Critique
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About the Author
Gary L. Kreps is a University Distinguished Professor and Chair of the Department of Communication at George Mason University. He teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in communication research, health communication, organizational communication, consumer‐provider health communication, health communication campaigns, and E‐health communication.
Dr. Kreps received his BA and his MA in Communication from the University of Colorado, Boulder, and his PhD from the University of Southern California.
Dr. Kreps's areas of expertise include health communication and promotion, information dissemination, organizational communication, information technology, multicultural relations, risk/crisis management, health informatics, and applied research methods.
He is the director of the Center for Health and Risk Communication, serves on the governing board of the Center for Social Science Research, and is a faculty affiliate of the National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, the Center for Health Policy & Ethics, the Center for the Study of International Medical Policies and Practices, the Climate Change Communication Center, the Center for Consciousness & Transformation, and the Center for Health Information Technology at George Mason.
Prior to his appointment at Mason, he served for five years as the founding chief of the Health Communication and Informatics Research Branch at the National Cancer Institute (NIH), where he planned, developed, and coordinated major new national research and outreach initiatives concerning risk communication, health promotion, behavior change, technology development, and information dissemination to promote effective cancer prevention, screening, control, care, and survivorship. He has also served as the founding dean of the School of Communication at Hofstra University in New York, executive director of the Greenspun School of Communication at UNLV, and in faculty and administrative roles at Northern Illinois, Rutgers, Indiana, and Purdue Universities.
His published work includes more than 350 books, articles, and monographs concerning the applications of communication knowledge in society.
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Acknowledgments
The publisher would like to thank the many reviewers who provided helpful feedback on the manuscript. Also, we would like to especially thank Mark Braun of Augustana College and David Lapakko of Augsburg College for their editorial assistance including writing the Organizations in Action boxes.
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Preface
This text provides a comprehensive review and analysis of the multifaceted roles performed by communication in modern organizational life. It takes a strongly applied focus on specific communication roles, processes, and policies that can inform organizational practices and promote desired individual and organizational outcomes.
Case studies appear at the end of each chapter that provide the reader with an opportunity to see chapter concepts in action. These case studies examine communication concepts in organizations from a wide variety of fields including accounting, real estate, software development, higher education, student groups, community organizations, and even the National Football League. In addition, each chapter includes Organizations in Action boxes that highlight businesses, agencies, and other organizations such as NASA, BP, Apple, Costco, Twitter, and others.
Outline
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Process of Organizational Communication
This chapter examines the powerful roles that communication performs in modern organizational life. It describes the complexities of organizational communication processes and the need for strategic communication to build efficient, effective, adaptive, and ethical organizational environments.
Chapter 2: Human Communication Processes and Principles
This chapter describes the key elements, processes, and channels for organizational communication. Basic interdependent hierarchical levels of organizational communication are delineated, including intrapersonal communication, interpersonal communication, group communication, multi‐group communication, and interorganizational communication. The chapter explores the coordinated use of verbal and nonverbal communication as a critical component of communication competence. The chapter also examines coordinated use of multiple communication channels from face‐to‐face interaction to computermediated communication.
Chapter 3: Individual Factors in Organizational Communication
This chapter explores the key individual, intrapersonal, psychological, and personality factors organizational participants bring to organizational life and that influence organizational communication. Self‐image is examined as a critical individual factor that influences organizational communication. The process of selective perceptionis examined to elucidate the idiosyncratic ways that individuals perceive organizational phenomena. The individual processes of encoding (creating messages) and decoding (interpreting messages) are examined to illustrate the idiosyncratic aspects of human communication.
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Chapter 4: Relational Processes in Organizational Life
This chapter focuses on the centrality of interpersonal relationships and relationship development as the basic building blocks in establishing effective, cooperative, and ethical organizations. The process of relationship initiation, development, and maintenance is explored. Strategies for developing effective listening skills as well as giving and receiving feedback will be described. Key relational communication topics such as self‐disclosure, adaption, co‐orientation, relational balance, reciprocity, and conflict managementare be explored.
Chapter 5: Group Processes in Organizational Life
This chapter examines the ubiquitous nature of group work in organizational life. The many complexities of and challenges to working effectively in groups within organizations are described. Team building and teamwork are carefully examined, particularly within the context of group decision making. The emergence and evolution of unique group roles is explored within the context of personal, professional, and social networks. Group processes and roles needed for making good group decisions and reaching important organizational outcomes are explored.
Chapter 6: Culture and Organizational Communication
This chapter examines the pervasive influences of culture on communication in organizations. The growing diversity of organizational life and the need for harmonious intercultural relations is explored. The complexity of cultural variation will be explicated to identify the many levels of culture that influence expectations and activities. National, ethnic, racial, religious, socioeconomic, geographic, age‐based, and gender‐based cultural influences on organizing will be explored. The communication factors that can be used to help establish effective communication climates and organizational cultures are described. Communication strategies for enhancing organizational cultures to promote cooperation and satisfaction in organizational life are described.
Chapter 7: Effective Organizational Leadership
This chapter provides a careful examination of the development of effective organizational leadership skills. Differences between management and leadership skills are explored. Key models for leadership emergence and strategy are described, including the importance of developing situational leadership skills for meeting the unique and changing demands of organizational life. Formal and informal leadership are described as factors within formal and informal organizational communication systems. Strategies are given for helping leaders coordinate formal and informal communication systems, including responding to rumors and the grapevine.
Chapter 8: Organizational Media and Information Technologies
This chapter examines the growing dependence on a broad range of traditional and new communication media and technologies in modern organizational life. Relative strengths and deficits of using different communication channels and media are described to help students make informed decisions about how best to use communication tools to achieve organizational goals. Strategies for coordinating the use of traditional communication with newer digital, mobile, and social media are
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provided. Strategies for building technologically adaptive organizations that are prepared for the development and introduction of new communication media, technologies, and software are described.
Chapter 9: Communication and Organizational Development
This chapter examines the importance of using organizational communication processes to evaluate organizational performances and direct organizational renewal. The use of strategic feedback mechanisms to identify deficits and emerging problems in organizing processes will be described. The process of ongoing organizational development will be described as a strategy for adapting to emerging organizational constraints and enhancing organizational processes and policies. Communication intervention strategies, including introduction of new training programs, internal public relations efforts, job redesign, reinvention, restructuring, and consolidation are examined as unique opportunities for improving organizational performance.
Chapter 10: Communicating within Interorganizational Fields
This chapter examines the importance of coordinating organizing activities with other relevant organizations within the larger interorganizational field. Typical constituent members of interorganizational fields are described, including supplying organizations, regulating organizations, competing organizations, as well as organizational customers and other stakeholders. Strategies for establishing effective cooperative relationships with representatives of these interdependent organizations are examined.
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Chapter 1
Introduction to the Process of Organizational Communication
Communication works for those who work at it. —John Powell
Learning Objectives
What We Will Be Investigating:
Examine the roles that human communication performs in modern organizational life. Understand the ways in which effective communication encourages coordination and cooperation with others in organizational life. Examine the need for strategic organizational communication to achieve important organizational goals. Recognize the complex and fragile nature of human communication. Examine the evolutionary nature of organizing.
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Understand the hierarchical levels of organizational communication, building from intrapersonal to interpersonal to group to multigroup levels of interaction. Understand the hierarchy of power in organizations as displayed by the formal organizational chart. Recognize the differences between formal and informal communication in organizational life, as well as ways in which formal and informal communication systems influence one another. Examine strategic organizational communication competencies. Preview the topics covered in the following chapters in the book.
Human communication is the lifeblood of any organization. Indeed, the interactive social process of communication is what enables organizational participants to elicit cooperation from others. Although eliciting cooperation from others is essential for accomplishing goals, such cooperation does not happen automatically. Each person has unique goals and needs that drive his or her actions. Agreements about goals and needs must often be negotiated. Strategic communication— communication that is carefully planned and competently performed—enables such negotiations and is needed to encourage others to cooperate with us. This book is designed to help you become a strategic organizational communicator—an informed and aware organizational participant who communicates intelligently, sensitively, and competently to accomplish important goals.
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1.1 Communication in Modern Organizational Life
To be successful in our interactions with others, we must provide clear and compelling information about what we want from them and why it is in their best interest to cooperate with us. We depend on timely, accurate, and effective human communication to accomplish just about all the challenging and important tasks we confront. In fact, it has been observed that there is very little we can accomplish by ourselves in modern organizational life. We all depend on cooperation with others to accomplish our goals, and communication is the critical human process we use to promote such cooperation.
To illustrate the role of communication in eliciting cooperation in organizational life, imagine what might happen in a relatively simple situation in which a customer wants to buy a book from a bookseller. How does communication facilitate this relatively straightforward transaction for both the customer and the bookseller? The customer depends on her ability to communicate to the bookseller which book she wants to purchase:
The customer could request the book in person, using face‐to‐face interpersonal communication. The customer could request the book by phone, using mediated interpersonal communication. The customer could send a written book request to the bookseller, using mediated written interpersonal communication. The customer could also request the book online, using computer‐mediated communication.
Yet requesting the book is only the first step in the transaction. Perhaps the customer isn't sure exactly which book she wants to purchase. She might have to engage the bookseller (or others) in conversation to identify the right book for her needs. Even if the customer knows which book she wants, she will likely need to explain to the bookseller how she wants to receive the book. The customer could pick up the book in person, have it sent through the mail, or have it delivered by another shipping service. There are likely to be several shipping options, with different delivery dates and costs, which may also have to be discussed. Does the customer want the book wrapped in gift paper? Does she want it shipped to an address other than her own?
The bookseller must also locate the book, determine how much it costs, arrange delivery, collect payment from the customer, record the transaction, and provide change or at least a receipt to the customer. The bookseller may have to order the book from a book distributor, arrange to have the book delivered to the store, and then inform the customer when the book arrives at the store. Communication is likely to be involved in each of these steps as well.
As you can see, even in this relatively simple transaction, effective communication is critical. A breakdown in communication at any step in this process will make it difficult, even impossible, for the customer and the bookseller to accomplish their shared goals.
In more challenging organizational situations, such as negotiating a corporate merger, communication is likely to be much more complex, fragile, and critical. Participants must be skilled and sensitive communicators to elicit cooperation in challenging situations and to work through disparate (sometime diametrically opposed) positions, needs, and expectations to establish common ground and a shared framework for cooperation. Strategic organizational communicators develop the
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ability to perceptively examine the communication demands of complex situations. Based on their analysis of the situation, they use competent and adaptive communication skills to build cooperative communication relationships with the people with whom they work. This book (and the course it is being used in) is designed to help you analyze the communication demands of complex and challenging organizational situations and to develop strategic communication skills and competencies to respond effectively.
Communication is a deceivingly complex and fragile human process. We often assume incorrectly that communication is easy to do well. Although engaging in communication is easy to do (all of us engage in communication all the time), it certainly is not easy to communicate well. There are multiple opportunities in the process of communication for misinterpretations of messages. Think about how often you have misinterpreted messages others have sent to you and how often you have been misinterpreted. In addition, it is not always easy to get others to do what we want them to do. Establishing and maintaining long‐term satisfying interpersonal relationships can be a major challenge. Yet as we've made clear, the organizing process depends on effective communication. In this chapter and the chapters that follow, we will explore the unique communication demands of organizational life and explore strategies for communicating effectively as an organizational participant.
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Do you belong to any organizations, and how do you use communication skills to effectively perform your roles within these organizations?
1.2 Organizations and Organizing
We all live in a complex and multifaceted organizational world, one in which we participate in a wide array of organizations:
We may be hired by work organizations, where we pursue jobs and build careers. We may enroll in educational organizations, where we study, learn, and earn academic degrees. We may belong to religious organizations, where we seek and share spiritual support and guidance. We may recreate in social organizations, where we socialize, unwind, and have fun with friends. We may volunteer for service organizations, where we provide our time and efforts to help others. We are most likely members of family organizations, where as fathers, mothers, sons, daughters, and so on we provide mutual support and often help raise children.
We are likely to perform many different roles in these organizations, as workers, managers, students, teachers, congregation members, spiritual leaders, organizers, followers, and so on. These roles often change over time, as new organizational needs arise and as our organizational abilities evolve, demanding that we develop different skills and expertise. Likewise, each role we perform demands a different set of communication competencies. As you will learn throughout this book, strategic organizational communicators develop appropriate communication skills to effectively perform their different roles and to adapt to new situations.
Organizations are not static. Organizations are constantly changing and evolving as the societies in which they reside evolve (Weick, 1979). New organizational needs, new workers, and new products, services, regulations, technologies, and customers constantly force and enable organizing processes to evolve. Sometimes it appears that the common notion we have of an established, solid, and stable organization is merely a stereotype, a convenient way to describe a one‐point‐in‐time view of ongoing organizational processes. The truth is that the organization we see at one point in time is likely not the same organization we see at another point in time.
Let's take an example. Although the bank you use may seem the same every time you visit it, many changes occur within the bank that you just don't notice. There are likely to be new personnel working at the bank, due to retirements and relocation of older personnel. Bank policies change, interest rates change, and the technologies that bank workers use are regularly updated. And in recent years we have gone through a period of bank mergers and buyouts, which has dramatically changed the nature of banking. Meanwhile, more banking activities are being handled online than ever before, which is also changing the experience of banking. So, although you might think of your local bank as a solid, permanent, and unchanging organizational entity, the reality is
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that your bank is in the process of evolution, illustrating the process of organization as much as the state of organization.
The true nature of organizational life becomes especially clear when we view dramatic changes such as bankruptcies, mergers, acquisitions, downsizing, leadership transitions, and rapid expansions. As strategic organizational communicators, we must be especially aware of the importance of monitoring changing organizational demands and developing new strategies for addressing these demands through adaptive communication. For example, say you are the chief information officer (CIO) for an accounting firm, and you need to make sure you are aware of new accounting regulations. Changes in the regulatory environment may mean that you must use new accounting processes and forms. You may also need to follow new deadlines and formats for submitting financial information. In turn, you may have to purchase new computer equipment, install and update new software, and hire and train personnel to meet the new demands. Changes like this happen regularly in modern organizational life. Strategic organizational communicators gather information to monitor ever‐evolving organizational demands and to coordinate with others to adapt processes to meet these demands.
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1.3 Hierarchial Levels of Organizing
There are two different ways to view the hierarchical nature of organizational life:
1. The first approach to organizational hierarchy is the levels‐of‐communication approach. This hierarchy describes the encompassing communication roles that organizational participants perform in organizing. In this book, we will describe the hierarchical levels of intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, multigroup, and interorganizational communication as increasingly more complex levels of organizational communication (Kreps, 1990).
2. The second approach to organizational hierarchy is the power approach (Kreps, 1990). This hierarchy describes the successive levels of formal influence and control that are dictated by the design of the organization. This formal design is often illustrated through organizational charts. Figure 1.1 provides an example of a typical organizational chart.
Both the levels of communication approach to hierarchy and the power approach to hierarchy perform important roles in organizational life. Let's look at both in more detail.
Figure 1.1: Sample Organizational Chart
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What levels of communication are taking place in this photo?
Organizational Structure: Traditional vs. Non‐ Traditional
Levels of Communication Approach
The levels of communication approach to organizational hierarchy may be best illustrated from the bottom‐up. The most basic communication activities of organizing often begin with individual organizational actors who participate in the accomplishment of basic organizational tasks through intrapersonal communication. Intrapersonal communication occurs when communicators interact with themselves to make sense of organizational demands. They do so by attending to and interpreting key messages while also developing strategies to communicate messages to others.
These individual organizational participants in turn use interpersonal communication to establish relationships with other organizational participants to accomplish complex organizational tasks. Interpersonal communication is interaction between two different individuals who use communication to establish interpersonal relationships.
These relational partners often work together in organizational work groups, where they engage in group communication. In turn, these groups coordinate activities with other work groups, using multigroup or organizational communication, ultimately building to divisions, organizations, and even
interorganizational collaborations.
Each of the higher levels of organizational communication are built upon the lower levels. Intrapersonal communication is the foundation upon which interpersonal communication is built. For individuals to engage in interpersonal communication, they each must be able to interpret messages into meanings and create messages from meanings using intrapersonal communication. Group communication is composed of multiple interpersonal communication relationships. Similarly, multigroup communication is built upon group interactions.
Power Approach
The power approach to organizational hierarchy may be best described from the top‐down. Executives (presidents, chief executive officers, and board chairs) typically sit at the top of the power hierarchy, as shown in Figure 1.1. These executives direct the activities of upper management personnel (vice presidents, division heads, and others), who direct the
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Although specific organizational designs vary from company to company, there has been a broad trend away from what might be called mechanistic organizational designs toward more organic ones. Mechanistic designs depend on centralized authority and many layers of bureaucracy. Organic designs decentralize authority, thereby enabling companies to respond more readily to change. To think about: do you believe that John Kotter's predictions at the end of the video are true of organizations today? Can you think of some examples?
activities of middle management personnel (managers, supervisors, group leaders), who in turn direct the activities of main‐line workers and support personnel. Formal communication travels both vertically (downward and upward) and horizontally. We will discuss vertical and horizontal formal communication in more detail later in this chapter when we examine channels of communication.
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1.4 Interdependence and Synergy in Organizational Life
The basic processes of organizing, in which communication is used to elicit cooperation and coordination, takes place at each of the multiple hierarchical organizational levels. As noted above, it begins with the individual organizational participant (such as an employee). It then moves up to work groups (departments), on to multigroup units (divisions), on to organizations, and even on to groups of connected organizations.
At the individual level, each organization member is responsible for accomplishing specific assigned tasks, such as delivering internal mail, maintaining equipment, keeping employment records, selling products, and so forth. This necessitates that individuals demonstrate personal organization and coordination with other organizational participants (such as coworkers, supervisors, customers, and others). These individual tasks are connected to other individual tasks within the organization, combining to help accomplish organizational activities and goals. This connection between activities is referred to as interdependence. The different organizing activities performed within organizations are interdependent—they work together—and the individuals who perform these activities are mutually dependent on one another as well.
Even when you are driving your car, you engage in interdependence—you depend on other drivers to follow traffic signals and to stop at stop signs and red lights. These other drivers also depend on you to follow traffic signals. If either of you fail to follow the rules of the road, you are likely to have an accident. Similarly, members of organizations depend on one another to work cooperatively to accomplish important goals. Organizational units are also dependent on the interdependent performance of activities by other organizational units. The more effectively these individuals and organizational units can coordinate the performance of interdependent activities, the more efficient and productive the organizing process becomes. High levels of coordination inevitably lead to enhanced outcomes, a process referred to as organizational synergy.
Let's look a little more closely at interdependence and synergy. In any organization, individuals are typically situated within work groups such as departments, where they must work in concert with other group members. To be effective, these interdependent organizational members must be able to coordinate their activities within these work groups. Communication between these interdependent workers is clearly an essential part of promoting coordinated activities. Different work groups (such as the production department, the shipping department, the accounting department, the sales department, the quality control department, and so on) also must coordinate activities to achieve shared organizational goals. For example, if members of the sales department solicit 1,000 new orders for a company product, sales department personnel need to inform production department personnel about the new orders, so the production department can build at least 1,000 products to deliver to customers. Members of the production department must communicate with personnel in the shipping department to let them know these products are ready to be delivered and where the products should be delivered. The accounting department must be informed about these new sales so they can record the financial information. The better these interdependent departments are at sharing relevant information and coordinating activities, the more effectively the organization will operate, exhibiting synergy. Each department depends on the communication and organizing activities between interdependent individual workers, and the organization depends on effective communication and organizing activities between interdependent departments.
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To extend the issue of interdependence within hierarchies further, consider how interdependent work departments typically combine to compose larger divisions or even whole organizations where organizing activities also must be coordinated. Active lines of communication between these units are essential to promoting needed coordination. These divisions or organizations must communicate to share information with other interdependent divisions or organizations. The basic processes of communication to promote coordination occur at each of the multiple hierarchical levels of organization.
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Why is effective downward communication so important in organizations?
1.5 Formal and Informal Channels of Organizational Communication There are numerous formal and informal patterns for organizational communication. Formal patterns of organizational communication follow the power hierarchy within organizations, whereas informal patterns of organizational communication do not necessarily follow along power hierarchy lines. Let's look at examples of both formal and informal communication.
Formal Communication: Downward Communication
The most common formal organizational communication pattern is downward communication. Downward communication takes place when organizational leaders communicate down the power hierarchy to subordinate organizational members. Downward communication is essential in organizations to provide members with direction, information about the organization, and evaluative feedback about their performance. Typically, such downward communication messages carry job instructions, directives, and information about organizational policies and procedures.
There are several problems associated with downward communication:
1. There are often too many downward messages for organization members to pay attention to, leading to information overload, which we'll discuss in more detail later in this book.
2. Sometimes there are conflicting directives from different organizational leaders—and even conflicting directives from the same leader—that place followers in a double‐bind. Which directive(s) should they follow?
3. Downward messages are not always clear, so workers are not sure exactly what they are being directed to do or how they are supposed to accomplish the activities they are being directed to accomplish.
4. Workers sometimes interpret downward messages as being delivered in an alienating, insulting, or condescending way. Organizational leaders must take care to communicate clearly and sensitively so that their directives are understood and are likely to be accepted.
When misunderstanding of downward communication messages is likely, managers should provide lower‐level employees with the opportunity to get feedback and clarification. However, as we'll see next, in many organizations, employees do not feel comfortable questioning their managers, and managers do not solicit comments and questions from their employees.
Formal Communication: Upward Communication
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Communication that travels up the power hierarchy is known as upward communication. As noted, such communication and feedback is important for both workers and management. Upward communication enables workers to express their concerns and ideas, to provide and ask for feedback, and to seek clarification from their managers. The opportunity to provide feedback to managers can relieve tension for workers, help them gain a better understanding of what they are supposed to be doing, and help them understand the importance of their role in the organization. Upward communication is also important for managers as it allows managers to learn what their employees are thinking, what the employees' experiences are, and when the employees are having problems.
Unfortunately, upward communication is often the least well‐utilized formal channel of communication in organizations. For one, there is a tendency for subordinates to refrain from telling their bosses when they are experiencing problems within the organization. Instead, employees often only tell managers about successful activities. This tendency to sugarcoat upward communication is known as the mum effect . Sometimes employees fear that if they tell their managers about problems, their managers will believe the employees themselves were the cause of the problems. Yet it is important that managers understand organizational problems so they can intercede to remedy them before they grow into crises.
Strangely enough, upward communication often must start at the top, by having formal leaders— those individuals such as supervisors, division heads, and executives who hold recognized positions of authority over other organizational members—demonstrate to employees that they are open and receptive to feedback. By encouraging workers to communicate honestly up the hierarchy about their experiences and ideas, formal leaders can obtain important operational information, identify emerging problems, and develop effective intervention strategies. It is also motivating and reinforcing for employees to learn that their managers are interested in their ideas and value their experiences. For example, when the division head publicly recognizes the suggestions made by a member of the sales force for improving sales reporting and provides the salesperson with an award, that salesperson will most likely be energized and encouraged to identify additional suggestions for improving organizational operations.
Formal Communication: Horizontal Communication
Horizontal communication refers to messages that are shared between organization members who are on similar levels. For example, when coworkers share ideas about how to solve a common task, provide support about shared problems, or brainstorm new strategies, they are engaging in horizontal communication. Horizontal communication is essential for promoting coordination, problem solving, and social support among coworkers. Individuals on the same operational level of organizations share many goals and activities, so they can provide each other with important insights into common challenges found in their work.
It is important for leaders to provide coworkers with opportunities to share relevant information. Unfortunately, horizontal communication is often underappreciated in organizational life. Managers sometimes prohibit communication between coworkers on the job, believing that these workers should be more focused on their individual tasks than in communicating with one another. This is often shortsighted, however, as horizontal communication often can help to elicit cooperation for enabling coworkers to complete their tasks effectively.
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Why is effective horizontal communication so important in organizations?
Informal Communication
As previously noted, in addition to formal channels of communication within organizations, there are also informal channels of communication that may or may not follow the lines of the power hierarchy. These interactions are based on personal relationships that may transcend the formal hierarchy. For example, if family members or friends work for the same organization, they are likely to communicate with each other even if they don't work together or report to one another or even if it is not mandated by the formal organizational hierarchy.
Informal communication relationships develop in organizations for a wide variety of reasons. For example, organization members may form romantic relationships or friendships, or may share common goals or interests. One shared interest that connects many organization members is the ever‐present thirst for relevant information about the organization, its members, and key outsiders. Those individuals who have access to the most interesting or useful information about the organization often become informal leaders in organizations. Such informal leaders do not necessarily hold the highest positions in the formal organizational hierarchy. Often, secretaries, receptionists, couriers, salespeople, or even maintenance workers have access to many different people from across the organization and outside the organization. This enables them to acquire relevant information to which others do not have access. For example, secretaries may overhear discussions by leaders and have access to sensitive documents and correspondence that enables them to acquire information about organizational activities, personnel, policies, and changes.
Organizational members often covet this information because it may have direct bearing on their jobs, incomes, and futures. The spread of this information often takes place through rumors, while the channels of communication that carry this information are often referred to as the grapevine.
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Why is the grapevine such a powerful channel of communication?
Types of Organizational Communication
Rumors and the grapevine do not necessarily provide incorrect information, as is often assumed; they just provide interesting information to organizational participants.
Organizational members like to find out about dramatic organizational events, such as changes within the organization, conflicts between organization members, or when organization members get into trouble. I refer to such information as juicy information. The more juicy information an organization member can acquire and is willing to share, the more other members will want to communicate informally with that person. Juicy information can include information that is particularly interesting to organizational members and is not easily available from the formal information system. For example, information about romantic relationships, marital difficulties, or disputes between organizational participants are juicy bits of information that are often disseminated via the grapevine. Those organizational members who possess relevant and accurate information and are willing to share that information with others often develop informal communication network roles as opinion leaders (Kreps, 1994). These opinion leaders can wield significant influence within organizations, regardless of their formal position within the hierarchy.
In some organizations, formal leaders who are knowledgeable and communicative become the opinion leaders. In other organizations, formal leaders rarely communicate with other organization members and become so‐ called isolates in the informal communication network. Because organization members need and demand information, if the formal leaders in the organization are isolated, others within the organization will fill informal leadership positions. It is therefore wise for formal leaders to provide key organizational members with relevant information since these leaders are charged with directing organizational activities and can make sure that accurate information is disseminated. Liaisons (sometimes
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Most organizational communication can be categorized according to the direction or flow of information between sender and receiver. Communication can take place very much along organizational hierarchy lines, either upward or downward, but it can also be lateral. With lateral communication, informal or personal relationships play an especially important role. To think about: what informal networks have you experienced in the places you've worked? How have they helped you in your daily job?
referred to as gatekeepers) are organizational members who connect different individuals and groups within organizations. Liaisons can exert significant power within organizations because they control access to key information and can facilitate cooperation and information sharing between organizational participants.
Strategic organizational communicators pay attention to both the formal and informal channels of communication, learn which organization members perform different network roles, and learn how to utilize the different channels of communication to gain access to relevant, accurate, and timely information. They also develop the ability to share relevant information with others to help accomplish important organizational goals.
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1.6 Strategic Communication Processes in Modern Organizational Life
So far we've discussed how the most effective organizational participants are savvy, competent, and strategic organizational communicators. In this section, we'll discuss how strategic organizational communicators
develop communication skills to perceptively assess key messages to make sense of new organizational demands and opportunities; use communication to build cooperative and satisfying relationships with other key organizational participants; use communication to promote team building, commitment, and coordination within work groups; are sensitive to the unique individual and collective cultural factors that influence organizational participants, making sure to communicate in accordance with important cultural norms and expectations; use strategic communication to assert appropriate leadership within organizational units; use appropriate media and new information technologies to communicate effectively with others; use communication strategically to identify emergent problems in the organizing process and develop intervention strategies to enhance organizing policies and practices; and develop external relationships that connect organizations and promote interorganizational coordination.
Let's look at each of these points in a bit more detail.
The Perceptive Organizational Communicator
Earlier we mentioned that it is important for organizational members to carefully monitor the changing organizational landscape to identify new organizational demands. Such monitoring takes place at the individual level of communication, with individual organizational participants gathering information about organizational demands. These new demands can originate externally, such as from new customer requests, competing products or services, changing regulations, new technologies, or evolving economic conditions. The new demands can also arise internally within the organization, such as from changes in organizational leadership, reorganizations, equipment malfunctions, employee turnover, or internal conflicts.
It behooves the strategic organizational communicator to stay on top of these changing demands by strategically selecting and accurately interpreting the wide range of messages available in often fast‐ moving organizational situations. What are the key messages that indicate when more attention is needed to accomplish a task? What information is needed to determine when processes are not being handled optimally? How can you assess levels of customer satisfaction? How can you learn when there is disruptive conflict brewing within your organization? For example, is there tension between coworkers in your office? Are there individuals who are not talking with one another? Are coworkers arguing? These are typical symptoms of interpersonal conflict.
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Organization members work within key internal and external information environments. Internal information environments refer to the interaction patterns that occur within different programs and departments within organizations. External information environments refer to the patterns of interaction that occur between representatives of different organizations. Every situation involves careful selection of messages that provide important information identifying new organizational demands and opportunities. Strategic communicators pay attention to what people say and do. That is, they evaluate both the use of words (verbal communication) and actions (nonverbal communication).
The most perceptive organizational members identify issues that need to be addressed quickly and efficiently because they are paying close attention to key messages. They identify emerging problems early so that these problems can be fixed before they mushroom into crises. For example, strategic organizational communicators pay attention to cues that indicate when key personnel may need training or support to help them meet new demands. Such communicators realize that information is powerful in organizational life, and by staying alert to new sources of information, they can make better decisions about how to meet organizational demands, solve organizational problems, enhance organizational processes, and help achieve important goals. In Chapter 3 we will explore the perceptual process as an essential part of intrapersonal communication in organizational life.
The Relationally Competent Organizational Communicator
At the relational level of communication—communication that occurs between members of interpersonal relationships—it is important for strategic organizational communicators to build strong relationships with those individuals they work with (both within and outside the organization) to accomplish organizational tasks. Such cooperative relationships need to be established and maintained with coworkers, supervisors, subordinates, suppliers, regulators, customers, and many others.
For example, if you work as a salesperson, it is important for you to communicate strategically with potential customers to inspire their confidence and trust in you, your company, and your products. You will have to demonstrate to potential customers that you are an honest person of good character, that you are credible and have relevant expertise about the products you are trying to sell, and that you will treat them fairly and are concerned about their welfare. You will also have to persuade them that the products you are selling will meet their needs and are worth the price you are asking for them. You can accomplish this through strategic relational communication with these customers. By taking the time and effort to build good relationships with your customers, you will encourage them not only to buy your products now, but to be loyal customers who will buy your products in the future, and perhaps even encourage others to buy your products as well. These customers can also be important sources of information for you about customer satisfaction, changing customer needs, and competition within the marketplace.
Similarly, you need to use strategic relational communication to develop good cooperative relationships with your sales manager, coworkers, those people who refer customers to you, employees who order and ship the products you sell to customers, personnel who market and advertise the products you sell, and many others. By developing cooperative and satisfying relationships with these organizational partners, you are encouraging them to coordinate activities with you to enable you to accomplish your goals.
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Why is the relational level of communication especially important in building customer relationships?
As we've discussed, relationships are built on shared needs and expectations. Communication that helps others recognize these shared needs and lets them know their partners plan to meet their expectations is critically important to establishing good relationships. Relationship development depends on mutual, incremental, and reciprocal disclosure of information about unique needs and expectations. It involves not only the exchange of information but also the expression of friendship, respect, affection, and inclusion (Shutz, 1958). Communication that takes into account the unique cultural backgrounds and orientations of relational partners, meets
the expectations of these partners, and encourages them to reciprocate by meeting your needs and expectations ultimately helps to build strong and productive interpersonal relationships.
When you disclose information and sentiment to others, the norm of reciprocity—the urge to act in‐ kind—often encourages these relational partners to provide you with information and treat you similarly to the way you treat them. Note, however, that the norm of reciprocity doesn't always work since all communicators do not abide by this social norm. Less competent communicators are likely to violate the norm of reciprocity, and it may take a while for reciprocity to kick in to gear. However, more often than not, by sharing relevant information and showing respect for others, you will encourage these people to reciprocate with you.
Strategic organizational communicators initiate and develop strong, effective, and satisfying relationships with others to promote cooperation and coordination in organizational life. These strong relationships also help enhance personal enjoyment and satisfaction in organizational life for strategic organizational communicators because they are major sources for social support, collegiality, and friendship. In Chapter 4 we will examine the interpersonal communication processes that lead to developing and maintaining effective relationships in organizational life.
The Team‐Building Organizational Communicator
Many groups operate within and between organizations, including sales teams, review boards, decision‐making boards, specialized committees, and teams, where many critical organizational decisions are made and implemented. Strategic organizational communicators learn how to exert leadership, build support, and elicit cooperation within these groups while utilizing the expertise and influence of group members to help inform decisions and accomplish goals. As a member of a surgical team, for example, it is important to make sure everyone knows their roles and coordinates activities during an operation. Team members need to actively and accurately share information to accomplish surgical tasks. Effective team communication can mean the difference between life and death for a patient.
Strategic organizational communicators
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How is team communication demonstrated in a surgical team?
recognize that with multiple relationships to manage, group communication is often complex and volatile. Competing coalitions (or subgroups that band together) often develop within groups, which can lead to attempts at group domination, unproductive conflict, and gridlock, in which cooperation and organizational progress breaks down. Strategic organizational communicators learn how to mediate between different group members and coalitions, manage conflict effectively, and build support and cooperation within groups through team‐building communication to promote high group performance.
Communicating a strong sense of shared group purpose, inclusion, and collaboration are essential to effective group processes. Much of this relates to the leaders of the group, who have a strong influence on group processes. Although there may be an assigned group leader, leadership can be expressed by different members of the group based on their expertise and abilities. Establishing a group climate that encourages open exchange of information can also promote effective group communication. Likewise, building a sense of pride, involvement, and community within work groups can encourage high levels of group cooperation and performance. Strategic organizational communicators help build the support, structure, and exchange of information needed for effective group outcomes. In Chapter 5 we will examine the group communication processes that lead to the development of effective work teams in organizational life.
The Culturally Sensitive Organizational Communicator
Culture is a powerful force in modern organizational life, as it influences the shared beliefs, values, attitudes, and expectations of organizational participants. Yet culture is not monolithic. We have many different cultural factors that create who we are and influence how we behave. Think about how you would describe yourself. Would you mention your gender, age, nationality, ethnicity, race, religion, occupation, and hobbies? Are there other factors you would choose to describe who you are? The identifying terms you choose to describe yourself suggest the different cultural influences in your life. What is the order in which you might mention these cultural factors? The order might indicate the relative importance of each of the factors. Do you think you would have mentioned the same cultural factors if you were asked to describe yourself 10 years ago? Would they be listed in the same order? Chances are that you would mention different factors and order them differently. This suggests that not only do you have different cultural influences in your life, but that these influences are always changing. Earlier in my life, I probably would have mentioned being a motorcyclist and a member of a rock band as important cultural factors. Today, I would mention neither of those as key cultural factors in describing who I am.
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How does your cultural identity shape how you communicate?
There are many cultural affiliations that compete for social influence within individuals. For example, we are strongly influenced by the national culture of the country in which we live. The phrase "proud to be American" illustrates a strong personal value based on national culture. There are also ethnic, racial, and religious cultural influences on how we define ourselves and interpret the world. In addition, factors such as gender and age provide strong cultural influences. Think about how being a male or female might influence your self‐image, dress patterns, and communication styles. Similarly, your level of education, income, and occupation likely exert strong influences on who you are and how you behave. Each person has a unique blend of cultural factors that make them who they are. These factors shift and change over time. And each of the cultures that you identify with exerts strong influence over the beliefs you hold and the behaviors you engage in.
A primary factor in cultures is the process of socialization, where established members of cultural groups educate others and enforce adherence to established cultural rules or norms for appropriate behavior. For example, there are prescribed uses of language within different cultural groups. To demonstrate cultural membership, you learn how to use culturally approved terms and phrases in specific situations. There are norms for how you address different people, norms for how to describe different common organizational activities, and even norms for appropriate attire. Violations of these norms usually indicate lack of knowledge and perhaps even lack of respect for the
cultural group. Those who violate central cultural norms are often shunned and sometimes even disciplined. For example, if an office worker wore shorts, a T‐shirt, and flip‐flops to the office instead of expected formal business attire, it is likely that the worker would be disciplined for breaking the rules for appropriate dress within the organization.
Strategic organizational communicators learn about primary cultural norms and expectations and adapt communication patterns to fit those expectations. This is referred to as cultural sensitivity. Culturally sensitive organizational communicators adapt the messages they send to match the unique cultural makeup of the people they work with. This means using appropriate language and examples that are likely to resonate with the other person. It means being careful not to say something that violates a central cultural belief or value. Violating cultural expectations inevitably leads to deterioration of relationships, breakdowns in trust, and compromises cooperation and coordination. In essence, culturally sensitive communication can help promote coordination and social organization, whereas culturally insensitive communication is likely to hinder social organization.
Just as with individuals, a wide range of cultural factors influence organizational identities. Each organization develops what is often referred to as an organizational culture, with its own cultural values, goals, and expectations. For example, a unique cultural identity has developed over time in well‐known organizations like the FBI, the New York Times, Harvard University, Google, and Apple Computers. These cultural identities influence the activities
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What does this photo tell you about Google's organizational culture?
of organization members and even the people these organizations serve. For example, workers from these organizations may dress similarly, use similar language, and illustrate common ways for making sense of the world. For years, IBM employees were known to wear dark suits, white shirts, and plain ties, almost like an organizational uniform. Many executives and lawyers who have graduated from Harvard still wear Harvard pins and participate in Harvard social clubs.
Each of the organizations mentioned are U.S.‐based organizations, and their cultural image is strongly influenced by U.S. culture. The London Times is likely to have a very different culture than the New York Times, based on differences between British and U.S. culture. Since each organization resides within a larger societal culture, the cultural attributes of the larger society inevitably influence the identity, values, and expectations that people hold about the organization. Moreover, organizational cultures are also influenced by the unique history of the organization, stories about charismatic organizational members, and the primary mission, goals, and activities of the organization.
Strong organizational cultures profoundly influence not only organization members but also the activities and beliefs of those outside the organization who have a stake in the organization, such as customers and stockholders. For example, alumni of certain colleges, like Princeton, Notre Dame, Michigan, Duke, or USC, take the symbols of their university very seriously. Many of the people who identify with these universities wear clothing emblazoned with the names and symbols of the university. Wearing a competitor university's jersey can be seen as disloyal and even insulting to members of these cultural groups. In the Los Angeles region, for example, there is an unspoken bond between alumni and supporters of either USC or UCLA, as well as competition between these two cultural groups that is said to influence hiring and promotion decisions made by many employers. Strategic organizational communicators pay close attention to the unique cultural identities and values of the different organizations they work with and learn to abide by established norms of these organizational cultures. In Chapter 6 we will examine the communication processes used to adapt to different cultural perspectives, as well as to establish, maintain, and influence organizational cultures.
Strategic Leadership in Organizations
As we discussed earlier in the chapter, organizations have both formal and informal leaders. Formal leaders are typically assigned their positions of authority within the organizational hierarchy and hold titles such as president, vice president, division leader, supervisor, and manager. However, just being appointed as a formal leader in an organization does not necessarily mean these individuals are asserting effective leadership. Informal leaders emerge within organizational life based on their credibility (usually a combination of charisma, dynamism, expertise, and trustworthiness), ability to accomplish complex tasks, and access to relevant information. Informal leaders often exhibit strong leadership communication skills because they have to earn their leadership positions. Formal leaders
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often have to learn how to communicate effectively as leaders.
Effective leadership depends on strategic leadership communication. In essence, strategic leadership communication encourages others to cooperate with you, to follow your lead, and to share relevant information. Effective leaders establish strong cooperative relationships with other organization members, inspire these members to share important goals, and persuade them to willingly help accomplish those shared organizational goals. Think about the managers who you have worked for in the past. How effective was their leadership communication? How inspiring were they? Were you motivated to follow their direction and to help them accomplish their goals? Did you share those same goals? Most likely, some of these managers were effective leaders and communicated in ways that encouraged you to collaborate with them, whereas others were not particularly skilled communicators and did not consistently inspire you.
Those individuals who are assigned to formal leadership positions too often assume that just holding their managerial title will make them strong leaders. However, someone merely being in a higher position of power within the formal organizational hierarchy is not a good enough reason for many organization members to blindly follow a leader. Some organization members might comply with directives from a formal leader when the leader is there to see if they comply, but when the leader is not present, they may be less likely to follow the directives. Effective leaders motivate employees to want to follow directives because the employees believe in the leader, share the leader's organizational mission, and want to make the organization successful. The only way to get this to happen is for the leader to use strategic communication to establish strong, encouraging, and inspiring professional relationships with followers. This happens not only by communicating strong rationale (providing compelling content information) to followers for achieving organizational goals, but also by communicating in ways that personally inspire followers emotionally (providing them with engaging relational information) to cooperate and collaborate with the leader.
Effective leaders must be adaptable, adjusting their leadership communication styles to different followers and different situations. This is sometimes referred to as situational leadership. Situational leaders use communication to learn about the unique characteristics of the individuals they seek to influence. Situational leaders also provide each follower with personally relevant and motivating information that is targeted to the person's unique cultural orientation, information needs, and current state of mind. In this way, leadership communication is perceived by the follower as both appropriate and relevant.
Situational leaders also evaluate the unique demands of the specific organizational context to make sure that their communication fits those unique contextual demands. Is it an emergency situation? Is it a time when the goals of the organization need to be reinforced? Is it a time when workers need to be encouraged or rewarded? Each situation demands different kinds of leadership communication. Communicating situationally means that leaders pay attention to the people they work with and also to the unique constraints of the organizational context. This takes a great deal of effort, but it generally has significantly positive influences on encouraging organizational cooperation and commitment. In Chapter 7 we will examine the communication demands of effective leadership in modern organizational life.
Strategic Use of Media and Technologies in Organizational Life
There is growing dependence on the use of communication media and information technologies to
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How have computer‐mediated communication technologies changed the business landscape?
share information and to coordinate the activities of organizational participants. This growing dependence on communication technology may be due in part to the large size and broad scope of modern organizations that need to connect and coordinate many different people who are often geographically dispersed. It is difficult to imagine modern organizations without widespread use of cell phones, BlackBerries, networked computers, email, the Internet, fax machines, teleconferencing and videoconferencing, and many other media. We live in a time of extraordinary expansion of new information technologies. Some have asserted that we are experiencing an information revolution.
In the area of computer‐mediated communication technologies, for example, it appears that every year new equipment, software, and applications are introduced and adopted by organizational members. There is tremendous demand to keep up with the latest computer trends. Last year's software may not be compatible with this year's software, leading to problems with interoperability. Different equipment brands and models may not work with one another. It is a full‐time job just to keep up with these changing communication technologies, to determine which technologies are most useful, to determine how to best use these new media, and to develop appropriate software to match the evolving goals,
processes, and regulations governing organizations. The ongoing process of training organizational members to use new technologies and applications is also a major challenge in many organizations. Many organizations must employ large numbers of technology experts to install and debug new equipment, to help users solve problems with their equipment, to install new software, and to repair equipment.
Meanwhile, a growing convergence between different communication technologies increases their power. For example, smart phones now do much of the work previously done with desktop computers, telephones, videoconference technologies, and other media. However, although these new technologies often make it easier for organization members to reach one another, share information, and preserve information for later use, there are also major concerns about resistance to adopt new technologies, loss of information privacy, the impersonal nature of many new media, and misuses of communication technologies.
Organizational media therefore need to be used strategically to make sure they accurately convey the intended message, maintain effective organizational relationships, and complement other channels of communication. It is important to realize that new communication technologies do not necessarily replace more traditional channels of communication, but offer additional and supplementary channels for organizational communication. In Chapter 8 we will examine the strategic use of the broad range of new and more traditional communication media in concert with face‐to‐face communication in modern organizational life.
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Organizations in Action: Measuring Twitter Links
There was a day when business organizations were able to estimate the effectiveness of their advertising in newspaper and magazine communications through readership (circulation) measurements performed by the Audit Bureau of Circulation. Later, when radio and television came on the scene, firms such as Arbitron and A.C. Nielsen reported listenership and viewership "ratings" and consumer buying behaviors. More recently, methods to estimate traffic on the web have been developed. Tools such as Omniture, Google Analytics, and comScore are able to track hits and page views on the web, but these tools cannot report the kind of link‐sharing that occurs when users hit the "Like" button on Facebook or use the similar "Twitter Button" feature of Twitter.
To overcome this obstacle, Twitter acquired a Canadian company called BackType, which developed a set of analytical tools that allows Twitter to capture important user click data. According to BackType's cofounder, Chris Golda, companies have found it difficult to measure exactly how much traffic Twitter is sending to their websites. This is said to be especially important because Twitter has become an important marketing strategy for most companies, including traditional print and broadcast/cable media outlets (Ingram, 2011). As a result of this acquisition, Twitter unveiled a system that allows it to measure and report to external businesses the amount of traffic Twitter directs toward their websites. Twitter's "analytic toolkit," which was introduced in September 2011, provides a dashboard that indicates communication in terms of users either tweeting or using the "Twitter Button" link. According to Twitter's director of web business development, Twitter is responsible for redirecting 100 million clicks every day (Rao, 2011). The dashboard offered to business communicators by the new analytical device will show organizations whether Twitter is effective in driving traffic to their websites by indicating which links get the most activity, and when those communications peak.
Critical Thinking Questions:
1. In your opinion, is this an example of appropriate monitoring of the communication environment, or is it a step toward an Orwellian "big brother" watching our every move? Explain your response.
2. What is the value of this kind of information for organizations that post content on the web? Does it really matter how an Internet content consumer is directed to an organization's website?
3. How do you feel about this kind of analytical reporting? Should business communicators have the right to use this kind of user data?
Sources:
Ingram, M. (2011, September 13). Twitter offers analytics to try and prove its value. Retrieved from http://gigaom.com/2011/09/13/twitter‐offers‐analytics‐to‐try‐and‐prove‐its‐value/ (http://gigaom.com/2011/09/13/twitter‐offers‐analytics‐to‐try‐and‐prove‐its‐value/)
Rao, L. (2011, September 13). Twitter opens the kimono on web analytics; 3 million sites now using tweet button. TechCrunch Disrupt News. Retrieved from http://techcrunch.com/2011/09/13/twitteranalytics (http://techcrunch.com/2011/09/13/twitteranalytics/)
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Strategic Organizational Development
Systems theory's second law of thermodynamics describes how all systems encounter problems, break down over time, and inevitably move toward disorganization, or the state of entropy (Berrien, 1976). There is therefore a constant need to resist entropy by continually revitalizing organizational processes, achieving a state of negative entropy or high‐level organization (Berrien, 1976). Yet it is difficult to maintain a consistently high level of organizing in modern organizations, especially because organizational conditions change and the old strategies for organizing may no longer work well. In addition, there are many challenges to effective organizing caused by changing situations and demands. This may include changing customer demands, emerging societal constraints (such as a tough economic climate), harsh physical conditions (such as bad weather), new governmental regulations, and/or increased organizational competition. Strategic organizational communicators recognize the inevitable changes that challenge the organizing process, gather information to stay alert to organizational demands, and use communication to develop responsive strategies for confronting these difficult situations. This is known as the process of organizational development (Kreps, 1990).
Just as there are many new demands on social organizing, there are many ways to adapt to these demands. The systems theory principle of equifinality suggests that there are many ways to achieve desired outcomes (Berrien, 1976). The key is to match the new strategies to meet emerging organizational demands and constraints. For example, if customer demand for an organization's products wanes due to the introduction of more effective competing products, it suggests that organization members need to examine what it is about the competing products that is so attractive to customers, and based on that information refine their products to compete with the products introduced by other organizations. There may be many strategies for refining products depending on customer preferences, the potential for improving the products, and the capacity of the organization to make needed changes. Communication is a critical process for both identifying the needs for change and for directing these changes within organizations.
There is a constant tension in organizational life between stability and innovation. Organizational members generally like stability and predictability in their jobs. It is comforting to know what you need to do on the job and to hone your skills. Yet the same old processes that once worked well may no longer be as effective, especially as new organizational demands arise. There is often the need to innovate processes to continue being successful.
However, there is often significant resistance to organizational change. Organization members must be encouraged and supported to learn new ways to do their jobs, to adopt new technologies, and to organize in improved ways. Sometimes the changes may involve developing personnel innovations, such as retraining employees to meet new demands, restructuring roles and responsibilities to become more responsive to changing conditions, or even replacing and hiring new personnel. Sometimes the changes may focus on organizational processes, such as gathering market information about customer demand, purchasing new production equipment, or positioning products differently with marketing and advertising processes. Strategic organizational communicators help identify new issues, share the need for organizational innovation, and use communication to implement needed changes within organizing processes. In Chapter 9 we will examine the communication demands and strategies for effective organizational development.
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Strategic External Organizational Communication
Organizational communication that elicits coordination between organizational members and individuals beyond organizational boundaries (from the organization's relevant environment) is referred to as external organizational communication. It is important for organizational representatives to develop effective external communication relationships that help them track changes in the relevant environment. Information gathered from these external relationships can help identify emerging opportunities (such as potential new customers, relevant new products or services, or potential lucrative collaborations), learn about dangerous new constraints to organizing (such as new competitors, complex government regulations, or serious external threats), and help leaders keep abreast of changing environmental situations (such as changing economic conditions, relevant new knowledge, or emerging technologies). By gathering information from external representatives, organizational leaders can learn about and seize new opportunities, adapt to potential constraints, and make strategic evidence‐based plans for charting the future of the organization.
It is also important for organizational members to use communication with key external representatives to influence these individuals' relevant activities. For example, organizations need to elicit cooperation from their customers, convincing them to purchase organizational products and/or services. Leaders may need to convince financial institutions and investors to provide financial support to the organization. Organizations also depend on external communication to effectively recruit new talent to work for the organization. Public relations, marketing, and advertising are forms of external organizational communication used to provide information and influence the behaviors of relevant external organizational audiences.
Employees who connect the organization to representatives of the organization's relevant environment are often referred to as cosmopolites. These cosmopolites are often located at either the top of the organizational power hierarchy (chief executive officers, board of director members, and so on) or at the lower rungs of the power hierarchy (receptionists, clerks, and so on). Such cosmopolites have a great deal of responsibility to gather information from environmental representatives and share it internally with organizational decision makers, as well as to represent the organization positively to key environmental representatives with whom the organization needs to coordinate activities. The development of effective, trusting, and cooperative interpersonal relationships between organization representatives (cosmopolites) and key representatives from the external environment is essential to organizational survival. In Chapter 10 we will examine the unique strategic communication skills needed to develop and maintain effective interorganizational relationships.
Case Study: "Right up Your Alley"
Susie Barnett was excited about starting her new position as the general manager of the Waldorf, Maryland, AMF Bowling Center, known as AMF Waldorf Lanes. She was replacing the retiring Ernie Johnson, who had managed Waldorf Lanes for more than 20 years. It was her first top‐level managerial position. She was proud of her movement up the job ladder as a relatively young (24‐ year‐old) woman. Despite her youth, she felt prepared for the managerial position. She had studied organizational behavior at her state college, completed a management trainee program with AMF Bowling Centers, and served for three years as an assistant manager at another AMF
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Bowling Center in the suburbs of Baltimore.
While serving as the assistant manager at the Towson Bowling Center, she learned a great deal about the bowling business. She assisted General Manager Frank Ferguson on all aspects of bowling center operations and floor management, including supervising marketing and entertainment programs, customer relations, food and beverage services, equipment and property acquisition and maintenance, and personnel management. Frank was a generous general manager who actively mentored Susie and developed strong cooperative relationships with the bowling center staff and its customers. Frank recommended Susie highly for her new position at Waldorf Lanes.
The Towson Bowling Center was one of the most progressive and profitable within AMF. Frank and Susie nurtured strong relationships with local community organizations (churches, schools, and social clubs) that held bowling leagues at Towson Lanes. They gave these groups special rates, hosted parties for them at the Lanes, and held special events like "Rock‐n‐Bowl" nights where they dimmed the lights, brought in strobe lights, and played music, creating a party atmosphere. The staff at Towson were sorry to see Susie go but were happy for her about her new senior managerial opportunity.
However, the Waldorf Lanes Bowling Center was not doing so well. At one time it had been a profitable bowling center, but over the past few years its business had slowed. Susie's job was to find out what was going wrong at Waldorf and revitalize the center to bring it back to profitability. She began by meeting individually with customers and members of the center staff to find out why business was lagging at Waldorf Lanes.
First she met with Dave Garfinkle, the longtime assistant manager. Dave was not friendly to Susie. He also had been an applicant for the general manager position but did not get the job despite his long years of service and familiarity with the facility. He did not get a strong recommendation from the retiring general manager, Ernie Johnson, and his lack of college education also hurt his chances for the job. Susie did not learn much about the problems at the bowling alley from Dave. He was gruff and standoffish and resented having a younger, less experienced woman selected for the job that he coveted.
Susie learned considerably more about problems at the bowling alley from her interviews with customers and members of the Waldorf Lanes hourly staff. The food service, front desk, and service staff members (most of them high school students who were working part time) told her that the last year had been a tough one for Waldorf Lanes. A rough young crowd of teenagers began hanging out at the snack bar, and they frequently hassled customers and staff but were not interested in bowling. They appeared to be chasing away business. The staff also complained to Susie about a lack of support from upper management. The previous general manager, Ernie Johnson, had been in poor health and didn't spend a lot of time at the bowling alley over the past year. Assistant Manager Dave Garfinkle ran the center in the absence of Ernie. He seemed to be angry a lot, didn't connect well with staff or customers, and was not very responsive to changing conditions. He was more focused on enforcing the rules than on improving operations and performance. Susie also learned from customers and staff that some of the bowling equipment and furnishing at the center were worn out and in disrepair. She also discovered there had been a significant drop in the number of registered bowling leagues at Waldorf Lanes.
Now that Susie knew about some of the major problems facing Waldorf Lanes, it was time for her
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to develop strategies for rectifying these problems and revitalizing the center. What should she do? She made a few telephone calls to Ernie Johnson, who was now retired and living in Florida, to get his assessment of the situation. She also called her former boss, Frank Ferguson, to get his input. She wanted to make sure the changes she recommended were appropriate to the situation and effective in turning around Waldorf Lanes.
Critical Thinking Questions:
1. How well do the different managerial personnel in this case (Susie Barnett, Ernie Johnson, Frank Ferguson, and Dave Garfinkle) exhibit strategic organizational communication competencies and skills? Consider each of the following strategic communication skills: perceptiveness, relational competence, team building, intercultural sensitivity, use of media, organizational development, and external communication.
2. How is the second law of thermodynamics, the move toward entropy, illustrated in this case study? What does this movement toward disorganization suggest about the development of new strategies for organizing and organizational communication?
3. What suggestions do you recommend for improving the performance of Waldorf Lanes? How will communication be used to develop and implement these plans?
4. What role does the development of effective and trusting relationships have in the effective management of the Towson Bowling Center and Waldorf Lanes? What communication strategies do you suggest for improving some of the strained interpersonal relationships described in this case?
5. Contrast the different organizational cultures established at the Towson Bowling Center and Waldorf Lanes. How are these cultures different? How has organizational communication contributed to the development of these organizational cultures?
6. Describe some of the existing intercultural communication barriers in this case that are complicating organizational communication. How could communication be used to overcome some of these intercultural barriers?
7. What is the role of organizational development in this case? What communication strategies are needed to promote organizational development?
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Summary
Organizations and the way they communicate play critical roles in our lives. We belong to many organizations and must find a way to communicate strategically within them. However, there are many layers of complexity involved. Organizations have different missions, different structures, differing levels of authority, different norms, and different ways of dealing with power and leadership. Further, organizations are not static and must find ways to balance the needs for stability and innovation. By their nature, organizations are complex and multidimensional.
Communication offers a way to deal with these various organizational complexities. However, communication itself involves its own array of challenges. Effective organizational communicators need to find ways to manage confusion, enhance connections between people, build work teams, promote organizational socialization, ensure good communication both vertically and horizontally, deal with information overload, manage formal and informal channels of communication, make intelligent use of mass‐mediated messages, and deal wisely with the dynamics of power and authority. These and other challenges are the central focus of this book.
Discussion Questions
1. Do you think that effective communication is more or less important to organizational success than is outlined in this chapter? Why or why not?
2. Communication is referred to in this chapter as "deceivingly complex." Do you think there are times when it's "deceivingly simple"?
3. Some organizations use a "family" metaphor to describe their philosophy. Do you think that "family organizations" and "work organizations" have enough in common to justify this analogy?
4. In this chapter, banks are used to illustrate that organizations are not static. What other types of organizations reflect this idea? How?
5. In what ways have you experienced "information overload" in organizations of which you have been a member?
6. Historically, organizations and organizational literature have paid more attention to "downward" communication than "upward" communication. Why, do you suppose?
7. Is there any way to deal with the "mum effect" described in this chapter? What specifically can organizations do to prevent it?
8. This chapter notes that "rumors and the grapevine do not necessarily provide incorrect information." Does your experience in organizations contradict that claim in any way?
9. Although all organizations have "norms," many of these norms are unwritten. If you were to explicitly state what norms operate in your organizational life, what would they be?
10. The term "strategic relational communication" is used throughout this chapter. What are the pluses and minuses of thinking about communication as a "strategy"?
Key Terms
Coalitions Subgroups that band together.
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Cosmopolites Employees who connect the organization to representatives of the organization's relevant environment.
Cultural sensitivity Strategic organizational communicators learn about primary cultural norms and expectations and adapt communication patterns to fit those expectations.
Downward communication Takes place when organizational leaders communicate down the power hierarchy to subordinate organizational members.
Entropy Systems theory's second law of thermodynamics. All systems encounter problems, break down over time, and inevitably move toward disorganization.
Equifinality Systems theory principle that suggests there are many ways to achieve desired outcomes.
External information environments The patterns of interaction that occur between representatives of different organizations.
External organizational communication Organizational communication that elicits coordination between organizational members and individuals beyond organizational boundaries (from the organization's relevant environment).
Formal leaders Those individuals such as supervisors, division heads, and executives who hold recognized positions of authority over other organizational members.
Formal patterns of organizational communication Patterns that follow the power hierarchy within organizations.
Grapevine The channels of communication that carry rumors.
Group communication Communication between organizational work groups.
Horizontal communication Messages that are shared between organization members who are on similar levels of the organization.
Individual level of communication Level at which changes in organizational landscape are monitored.
Informal leaders Those individuals who have access to the most interesting or useful information about the organization often become informal leaders in organizations.
Informal patterns of organizational communication Patterns that do not necessarily follow along power hierarchy lines.
Information revolution The idea that we live in a time of extraordinary expansion of new information technologies.
Interdependence Connection of individual tasks to other individual tasks within the organization that enables organizational activities and goals to be accomplished.
Internal information environments The interaction patterns that occur within different programs and
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departments within organizations.
Interpersonal communication The interaction between two different individuals who use communication to establish interpersonal relationships.
Intrapersonal communication Communication that occurs when communicators interact with themselves to make sense of organizational demands.
Isolates Group members who are loners and don't communicate well with other members.
Levels of communication approach One way to view the hierarchal nature of organizational life. This hierarchy describes the encompassing communication roles that organizational participants perform in organizing.
Liaisons (sometimes referred to as gatekeepers) Organizational members who connect different individuals and groups within organizations.
Mum effect The tendency to sugarcoat upward communication.
Norm of reciprocity The urge to act in‐kind that often encourages these relational partners to provide you with information and treat you similarly to the way you treat them.
Norms Cultural rules for appropriate behavior.
Opinion leaders Those organizational members who possess relevant and accurate information and are willing to share that information with others often develop informal communication network roles as opinion leaders.
Organizational culture The culture that each organization develops with its own unique cultural identity, with its own cultural values, goals, and expectations.
Organizational development The process of organizational renewal that helps organizations resist entropy and promote ongoing organization.
Organizational world The idea that we participate in a wide array of organizations including work organizations, educational organizations, religious organizations, social organizations, service organizations, and family organizations.
Power approach One way to view the hierarchal nature of organizational life. This hierarchy describes the successive levels of formal influence and control that are dictated by the design of the organization.
Process of socialization Process where established members of cultural groups educate others and enforce adherence to established cultural rules or norms for appropriate behavior.
Relational level of communication Communication that occurs between members of interpersonal relationships.
Relationship development Process in which mutual expectations are fulfilled and new implicit contracts are developed that allows relationships to grow and prosper.
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Situational leadership Effective leaders must be adaptable, adjusting their leadership communication styles to different followers and different situations. This is sometimes referred to as situational leadership.
Strategic communication Communication that is carefully planned and competently performed.
Strategic leadership communication Encourages others to cooperate with you, to follow your lead, and to share relevant information.
Strategic organizational communicator An informed and aware organizational participant who communicates intelligently, sensitively, and competently to accomplish important goals.
Synergy Process that allows for high levels of coordination that leads to enhanced outcomes.
Team‐building communication Communication through which strategic organizational communicators learn how to mediate between different group members and coalitions, manage conflict effectively, and build support and cooperation within groups.
Upward communication Communication that travels up the power hierarchy is known as upward communication.
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Chapter 2
Human Communication Processes and Principles
It was impossible to get a conversation going. Everybody was talking too much.
—Yogi Berra
Learning Objectives
What We Will Be Investigating:
Understand why communication is considered difficult. Understand the difference between external and internal messages. Explain the difference between messages and meanings. Realize that communication problems can relate to encoding or decoding. Grasp what it means to call communication a process, irreversible, and transactional.
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Understand the difference between the content and relationship levels of communication. Explain how jargon, semantics, syntactics, and pragmatics relate to verbal messages. Understand that words have both a denotative and a connotative meaning. Become familiar with the nonverbal categories of paralinguistics, oculesics, kinesics, proxemics, artifactics, tactilics, and chronemics.
Despite the fact that we communicate all the time, it is not always easy for us to communicate well. There are many points in the communication process where the fidelity, clarity, accuracy, and intended influences of communication can and often do break down. Yet despite the potential for communication breakdowns, communicators often naively assume that when they tell others to do something, those people will understand them, agree with them, and comply with them. As you can see, there are many optimistic assumptions about communication taking place, and it is often unlikely that all these goals will be easily obtained.
Unless the messages you are sending are very simple, chances are that the recipients of these messages will not fully understand what you want to convey. Your audiences may understand parts of what you want them to, but they are unlikely to understand all of your intended ideas. Certainly they won't understand all the details and subtleties of your communication the first time. Feedback, repetition, and message redundancy can help improve the odds of getting your ideas across, but even then, certain aspects of your messages will likely elude your audience members. And even if they do develop a somewhat full understanding of your messages, they may not agree with your point of view. If listeners don't fully understand your message and don't agree with your perspective, what are the chances that they will comply with your requests? Not very good. And even if others understand and agree with you, they still may not comply with your requests for a host of reasons. Communication is complicated.
Strategic organizational communicators recognize the fragile nature of human communication and therefore develop strategies for enhancing communication processes and outcomes. They carefully assess the potential for misunderstandings, design messages and use communication channels that will appeal to the unique characteristics of their intended audiences, evaluate the ways their messages are interpreted, and provide feedback and reinforcement to clarify misunderstandings and encourage cooperation.
In this chapter, we will examine the key elements, processes, and channels for organizational communication. In doing so, we will explore the unique demands of effective intrapersonal communication, interpersonal communication, group communication, multigroup communication, and interorganizational communication. We will also examine the coordinated use of verbal and nonverbal communication as a critical component of communication competence. Along the way we will discuss how effective communicators also use multiple communication channels, such as face‐to‐ face, print, and computer‐mediated channels of communication. We will attempt to unpack some of the complexities of communication by outlining the major components of human communication and examining some of the underlying principles that guide the communication process. The
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concepts described in this chapter will become the building blocks for the following chapters since every level and approach to organizational communication is based on these basic tenets of human communication. Let's get started with some definitions.
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2.1 Human Communication Defined
A relatively basic but broadly encompassing definition of communication is as follows: Human communication occurs when a person responds to a message by creating a meaning. The two critical components of this definition are messages and meanings. Let's examine both in detail.
What Are Messages?
Messages are the primary symbols of the communication process; they work as cues to stimulate communicators to create meanings. There are many different sources of messages. The most obvious message sources are external messages, which derive from our external work environments. Some of the most important external messages in an organizational setting include the words our coworkers say or write to us. Such verbal messages are surrounded and strongly influenced by an array of nonverbal messages, such as the facial expressions and gestures organizational participants display when they speak or the ways that written words are displayed (such as in memos, email, or even on billboards or other advertising media). Another primary source of external messages includes the many, sometimes subtle, environmental cues we attend to that tell us about our organizational worlds, such as room temperatures, lighting levels, colors, scents, textures, music, and other background sounds. (We'll discuss verbal and nonverbal messages in more detail later in this chapter.)
We also respond to a wide array of internal messages. These internally generated messages, normally called intrapersonal communication, include a wide range of conscious and unconscious cues that we send to ourselves based on our individual thoughts, feelings, and reactions to different situations. In fact, we all spend a lot of time engaged in an ongoing dialog with ourselves in which we examine how to interpret different situations we find ourselves in and plan our best responses to them. The biggest challenge we typically face is in deciding which of these messages are most important for us to pay attention to. We may be conflicted about how to write a certain memo, or how to deal with a problem coworker, or whether to convene a meeting, and these and other internal messages are buzzing around in our heads as we go through the day. Yet we can't deal with them all and are forced to attend to some and put others mentally aside.
What Are Meanings?
Meanings are the interpretations we make of the different external and internal messages that we attend to. Although we never have total knowledge about any situation we encounter, we strive to collect, analyze, and interpret enough relevant messages to develop a good operational sense of these situations so we can respond appropriately. For example, imagine that you see a coworker leaving his office in tears. You may not know this man very well, and you have no idea what has happened to make him cry. But nonetheless, you have seen people cry before in a variety of situations, and so you use that information to figure out what is going on and to develop an appropriate response. You have gathered enough information to establish an operational meaning for the situation that can guide your response to it.
Humans have an insatiable appetite for creating meaning. We all want to know what is going on around us and to make sense out of it. Nowhere is this quest for meaning more evident than in
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What are the meanings you constructed when you looked at this photo?
organizational life, where organizational participants want to know about changes in their organizations, such as new job demands, emerging operational constraints, personnel changes, or fast‐opening and closing opportunities for advancement. We have the capacity to create a wide array of rich and vivid meanings for different situations. However, our meanings are not just logical interpretations of the situations we encounter (captured exactly like a photograph); they are imbued with our personal feelings, concerns, goals, expectations, and experiences (resembling an abstract painting with many of our unique interpretations).
The meanings we create for the messages we attend to in any given moment are rapidly compared, contrasted, and combined with older stored meanings we have developed from past experiences. The more fast‐paced and complex the situations we encounter, the more we work to update and create meanings that help us understand these situations. When we encounter complex situations, we may have to ponder seriously the full interpretation of new messages in comparison to previously created meanings. We regularly update our previous understandings based on the interpretation of new messages, continually building a more comprehensive and reliable set of meanings (knowledge) about the world. As we do so, each of us gives more emphasis to certain cues over others, combines new messages in different ways, and compares new messages to our own unique set of stored interpretations from past experience to create our own personal meanings of situations.
The implication of these unique interpretations of messages is that there is likely to be significant difference in opinion about what different situations really mean. For example, in business negotiations, the different negotiating parties may have very disparate perspectives on the goals for the negotiations, the key issues under examination, and the indicators for successful resolution of the negotiations. Successful negotiators must therefore try to understand these different interpretations and provide suggestions for bridging disparate perspectives. This is strategic organizational communication in action.
Indeed, it is through the process of strategic organizational communication that we can determine the different ways that organizational participants interpret situations and thereby gain a richer understanding of these situations and each other. Nowhere is this sharing of meanings more important than in modern organizational life, where we regularly need to coordinate with a broad range of organizational participants to adapt to novel, complex, and challenging situations that are difficult to make sense of and respond to effectively. To be effective communicators, we must all use organizational communication to share the challenges of making sense of complex demands and coordinate efforts to overcome problems.
Let's consider an example. When a juvenile offender enters the court system and is convicted of a
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crime, a probation officer must do a presentence investigation to determine the exact nature of the crime that was committed. That will involve communication with the police or the county attorney. In addition, the process will also include a home visit to find out about the offender's family. A trip to the child's school to see how the offender performed academically is also common, as well as interviews with any previous employers. And as a result of this process, the probation officer will need to appear in court and recommend to a judge what an appropriate sentence should be. All of these stakeholders become a part of the criminal justice system—a system comprised of several different constituencies, all of whom have a role to play in the outcome.
Encoding and Decoding
Two primary translation processes link messages and meanings in the process of human communication: encoding and decoding. Whenever two or more people interact, they are simultaneously sending (encoding) and receiving (decoding) messages, verbally and/or nonverbally. Encoding is the cognitive process by which we translate the meanings we hold into strategic messages that we send to others. This is not a trivial process in which we directly translate meanings into messages. Rather, it is a complex process in which we weigh our communication goals, current knowledge, and potential audiences to craft appropriate and effective messages. In doing so, we must make decisions about what we want to say as well as how we want to say it to have the desired effects on our intended audiences. And of course, some of those messages are also sent unconsciously, or semiconsciously; we are not always fully aware of how and why we send the messages that we do. Nonetheless, that doesn't change the fact that they are messages being sent.
Decoding is the cognitive process of translating the messages that we attend to into meanings that can help us understand our world and the people with whom we communicate. As we discussed earlier, we make sense of new messages we attend to by comparing and contrasting their meanings with previous meanings we have created for similar situations, continuously enhancing the meanings we hold for different situations and building on our body of knowledge.
It is important to note that we typically engage in encoding and decoding processes simultaneously and interactively. In a job interview, for example, the interviewer may be asking questions, but he is also receiving and interpreting the answers to his questions. Similarly, the candidate for the job is sending out information about herself, but she is also trying to read the reactions of the interviewer even as she speaks. This process enables us to guide our communication activities with the latest information and monitor the effects of our messages on others so that we can update the meanings we form. Who knew there was so much going on in the "simple" process of communication? This is why it may be easy to communicate, but it is difficult to communicate well. In the next section, we turn our attention to some key principles of human communication.
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2.2 Key Principles of Human Communication
Several important principles about the nature of human communication must be considered when communicating strategically in organizational settings. Let's examine four of the most important of these principles.
Principle 1: Communication Is a Process
Perhaps the most important principle is that communication is a process. Communication does not start and stop; it is continuous, dynamic, ongoing, and cumulative. Whenever we create and respond to messages—either internally or externally generated messages—and create meanings in response to these messages, we are engaging in the process of communication. Since we send messages to ourselves and to others all the time (whether intentionally or unintentionally), and we are constantly creating meanings to help us make sense of our world, the communication process surrounds us all the time. It is as though we were swimming in an ocean of messages and meanings. Communication engulfs us and is the primary adaptive process of living.
Principle 2: Communication Is Irreversible
We discussed earlier how every time we communicate, we reflect on the meanings we create for the messages we perceive by contrasting new information with information we have gained from previous communication events. In this way, communication is a step‐by‐step, iterative building process. This means that communication is irreversible. Once we say something to someone, we can't take it back. Every communication event is likely to have influences on all future communication events.
For example, if you falsely accuse a coworker of leaving from work too early, you could apologize and ask the person to please disregard your accusation. However, it is not likely that the coworker will forget the accusation, even if it's a relatively minor point. It will be indelibly stamped in his or her memory, and this communication event will frame all future interactions and your relationship with this person. This suggests that the messages we send to others in organizational settings are likely to influence all future meanings these people create about us. This is why it is important to be judicious about what we communicate to others. The messages we send influence future communication as well as the nature of our relationships with others.
Principle 3: Communication Is Transactional
Communication is more than just a series of actions or interconnected interactions between communicators. Communication is transactional. In that sense, there is really no such thing as "one‐ way" communication. By its very nature, all communication is interactive, and meanings are negotiated jointly; messages do not exist independent of each other in a vacuum. Transactional communication implies that when we analyze communication situations, both as senders and as receivers of messages, we need to take into account the many factors that influence the communication process, such as the settings in which communication occurs, the distinct individuals involved, the wide range of messages exchanged, and the past meaning and expectations that
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Why are content and relationship aspects of human communication so important?
Overcoming Communication Problems
communicators bring to the table. The transactional nature of human communication implies that communication is exceedingly complex and that great care must be taken in communicating in organizational settings. For example, if in a formal performance appraisal your manager rates you as "below average" in productivity, the meaning of that phrase will involve all that you know about your relationship with the manager, what "below average" really means in your organization, how other employees have been evaluated on this dimension, whether this rating is tied to decisions about salary and promotion, how you respond—or don't respond—to this rating, and a host of other factors.
Principle 4: Communication Includes Both Content and Relationship Dimensions
As Watzlawick and colleagues (1967) have proposed that there are both content and relationship dimensions to communication. Every time we communicate with others, we send both content and relationship information. The content aspects of human communication refer to the ideas and facts we convey to others. The relationship aspect of human communication refers to the meaning we assign to the content—what the message says about our relationship. In that respect, the relationship dimension is more implied and symbolic.
For example, when a manager asks her secretary to get her a cup of coffee, the content of the message is quite transparent: she wants a beverage. But embedded within this statement—as is always the case—there is a relationship message as well. Depending on how the request was made, and what the history of the relationship has been, the relationship message could be interpreted in various ways. One possible relationship message is that this is a "one‐up" relationship where the manager wants to be in control. But, by asking for the coffee in a friendly, polite way, the relationship message could also be, "I'm really grateful to have you around to help."
The point is that there will always be a relationship message, but what that message is will involve the interpretation of each individual. Even if the manager says nothing at all to her secretary for several weeks, the relationship message in that case might be, we don't have a relationship! Or it could be that "I trust you a lot and know that you can work effectively without supervision." In short,
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Communication problems can occur for a variety of reasons, including issues with encoding and decoding, unsuccessful transmission of the message, or differences in how communicating parties interpret the meaning of a message. In some cases, there are communication problems that arise due to an organizational structure that limits the free exchange of information.To think about: how can some of these problems be overcome both at the interpersonal and organization levels?
the relationship message is a symbolic message, and the symbolism may be far more important than the explicit content of the message itself. Too often, communicators focus primarily on the content information they intend to send to others without being fully aware of the relational implications of what they are saying.
Relational development is a step‐by‐step process in which we get to know one another through our communication and build a mutual sense of trust and cooperation. Much of relational development is built on the norm of reciprocity, which, as we discussed in the previous chapter, suggests that people who interact with each other are likely to respond to one another in similar ways. For example, if the ways in which we communicate with others in organizational settings demonstrate respect and caring, there is a good likelihood that others will reciprocate and treat us similarly. Conversely, if we show disinterest or disrespect toward others, chances are that these people will treat us similarly, especially if our communication violates their expectations for how they want to be treated. Every time we communicate with others in organizational settings we have the opportunity to meet others' communication expectations and encourage these organizational participants to reciprocate by meeting our communication expectations. These reciprocal instances of meeting mutual expectations are the building blocks for developing strong and cooperative organizational relationships.
Organizations in Action: Social Media and Business Communication
In Chapter 1 we referred to two ways to approach organizational hierarchy:
1. The levels of communication approach. This hierarchy describes the encompassing communication roles that organizational participants perform in organizing.
2. The power approach. This hierarchy describes the successive levels of formal influence and control that are dictated by the design of the organization.
Recently, a third type of hierarchy in organizational communication has been considered. The blog SOCIALCAST formulated a hierarchy of social media tools employed by businesses. SOCIALCAST conducted an extensive business communication survey about how Fortune 500 companies are
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employing social media—such as Twitter, Google+, Facebook, email, and blogs—and combined the survey results with information learned from sources such as the Center for Marketing at the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth (www.umassd.edu/cmr/ (http://www.umassd.edu/cmr/) ) as well as Nielsen (www.nielsen.com/content/corporate/us/en.html (http://www.nielsen.com/content/corporate/us/en.html) ). It then constructed a hierarchy of social media according to (a) levels of communication and (b) appropriateness.
With regard to levels of communication, forms of social media were rated by suitability for phatic communication (small talk), gut‐level communication (sharing personal or emotional information), factual communication (sharing observable information), and evaluative communication (offering opinions or judgments). The various social media were also ranked according to whether they were more appropriate for "many‐to‐many" communication (such as Twitter) or for "one‐to‐many" communication (such as Gmail). SOCIALCAST observed that the top forms of social media communication and resources used by businesses were as follows:
Webinars/podcasts (67%) Ratings and reviews (63%) Brand social network pages (61%) Company blogs and social media searches (such as Facebook searches) (53%)
SOCIALCAST noted three businesses in particular that have successfully employed social media in their marketing mix:
Disney, which gathered over 26 million Facebook users to its fan page, making it the fourth most popular on that social networking site. Also mentioned as effective Facebook fan pages were Skittles, Coca‐Cola and Red Bull. CNN, which used Twitter to build brand loyalty among the 4.6 million followers of its breaking news Tweets. Also mentioned were JetBlue, the New York Times, and Whole Foods. American Express, which created an "open forums" social‐learning blog helping 16,000 small business owners become more profitable. Dell and PlayStation were also mentioned as effective bloggers.
Critical Thinking Questions:
1. What other companies have you seen using social media for business communication? Are there particular examples of uses that impressed (or annoyed) you?
2. If you were in charge of social media for your college or university, what strategies would you employ?
3. The examples here focus on businesses communicating with consuming publics. Can you think of social media uses that might be appropriate for internal communications within a company?
Sources:
Dyer, P. (2011, July 30). Using social media as a communication tool [Infographic]. Panorama. Retrieved from http://www.pamorama.net/2011/07/30/using‐social‐media‐for‐customer‐ communication‐infographic/ (http://www.pamorama.net/2011/07/30/using‐social‐media‐for‐customer‐ communication‐infographic/)
SOCIALCAST. (2011, July 12). E2sday: A hierarchy of communication. Socialcast blog. The future of
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work. Retrieved from http://blog.socialcast.com/e2sday‐a‐hierarchy‐of‐communication/ (http://blog.socialcast.com/e2sday‐a‐hierarchy‐of‐communication/)
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What nonverbal aspects of communication are evident in this newspaper ad that was placed in numerous British newspapers by Rupert Murdoch following the News of the World phone‐hacking scandal?
2.3 Verbal and Nonverbal Messages in Organizational Life
As we discussed earlier, verbal and nonverbal messages work together in organizational communication. The interpretations of words are influenced by the nonverbal cues that surround these words. For example, the way that comments are stated (such as the use of paralinguistic cues like tone, volume, emphasis, and intonation) can demonstrate how important the comments are. Facial expressions can demonstrate when speakers are serious about what they are saying and when they are not. Strategic organizational communicators pay close attention to both the words they use in communicating with others and the ways they deliver those words. Even in written form, words are framed by the nonverbal cues that surround them. The design, color, layout, medium, and use of photographs often say as much or more in annual reports, websites, and advertisements than the words that are used in these organizational media. This suggests that great care must be taken in planning the use of verbal and nonverbal messages so they complement each other.
Verbal Communication Systems
Perhaps the most commonly recognized messages are imbedded in the words people express to each other. Such verbal messages are language based and can be both spoken and written. The effectiveness of the verbal messages we send is dependent on language skills. Let's look at some aspects of verbal communication systems.
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Jargon
Even if you are familiar with the language being used, there are varying levels of language competency in using and interpreting words. For example, in many organizations, technical language is used that may be understood only by individuals with specialized occupational training. These specialized language systems are referred to as jargon. The ability to understand and use jargon is one of the ways that professional groups establish expertise and membership within that profession. One of the reasons we depend on lawyers in organizational settings is that legal representatives have developed specialized skills for deciphering and using legal terminology. If your lawyer is not familiar with pertinent legal jargon, he or she is not likely to be an effective legal advocate for you or your organization.
Denotative and Connotative Meanings
There are two primary ways that people make sense of verbal communication: through the use of denotative and connotative interpretations. We create denotative meanings for words based on our understanding of the objective definitions of the terms. For example, dictionary definitions for words are denotations. Most people can agree on generally accepted denotative definitions, although there are often multiple definitions for certain words that may be used differently by unique groups. For example, as we just discussed, the use of jargon by specialized groups establishes technical definitions for terms that are typically only known by members of those groups.
Connotative meanings for words are the unique personal meanings that we develop for words based on our past experiences. The connotative meanings of words involve their emotional dimensions— how a word "feels." For example, if you are uncomfortable with computers, words that refer to computers and information technology may raise anxiety for you. This is a connotative reaction that is unique to you and that influences your creation of the meaning of certain words.
When speaking with or writing to different audiences, it is important to take into consideration not only the denotative meanings of words but also the potential connotative meanings they may have so you can better predict how audiences may interpret your statements. For example, several years ago I worked on a care‐coordination project to install home‐based telemedicine computing systems for veterans who were receiving chemotherapy for cancer treatment. This equipment was to be used to help monitor the veterans' health conditions and to identify when they were having dangerous reactions to their treatments. Many of the veterans identified for this care‐coordination program were elderly and were not comfortable using computers. A number of them rejected the installation of the equipment in their homes, even though it could have helped reduce their pain and suffering and even save their lives, because they did not like the term computer (connotation). Eventually, we learned to refer to the telemedicine technologies as "telephone" equipment rather than as "computer" equipment, and the acceptance rate for this home‐based technology increased dramatically. There were few negative connotations for the term "telephone" among this audience. This suggests that there is real power in the ways that we use language with different organizational audiences.
Overcoming Challenges
There are often serious challenges associated with the use of terminology in organizational settings. Many organizations depend too much on the use of overly technical terminology, making it difficult
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Nonverbal Communication
for key audience members to understand the messages they are trying to convey. For example, technology equipment companies often use complicated technical language in their user manuals. Not only does such overly technical language tend to confuse consumers, it can also frighten consumers who have limited literacy levels. This is a problem I often encounter in university life, where faculty use complex academic jargon to communicate with nonacademic audiences, limiting their ability to convey important information to these audiences. In communicating effectively with different audiences, it is therefore important for organizational representatives to consider the language capacities of key audiences and to design verbal messages that are appropriate and meaningful.
Semantics, Syntactics, and Pragmatics
There are three different primary yet interrelated approaches to examining the uses of language in organizational life: the semantics, syntactic, and pragmatics perspectives:
Semantics refers to the ways in which language is interpreted, including both denotative and connotative meanings for words. Examining the semantic dimensions of language is important when determining the ways word choices can inform or misinform different audiences. So far in this chapter we have emphasized the semantic aspects of language. Syntactics refers to the structure of language, such as the unique rules and principles that govern how terms and phrases are organized into sentences and paragraphs. Syntax is important to consider when examining the appropriateness, formality, and accuracy of language use. Pragmatics refers to the unique applications of language in different situations, whether the purposes of language use are to inform, persuade, promote cooperation, or even to antagonize others. Pragmatics is a critical perspective for understanding the strategic uses of language in organizational life.
In preparing an organizational website, for example, it is important to take into account semantic, syntactic, and pragmatic perspectives on the use of language. Semantic analysis could guide the choice of language so that it would be appropriate for key organizational audiences who might use the site. Syntactic analysis could guide the structure of language used on the site to emphasize key points clearly and succinctly. Pragmatic analysis could guide the strategic use of language to encourage key audiences to respond to the organization in specific ways (to invest in the organization, to purchase products, or to recommend the organization to others, for example).
Nonverbal Communication Systems
There is a broad range of different yet interrelated forms of nonverbal communication that influence organizational communication. In this section we'll look at seven key nonverbal systems that work together with verbal communication to influence organizational communication outcomes. These seven systems of nonverbal communication include
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Communication is sometimes thought of as being either oral or written. But non‐verbal communication, commonly known as body language, may at times be more significant than either of these. As a result, sensitivity to nonverbal communication is one of the keys to organization communication. To think about: what types of non‐verbal communication have you noticed in the workplace? How did that communication impact your impression of another person?
paralinguistics, oculesics, kinesics, proxemics, artifactics, tactilics, and chronemics (see Table 2.1).
Table 2.1: Seven Systems of Nonverbal Communication
Name Definition
Paralinguistics
The vocal sounds that surround the spoken word, such as the volume, rate, tone, accent, and emphasis of speech; also refers to the different ways in which written language is expressed, such as font style and size, print color, page design, and medium.
Oculesics The use of facial expressions and eye behaviors to communicate with others.
Kinesics The use of bodily movements and gestures to communicate personal information to others.
Proxemics The distance we establish between one another or between movable objects.
Artifactics The objects we surround ourselves with that define who we are to other people.
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Tactilics The use of physical contact and touch.
Chronemics The use of time in human interactions.
Paralinguistics
Paralinguistics is the nonverbal communication system that refers to the vocal sounds that surround the spoken word, such as the unique ways that words are pronounced, as well as the volume, rate, tone, accent, breathiness, and emphasis of speech. Paralinguistic factors have tremendous influences over the ways spoken language is interpreted. For example, consider the phrase "no way." This phrase can be interpreted as an angry refutation, a playful jest, an emphatic refusal, or even a minor statement of disbelief depending on the way it is said. Trained actors, comedians, and accomplished public speakers are masters at using paralinguistic cues to strategically communicate messages.
Paralinguistic cues also refer to the different ways in which written language is expressed, such as font style and size, print color, page design, and medium (paper type, web design, posters, magazines, etc.) to emphasize the words used in different ways. Paralinguistics can even refer to background sounds and music that can have strong influences on establishing a unique ambiance or mood for an environment.
Strategic organizational communicators are not only experts in controlling their use of paralinguistic cues, they also develop strong skills for interpreting paralinguistic nonverbal cues. Critical evaluation of paralinguistic cues can help a skilled organizational communicator detect a communicator's sincerity, the importance of a topic to a communicator, or a speaker's level of confidence in a stated opinion. For example, the use of an overly rapid and/or halting speech pace, combined with a number of nonfluencies, or errors in speech, can suggest a speaker's nervousness, excitement, and/or anxiety. A monotonous vocal pattern might suggest boredom or a lack of personal involvement. Similarly, unusually loud speech volume can indicate intensity and even anger. These are all important cues to be aware of when communicating with others in organizational settings.
Oculesics
Oculesics refers to the use of facial expressions and eye behaviors to communicate with others. The face has been shown to be the primary message site for conveying emotions to others in face‐to‐ face (or even in telephone) communication. Just as is the case with paralinguistic cues, facial expressions can qualify, complement, or contradict spoken statements. If a coworker says "you are so smart" accompanied by a sincere facial expression, you would likely interpret this statement differently than if the same thing is said with an angry facial expression.
In face‐to‐face communication, we pay a lot of attention to monitoring facial expressions to interpret the meanings of statements, to elicit nonverbal feedback from others, and to make sure we are being understood. The face is an important nonverbal cue for displaying sincerity (or lack thereof). Maintaining consistent and appropriate facial expressions, such as holding a consistent concerned facial expression for a coworker who stubbed his toe, can demonstrate empathy for that person. However, letting an occasional smile (micro‐momentary expression) slip into your concerned facial expression is likely to suggest that you may not be genuinely concerned about the other person. It is difficult for most people to display consistently a facial expression that is at odds with their actual
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In what ways is eye contact (or lack thereof) a powerful form of oculesic nonverbal behavior?
feelings, and it may be difficult to keep a smile off your face when you think the sight of a coworker hopping around the room after stubbing his toe is comical. Skilled communicators do their best to display appropriate facial expressions as well as to monitor the expressions of others with whom they interact.
Eye contact is also a very powerful form of oculesic nonverbal behavior. We use eye contact to express our level of interest in others, with high levels of eye contact conveying strong interest and minimal levels of eye contact expressing limited interpersonal interest. There are times when it is appropriate to provide direct eye contact (such as when someone is speaking to you), whereas there are other times when direct eye contact can be disconcerting for the other person.
The direction of eye gaze toward or away from another person is also used to coordinate turn‐taking in interpersonal communication. Listeners are likely to spend more time gazing at a speaker's face during interpersonal interactions than speakers spend looking at listeners. Direct gaze by listeners indicates that they are paying attention to the speaker. The speaker is likely to glance occasionally toward his or her listener to make sure the listener is paying attention to what is being said and to determine when the listener wants to take a turn speaking.
When listeners want the floor, they will glance away from the speaker and quickly glance back and raise their eye gaze up and down. Sometimes this will be accompanied by paralinguistic cues such as clearing of the throat. Sensitive speakers will recognize these nonverbal demands for the floor and provide an opportunity for the listener to switch roles to become the speaker and jump into the conversation. This coordinated use of interpersonal gaze
enables smooth conversational interchange and comfortable interpersonal communication for competent communicators. Speakers who do not pay attention to these nonverbal turn‐taking cues will often speak over the voices of others or fail to share control of the conversation. Both of these violations of interpersonal turn‐taking can undermine the development of cooperative interpersonal relations.
Blinking, winking, and closing the eyes during conversations are also used to qualify communication and to convey interpersonal responses to interactions. During times of difficult communication situations, it is not uncommon to notice that speakers provide less eye contact than usual to listeners. Strategic organizational communicators pay close attention to these eye behaviors to make sense of interpersonal interactions.
Kinesics
Kinesics refers to the use of bodily movements and gestures to communicate personal information to others. Body movements include hand and arm gestures (such as waving or pointing), head and neck movements (such as nodding), leg and foot behaviors (such as tapping or kicking), and even
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Do these gestures translate to people from different countries?
portraying different physical postures (such as leaning forward/backward, standing alert, or slumping). Each of these nonverbal movements communicates interpersonal attitudes and dispositions. Some gestures, such as the thumbs up sign or the head nod for "I agree," can substitute for the use of words. These gestures are often strongly tied to culture and the use of different languages, so it is wise to learn the cultural differences regarding the use of gestures when communicating with people from different countries or cultural groups. For example, according to Lustig and Koester (2010), a U.S. engineer "unintentionally offended his German counterpart by giving the common U.S. gesture for ‘OK’: hand up, thumb and forefinger held in a circle, to indicate that he had done a good job. The German interpreted the gesture's meaning as a crude reference to a body orifice and walked off the job" (pp. 206–207). Similarly, the "thumbs‐up" gesture that we use in the United States has only positive meanings, but it's a vulgar gesture in many other world cultures.
Although many of our bodily movements can be subtle, they often provide strong indicators about our attitudes and feelings about different situations and people. In cooperative relationships, you may notice the mirroring of bodily movements between communicators, who often seem to be moving in synchrony. In these situations, one person tends to mirror the other's behaviors, such as nodding agreement in response to the other person's head nod, gesturing similarly, or even walking in step with that person. Postures can also illustrate alertness and formality in communication. Strategic organizational communicators carefully monitor body movements to assess attitudes and are also careful to portray appropriate bodily movements to show their level of involvement in and orientation to different situations. For example, in a job interview, it is important for the interviewee to appear alert, involved, agreeable, and cooperative by using appropriate movements and postures.
Proxemics
Proxemics refers to the distance we establish between one another or between movable objects. What we consider to be the appropriate space between ourselves and others is often referred to as our personal space. Although personal space expectations are strongly influenced by cultural background, they are also influenced by interpersonal power disparities, the intimacy of the relationship, and the spatial constraints of the situation in which we find ourselves. Typically, we provide more space to powerful individuals, whereas we often move closer to those with whom we are intimate. (Interestingly, we often refer to intimate relationships as "close" relationships!)
The use of personal space is typically a negotiation between communicators, where participants attempt to establish the appropriate space between themselves and others. It can be uncomfortable if the person you are communicating with has a different expectation of personal space than you have. If they stand too close to you, it can feel a bit intimidating. If they stand too far away, you might wonder whether they like you or not. Different cultural groups establish unique norms for personal space expectations, which can complicate intercultural communication, potentially leading to misconceptions and hurt feelings.
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What artifactic norms are important to you?
However, there are situations in organizational life where we cannot control our personal space with others, such as when there is limited space available (perhaps on a crowded elevator or in a subway car). In these situations, we may be willing to overlook our normal space expectations, but we tend to compensate for these personal space violations in other ways, such as by avoiding direct eye contact with those who are too close, by facing away from others to minimize the violation of personal space expectations, or by using blocking behaviors such as crossing your arms in front of you or holding objects between you and the other person. Typically, violations of our personal space expectations can make us feel very uncomfortable and even angry at the person who is impinging on our personal space.
Interestingly, our concern is not only with distances between ourselves and others but also with access to spaces that we feel we "own" or control. These space expectations are referred to as situations of territoriality. For example, we can become very territorial about access to our normally used seat in a conference room, our planned parking spot, and our typical workspace. If we find others using these "owned" spaces, we can get quite irritable. Our use of space communicates judgments we make about interpersonal intimacy and power. Strategic organizational communicators are aware of these powerful yet often unspoken assumptions about space and are careful not to violate space expectations in organizational settings.
Artifactics
Artifactics refers to the objects we surround ourselves with that define who we are to other people. These objects include the clothing and jewelry we wear, the cars we drive, the items we use to decorate our homes and workspaces, even the cell phones we buy. We often feel a strong sense of ownership over these objects; and the design, color, and markings on these objects tend to reflect who we are as people. When decorating our workspaces or homes, for example, we carefully select items that convey our personal tastes, status in life, and values. Think about the clothes that you wear that have words emblazoned on them. What do these words say? What do they say about
you? Often the words reflect organizations we support or are affiliated with. They might describe brand names that reflect our preferred station in life. They might include political statements or symbols that illustrate our personal values. Think also about how your choices of clothing may have changed over the years. What do these changes reflect about you?
Often the organizations we work for have dress codes for different jobs. Typically these expectations are not officially codified, but they are often reinforced by the people we work with. If you dress inappropriately according to the culture of the organization you work for, your coworkers and perhaps even your supervisor may let you know you are violating organizational norms. (Sometimes they can express these violations to you rather harshly to reinforce the cultural norms.) There are
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What do these demonstrations of tactilics indicate about the cultural norms in the organizations in which they
strong pressures to use artifacts that conform to organizational expectations and that establish shared values with others. Using similar artifacts with others can help reinforce your connections with these people. On the other hand, the decision to diverge from abiding by established artifactic norms can alienate you from others.
The same artifactic cultural constraints often exist for the choices we make about hairstyles and hair colors, the use of jewelry (including piercings and other body jewelry), tattoos, makeup, and even the colognes or perfumes we wear. Artifacts convey a lot of information about the cultural affiliations and personal values held by organizational participants. Strategic organizational communicators are therefore judicious about their use of artifacts to ensure that they convey an image that is appropriate to the organizations and the individuals they work with.
Tactilics
Tactilics refers to the use of physical contact and touch. There are strong cultural norms in organizational life about who is allowed to initiate physical contact with others and where and how these touches can occur. Touch is, perhaps, the most personal and intimate channel of human communication. Establishing physical contact with others breaks through personal space barriers. Just as in our earlier discussion of personal space, the initiation of purposeful physical contact demonstrates both power and intimacy. Powerful individuals are typically more likely to initiate appropriate touches to less powerful organizational members. The key word here with regard to touching is "appropriate." There are strong cultural norms and even formal legal and organizational regulations that govern touching behaviors. There can be sexual implications to the initiation of touching behaviors, and intense touching may cause physical pain and even injury.
It is important to make sure that your touching behaviors do not violate personal, cultural, organizational, or legal expectations. If you violate these expectations, there can be swift and strong repercussions. Certain parts of the human anatomy, such as the hands, the shoulder, or the back, may be allowable sites for professional touches. However, many other parts of the body are typically off‐limits for public touching. Of all the different kinds of touching behaviors, skin‐to‐skin touching (haptics) is the most intimate tactilic cue. Skin‐to‐skin touching not only communicates pressure but also body temperature and vibration (from blood flow and respiration).
Although inappropriate touching can alienate and dehumanize communication with others, appropriate touching can increase the personal nature of interpersonal
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take place?interaction and can demonstrate social support and caring. Indeed, research has shown that humans have a need to touch and be touched. Therefore, it is important to identify acceptable strategies for touching in organizational life that promote the relational benefits of tactilic communication and minimize the negative reactions that come from inappropriate touching.
It is important to carefully monitor cues that suggest that touching is welcomed and to make sure that there are no negative responses to touching. It is best when touching behaviors are reciprocal and match the tone of the communication situation. For example, when a coworker receives an award or an honor, it is usually appropriate to shake that person's hand or pat them on the back to show approval and support. It may be appropriate to initiate touch by offering a hug to colleagues who are sad or grieving. These touches can add intimacy to relationships and can enhance organizational communication.
Chronemics
Chronemics refers to the use of time in human interactions, including the amount of time we spend communicating with one another, our punctuality in meeting deadlines and showing up for appointments, as well as the expectations we have for activities based on the time of the day, day of the week, or month of the year. When we provide a significant amount of time to interact with others in organizational settings, we are indirectly telling these people that they are important to us. Conversely, if we do not provide others with much time for interaction, we may be suggesting to them that they are not perceived as significant to us. Employees can become jealous if their manager provides more time and attention to other coworkers than to them. Customers may feel important if they are given direct face time with key organizational representatives. For example, sometimes in car dealerships, the general manager or owner is brought in to meet with customers to help seal car sales.
As noted earlier, it is important to share speaking time equitably with others when we communicate. If you do all the talking in interpersonal interactions, it can make your relational partners feel disempowered and alienated. For example, in medical interviews, too often physicians do most of the talking while patients do most of the listening. This can be a problem because patients often have important experiential information about their symptoms and responses to treatments to share with their doctors. Moreover, when patients are not given adequate time to express themselves, they can become discouraged from participating in their own care. The same pattern can be found in work organizations where managers dominate conversations with workers, limiting the opportunity for workers to share relevant information. Research has shown that active participation in organizational life can enhance loyalty, commitment, sharing of relevant information, and improve goal attainment outcomes.
Punctuality in keeping appointments and meeting deadlines is also very important in modern organizational life. When employees meet deadlines and show up on time, it can increase supervisors' trust and confidence in them. On the other hand, failure to abide by time constraints can suggest lack of interest and incompetence, and is regarded as unprofessional. It is important to keep abreast of time expectations so you do not violate these deadlines and undermine your relationships with other organizational participants.
There are also numerous established cycles in organizational life that organization members should
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be aware of. These include production cycles, pay cycles, vacation cycles, and meeting cycles. In some organizations, different activities are scheduled for different times of the day, week, or month. Recognizing these cycles can help you prepare for them, increase perceptions of your competence, and reduce the chances that you will miss important deadlines. Staying on top of these cycles is also likely to reduce your stress levels because you won't be trying to get things done at the last minute.
You may have noticed that you may feel hungry, tired, or anxious at different times of the day. Often these feelings are cured by time expectations, such as expectations about job breaks, lunch time, or quitting time. I have noticed in classes that there is often increased nervousness and anxiety expressed a few minutes before the scheduled end of class periods. The same thing often occurs with workers toward the end of their work shifts. It is important for strategic organizational communicators to be aware of the many nonverbal influences of time on communication.
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2.4 Coordinating Verbal and Nonverbal Communication
The wide array of verbal and nonverbal messages used in organizational life tend to complicate both the encoding and decoding of organizational communication. It is not easy to effectively coordinate the production and presentation of all the many verbal and nonverbal messages that we send (that is, encode) to others so that they are all in synchrony. It is also not easy to attend to and make sense of (that is, decode) all the verbal and nonverbal messages available to us in organizational life. We typically control only a small subset of the messages we send to others and tend to make sense of situations based on a relatively small sample of messages that are available to us. Therefore the selection and control of verbal and nonverbal messages is critical to effective organizational communication.
We develop selective and strategic processes of encoding and decoding to do the best we can to send effective messages to others and to make sense of the messages available to us in organizational life. This suggests that the communication process is fragile and imperfect. Effectively coordinating the range of messages we send to others is challenging, and making sense of the wide array of messages available to us in any given situation also is difficult. However, being aware of the complexities of effective organizational communication can help us develop strategies for monitoring our communication activities and for seeking new information to interpret communication situations reliably.
There is an interesting paradox in verbal/nonverbal encoding and decoding. Communicators tend to overemphasize control over the production of verbal messages instead of nonverbal messages when encoding (creating) messages to deliver to different audiences. They pay close attention to crafting the right words to say or write, but they may not focus so carefully on the nonverbal cues they inevitably send that surround these well‐crafted words. This often means that our verbal messages do not always match the range of nonverbal messages we send to others. This can cause problems when the words we use in organizational life say one thing and the nonverbal cues we display say something else. For example, a supervisor might say that he has an "open door" policy and really wants subordinates to stop by, but he just doesn't look or sound sincere when he says it.
Complicating this even further, when making sense of messages, we tend to provide more credence to the interpretation of nonverbal messages over words. We realize that it is easier for communicators to manipulate the use of words, but it is much harder for them to control the different nonverbal messages that surround these words. Mismatches between verbal and nonverbal messages typically suggest disingenuous behavior, where communicators are attempting to deceive audiences. It is therefore important to make sure that the nonverbal messages we send reinforce the words we use.
Verbal messages are typically the best tools for communicating content information, whereas nonverbal messages are generally best suited for providing relationship information in organizational life. Since communicators are more likely to focus on their use of verbal messages, we can see how it is likely that they are often in more control of the communication of content information than of the communication of relationship information. It is not uncommon for supervisors in work organizations to inadvertently alienate their workers by providing curt and sometimes angry negative job performance feedback. If supervisors communicate lack of respect for workers through the way they reprimand them, they can seriously damage their relationships with these workers. Sometimes
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the content of job‐related feedback can be overshadowed by the relational implications of the information being communicated. It is imperative for strategic organizational communicators to recognize how the uses of verbal and nonverbal messages work together to provide both content and relationship information so these message systems can be strategically coordinated to accomplish communication goals. Too often, lack of awareness of these different message systems can undermine the effectiveness of organizational communication.
Case Study: Changes at Apex Accounting
Sam Harder recently retired as president and CEO of the Apex Accounting Company in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, which provides specialized accounting services to a number of small to mid‐size companies within the metropolitan area. Sam worked his way up at Apex over 27 years with the company, from his starting position as an entry‐level accountant right out of business school to take on increasingly higher levels of responsibility within the company, ultimately serving for the past 10 years as the company's president, CEO, and principal owner.
Sam was particularly well liked by both customers and employees. He took time to get to know everyone by name and was always available to assist employees and customers. The employees were sorry to see Sam go and were anxious about new directions at the company after Sam's retirement. Sam sold his controlling interest in Apex to a large accounting conglomerate from Chicago, General Accounting Corporation. General Accounting assigned Bob Cox, one of its top management executives from Chicago, as the new president of Apex.
While Apex was a relatively small company, with around 35 full‐time employees, it had established an excellent reputation as an accounting firm. Apex had a long history of profitability and high employee satisfaction. Employees were proud to work at Apex, where they had much autonomy, a nice office environment, and strong executive support. Apex evolved a highly decentralized organizational structure over the years, where each of the firm's 10 primary accountants managed their own staff teams to serve the accounting needs of a select group of business customers. This decentralized accounting team structure enabled each accounting team to provide personalized services to their dedicated business customers. Customers also liked the service and attention they received from Apex and felt a bond with their personal accounting teams.
During his first week at Apex, the new president, Bob Cox, held a company‐wide meeting where he told the employees he was happy to be at Apex and planned to continue the successful business strategies used there. However, within a few weeks of taking office, Bob issued a formal written memo to all employees announcing a major operational change in the company to increase efficiency and profitability. To achieve these goals, he planned to centralize accounting services and dramatically expand the number of business clients served by the company. According to the centralization plan, the 10 individual accounting teams would be merged into one centralized accounting services department that would share responsibilities for serving business customer accounting needs. Workflow in the new centralized accounting department would be streamlined by an office reorganization that would remodel the private office suites where each accounting team was housed into a large open office space for the accountants to work together, surrounded by centralized support services. These operational changes mirrored the business accounting strategies that had been used for years at the General Accounting Corporation.
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The Apex accountants and staff members were not happy with these proposed changes. Several began searching for new job opportunities at other area accounting firms. Many of the current business customers were not happy with the new direction proposed for Apex and wanted to continue to work exclusively with the same accounting teams that they had worked with in the past. Several of these business customers vowed to follow their accountant to new firms. Trouble was brewing at the Apex under the direction of the new boss.
Critical Thinking Questions:
1. Why was Sam Harder so much more successful at establishing effective relationships with employees and customers than the new company president Bob Cox?
2. How effective are the message strategies used by Bob Cox? Is he doing a good job of encoding? 3. How are employees and customers decoding Bob Cox's messages? Are these the meanings that
Bob intends to convey? 4. How do the messages Bob sends to employees in the company‐wide meeting differ from the
messages he sends in his memo to all employees? How does this influence trust and cooperation in the company?
5. Why, from a proxemics perspective, is Bob's plan to redesign the office space at Apex likely to violate personal space expectations and lead to territorial behavior by employees?
6. From a chronemics perspective, why is it that customers and employees are more likely to trust Sam Harder than Bob Cox?
7. What are the content and relational implications of the different communication styles illustrated by Sam Harder and Bob Cox?
8. What are the major differences in the transactional communication factors in Sam Harder's interactions with employees and customers in comparison with Bob Cox's communication with these audiences? How do these transactional differences influence organizational communication outcomes in this case?
9. Why was Bob's use of a memo to announce the planned changes at Apex a poor communication strategy? (Consider opportunities for feedback and participation using this medium for communication.)
10. Given the current problems that exist with employees and customers at Apex, what communication strategies do you suggest for Bob Cox to use to improve this situation? (Remember that communication is irreversible.)
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Summary
This chapter offers a basic view of the nature of communication and why good communication is difficult. The difficulties associated with communication involve the difference between messages and meanings, the problematic nature of encoding and decoding, and the fact that communication is an irreversible and transactional process. Additionally, problems can occur at both the "content" and the "relationship" levels of messages.
In sending and receiving messages, we use verbal and nonverbal codes. The verbal codes include issues involving what words actually mean and what emotional overtones they have. Nonverbally, messages involve a wide variety of behaviors, including paralinguistics, oculesics, kinesics, proxemics, artifactics, tactilics, and chronemics—all of which have a bearing on the outcome of the communication process. Taken together, the verbal and nonverbal components of communication provide both the opportunity to understand one another as well as potential sources of confusion and problems.
Discussion Questions
1. A famous motto in communication studies is, "Meanings are not in words—meanings are in people." With the ideas in this chapter in mind, what is such a statement trying to say?
2. What are some specific problems that you have had both encoding and decoding messages within organizations?
3. If communication is indeed "irreversible," how, specifically, does that change the way that you ought to communicate?
4. If your supervisor says to you, "What were you doing in your office yesterday afternoon?," what is the "content" of this message, and what might be possible "relationship" messages embedded within it?
5. In what specific situations have you experienced what is described in this chapter as the "norm of reciprocity"?
6. Although nonverbal messages tend to be out of our conscious awareness, what nonverbal behaviors—good, bad, or otherwise—are part of your nonverbal style?
7. What are the pros and cons of using "jargon"? In what situations could it actually be helpful, and in what situations is it an obstacle to good communication?
8. The words "boss" and "manager" usually denote the same person—that is, they have roughly the same "dictionary" meaning. But what is the connotative difference between these two words, and can you think of other pairs of words that have similar denotative meanings but different connotative meanings?
9. What are some situations that you have experienced which illustrate different rules and expectations regarding paralinguistics, oculesics, kinesics, proxemics, artifactics, or tactilics?
10. Is "common sense" enough to enable one to be an effective communicator, or is an understanding of communication theory really helpful in ways that common sense is not?
Key Terms
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Artifactics The objects we surround ourselves with that define who we are to other people.
Chronemics The use of time in human interactions, including the amount of time we spend communicating with one another, our punctuality in meeting deadlines and showing up for appointments, as well as the expectations we have for activities based on the time of the day, day of the week, or month of the year.
Connotative meanings The unique personal meanings that we develop for words based on our past experiences. The connotative meanings of words involve their emotional dimensions—how a word "feels."
Content aspects of human communication The ideas and facts we convey to others.
Decoding The cognitive process of translating the messages that we attend to into meanings that can help us understand our world and the people with whom we communicate.
Denotative meanings Meanings for words based on our understanding of the objective definitions of the terms. For example, dictionary definitions for words are denotations.
Encoding The cognitive process by which we translate the meanings we hold into strategic messages that we send to others.
Environmental cues Another primary source of external messages. They are the sometimes subtle hints that we attend to that tell us about our organizational worlds, such as room temperatures, lighting levels, colors, scents, textures, music, and other background sounds.
External messages The most obvious message sources, which derive from our external work environments.
Internal messages Normally called intrapersonal communication, include a wide range of conscious and unconscious cues that we send to ourselves based on our individual thoughts, feelings, and reactions to different situations.
Jargon Technical language used that may be understood only by individuals with specialized occupational training.
Kinesics The use of bodily movements and gestures to communicate personal information to others.
Meanings The interpretations we make of the different external and internal messages to which we attend.
Messages The primary symbols of the communication process; they work as cues to stimulate communicators to create meanings.
Nonverbal messages The facial expressions and gestures organizational participants display when they speak or the ways that written words are displayed (such as in memos, email, or even on billboards or other advertising media).
Oculesics The use of facial expressions and eye behaviors to communicate with others.
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Paralinguistics The nonverbal communication system that refers to the vocal sounds that surround the spoken word, such as the unique ways that words are pronounced, as well as the volume, rate, tone, accent, breathiness, and emphasis of speech.
Pragmatics The unique applications of language in different situations, whether the purposes of language use are to inform, persuade, promote cooperation, or even to antagonize others.
Proxemics The distance we establish between one another or between movable objects.
Relationship aspect of human communication The meaning we assign to the content—what the message says about our relationship.
Semantics The ways in which language is interpreted, including both denotative and connotative meanings for words.
Syntactics The structure of language, such as the unique rules and principles that govern how terms and phrases are organized into sentences and paragraphs.
Tactilics The use of physical contact and touch.
Territoriality Expectations about spaces and the access to spaces that we feel we "own" or control.
Transactional communication Idea that when we analyze communication situations, both as senders and as receivers of messages, we need to take into account the many factors that influence the communication process, such as the settings in which communication occurs, the distinct individuals involved, the wide range of messages exchanged, and the past meaning and expectations that communicators bring to the table.
Verbal messages Language‐based messages that can be both spoken and written.