conflict, emergence, and reinforcement?
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 73/77
Summary
There are many types of groups in organizations, including advisory and governance boards, task forces, departments or divisions, committees, and teams or work groups. Some of these groups are more task oriented; others are more socially oriented. Some groups are more formal, whereas others are more informal. Despite the potential promise that groups hold as a way to accomplish complex or difficult tasks, the reality is that many people do not look forward to group tasks and have negative experiences in groups.
However, the rationale for group decision‐making is built around the idea that when all relevant stakeholders are part of the process, better outcomes will result. And through brainstorming, groups also possess the potential to generate new and interesting ideas in ways that individuals can't.
Systems theory proposes that groups need to develop synergy and to understand the communication networks that are connected to groups. Group dynamics also are reflected by the roles that people play in groups, including leadership roles, support and maintenance roles, and dysfunctional roles. Groups also go through rather predictable stages and also experience conflict, but fortunately, there are strategies that groups can use to manage their conflicts as well.
Discussion Questions
1. How many organizational groups do you belong to? Which ones are more task oriented, and which are more social in nature? Which are more formal, and which are more informal or even "emerging"?
2. Do you agree that many people have a negative attitude toward working in groups? Why or why not? Do you share this negative attitude?
3. As noted in this chapter, groups are best suited for important, complex, and challenging problems under the premise that no one individual would be capable of handling them alone. In your experience, have groups been able to make better decisions than a talented individual could?
4. "Fantasy themes" involve ways that groups dramatize about the world—in particular, stories that create a somewhat fictional world of "good guys" and "bad guys." Have you ever been in a group with such dramatizations? What kinds of stories were told, shared, and embellished by the group?
5. Consider the groups to which you belong. Do the leaders in these groups possess more legitimate power, more expert power, or more social power?
6. Keeping in mind the various task and maintenance roles in groups described in this chapter, which of these roles are most characteristic of how you behave in groups? Which are least characteristic?
7. Dysfunctional "blocking" group roles are also identified in this chapter. Have you personally observed any of these dysfunctional roles in group interaction? How were they manifested?
8. What would be specific examples of "metacommunication" that could improve the performance of groups?
Key Terms
Aggressors Group members who attack other group members, denigrate group activities, and detract
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 74/77
from the accomplishment of task activities.
Blockers Group members who obstruct the accomplishment of group tasks.
Clique Groups whose members have a personal network with an element of exclusivity.
Communication networks Active patterns of communication within and between groups.
Compromisers Group members who try to resolve conflicts by finding common ground with other conflicting parties.
Coordinators Group members who summarize and clarify the relationships between different ideas and courses of action to accomplish task activities.
Devil's advocate role A role leaders may play in which they champion positions they may not even agree with just to make sure that group members examine important alternative approaches to important decisions.
Dominators Group members who try to assert authority and control over other group members.
Elaborators Group members who explain and give examples to increase group understanding about task activities.
Emergent groups Groups that develop to meet specific new goals, such as certain special‐issue committees and task‐oriented groups.
Encouragers Group members who promote solidarity within the group by agreeing with, praising, and accepting the points of view of other members.
Energizers Group members who stimulate the group to action to accomplish task activities.
Expert power Power possessed by leaders because members admire them or their knowledge. Also called social power.
Fantasy chaining Ernest Bormann's theory that describes the process of brainstorming.
Formal groups Organizational groups are formally designated within organizational structures, such as departments and advisory boards.
Gatekeeper roles Those who provide or limit access to different members of the group, particularly to leaders.
Gatekeepers Group members who encourage interaction between other group members and who facilitate group participation.
Group roles Patterns of communication that group members develop over time with other members. These communication patterns serve different functions for groups and become expectations for group member behavior.
Groupthink Situations where members fail to critically evaluate the best options for solving a problem. Instead, they go along with decisions they assume (often incorrectly) the leader and other
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 75/77
members favor because they don't want to rock the boat and challenge these other members.
Harmonizers Group members who relieve group tension and attempt to reconcile disagreements between group members.
Help‐seekers Group members who seek sympathy and support from other group members by focusing on their own personal problems.
Hierarchy An organizational life principle that suggests that there are multiple levels of social organization.
Ideational conflict Arguing the issues at hand, which focuses on the major topics of concern.
Illusion of invulnerability A symptom of groupthink that creates excessive optimism and encourages taking extreme risks.
Input In transformational processes inputs such as work challenges are transformed through examination and deliberation.
Informal groups Organizational groups, such as lunch groups, that are not designated within organizational structures.
Information givers Group members who provide facts and evidence to guide group task activities.
Information seekers Group members who gather relevant information to guide group task activities.
Initiators Group members who bring new ideas to the group concerning the accomplishment of group tasks.
Isolates Group members who are loners and don't communicate well with other members.
Leadership roles A group role. It can be informal or formal.
Legitimate power Power possessed by leaders to supervise group members and reward or penalize behavior.
Liaison roles Roles performed by individuals who connect different group members or who connect one group to another through the network of personal relationships.
Lieutenants Individuals who support the leader and enforce the leader's decisions.
Maintenance communication functions Functions geared toward preserving emotional stability and personal satisfaction within the group.
Metacommunication The process of communicating about the manner in which group members communicate.
Network analysis Research technique used to understand active patterns of interaction.
Nonsummativity A systems principle that expresses this idea; it suggests that in effective social systems, group output can often be more than just the combination of what could be accomplished
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 76/77
by all the different group members independently.
Observers Group members who record group process and provide feedback about group performance.
Opinion givers Group members who share their personal opinions about group task activities.
Opinion seekers Group members who encourage other group members to share their perspectives on group task activities.
Outputs Outputs are results of transformational processes such as new strategies, policies, and solutions to address organizational problems.
Personal conflict Conflict that tends to focus on the personalities of the conflicting group members.
Personal network Group members' network of individuals with whom they communicate regularly.
Playboys/playgirls Group members who show a lack of interest in group process and distract others from group activities.
Procedural technicians Group members who handle basic tasks for the group, such as setting up meetings, passing out materials, or recording group votes.
Reality‐testers Group members who compare group performance to external standards.
Recognition‐seekers Group members who call attention to themselves rather than focusing on group activities.
Recorders Group members who maintain a record of group process by taking notes and preparing minutes for meetings.
Self‐confessors Group members who bring up personal, and often irrelevant, information and disclosures to the group.
Social‐oriented groups Organizational groups, such as lunch groups, clubs, and interest groups, formed to address a social need.
Social Systems Systems comprised of interdependent, interactive components working together to achieve system goals according to systems theory.
Special‐interest pleaders Group members who cloak their own special interests by invoking the perspectives of other constituents.
Standard‐setters Group members who establish and enforce rules for acceptable behavior within the group.
Subsystems A smaller component of a system.
Summarizers Group members who preserve and describe group progress and direction.
Suprasystems A hierarchical level in systems theory made up of smaller subsystems.
4/7/2015 Print
https://content.ashford.edu/print/AUCOM425.11.1?sections=ch03,sec3.1,sec3.2,ch03summary,ch04,sec4.1,sec4.2,sec4.3,sec4.4,ch04summary,ch05,sec5.1,… 77/77
Synergy Process that allows for high levels of coordination that leads to enhanced outcomes.
System transformation The overall process by which goals are attained.
Systems theory Theory for understanding the unique dynamics of group communication in organizational life. According to systems theory, groups can be seen as social systems that are comprised of interdependent, interactive components (i.e., group members) who work together to achieve important system goals.
Task communication functions Functions geared toward accomplishing the primary assigned activities of the group.
Task‐oriented groups Groups formed to accomplish a certain task or tasks.
Team‐building A process that begins with encouraging group members to get to know one another including the unique skills, experiences, and expertise each member brings to the group process, particularly with reference to the specific tasks and issues the group is confronting.
Teamwork Spirit of cooperation.
Theory of weak ties Theory of Mark Granovetter. Purports that group members are likely to gain more useful information from interacting with their weak ties than they will from interacting with their strong ties.