short discussion question
oreomocha12Career Counseling: A Holistic Approach
Theories of Career Development
Part I
Theories of Career Development
- This chapter reviews 9 theories.
- Grouped according to Gelso and Fretz (2001):
Trait-oriented
Social learning and cognitive
Developmental
Person-in-environment
Theories of Career Development
- Initially vocational psychology focused on using assessments for job placement.
- Beginning in the early 1950s, the field began to include other factors:
Self-concept
Self-knowledge
Developmental issues
Theories of Career Development
- Theories have been criticized.
Vague about how to use findings
Out of touch with what practitioners need – a more direct link between theory and practice
Theories of Career Development
- What is a theory?
- What a theory is not
- Theories can help us with guidelines for counseling.
Trait-Oriented Theories
- Embedded in Parson’s paradigm
- Individuals are attracted to occupational environments that meet their personal needs and provide them with satisfaction.
- Include:
Trait-and-factor
Peron-environment-correspondence
John Holland’s typology
Trait-and-Factor Theory
- Parsons (1909) maintained that vocational guidance is accomplished by:
Studying the individual
Surveying occupations
Matching the individual with the occupation.
- This process is called trait-and-factor theory.
Trait-and-Factor Theory
- Parson’s three-step procedures may at first glance be judged to be completely dominated by test results.
- Brown, Brooks, and Associates (1990) argued that advocates of trait-and-factor approaches never approved of excessive use of testing.
- Test results are only one means of evaluating individual differences (Williamson, 1939).
Trait-and-Factor Theory
- Sharf (2002) summarized the advantages and disadvantages of trait-and-factor theory.
It is a static theory rather than a developmental one.
- The following assumptions also raise concerns about this theory:
There is a single career goal for everyone.
Career decisions are primarily based on measured abilities.
Trait-and-Factor Theory
- Prediger (1995) suggested that person-environment fit theory has enhanced the potential for a closer relationship between assessment and career counseling.
- Prediger suggested a similarity model, designed not to predict success or to find the “ideal career,” but to provide a means of evaluating occupations that are similar to people in important ways.
Practical Applications
- Major role of early approaches = diagnosis.
- Contemporary practices expanded the use of test data.
Example
Holland’s typology
Instead of predicting success in particular career, the counselor interprets test data and informs client of similarities to workers in particular careers.
Person-Environment-Correspondence (PEC)
- Previously referred to as the theory of work adjustment (TWA).
- The theory of work adjustment and person-environment-correspondence counseling (Dawis, 1996) involve workplace reinforcers that can lead to job satisfaction.
PEC Theory
- Work is more than step-by-step task-oriented procedures.
Work includes human interaction and sources of satisfaction, dissatisfaction, rewards, stress, and many other psychological variables.
Individuals seek to achieve and maintain a positive relationship with their work environments.
PEC Theory
- According to Dawis and Lofquist, individuals bring their requirements to a work environment, and the work environment makes its requirements of individuals.
- To survive, the individual and the work environment must achieve some degree of congruence (correspondence).
- To achieve this agreement, the individual must successfully meet the job requirements, and the work environment must fulfill the individual’s requirements.
PEC Theory
- Examples of occupational reinforcers:
Achievement
Authority
Advancement
Coworkers
Activity
Security
Social service
Status
Variety
- Lofquist and Dawis (1984) found a strong relationship between job satisfaction and work adjustment.
PEC Theory
- Implication of the theory of work adjustment:
Job satisfaction should be evaluated according to several factors.
Job satisfaction is an important career counseling concern but does not alone measure work adjustment.
Job satisfaction is an important predictor of job tenure.
PEC Theory
- Implications of the theory of work adjustment:
Individual needs and values are significant components of job satisfaction.
Individuals differ significantly in specific reinforcers of career satisfaction.
Career counselors should consider the reinforcers available in work environments and compare them with individual needs of clients.
PEC Theory
- Career counselors use occupational information to assist clients in matching individual needs, interests, and abilities with patterns and levels of different reinforcers in the work environment.
A worker’s attempt to improve his or her fit within the work environment is referred to as work adjustment.
Practical Applications
- Depends heavily on client assessment.
- Major concern = abilities/skills and values
- Presentation of assessment information should be tailored to client’s abilities, values, and style.
Highly verbal Verbal presentation
High spatial ability Graphic presentation
- Work adjustment in today’s society
John Holland:
A Typology Approach
- According to John Holland (1992), individuals are attracted to a given career by their particular personalities and numerous variables that constitute their backgrounds.
John Holland:
A Typology Approach
- Career choice is an expression of, or an extension of, personality into the world of work followed by subsequent identification with specific occupational stereotypes.
- Congruence of ones’ view of self with occupational preference establishes what Holland refers to as the modal personal style.
Holland’s Modal Personal Styles and Occupational Environments Holland (1985, 1992) |
||
Personal Styles |
Themes |
Occupational Environments |
May lack social skills; prefers concrete vs. abstract work tasks; may seem frank, materialistic, and inflexible; usually has mechanical abilities |
Realistic |
Skilled trades such as plumber, electrician, and machine operator; technician skills such as airplane mechanic, photographer, draftsperson, and some service occupations |
Very task-oriented; is interested in math and science; may be described as independent, analytical, and intellectual; may be reserved and defers leadership to others |
Investigative |
Scientific such as chemist, physicist, and mathematician; technician such as laboratory technician, computer programmer, and electronics worker |
Prefers self-expression through the arts; may be described as imaginative, introspective, and independent; values aesthetics and creation of art forms |
Artistic |
Artistic such as sculptor, artist, and designer; musical such as music teacher, orchestra leader, and musician; literary such as editor, writer, and critic |
Prefers social interaction and has good communication skills; is concerned with social problems, and is community-service-oriented; has interest in educational activities |
Social |
Educational such as teacher, educational administrator, and college professor; social welfare such as social worker, sociologist, rehabilitation counselor, and professional nurse |
Prefers leadership roles; may be described as domineering, ambitious, and persuasive; makes use of good verbal skills |
Enterprising |
Managerial such as personnel, production, and sales manager; various sales positions, such as life insurance, real estate, and car salesperson |
May be described as practical, well-controlled, sociable, and rather conservative; prefers structured tasks such as systematizing and manipulation of data and word processing |
Conventional |
Office and clerical worker such as timekeeper, file clerk, teller, accountant, keypunch operator, secretary, bookkeeper, receptionist, and credit manager |
John Holland’s Typology
- Holland’s 6 occupational environments/personal orientations can be arranged in a hexagon.
Realistic
Investigative
Artistic
Social
Enterprising
Conventional
John Holland’s Typology
- The categories next to each other on the hexagon are most similar.
- The categories opposite of each other on the hexagon are most dissimilar.
Realistic
Investigative
Artistic
Social
Enterprising
Conventional
John Holland’s Typology
- A code is used to represent the relative strength of client characteristics.
Example: SEC
Realistic
Investigative
Artistic
Social
Enterprising
Conventional
The Hexagon of General Occupational Themes (GOTs)
Investigative
Enterprising
Social
Artistic
Conventional
Realistic
GOT: Realistic
Investigative
Enterprising
Social
Artistic
Conventional
Realistic
Realistic: The Doers
- Like to work with their hands, tools/machines, computers
- Rugged, practical, physically strong, sensible, self-reliant
- Enjoy fixing, building, repairing, working outdoors
- Motivated to use hands-on skills to produce tangible results
Work Environments
Sample Jobs
- Manufacturing or industrial firms
- Construction, mining and energy industries
- Transportation fields (air, trucking, local transit, etc.)
- The outdoors; small, rural communities
- Situations permitting casual dress
- Structured settings, clear lines of authority
- Forester
- Law Enforcement
- Military
- Carpenter
- Engineer
- Veterinarian
- Computer & IS
- Radiology Technologist
Interests:
- Motivated to use hands-on skills to produce tangible results
- Likes to work with their hands, tools, machinery, computer networks
- Rugged, practical, physically strong
- Described as practical, persistent, adventurous, sensible, self-reliant
- Buys boats, campers, hiking equipment
Workplace
- Manufacturing or industrial firms with tangible products
- Construction, mining and energy industries
- Transportation fields (air, trucking, local transit, etc.)
- The outdoors; small, rural communities
- Situations permitting casual dress
Sample Job titles:
- Forester
- Carpenter
- Veterinarian
- Radiological Technologist
GOT: Investigative
Investigative
Enterprising
Social
Artistic
Conventional
Realistic
Investigative: The Thinkers
- Like to gather information, uncover new facts/theories, and interpret data
- Potentially competent in science, math, analysis
- Described as curious, independent, reserved, non-conforming
- Motivated to probe questions of intellectual curiosity
Work Environments
Sample Jobs
- Unstructured organizations that allow freedom in work styles
- Research and design laboratories and firms
- Universities and colleges
- Medical facilities
- Computer-related industries
- Scientific foundations and think tanks
- Chemist
- Software Developer
- R&D Manager
- Veterinarian
- University Professor
- Physician
- Science Teacher
Interests:
- Motivated to probe questions of intellectual curiosity
- Likes to gather information, uncover new facts/theories, and interpret data
- Potentially competent in science, math, analysis, writing and problem solving
- Described as curious, independent, reserved, rational, non-conforming
- Buys telescopes, computers, electronic equipment, sailboats, etc.
Workplace
- Research and design laboratories
- Universities and colleges
- Medical facilities
- Scientific foundations and think tanks
Job titles
- Chemist
- R&D Manager
- Veterinarian
- Respiratory Therapist
- Science Teacher
GOT: Artistic
Investigative
Enterprising
Social
Artistic
Conventional
Realistic
Artistic: The Creators
- Like art, music, drama, etc.
- Enjoy writing, creating or appreciating art, acting/performing
- Described as impulsive, non-conforming, independent
- Motivated to express themselves through their work
Work Environments
Sample Jobs
- Unstructured, flexible organizations that allow self-expression
- Art studios
- Theaters and concert halls
- Institutions that teach artistic skills (universities, music & dance schools, art institutes, etc.)
- Museums, libraries, galleries
- Advertising, public relations, graphic design and interior-design firms
- Artist
- Architect
- Librarian
- Attorney
- Journalist
- Medical Illustrator
- Public Relations Director
- Musician
Interests:
- Motivated to express themselves through their work
- Express their interests in leisure as well as vocational activities
- Described as impulsive, non-conforming & independent
- Buys art objects, books, instruments
Workplace
- Unstructured, flexible organizations that allow self-expression
- Institutions that teach artistic skills (universities, music & dance schools, art institutes, etc.)
- Museums, libraries, galleries
Job titles
- Librarian
- Urban & Regional Planner
- Broadcast Journalist
- Medical Illustrator
- Public Relations Director
- Musician
GOT: Social
Investigative
Enterprising
Social
Artistic
Conventional
Realistic
Social: The Helpers
- Like to work with people, often in groups
- Enjoy helping, nurturing, and teaching
- Solve problems through discussions and interactions with others
- Described as humanistic, idealistic, cooperative
- Motivated to help and empower
Work Environments
Sample Jobs
- Social service agencies
- Schools
- Religious organizations
- Human resources departments
- Medical service and healthcare facilities
- Mental health clinics
- Social Worker
- Athletic Trainer
- School Counselor
- Registered Nurse
- Elementary School Teacher
- Dietitian
- Community Service Director
Interests
- Motivated to help and empower
- Likes to work with people, often in groups
- Enjoy helping, nurturing, and teaching, especially young people
- Solve problems through discussions of feelings and interactions with others
- May enjoy working with people through leading, directing and persuading.
- Described as humanistic, idealistic, cooperative
- Spends money on social events and charity
Workplace
- Medical service and healthcare facilities
- Mental health clinics
Job titles
- Parks & Recreation Manager
- School Counselor
- School Administrator
- Registered Nurse
- Elementary School Teacher
- Dietitian
GOT: Enterprising
Investigative
Enterprising
Social
Artistic
Conventional
Realistic
Enterprising:The Persuaders
- Enjoy working with people and leading them toward organizational goals and/or economic success
- Like to lead, manage, persuade, give speeches
- Seek positions of leadership, power, status
- Described as persuasive, competitive, energetic, sociable
- Motivated to persuade others of the merits of an idea or product
Work Environments
Sample Jobs
- Industrial and manufacturing firms
- Government and political organizations
- Seats of power and finance (large corporations, brokerage firms, executive offices, etc.)
- Retail and wholesale firms
- Fund-raising organizations
- Independently owned businesses
- Investments Manager
- Realtor
- Buyer
- Marketing Manager
- Human Resources Manager
- Chef
- Elected Public Official
Interests:
- Motivated to persuade others of the merits of an idea or product
- Enjoy working with other people and leading them toward organizational goals and/or economic success
- Seeks positions of leadership, power, status
- Likes to lead groups, give speeches, manage people and projects, persuade
- Described as persuasive, adventuresome, competitive, energetic, sociable, optimistic
- Buys country club memberships, sporting event tickets, nice cars
Workplace:
- Industrial and manufacturing firms
- Seats of power and finance (large corporations, brokerage firms, executive offices, etc.)
- Retail and wholesale firms
Job titles:
- Investments Manager
- Restaurant Manager
- Realtor
- Operations Manager
- Buyer
- Marketing Manager
- Human Resources Manager
GOT: Conventional
Investigative
Enterprising
Social
Artistic
Conventional
Realistic
Conventional:The Organizers
- Like activities requiring attention to detail, organization, accuracy and data systems
- Enjoy mathematics and data management activities
- Described as practical, organized, systematic, accurate, conscientious
- Motivated to organize information, bring order to data and things
Work Environments
Sample Jobs
- Large corporations
- Business offices
- Financial institutions (banks, credit companies, etc.)
- Accounting firms
- Quality control and inspection departments
- Structured organizations with well-ordered chains of command
- Banker
- Computer Systems Analyst
- Paralegal
- Actuary
- Financial Analyst
- Accountant
- Business Education Teacher
Interests
- Motivated to organize information and bring order to data and things
- Likes activities requiring attention to detail, organization, accuracy and data systems.
- Enjoys mathematics and data management activities
- Described as practical, organized, systematic, accurate, conscientious
- Buys hobby collections (stamps, antiques, etc), home improvement supplies, games
Workplace
- Large corporations
- Business offices
- Accounting firms
Job titles
- Paralegal
- Financial Analyst
- Accountant
- Nursing Home Administrator
- Food Services Manager
- Business Education Teacher
The Hexagon of General Occupational Themes
Investigative
Enterprising
Social
Artistic
Conventional
Realistic
Holland’s Theory - Assumptions
- Most people can be categorized as one of six types.
- There are six kinds of environments.
- People search for environments that will let them exercise their skills and abilities, express their attitudes and values, and take on agreeable problems and roles.
Holland’s Hexagonal Model
- Consistency: The closer the types are on the hexagon, the more consistent the individual is.
Example: ESA would have higher consistency than RAE.
- Differentiation: Individuals who fit a pure personality type will express little resemblance to other types.
Those who fit several personality types are considered undifferentiated.
Holland’s Hexagonal Model
- Identity: Individuals who have a clear and stable picture of goals, interests, talents.
- Congruence: When an individual’s personality type matches the environment.
- Calculus: The theoretical relationships between types of occupational environments lend themselves to empirical research.
John Holland’s Typology
- Knowledge of both self and occupational environment is critical.
- Theory is primarily descriptive.
- RIASEC model has been tested with wide range of ethnically diverse individuals.
John Holland’s Typology
- Theory emphasizes the accuracy of self-knowledge and occupational information necessary for career decision making.
- Impact on interest assessments
- Practicality
- Most of Holland’s propositions are clearly defined and lend themselves to empirical evaluations.
John Holland’s Typology - Practical Applications
- Several inventories available designed by Holland and others for use with his theory:
Vocational Preference Inventory
My Vocational Situation
The Position Classification Inventory
Career Attitudes and Strategies Inventory
Self-Directed Search (SDS)
Steps in using the SDS
Trait-Oriented Theories -- Summary
- Emphasize how standardized tests are used.
- Human traits can be matched with work environments to evaluate potential work sites.
- Individual’s work needs can be compared with components of job satisfaction found in certain occupational environments.
- Self-knowledge is essential for evaluating career information.
Trait-Oriented Theories -- Summary
- One should consider a number of occupations that matches their personal needs and abilities.
- More attention needs to be given to work adjustment, job satisfaction, and problems faced by people in career transition.
Individuals in the 21st century will change jobs several times over their life span.
The job market will continue to fluctuate.
Workers will be required to adapt quickly, will be challenged with new procedures, tools, requirements, culturally diverse coworkers, etc.
Interests:
- Motivated to use hands-on skills to produce tangible results
- Likes to work with their hands, tools, machinery, computer networks
- Rugged, practical, physically strong
- Described as practical, persistent, adventurous, sensible, self-reliant
- Buys boats, campers, hiking equipment
Workplace
- Manufacturing or industrial firms with tangible products
- Construction, mining and energy industries
- Transportation fields (air, trucking, local transit, etc.)
- The outdoors; small, rural communities
- Situations permitting casual dress
Sample Job titles:
- Forester
- Carpenter
- Veterinarian
- Radiological Technologist
Interests:
- Motivated to probe questions of intellectual curiosity
- Likes to gather information, uncover new facts/theories, and interpret data
- Potentially competent in science, math, analysis, writing and problem solving
- Described as curious, independent, reserved, rational, non-conforming
- Buys telescopes, computers, electronic equipment, sailboats, etc.
Workplace
- Research and design laboratories
- Universities and colleges
- Medical facilities
- Scientific foundations and think tanks
Job titles
- Chemist
- R&D Manager
- Veterinarian
- Respiratory Therapist
- Science Teacher
Interests:
- Motivated to express themselves through their work
- Express their interests in leisure as well as vocational activities
- Described as impulsive, non-conforming & independent
- Buys art objects, books, instruments
Workplace
- Unstructured, flexible organizations that allow self-expression
- Institutions that teach artistic skills (universities, music & dance schools, art institutes, etc.)
- Museums, libraries, galleries
Job titles
- Librarian
- Urban & Regional Planner
- Broadcast Journalist
- Medical Illustrator
- Public Relations Director
- Musician
Interests
- Motivated to help and empower
- Likes to work with people, often in groups
- Enjoy helping, nurturing, and teaching, especially young people
- Solve problems through discussions of feelings and interactions with others
- May enjoy working with people through leading, directing and persuading.
- Described as humanistic, idealistic, cooperative
- Spends money on social events and charity
Workplace
- Medical service and healthcare facilities
- Mental health clinics
Job titles
- Parks & Recreation Manager
- School Counselor
- School Administrator
- Registered Nurse
- Elementary School Teacher
- Dietitian
Interests:
- Motivated to persuade others of the merits of an idea or product
- Enjoy working with other people and leading them toward organizational goals and/or economic success
- Seeks positions of leadership, power, status
- Likes to lead groups, give speeches, manage people and projects, persuade
- Described as persuasive, adventuresome, competitive, energetic, sociable, optimistic
- Buys country club memberships, sporting event tickets, nice cars
Workplace:
- Industrial and manufacturing firms
- Seats of power and finance (large corporations, brokerage firms, executive offices, etc.)
- Retail and wholesale firms
Job titles:
- Investments Manager
- Restaurant Manager
- Realtor
- Operations Manager
- Buyer
- Marketing Manager
- Human Resources Manager
Interests
- Motivated to organize information and bring order to data and things
- Likes activities requiring attention to detail, organization, accuracy and data systems.
- Enjoys mathematics and data management activities
- Described as practical, organized, systematic, accurate, conscientious
- Buys hobby collections (stamps, antiques, etc), home improvement supplies, games
Workplace
- Large corporations
- Business offices
- Accounting firms
Job titles
- Paralegal
- Financial Analyst
- Accountant
- Nursing Home Administrator
- Food Services Manager
- Business Education Teacher
Holland’s Modal Personal Styles and Occupational Environments
Holland (1985, 1992)
Personal Styles Themes Occupational Environments
May lack social skills; prefers concrete vs.
abstract work tasks; may seem frank,
materialistic, and inflexible; usually h as
mechanical abilities
Realistic Skilled trades such as plumber, electrician,
and machine operator; technician skills such
as airplane mechanic, photographer,
draftsperson, and some service occupations
Very task-oriented; is interested in math and
science; may be described as independent,
analytical, and intellectual; may be reserved
and defers leadership to others
Investigative Scientific such as chemist, physicist, and
mathematician; technician such as laboratory
technician, computer programmer, and
electronics worker
Prefers self-expression through the arts; may
be described as imaginative, introspective,
and independent; values aesthetics and
creation of art forms
Artistic Artistic such as sculptor, artist, and designer;
musical such as music teacher, orchestra
leader, and musician; literary such as editor,
writer, and critic
Prefers social interaction and has good
communication skills; is concerned with social
problems, and is community -service-oriented;
has interest in educational activities
Social Educational such as teacher, educational
administrator, and college professor; social
welfare such as social worker, sociologist,
rehabilitation counselor, and professional
nurse
Prefers leadership roles; may be described as
domineering, ambitious, and pe rsuasive;
makes use of good verbal skills
Enterprising Managerial such as personnel, production,
and sales manager; various sales positions,
such as life insurance, real estate, and car
salesperson
May be described as practical, well -controlled,
sociable, and rather conservative; prefers
structured tasks such as systematizing and
manipulation of data and word processing
Conventional Office and clerical worker such as
timekeeper, file clerk, teller, accountant,
keypunch operator, secretary, bookkeeper,
receptionist, and credit manager