3 Articles and a Book Review

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND PERSONALITY, 2006, 34( 1), 77-86 <£) Society for Personality Research (Inc.)

RELIGIOUS TENDENCY AND GENDER ROLES: PREDICTORS OF THE ATTITUDES TOWARD WOMEN'S WORK ROLES?

SEHER A . SEVIM

Ankara University, Turkey

The purpose of this study was to investigate if religious tendency and gender roles predicted attitudes of Turkish university students towards women's work roles. The study was conducted with 138 students from the Educational Sciences faculty of Ankara Utiiversity, The Attitude Towards Women's Work Roles Scale (Kuzgun & Sevin, 2004), Religious Tendency Scale (Onay, 1997, 2002), and Bem Sex-Role Inventory (Bem, 1981) were the tools employed in order to collect data. The findings revealed that the thought dimension of religious tendency, feminine and androgynous gender roles significantly predicted attitudes towards women's work roles.

Keywords: gender roles, women's work roles, religious tendency.

In many regions of the world, attitudes towards women's life roles have undergone significant changes and become more liberalized over the past several decades (Bryant, 2003; Cinamon & Rich, 2002; Damji & Lee, 1995; Loo & Thorpe, 1998). On the other hand, family roles have remained unchanged while new generations' job values have gone through significant positive changes (Fiorentine, 1988). So it is apparent that today's woman is most likely to experience work-family conflict with her increasing participation in the labor force while retaining simultaneously her traditional family responsibilities (Adler & Brayfield, 1997; Bhatnagar & Rajadhyaksha, 2001; Cinamon & Rich, 2002; Field & Bramwell, 1998; Gunter & Gunter, 1990; Light, 1994; Linda, 1995; Takahashi, 1994).

Dr, Seher A, Sevim, Faculty of Educational Sciences, Ankara University, Turkey, Appreciation is due to reviewers including: Sener Buyukozturk, PhD, Faculty of Education, Baskent University, Baglica Kampusu Eskisehir, Yolu 20, km Baglica 06530, Ankara, Turkey, Email: [email protected] Please address correspondence and reprint requests to: Dr, Seher A, Sevim, Ankara Universitesi, Egitim Bilimleri Fakultesi, 06590 Cebeci, Ankara / Turkiye, Phone: 0090 312 363 33 50 Ext: 344; Fax: 0090 312 363 61 45; Email: [email protected]

77

7 8 RELIGIOUS TENDENCY AND GENDER ROLES

In such an environment, the majority of women in Turkey are either choosing careers that are not going to impede their household duties or are eventually turning out to be housewives (Ansal, 1996; Cindoglu & Muratoglu, 1996; Eyuboglu, Ozar, & Tamiover, 2000; Kuzgun, 2000; Nazh, 1997). A key agent shaping this process is traditional gender roles. The primary roles that society deems the most appropriate for Turkish women are "wife" and "mother" (Miniba§, 1998). The idea of "successful woman" naturally arouses good wife and good mother figures in the minds of most women. Men share this stereotyped belief that a successful woman, first of all, should do household duties perfectly (Balkir, 1989). For that reason, a woman working outside home is supposed to disregard her essential responsibilities. The main occupation for women is working at home for free (Arm & Ergin, 1998).

Prevalent social values like the ones (e.g., gender roles, family roles) mentioned above are learned through the socialization process. Traditional gender roles, for instance, are taught by parents, siblings, peers, school and mass media. In almost every culture, different types of attitudes are applied to boys and girls starting from early childhood. During the sociahzation process, girls are encouraged to be submissive, warm, expressive, and so on, while boys are encouraged to be aggressive, competent, active, and so on. (Basow, 1992).

Women participating in the labor force on the same terms as men seem to some conservatives to clash with the traditional way of life. Another factor which has an important influence on social codes is religious tendency. Jones and McNamara (1991) suggested that those who have adopted a religious lifestyle give more importance to family than career and believe that women should not spend much of their time at work. A similar finding, obtained by Kuzgun and Sevim (2004) in research conducted with adults, indicated a significant and opposite correlation between religious tendency and attitude toward women's work roles.

There are not many studies examining the attitudes of university students towards women's work roles. One study indicated that 52% of the university students thoroughly support women working while 33% partially support it and 15% are against women working. Moreover, gender was also a determinant, with men opposing women working (Basaran, 1990). A later study suggests that the female students had a positive attitu4e toward their mothers' work roles. As anticipated, the same students also had a positive attitude toward women's work roles as well and stated that they plan to continue working without taking any break after having their own children (Aycan & Safrati, 2002).

Women's participation in the labor force of a nation is naturally a serious contribution to its overall well-being. But there have been few studies investigating the variables affecting this issue in Turkey. Understanding the attitudes of university students towards women's work roles seems particularly important since they will most probably constitute a part of the labor force in the near

RELIGIOUS TENDENGY AND GENDER ROLES 7 9

future. The objective of this research was to examine the relative significance of two group variables that the literature on this issue has mentioned as predictors of the attitude toward women's work roles, namely gender roles (masculinity, femininity and androgyny) and religious tendency (thought, behavior and emotion).

METHOD

PARTICIPANTS

Participants consisted of 138 volunteering students aged 19-27 years (A/=22.79, SD=2.21). All participants were attending the Educational Sciences Faculty of Ankara University in the second semester of the 2002-2003 curriculum year. Eighty-six of them were female (62.3%) and 52 were male (37.7%), all lived in Ankara. Twenty-four (82.6%) of the participants' mothers were housewives and only 24 (17.4%) of them had a job outside home. Of the participants' families 46.4% (/i=64) lived in metropohses, 26.1% («=36) lived in cities, 21% («=29) lived in districts and 6.5% (n=9) lived in villages.

The participants were given, during class hours, a set of three questionnaires: the Attitude Towards Women's Work Role Scale (Kuzgun, 2004); the Religious Tendency Scale (Onay, 1997, 2002); and the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (Bem, 1981; Dokmen, 1991, 1995). Participants' completion of the questionnaires took a time frame between 30 to 40 minutes.

MEASURES

Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) The BSRI (Bem, 1981) is designed to assess gender role identity. The BSRI has been a focus of evaluation for measuring individuals' gender role orientation in terms of masculinity, femininity, androgyny and undifferentiated. In this study, the Turkish version of femininity and masculinity scales was used; the neutral items were not included. The reliability and validity testing of the Turkish version of the BSRI was done by Dokmen (1991, 1995).

Dokmen (1991), on the basis of the median split technique, found that r (reliability coefficient) =.77, p<.01 for the femininity scale and r=.71, p<.Ol for the masculinity scale. Kandiyati's Gender Role Stereotyping Scale was used to determine the validity of the inventory, and the coefficient of correlation was found to be r=.51, p<.01 for the femininity scale and r=.63, p<.001 for the masculinity scale.

Dokmen (1999) also applied 40 BSRI items (20 masculine and 20 feminine) to 479 females and 510 males to determine the factorial structure, item properties, validity and reliability of the BSRI. In order to determine the factorial structure of the BSRI for combined sexes, 20 masculine items (e.g., "aggressive" and

8 0 RELIGIOUS TENDENCY AND GENDER ROLES

"ambitious") and 20 feminine items (e.g., "emotional" and "faithful") were subjected to principal component analysis by varimax rotation. It was found that three factors were interpretable, which is one factor more than the original BSRI. It was concluded that the first factor was general, the second was femininity, and the third was masculinity. Six feminine and five masculine items formed the third factor. These items may not be considered exactly as feminine or masculine either for cultural reasons or because of their unclear contents. Results of the item analysis were satisfactory. Cronbach alpha coefficients were .73 for the femininity scale and .75 for the masculinity scale. To compute the femininity and the masculinity median, the data from 1,762 participants (859 females and 903 males) were examined, and it was found to be 111 (5.55 - femininity score divided by the number of femininity items, 111:20) for femininity scores and 104 (5.20 - 104:20) for masculinity scores.

Attitude Towards Women's Work Roles Scale (ATWWRS) The revised version of ATWWRS developed by Kuzgun (Kuzgun & Sevim, 2004) was used to identify the attitudes towards women's work roles and the difficulties that working women encounter in the family and workplace. It includes 27 items - 12 of them were discarded at the end of factor analysis - that are rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale which ranges from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). The trial application of the scale was done on 112 individuals.

The construct validity of the scale was examined by factor analysis. Principal components analysis showed that the factor loading of 12 items was under 0.40; these were therefore excluded from the scale. Principal components analysis revealed that the scale had one factor that accounted for 44.1% of total variance. The correlation between each item of a one-dimensional scale with a total score over 0.30. For that reason, all items of the scale are considered to be discriminative. Alpha coefficient for intemal consistency was calculated to be .9250. A few of the items in the scale are: Women can cope with difficulties at work; Women try to gain some privileges at their work places by using their sexual attractions; I believe that a woman must work even if her spouse can earn enough money to make their living; The child of a working woman is deprived of love while growing up. A higher score indicates a more positive attitude toward women's work roles.

Religious Tendency Scale (RTS) The first version of the Religious Tendency Scale was developed by Onay in 1997 to assess how much space religion occupies in the participants' lives. Then in 1999, after reviewing the items in the scale, the second version of the Religious Tendency Scale was developed (Onay, 2002). The items that had low factor loadings or item-total correlation values were discarded. Hence, the number of the items was reduced from 25 to 18. RTS is a 4-point Likert-type scale that ranges from never (1) to always (4).

RELIGIOUS TENDENCY AND GENDER ROLES 8 1

Religious tendency can be described as the degree of a person's adoption of a way of life in Une with the codes of a religion; in other words, as the psychological inclination of a human being towards religion. Any kind of reaction containing an assessment about religion and the degree of the reactions are indicators of the religious tendency. Religious tendency can be discussed under three dimensions: a. Religious thought and belief (thought dimension) - one's belief in God along with religious assumptions and beliefs based on this that are related with the thought dimension, b. Religious practices (behavior dimension) - every kind of behavior that a person chooses to do or not to do as a result of his/her religious beliefs, c. Feelings and expectations (emotion dimension) - one's psychological state regarding personal religious beliefs and practices, expectation of reward and fear of punishment (Onay, 2002).

Based on these 3 dimensions in the RTS, there are 8 items in the thought dimension (e.g., "I believe that religion is not necessary"), 6 items in the behavior dimension (e.g., "I try to tell my religion to other people") and 4 items in the emotion dimension (e.g., "I pray"). The construct validity of RTS was confirmed by factor analysis. The factor loadings of the items in the scale were calculated to be over .50. Factor analysis revealed that the scale had three factors that accounted for 65% of total variance. The reliability of the RTS was tested by internal consistency and Guttman split-half methods. The Cronbach alpha for 18 items was .95 and the Guttman split-half value was .95 too. Higher score indicates higher religious tendency.

PROCEDURE

This research aimed to identify the significant predictors of attitudes towards women's work roles by means of hierarchical regression analysis. The dependent variable was the attitude towards women's work roles. On the other hand, gender roles (feminine, masculine, androgynous and undifferentiated) and religious tendency (thought, behavior and emotion dimensions) were the independent variables of the study.

Even though a recursive relationship seems to exist between traditional gender roles and religiousness - especially for women, since they are more religious than men - due to the lack of research confirming the claim that traditional gender role socialization leads to greater religiousness, the religious tendency with its three dimensions was entered into the first regression equation, since religious traditions play an important role in promoting traditional gender roles (Miller & Stark, 2002). The second and the last block of variables contained gender roles: feminine, masculine and androgynous.

8 2 RELIGIOUS TENDENCY AND GENDER ROLES

RESULTS

Pearson Product-Moment correlation coefficients were calculated to investigate the relationships between the variables used in this study to predict attitudes towards women's work roles; namely, gender roles and religious tendency (see Table 1).

01 02 03 04 05 06 07

TABLE CORRELATION

Attitude towards women's work roles Religious tendency-thought Religious tendency-behavior Religious tendency-emotion Gender role-androgynous Gender role-masculine Gender role-feminine

01

-

- . 2 5 " -.17* -.07 .07

- . 2 1 " 3 2 . . .

1 MATRIX

02

- .78"* . 8 0 " ' .15*

-.05 -.01

03

- . 7 7 " ' .26"*

-.12 -.06

04

- .26"*

- . 2 0 " .06

05 06 07

- -.32"* - -.34"* -.27"* -

• p < . 0 5 , " / 7 < . O 1 , " * p < . 0 0 1

Attitude towards women's work roles shows a significant and positive association with feminine gender role, and a significant and negative relationship with masculine gender role and two dimensions (thought and behavior) of religious tendency.

The results of the hierarchical regression analysis about predicting the attitudes towards women's work roles with regard to gender roles and religious tendency are listed in Table 2.

T A B L E 2 S U M M A R Y O F R E G R E S S I O N : P R E D I C T I N G A T T I T U D E S T O W A R D S W O M E N ' S W O R K R O L E S

p y?2 A/f2 A F

1st block (Religious Tendency) .117 .117 5 . 8 8 1 " *

2nd block (G ender Roles) .240 .123 7.033

T h o u g h t B e h a v i o r E m o t i o n

T h o u g h t Behavior E m o t i o n A n d r o g y n o u s M a s c u l i n e F e m i n i n e

-.52*** -.08 . 4 1 " *

-.43** -.03 .21 .21*

-.02 .36***

*p<.05,"p<.01,*"p<.001

RELIGIOUS TENDENCY AND GENDER ROLES 8 3

The results of regression analysis (see Table 2), conducted in 2 blocks, indicate that both religious tendency (thought dimension) and gender roles (femininity and androgyny) emerge as significant predictors of the attitudes towards women's work roles. While the emotion dimension is one of the two significant predictors after the variables of the first block are entered, it is removed from the predictor list after the variables of the second block are entered. The emotion dimension of religious tendency can be assumed as a mediator variable; since it has significant correlations with the variables of the second block (see Table 1).

Religious tendency, which was entered in the first block of the analyses, accounts for a little less than 12% of the total variance of the attitudes towards women's work roles. According to the results of a f-test regarding the significance of regression coefficients, only the thought dimension of the religious tendency is a significant predictor of attitudes towards women's work roles. Gender roles (femininity, masculinity, androgyny and undifferentiated - for all dichotomous variables 1: marked, 0: not marked), which were put into the regression equation as a dummy variable at the second block, explain a little more than 12% of the total variance as well. The results of the f-test about the significance of regression coefficients stated that femininity and androgyny were the significant predictors of attitudes towards women's work roles.

DISCUSSION

Despite the fact that the variables entered in both blocks account for approximately equal shares of the total variance, after the insertion of gender roles into the equation in the second block, the betas for all three dimensions of religious tendency were substantially reduced, accompanied by a considerable drop in their significance level. The results indicate that the higher the participants' "faith" level (thought dimension) is, the more negative are attitudes toward women's work. Similar fmdings have been recorded in other studies suggesting that religious people have less egalitarian attitudes toward women's social roles (Bryant, 2003; Frieze et al., 2003; Kuzgun & Sevim, 2004; Read, 2002). That the other two dimensions are not significant predictors can be elaborated in further research. One explanation for the nonsignificance of the behavior dimension may be the weakness of the participants' "practicing habit". As to the emotion dimension, its nonsignificance and positive association with attitudes toward women's work roles can be attributed to the fact that it is rather personal and about the "other" life, not about the "concrete" social life.

Other significant predictors are feminine and androgynous gender roles, which are positively associated with attitudes toward women's work roles. The stronger one, femininity, is associated with warmth, expressiveness and nurturance (Basow, 1992). Women seem more concerned than men about relationships and about the

8 4 RELIGIOUS TENDENCY AND GENDER ROLES

feelings and ideas of others. In many situations, women are more empathic and more nurturing than men. In the study, most (n=29) of the participants who have feminine traits ( / J = 3 1 ) are female, as expected. And, the obvious effect of sex on attitudes toward women's social roles has been identified by several studies which basically suggest that men are more traditionalist than women are with respect to these attitudes (e.g., Ba§aran, 1990; Bryant, 2003; Cinamon & Rich, 2002; Frieze et al., 2003; Gowan & Trevino, 1998; Kuzgun & Sevim, 2004).

Although female participants tend to adopt and comply with the traditional gender socialization role - femininity, their attitudes toward women's work roles are positive. This is, perhaps, because of the socioeconomic developments in Turkish society, in line with the general tendency in the developed world, which makes more familiar the view that females are welcome in the field of higher education and that women may pursue career jobs, as well as being employed in the low-income jobs due to the financial conditions of the family. Another consideration is that the participants in this study are university students and are likely to enter into the labor force in the near future. This result is in agreement with results from the study conducted with 81 Canadian Ismaili Muslims, which reported that women scored significantly higher on the femininity scale than did the men and that they indicated more liberal views toward women (Damji & Lee, 1995).

The last significant predictor in the study is androgyny. It does not mean being neuter, or convey any implication about one's sexual orientation. Rather, it expresses one's degree of flexibility regarding gender-stereotypic behaviors. A sizeable number of the participants are androgynous, 23% of men, 32% of women. This finding is contradictory to the result of another study which indicated that a very small percentage (2.2%) of the adult participants was androgynous (Girginer, 1994). The reason for this huge leap may be the different composition ofthe samples, in addition to a 10-year difference in the times ofthe studies, which might be deemed as a specification of a kind of divergence from traditional socialization. Androgynous participants' behaving in an egalitarian way toward women's work roles is not astonishing, because androgynous individuals apply gender less often than do sex-stereotyped ones in processing information regarding the world around them (Basow, 1992).

The limitations of the present study include modest sample size, limited demographic information and the fact that participants were from only one university. Based on the fmdings ofthe research, we suggest that similar research should be conducted with participants from different faculties, so as to judge specifically the effects of their major subject.

RELIGIOUS TENDENCY AND GENDER ROLES 8 5

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