Homelessness

84 The Reading Teacher, 62(1), pp. 84–86 © 2008 International Reading Association DOI:10.1598/RT.62.1.11 ISSN: 0034-0561 print / 1936-2714 online

Reading ReseaRch into the classRoomReading ReseaRch into the classRoom

Homelessness, Poverty, and Children’s Literacy Development Doris Walker-Dalhouse, Victoria J. Risko

R ecent economic reports in the United States indicate that more than 550,000 familie s of young children are homeless (National

Center on Family Homelessness, 2003) and 13 mil- lion children are living in poverty (Fass & Cauthen, 2007). Yet homelessness and the effects of poverty on families go beyond U.S. borders; they are global problems. More than 100 million families worldwide lack permanent housing or sufficient income to meet their basic needs (Capdevila, 2005).

Impact of Homelessness on Children Multiple causes of homelessness include a lack of af- fordable housing, low wages, war, domestic violence, and natural disasters such as hurricanes, tornadoes, and floods.

Some homeless children are able to succeed in school despite the many challenges they face, but others are at risk for emotional (Morris & Butt, 2003), physical (Books, 2004), social (Fantuzzo & Periman, 2007), and behavioral problems (Books, 2004; Duffield, 2001; Knitzer & Lefkowitz, 2006; Zima, Wells, & Freeman, 1994) that can hinder their school attendance and performance. Absenteeism and high mobility constrain teacher and school connections and negatively affect students’ literacy experiences, understandings, and background knowledge (Noll & Watkins, 2003/2004).

Out-of-home placement experiences (i.e., home- less shelter, institutional care, foster care, placement with relatives, or group home care) often restrict children’s early literacy development and are associ- ated with a higher number of behavioral problems

and school suspensions (Fantuzzo & Periman, 2007; Rescorla, Parker, & Stolley, 1991).

Seventy-five percent of U.S. homeless children perform below grade level in reading (Rubin et al., 1996), and schools and teachers may not be prepared to teach these students, further hindering their liter- acy development and school achievement (Books, 2004). Polakow (1993), for example, described teach- ers’ negative beliefs (for example, “Heather has no positive potential,” p. 40) and children finding little understanding or affirmation in a school “landscape of condemnation” (p. 146).

Teacher Support of Homeless Children Many teachers are succeeding in teaching children of poverty, such as the “star” teachers described by Haberman (1995, p. 3). Exemplary teaching includes the following elements.

Helping Students Find a Place in the Classroom Polakow (1993, 2007) advocated taking time to un- derstand students and their hardships. Perhaps stu- dents come to school upset by the chaos in their lives or worried about an ill parent and need a space in the classroom to decompress (by sitting alone at the start of the day and reading a favorite book or writing in a personal journal, for example). Teachers’ expres- sions and modeling of genuine caring (Noddings, 1992), coupled with compassion and safe classroom spaces, can change unengaged, disruptive children into active group participants. Also, teachers telling

85Homelessness, Poverty, and Children’s Literacy Development

children that they truly believe in their abilities can motivate students and create feelings of belonging in the classroom (Wheeler, 2008).

Providing Access to Instructional Resources Providing materials that can go home and stay at home (without worries about loss) can help to build students’ connections to class activities and identities as readers and learners (Noll & Watkins, 2003/2004). As human resources, teachers can be involved in and support local events held in homeless shelters or community centers that engage parents and chil- dren in reading and writing activities (e.g., produc- ing a newsletter, sharing books at home) or can offer tutoring.

Promoting Parent and Family Involvement Schools and communities can work together to cre- ate academic programs that involve children and their families. The Brownstone School is an example of a successful, accelerated-learning, after-school program that serves homeless children in the Bronx, New York. It provides one-to-one tutoring, homework assistance, and theme-based educational activities to fast-track student learning (Nunez, 2000). The school also encourages parent involvement through learning contracts, participation in family literacy workshops, field trips, and staff support to attend parent–teacher conferences (Nunez, 2000). Inviting parents to create self-portraits that reflect their assets, needs, and successes or to keep reflective journals to share during conferences (Swick & Bailey, 2004) can support educational partnerships, build parent confi- dence and competence in helping their children, and foster ongoing communication.

Encouraging Confidence and Literacy Participation Star teachers draw connections between reading and writing activities and the knowledge, talents, and experiences of their students (Haberman, 1995). Integrating creative arts (e.g., art, music, dance) with literature to promote the critical and analytical think- ing skills of homeless children can be successfully

achieved in regular school settings (Noll & Watkins, 2003/2004) and in summer intervention programs. Integrating reading and writing activities with read- ing theme-based text sets can enhance vocabulary development, comprehension, reasoning, and confi- dence (Sinatra, 2007).

Help All Students Recognize Poverty and Homelessness as Global Problems Requiring Action Poverty is a key factor in homelessness. Teachers who engage students in reading and writing about how political and economic conditions contribute to poverty and homelessness worldwide and in their own community can raise awareness of social justice issues (Damico & Riddle, 2004; Lalas, 2007). Picture books such as A Shelter in Our Car (Gunning, 2004) and Fly Away Home (Bunting, 1991) might be used to tell poignant stories of young children and par- ents. Insights about the lives of homeless children, ages 10–14, living in shelters or experiencing life on the streets can be found in No Place to Be: Voices of Homeless Children (Berck, 1992).

Teachers can enable their students to take leader- ship roles in social justice through service projects that bring communities together, such as having lo- cal summits on poverty or communicating with lo- cal and national politicians (Mickelson, Cousins, & Williams, 2008). Mahiri (2006) found that students and teachers who developed multitextual digital proj- ects on poverty and its connections to homelessness raised awareness and increased collaboration.

Making a Difference for Homeless Children Fear is associated with homelessness—fears that homeless children bring to school daily, fears of other children that homelessness may affect their family, and teachers’ fears of being unsuccessful with their homeless students. The study of poverty issues and relevant literature can help develop empa- thy for homeless families and challenge associated stereotypes (Hunt, 2007). By joining with students in community-based projects that support children and families in poverty, teachers can form social and cul- tural connections between teaching and learning.

86 The Reading Teacher Vol. 62, No. 1 September 2008

Noll, E., & Watkins, R. (2003/2004). The impact of homelessness on children’s literacy experiences. The Reading Teacher, 57(4), 362–371.

Nuñez, R.D. (2000). Breaking the cycle: Educating New York’s homeless children and their families. In R.A. Mickelson (Ed.), Children on the streets of the Americas: Globalization, home- lessness, education in the United States, Brazil and Cuba (pp. 184–192). New York: Routledge.

Polakow, V. (1993). Lives on the edge: Single mothers and their children in the other America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Polakow, V. (2007). In the shadows of the ownership society: Homele s s children and their familie s. In S. Book s (Ed.), Invisible children in the society and its schools (pp. 39 – 62). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Rescorla, L., Parker, R., & Stolley, P. (1991). Ability, achievement, and adjustment in homeless children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 61(2), 210–220. doi:10.1037/h0079236

Rubin, D.H., Erickson, C.J., San Agustin, M., Clear y, S.D., Allen, J.K., & Cohen, P. (1996). Cognitive and academic function- ing of homeless children compared with housed children. Pediatrics, 97(3), 289–294.

Sinatra, R. (2007). Literacy succes s with homeles s children. Journal of At-Risk Issues, 13(2), 1–9.

Sw ic k , K . J., & B a ile y, L .B. (2 0 0 4). C om munic at ion ef fe c - tively with parent s and families who are homeles s. Early Childhood Education Journal, 32(3), 211–215. doi:10.1023/ B:ECEJ.0000048975.59024.c4

Wheeler, T.R. (2008, March). An investigation of the literacy instruc- tional practices of two culturally responsive African American teachers. Paper pre sented at t he annual meeting of t he American Educational Research Association, New York City.

Zima, B.T., Wells, K.B., & Freeman, H.E. (1994). Emotional and behavioral problems and severe academic delays among sheltered homeless children in Los Angeles County. American Journal of Public Health, 84(2), 260–264.

Literature Cited Berck, J. (1992). No place to be: Voices of homeless children. New

York: Houghton Mifflin. Bunting, E. (1991). Fly away home. New York: Clarion. Gunning, M. (2004). A shelter in our car. San Francisco, CA:

Children’s Book Press.

Walker-Dalhouse teaches at Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA; e-mail doris.walker- [email protected]. Risko teaches at Vanderbilt University, Franklin, Tennessee, USA; e-mail [email protected].

References Books, S. (2004). Poverty and schooling in the U.S.: Contexts and

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Damico, J., & Riddle, R.L. (2004). From answers to questions: A beginning teacher learns to teach for social justice. Language Arts, 82(1), 36–46.

Duffield, B. (2001). The educational rights of homeless children: Policies and practices. Educational Studies, 32(3), 323–336.

Fantuzzo, J., & Periman, S. (2007). The unique impact of out-of- home placement and the mediating effects of child maltreat- ment and homelessness on early school success. Children and Youth Services Review, 29(7), 941–960. doi:10.1016/j .childyouth.2006.11.003

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Haberman, M. (1995). Star teachers of children in poverty. West Lafayette, IN: Kappa Delta Pi.

Hunt, R. (2007). Service-learning: An eye-opening experience that provokes emotion and challenges stereotypes. The Journal of Nursing Education, 46(6), 277–281.

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Morris, R.I., & Butt, R. (2003). Parents’ perspectives on home- lessness and its effects on the educational development of their children. The Journal of School Nursing, 19(1), 43–50. doi:10.1622/1059-8405(2003)019[0043:PPOHAI]2.0.CO;2

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The department editors welcome reader comments. Victoria J. Risko teaches at Vanderbilt University, Franklin, Tennessee, USA; e-mail [email protected]. Doris Walker- Dalhouse teaches at Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA; e-mail doris.walker- [email protected].