The Social Construction of Race 2
Mu_89
social_deconstruction_of_race-2.pptx
The Social Deconstruction of Race (1960-present)
Beginning in the 1960, science developed new techniques to investigate the issue of race
4 ways to demarcate whether races exist within human populations
Subjectivity
The idea that race should be immediately and visually obvious
Star Trek (Star Wars) vision of race
When you see a Klingon or a Wookie, it is immediately obvious that they are not human
However, that cannot be done for humans
Photo exercise on PBS.org
Traits
Idea that by looking at the distribution of certain traits among human populations that racial groupings can be determined
Whether focusing on epicanthic eye fold, sickle cell anemia or any other trait, no particular traits clusters together in what we can call a racial category
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Watch the documentary
The Journey of Man
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Genetic Analysis
Investigating the question of race through examining elements of DNA
Mitochondrial DNA (MtDNA) and Y-Chromosome
MtDNA
Mitochondria is a structure that provides energy for the cell
A piece of DNA that does not code for physical traits and is inherited solely and wholly from your mother
MtDNA undergoes mutations (known as Palmer’s mutation) which allows researchers to trace backward their female genetic ancestry
Issue over timing of mutations
Researchers generally argue that they occur about every 20,000 years
Critical for determining age of modern humans
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What does MtDNA tell us about our human origins?
Since about 8-9 mutations have accumulated on MtDNA, they place human age around 180-200,000 years
All modern humans originate from Central Africa
Evidence indicates the existence of a “Mitochondrial Eve” (not the literal Biblical Eve)
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What does MtDNA tells about human migration?
Humans originated in Central Africa about 200,000 yrs ago
For the first 120,000 years or so humans are trapped in Sub-Sahara Africa
World is deep in the grips of an ice age
When planet’s water is trapped in ice, there is less precipitation
As a consequence, there is a constant state of drought, the growth of deserts, and a dramatic lowering of sea levels
Sahara and Saudi deserts trap humans in southern Africa
While in Africa, a number of mutations occur on MtDNA
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Humans first left Africa via the Yemen about 80,000 years ago
Coastal migration route to Australia arriving there about 74,000 years ago
Toba super-volcano erupted in Malaysia and human artifacts found in Kota Tampan under Toba ash
Human population reduced worldwide to a total of about 6-10,000 individuals
Moved in Central Asia from Middle East and from there one branch went to Europe (40,000 years ago) and then to the Americas (20,000 years ago)
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Y-Chromosome
Inherited relatively intact from father to son
Mutations occur that allow human lineages to be determined
What does Y-chromosome tell us about human origins?
Humans originated from Central Africa about 150,000 years ago
Left Africa about 50,000 years ago
Arrived in Australia about 45,000 years ago
Europe about 40,000 years ago and the Americas about 13,000 years ago
Migration routes?
Same picture as derived from MtDNA
Conclusions from genetic analysis
Humans are between 50,000 and 500,000
Significant range of possible origin dates
There is no such thing as “race”
All modern humans originated from Central Africa
All humans share significant genetic similarities
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Synthesizing the conclusions from MtDNA and Y-Chromosome
Go to following website
http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/stephenoppenheimer/
Click on “Journey of Mankind” and go through each step
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Environment
If the genetic analysis is accurate, then why do we look so different?
Skin color
a function of exposure to UV radiation
Absorption of UV radiation helps body produce Vitamin D (necessary for good health)
However, too much UV can harm health in a number of ways
Skin cancer, destroys folic acid which is necessary for the health of the fetus
The color of your skin is a result of the balancing act between need to absorb some sunlight to produce Vitamin D and to protect against harmful effects of UV radiation
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Height and body type
Adaptations to climate
Bergman’s and Allen’s Rule
Cold climates result in shorter, rounder body types in order to conserve body heat
Hot climates produce taller, thinner people
Hair and nose shapes
Also affected by climate
Nose shape concerns ability to regulate body temperature
Short, broad nose adaptive to hot climates, thin, long noses are adaptive to cold climates
Hair type also about maintaining body temperature
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The Myth of Ethnicity
The evidence against race is overwhelming
Yet, some people cling to “group” explanations and now argue that its not genetics but ethnicity that accounts for the differential socioeconomic outcomes of people
They argue that ethnic groups are characterized by distinct cultures and that these cultures are either well- or poorly-suited for economic success
for example, it is argued that Mexicans are ill-suited for economic success because Mexican culture promotes values and attitudes that interfere with economic success
Patriarchy of Mexican culture breeds authoritarianism which interferes with education particularly that of girls
Macho element of Mexican culture values manual labor which also interferes with education
“Manana attitude” interferes with hard work
“Blame the Victim” ideology
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So, the argument is that culture determines an individual’s socioeconomic outcomes (social class)
Is this view valid?
What explains the differential socioeconomic outcomes by the various ethnic groups in America?
Two types of arguments
Cultural argument
Culture
(values and goals)
Individual Behavior
(morality, intelligence)
socio-economic success
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Structural argument
Argues that the differential outcomes of various ethnic groups in America is a function of the resources , industrial skills, or demographics of the particular immigrant group in relation to the economic opportunity structure of host country
Resources (money)
Skills (industrial)
Demographics
(sex ratio, family ratio)
Opportunity structure of host society
(industrial economy)
Socio
economic outcomes
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The Jewish Success Myth
It is a common belief in America that Jews have gained a greater degree of economic success in America and that an understanding of this is to be found elements in Jewish culture
Have Jews been more economically successful than other immigrant groups?
Generally, yes.
Jews have higher rates of college graduation and professional occupations than average American
In 1971, median income of Jews , 30% higher than average American family
36% graduated college, 11% for non-Jews
70% Jewish males in profession or business, 33% for non-Jews
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However, to categorize all Jews as economically successful is incorrect
In 1973, 15% of NYC Jews in poor or near-poor (800,000)
¼ of Jews in NYC in manual occupations
Do not constitute an economic elite
Concentrated mostly in professions and small business
Absent in managerial positions in large corporations
Virtually unrepresented in many major industries
Automobile, finance, insurance, steel, oil, utilities, and transportation
Only two major industries dominated by Jews
Movies and garment industries
Was their economic success due to their culture or structure?
It was said that Jewish culture highly values education (rooted in knowledge of the Torah) and saving money
Consistent with the stereotype of Jews as clever and stingy
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The myth of immigrant success
Assumption is that all immigrant groups started out the same
No skills, no money
Not true
Some groups come with more money than others
Over 1/2 the English and 1/3 of the Germans entered U.S. with at least $50 on them
Only 12% of Jews had $50
Groups also differed significantly in terms of occupational skills
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Jews in the U.S.
Beginning around 1880 to 1924, 5 million Jews immigrated to America
America was in the throes of an economic expansion
Heavy demand for all types of labor but skilled labor had significant advantage in terms of income
Jewish immigration was primarily from Eastern Europe
1897 Russian Census
Enumerated nearly 5 million Jews
Severe economic and political discrimination
Prohibited from owning land
Required to live in western areas of Russia
Largely urban population
Could not participate in agrarian economy
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Occupations of Jews, Russia 1897
| Occupation | Jews | Non-Jews |
| Manufacturing and Artisans | 38% | 15% |
| Commerce | 32% | 3% |
| Service | 19% | 16% |
| Professions | 5% | 3% |
| Transportation | 3% | 2% |
| Agriculture | 3% | 61% |
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Immigrant Jews arrived with an array of industrial skills
1908 Census (percentage of skilled workers entering the U.S., 1899-1910)
Industrial skills by ethnicity
Jews 66%
English 50%
Germans 30%
Swedes 20%
N. Italians 15%
S. Italians 10%
Poles 6%
All told, 20% of immigrants arrived with industrial skills
STEINBERG, pg. 98
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Skills were widespread but concentrated in garment industry
Industry was growing at a rate 2-3 times as great as average for all other industries
By 1914, garment industry employed over 1/2 million workers, with an annual payroll over $300 million, and a product value over $1 billion
Wages offered generally better than other industries
Average wages of foreign-born workers in 1908 was $11.92/week
For Russian Jewish males $13.28/week, for other Jews $14.90/week
Structure of industry conducive to individual enterprise
Contract labor and sweatshops
In 1913, there were over 16,000 in NYC alone
Does not require much start-up capital
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Jews did possess a higher rate of literacy
Literacy rates for W. European immigrants rarely above 5%
For Jews, it was 26%
Facilitated acquisition of foreign language
Facilitated entry into business
Jews took advantage of educational opportunities
Pushing their children to pursue an education followed, did not precede, economic success
Public education
CUNY was free to city residents
Established Jewish colleges from 1900-1920
Conclusion
Ethnicity (culture) does not explain economic success
STEINBERG, pg. 103
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