Instrument Critique - Needed ASAP

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator A Bridge Between Counseling and Consulting

Mary H. McCaulley Center for Applications of Psychological "type

This article concents the road counselors take

when they become consultants to organizations.

The focus is on that part of the transition when

counselors and organizations seem to be in dif-

ferent worlds. Jung's typology and the Myers—

Briggs Type Indicator® (MBTI) can be a bridge

between these worlds. The MBTI is based on valu-

able differences in the ways human beings use

their minds. The article discusses briefly the as-

sumptions of the MBTI and data about distribu-

tion of types of counselors and types of leaders in

organizations. Practical suggestions are included

for using type differences to build mutual respect,

better teamwork and problem solving, improved

communication, and higher productivity in the

workplace.

As the world enters a new century, mas-

sive changes in technology, education, eco-

nomics, and politics worldwide have changed

business organizations. Old covenants be-

tween companies and their workers change

as businesses downsize to meet international

competition. In an opposite trend, the cul-

ture that thought of workers as "hands"

changed in a technological society to pres-

sures for managers to select and retain scarce

brainpower. The last decade has demanded

that leaders develop people skills in commu-

nicating with workers, not just with custom-

ers. The changing world of organizations has

sought the insights of psychology. New pro-

fessions of business consultants and execu-

tive coaches appeared. This article is based

on three assumptions. First, the changing

world of organizations needs the insights of

psychology. Second, it is often difficult for

the business world to hear what counseling

has to teach and for counselors to understand

what the business world needs to learn. Third,

the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator®1 (MBTI)

can be a powerful tool for bridging the gap,

because it is based on basic differences in

the ways human beings take in information

and make decisions.

This article reviews Jung's theory of psy-

chological types and the MBTI, with special

attention to their theoretical bases and issues

of type development relevant to counseling.

Data on the MBTI type distributions for

counselors and for business managers show

where communications difficulties between

them are likely to occur. Examples of as-

sumptions of counselors and leaders in or-

ganizations illustrate type differences that ex-

plain why and where communication can be

difficult. Finally, suggestions to counselors

for using type theory and MBTI preferences

provide ways to improve communication

between psychological consultants and the

business world.

Mary H. McCaulley met Isabel Briggs Myers in

1969. They worked together until Myers's death in

1980. In 1975, they cofounded the nonprofit Cen-

ter for Applications of Psychological Type for re-

search and applications of the Myers-Briggs Type

Indicator.

This article was presented at the 104th Annual

Convention of the American Psychological Asso-

ciation, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, August 1996.

Correspondence concerning this article should

be addressed to Mary H. McCaulley, Center for Ap-

plications of Psychological Type, 2815 NW 13th

Street, Suite 401, Gainesville, Florida32609. Elec-

tronic mail may be sent to [email protected].

lMyers-Briggs Type Indicator and MBTI are

registered trademarks of Consulting Psychologists

Press, Inc., Palo Alto, California.

Copyright 2000 by the Educational Publishing Foundation and the DivWon of Consulting Psychology, 1061-4087/00/$5.<H>

DO! 10.1037//1061-4087.52.2.117 Consulting PiychaUgr Journal: Practice and Research, Vol. 52, No. 2,117-U2

117

C. G.Jung's Theory of Psychological Types

C. G. Jung (1921/1971) said in 1936 of

his psychological typology:

Its purpose is to provide a critical psychology

which will make methodical investigation and

presentation of the empirical material possible.

First and foremost it is a critical tool for the

research worker, who needs definite points of

view and guidelines if he is to reduce the cha-

otic profusion of individual experiences to any

kind of order.. .Secondly, a typology is a great

help hi understanding the wide variations that

occur among individuals, and it also furnishes

a clue to the fundamental difference in the psy-

chological theories now current. Last but not

least, it is an essential means for determining

the "personal equation" of the practicing psy-

chologist, who, armed with an exact knowl-

edge of his differentiated and inferior func-

tions, can avoid many serious blunders in

dealing with his patients, (p. 555)

Two Attitudes and Four Functions

Jung's typology assumes human beings

differ in their choice of two attitudes, or op-

posite directions for deploying mental energy,

and their preferences for four functions, or

basic mental powers.

The attitudes: Extroversion and Intro-

version. Extraverted types habitually fo-

cus their mental energy on the objects and

persons of the outer world. Introverted

types habitually focus their mental energy

on the concepts and ideas of the inner

world. Type development requires use of

both extraverted and introverted attitudes.

Jung was early in his focus on extraver-

sion and introversion. Later many psy-

chologists who have been serious about

describing human personality have iden-

tified extraversion and introversion. Most

researchers have treated extraversion-in-

troversion as a trait with extraversion at

one end, introversion at the other, and am-

biversion implied for low scores.

Jung did not see extraversion—introversion

as different poles of the same trait. For Jung,

each person is born to prefer extraversion or

to prefer introversion. These are qualitatively

different. Furthermore, the manifestation of

an attitude for any individual is colored by

the function most favored by that type. An

extraverted sensing type will show extraver-

sion differently from an extraverted think-

ing type. The introversion of an introverted

feeling type leads to quite different internal

and external life than the introversion of an

introverted intuitive type.

The four functions. Jung's typology also

assumes mat every human being uses four

basic mental processes or functions—two ir-

rational perceiving functions and two ratio-

nal judging functions. Sensation (sensing in

MBTI terminology) is the irrational function

that perceives what is—what can be seen,

touched, smelled, tasted, heard, or experi-

enced kinesthetically. Intuition is the irratio-

nal function that perceives hidden possibili-

ties in the background, pictures painted by

the imagination, abstractions that describe

components, or the theory that explains the

applications. Jung described intuition as per-

ception by way of the unconscious. He did

not intend his description of the perceiving

functions as irrational to be pejorative. What

one perceives just appears—it is not reasoned

out as are the conclusions from the rational func-

tions, thinking and feeling.

Jung's two rational judging functions use

the mind to draw conclusions about what has

been perceived by sensing or intuition. Think-

ing uses impersonal analysis and logic to rec-

ognize the meaning of our perceptions, and

feeling comes to rational conclusions by

weighing their value.

Much of the field of psychology is con-

cerned with introverted concepts perceived

with our intuition. We see, work with, and

even measure self-esteem, defensiveness,

alienation, and conscientiousness to the

bemusement of extraverted sensing types

who wonder how we can be so certain about

mere concepts that can't be seen or touched.

118 Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research Spring 2000

Type Preferences for Attitudes and Functions Are Inborn

Nature-nurture issues have been and con-

tinue to be important to psychologists ex-

plaining individual personality. Jung's theory

of psychological types gives precedence to

nature. In infancy, type preferences are un-

differentiated. Type development is a lifelong

journey toward consciousness and greater

differentiation along the inborn pathway for

one's type. The development of preferences

is affected by the support or discouragement

of families and the culture. Good support

leads to good type development. Lack of

support or outright suppression of prefer-

ences can lead to falsification of type. Jung

(1921/1971) wrote that falsification can in-

terfere with developing the gifts of that type:

"The individual becomes neurotic later and

can be cured only by developing the attitude

consonant with his nature.. .1 do not think it

improbable ...that a reversal of type often

proves exceedingly harmful to the physi-

ological well-being of the organism, usually

causing acute exhaustion" (pp. 332-333).

Type Dynamics: The Interrelationships of Attitudes and Functions

Type dynamics postulates that for each

type, the preferences for the four functions—

sensing, intuition, thinking, and feeling—

will be ranked from the favorite to the least

favorite: The first, or dominant, is the favor-

ite, most consciously developed function.

The dominant function gives direction and

predictability to one's life. The second, or

auxiliary, function provides balance to the

dominant so that the person can consciously

and efficiently direct energy both outward

(E) and inward (I) and can have a conscious

way for both perceiving (S or N) and judg-

ing (T or F). The tertiary, or third, function,

opposite to the auxiliary, is less available in

consciousness. The inferior, or fourth, func-

tion, opposite the dominant, is least con-

scious. The inferior may erupt under pres-

sure when one is beside oneself or may pro-

vide creative insights. Quenk (1993) de-

scribed type differences in manifestations of

the inferior function.

In Jung's model, everyone uses all four

functions daily. Because the dominant and

auxiliary functions are more conscious and

more differentiated, they take up most of the

energy. The less differentiated and less con-

scious tertiary and inferior functions are less

available, but they provide information that

would be missed if the person had access only

to the dominant and auxiliary functions.

Jung's description of type dynamics is

very different from much of our personality

research in psychology, which seeks to de-

scribe traits where the high end of the scale

assumes a person has much of the trait and

the low end has very little. We assume these

traits are distributed normally and most

people fall near the middle. Many times one

end of the scale is a good characteristic and

the low end of the scale is a deficit of some-

thing good (e.g., high self-esteem and low

self-esteem). Jung's theory, and the MBTI

based on Jung's theory, seeks to identify type

patterns, not traits. Type assumes dichoto-

mous preferences, not continuous prefer-

ences. The perception preference is not a

continuous scale with sensing at one end and

intuition at the other. A sensing type is not

an inferior intuitive, nor is an intuitive an

inferior sensate. Rather, the preferences are

better seen as two roads to excellence. On

the perception highway, one child is drawn

mainly to the sensing lane and becomes more

and more conscious of the richness of the

immediate environment. Another child is

more drawn to the intuitive lane and becomes

more and more conscious of unseen possi-

bilities and the world of imagination. The two

children develop qualitatively different inter-

ests and skills. Life will force each child to

take the less-preferred lane from time to time,

but the experiences on the preferred lane pro-

vide the most growth and satisfaction. I may

seem to belabor this point, but so much of

our research in psychology takes the trait

Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research

Spring 2000

119

rather than the type perspective that these are

the issues most often missed or debated by

users of the MBTI.

The MBTI

Although the MBTI is used worldwide,

many users do not understand the complexi-

ties of the theory or the instrument. Isabel

Myers and her mother, Katharine Briggs,

based their work directly on Jung's theory

of psychological types, and Isabel Myers's

solution of the problem of identifying type

dynamics is a major accomplishment in psy-

chometrics.

In her 1962 manual for the MBTI, Isabel

Myers introduced her work with these

words:

The purpose of the Indicator is to implement

Jung's theory of type [1923]. The gist of the

theory is that much apparently random varia-

tion in human behavior is actually quite or-

derly and consistent, being due to certain ba-

sic differences in the way people prefer to use

perception and judgment.

"Perception" is here understood to include the

processes of becoming aware,—of things, or

people or occurrences or ideas. "Judgment"

is understood to include the processes of com-

ing-to-conclusions about what has been per-

ceived. If people differ systematically in what

they perceive and the conclusions they come

to, they may as a result show corresponding

differences in their reactions, in their inter-

ests, values, needs, and motivations, in what

they do best and in what they like best to do.

Adopting this working hypotheses, the Indi-

cator aims to ascertain from self-report of eas-

ily reported reactions, people's basic prefer-

ences in regard to perception and judgment,

so that the effect of the preferences and their

combinations may be established by research

and put to practical use. (p. 1)

The MBTI was published by Educational

Testing Service in 1962 as a research instru-

ment. It was still little known in 1969 when

I met and began working with Isabel Myers.

Now it is an instrument with worldwide uses

in counseling, education, organizations, and

spiritual development. Counselors use the

MBTI in individual, group, and family coun-

seling and for issues of self-understanding,

communications, career planning, learning,

and life-long development. In education, the

MBTI is used by teachers in curriculum and

instruction to reach 16 types of learners.

MBTI applications in organizations include

team building, leadership development, im-

proving communication, career develop-

ment, outplacement, problem solving, qual-

ity, and managing change. Multicultural

applications are in the early stages, but al-

ready we find that Jungian types are surpris-

ingly similar worldwide, despite the prob-

lems of translation and the effects of culture.

The explosion of applications in the 24

years since the MBTI first appeared in the

1976 catalog of its second publisher, Con-

sulting Psychologists Press, has ranged

from uses with great sophistication and

depth to "cookbook" interpretations or

outright misuse. Other instruments have

been developed with the same four scales,

and individual types have their own chat

rooms on the Internet. My discussion of

the MBTI in this article is based on what

I learned from Isabel Myers during our

close working relationship from August

1969 until her death in May 1980. I have

learned from the research we did together

and the applications carried forward by the

non-profit center we founded—the Cen-

ter for Applications of Psychological Type.

With a bachelor's degree in political sci-

ence and no academic affiliation, this ge-

nius, working alone, created one of the

most theoretically and psychometrically

complex instruments I have ever worked

with. In the 1950s, she collected data on

over 5,000 medical students from 45 medi-

cal schools and followed up her sample

twice before together we followed it up in

the 1970s. Research on a major unfinished

part of her work on type development is

underway and scheduled for completion

in the new century.

120 Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research Spring 2000

The Four MBTI Preferences

The MBTI is a self-report, forced-choice

questionnaire, where choices between every-

day events are "straws in the wind" to indi-

cate the deeper Jungian dichotomies. The

MBTI scales indicate preferences for the fol-

lowing: (a) the attitudes of extraversion or

introversion (E or I), (b) the two functions

for perception—sensing or intuition (S or N),

(c) the two functions for judgment—think-

ing or feeling (T or F), and (d) the judging or

perceptive function (J or P). The latter scale

is Myers' additional scale to indicate whether

the judging or perceptive function is used in

the extraverted attitude. This scale is the key

to identifying the dominant, auxiliary, ter-

tiary, and inferior functions.

Jung described eight types, which take

into account the dominant functions for ex-

traverts and the dominant functions for in-

troverts . The MBTI describes 16 types by tak-

ing into account both the dominant and the

auxiliary processes mentioned by Jung but

worked out in detail by Myers.

The Type Formula

The most important unit of measurement

for the MBTI is the four-letter type formula

that indicates the choices for the four prefer-

ences plus their dynamic interaction. The

following two examples show how to read

the type formula for two opposite types:

ENFP and ISTJ.

A person with an ENFP type is often at-

tracted to occupations requiring understand-

ing people. A person with the ISTJ type is

often found in occupations requiring orga-

nization of numbers or objects. The dy-

namics for these two opposite types are

as follows.

ENFP. ENFP stands for the extraverted

intuition with feeling type (a frequent type

among counselors) and is characterized by

the following:

• Intuition—Dominant, most conscious,

extraverted

• Feeling—Auxiliary, balances intu-

ition, introverted

• Thinking—Tertiary, less conscious,

introverted

• Sensing—Inferior, least conscious, in-

troverted

ENFPs focus their dominant extraverted

intuition on new possibilities in the world

around them. They look around them (E) and

see many things to change (N)- They under-

stand people (F) and are always looking for

new possibilities to help them grow (NF).

They enthusiastically translate their insights

into action (EN). They are independent spir-

its (NP). Their inferior sensing shows in

weakness with details.

ISTJ. ISTJ stands for the introverted

sensing with thinking type (a frequent type

among business managers) and is character-

ized by the following:

• Sensing—Dominant, most conscious,

introverted

• Thinking—Auxiliary, balances sens-

ing, extraverted

• Feeling—Tertiary, less conscious, ex-

traverted

• Intuition—Inferior, least conscious,

extraverted

ISTJs focus their dominant introverted

sensing on understanding what is, not what

might be. They rely on their experience with

the details (S) of any operation and take these

into account to build efficiency (T). They

support change when there is a practical

problem to be solved or a way to improve an

existing system. ISTJs favor incremental (S)

change; they tend to be suspicious of revo-

lutionary (N) change. Their inferior intuition

shows in lack of imagination and a pessimis-

tic approach toward new possibilities.

ENFPs and ISTJs have to work at under-

standing and appreciating each other. What

is strongest for one is weakest for the other.

MBTI Type Descriptions

A major strength of the MBTI comes from

the type descriptions Isabel Myers wrote for

Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research

Spring 2000

121

each type. Each description begins with the

characteristics of the type at its best when

the dominant is well developed and then adds

the strengths from the auxiliary. The descrip-

tion is a kind of road map to the gifts of each

type. It ends with a comment on blind spots

if the auxiliary does not develop to balance

the dominant. The positive tone of the type

descriptions makes the MBTI more affirm-

ing than personality tests that focus on prob-

lems. When explaining type to clients, con-

sultants should make sure there is time for

the individual to understand the type prefer-

ences and then to decide if the MBTI type is

actually the best-fit type. Obviously, if the

type has been falsified, the task is to help

clients find their true path, not to push them

further in the falsified direction (Barr & Barr,

1994).

The preceding discussion of assumptions

in Jung's theory and the MBTI is designed

to clarify misunderstanding and criticisms of

the Indicator, mainly around the dichotomous

scores and Jung's model of type dynamics. One

may or may not agree with these assumptions,

but it is helpful to know what they are because

I use them in the rest of this article.

The Type Table: A Measure of MBTI

Types in Groups

In addition to information the MBTI pro-

vides about individuals, the MBTI also pro-

vides valuable information about groups.

MBTI type tables use a standard format to

identify similarities and differences for the

types in a group. Table 1 presents data on

types of managers in business and industry

in the United States. (Table 1 is very similar

to comparable samples of managers in gov-

ernment, law, and academia.) Table 2 pre-

sents data on types in fields of counseling.

The data come from the A tlos of Type Tables

(Macdaid et al., 1986), the MBTI Data Bank,

and research in the Isabel Briggs Myers Me-

morial Library at the Center for Applications

of Psychological Type in Gainesville,

Florida.

Table 1 and Table 2 obviously describe

very different populations. They are the ba-

sis of my position that when counselors de-

cide to become consultants to organizations,

they are entering a new culture. The follow-

ing section describes the format of data in

type tables and comments on the implica-

tions for consulting of the differences be-

tween the managers of Table 1 and the coun-

selors of Table 2.

Format of the Type Table

In the type tables, introverts (I) appear in

Rows 1 and 2, and extraverts (E) appear in

Rows 3 and 4. Sensing types (S) are shown

in Columns 1 and 2, and intuitive types (N)

are in Columns 3 and 4. Columns 1 and 4

list thinking types (T), and Columns 2 and

3 list feeling types (F). Judging types (J) ap-

pear in Rows 1 and 4, and perceiving types

(P) are in Rows 2 and 3.

The following comments about the fre-

quency of type preferences provide back-

ground for interpreting the data in Tables 1

and 2. When Isabel Myers wrote the 1962

manual, she assumed that extraverts were

about 75% of the population. Current data

are nearly equal. It has long been known that

introverts are more likely to seek higher edu-

cation than extraverts. Current estimates are

that sensing types account for 65% or more

of the U.S. population. The managers have

more sensing types, and the counselors

clearly have many more intuitive types. In

the preference for thinking or feeling, men

are more likely to prefer thinking and women

to prefer feeling. Business executives are

more likely to be male. Both gender and

habit of mind can be used to explain the

larger number of thinking types among man-

agers and the larger number of feeling types

among counselors. For managers, the deci-

sive judging types greatly outweigh perceiv-

ing types. For counselors, perceiving types

outnumber judging types. In the general

population, sensing types are more likely

to prefer J, and intuitive types are more

122 Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research Spring 2000

Table 1 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Percentages of Managers in Business and Industry in the United States

A Managers B Small Bus

C Retail

D Banking

E Telephone

F Inc. 500

G Accounting

H Supervisors

1 MidMgrs

I Executives

A Managers

B Small Bus

C Retail

D Banking

£ Telephone

F Inc. 500

C Accounting

H Supervisors

I MidMgrs

J Executives

A Managers

B Small Bus

C Retail

D Banking

E Telephone

F Inc. 500

G Accounting

H Supervisors

1 MidMgrs

I Executives

A Managers

B Small Bus C Retail

D Banking

E Telephone

F Inc. 500

G Accounting

H Supervisors

I MidMgrs

] Executives

ISTJ

ISTP 2.7|

6.71 1.3 I 3.8|

3.01 6.3 |

2.41 8.6 I 6.8 I 0.0

ESTP 2.71 7.3 | 2.51 4.2 I 4.0 |

5.71 1.9|

43 I

3.1 I 3.01

ESTJ

ISFJ 6.3 |

5.3 I 2.2 I 3.8 I 2.01

0.6 I 4.71

10.0 I 3.7 I 0.0

ISFP 2.5 • 2.0 •

0.3 I

2.1 • 2.01

1.9 • 2.4 • 2.9 • 1.2 I 0.0

ESFP 2.8 •

4.0 • 1.01 2.01 0.0

1.3 I 0.5 I 0.0 1.9 •

1.5 I

ESFJ

4.0 • 2.5 • 6.6MB

0.0 0.61 4.7 •§ 4.3 • 3.7 •

1.51

INFJ 3.1 • 1.31 0.3 I

1.1 I 0.0

0.6 I 0.51

2.9 • 3.1 • 1.51

INFP 4.6 •

0.0

0.0

2.8 • 1.01 3.8 •

2.4 • 4.3 • 3.7 • 1.51

ENFP

2.0 • 0.3 I 3.7 • 5.0 01 1.3 I 4.2 • 1.41 2.5 • 7.5 ••

ENFJ 4.9 Bi

0.0 0.3 I 2.9 • 2.01 3.1 • 2.8 • 7.9 ••§

2.5 • 4.5 •§

INTJ 5.6 I 2.71 3.2 |

4.9 I 8.9 |

113 I 6.1 I 5.71 9.91

10.41

WTP 3.6 • 0.71

1.61 33 •

3.0 • 4.7 • 3.8 • 2.9 • 4.3 •

10.4 •

ENTP 4.9 • 2.0|

1.61 6.6 • 6.9 •

11.3 • 3.8 •

2.9 • 6.2 •

10.4 •

ENTJ 10.1 I 5.3 I

10.1 I 9.7 I

17.3 I

13.81 9.41 7.1 I

11.2 I 20.9 I

Note. Numbers preceding bar graphs represent the percentage of the sample falling in that type. If the percentage

exceeds 20%, a plus sign follows the bar. Small Bus = small businesses; Inc. 500 = Inc. 500 company founders;

Mid Mgrs - middle managers; E = extraverted; I = introverted; S = sensing; N = intuition; T = thinking; F =

feeling; J = judging; P = perceiving. The individual tables from which these samples were drawn appear in the

chapter on Business and Management in the CAPT Atlas of Type Tables by Macdaid, McCaulley, and Kainz (1986).

Used by permission of the Center for Applications of Psychological Type, Inc., Gainesville, Florida.

Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research

Spring 2000

123

Table 2 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Percentages of Counselors in Different Fields

A General B Rehab. C Voc. & Ed. D School E Runaways F Crisis

G Psychodrama H Social Work I Psychology

A General B Rehab. C Voc. S> Ed. D School E Runaways F Crisis C Psychodrama H Social Work I Psychology

A General B Rehab. C Voc. & Ed. D School £ Runaways T Crisis

G Psychodrama H Social Work

I Psychology

A General B Rehab. C Voc. & Ed. D School E Runaways F Crisis G Psychodrama H Social Work

I Psychology

ISTJ

6.7 BBI 5.1 tm 7.4 BBI

5.6 BB

2.6 • 3.4 • 2.9 • 8.6 MM 3.0 •

ISTP

1.9 • 3.4 • 1.51 1.41 1.71 0.41 0.0

1.01 1.51

ESTP

1.61 1.71 1.01 1.41 3.4 • 1.51 0.0 1.51 0.51

ESTJ

7.1 BBi

7.9 BBI

8.6 BBB 8.4 BBB 2.51 3.0 • 1.21 6.3 BBI 2.7 B

ISFJ

6.2MB 7.3 BBI 6.4 BBI 5.9 BBI 6.8 BBI 5.3 BB 2.41 7.9 BBB 2.5 •

ISFP

2.9 • 4.5 Bl

2.2 • 2.41 7.7 BBI 0.81 1.21 2.5 • 1.2 1

ESFP

3.9 • 6.2 BBI 3.9 • 4.2 • 1.71 2.3 • 1.81 4.6 Bl 1.21

ESFJ

7.0 BBI

5.7 BB 7.6 BBI 9.4BBBI 3.4 • 6.5 BBI 3.5 • 6.5 BBI 2.2 •

INFJ

6.0 BBI 5.1 BB 5.0 Bl 4.9 Bl 3.4 • 9.5BBB1

11.8 BBBB1

8.1 BBB:

7.0 BBI

INFP

11.9BBBB1

11.3 •••• 11.3 ••••

13.0 •••• 18.8 ••••••• 15.7 •••••• 9.4 •••

11.5 •••• 14.7BBBBH

ENFP

17.7 •••••• 20.3 ••••••• + 16.8 ••••••

18.5 •••••• 19.7 •••••••

17.2 •••••• 29.4 ••••••• + 15.2 ••••Bl 18.4 ••••••

ENFJ

10.2 ••• 6.2MB

10.9MMMB

11.9 MMMMI 12.0MMMMI

12.6 BBMMB 12.9 MMMMI

7.7 MMB 8.2 MMM

INTJ

3.7 • 3.4 • 3.1 • 1.71 1.7 I 2.7 • 2.9 • 4.4 Mi

10.7 BBMI

HTTP

3.4 • 4.0 Ml 3.6 Ml 1.41 fi.OMMI

6.5 MM 4.7MB 5.0MB H.5HMM

ENTP

4.6 Ml 4.5 Ml 4.8 Ml 4.9 tm 4.3 Ml 6.1 MM! 7.1 MBi 4.6 Bl 6.0 MB)

ENTJ

5.2 BB 3.4 • 5.9 BB!

5.2 BB 4.3 Bl 6.5 BBI 8.8 BBB 4.6 Bl

11.7BBBB1

Note. Numbers preceding bar graphs represent the percentage of the sample falling in that type. If the percentage

exceeds 20%, a plus sign follows the bar. Rehab. = rehabilitation; Voc, & Ed. = vocational and educational; E =

extraverted; I = introverted; S = sensing; N = intuition; T = thinking; F = feeling; J = judging; P = perceiving. The

individual tables from which these samples were drawn appear in the chapter on Counseling and Mental Health in

the CAPT Atlas of Type Tables by Macdaid, McCaulley, and Kainz (1986). Used by permission of the Center for

Applications of Psychological Type, Inc., Gainesville, Florida.

124 Consulting Psychology Journal- Practice and Research

Spring 2000

likely to prefer P. Because sensing types

are in the majority, the SJs are frequent

types.

Groupings of the Types

The type table can also be analyzed using

groups of four types. Six such groupings are

valuable for comparing counselor-consult-

ants and business leaders.

The four combinations of perception and

judgment—ST, SF, NF, and NT. Isabel

Myers considered these the most important

for career satisfaction. In theory, the ideal

career calls on you to use your preferred way

of perceiving (and thus is intrinsically inter-

esting) and requires decisions using your pre-

ferred way of judging (and thus is intrinsi-

cally satisfying). Her names for the four type

groupings follow.

Column 1: ST—"Practical and matter-

of-fact types." ST types use sensing to grasp

what is present, real, and tangible and use

thinking for impersonal analysis of causes

and effects of decisions. They have special

interests and skills in hands-on work with

things and numbers, such as production, con-

struction, accounting, and business. Manag-

ers have more ST types than counselors.

Column 2: SF—"Sympathetic and friend-

ly types." SF types use sensing to grasp

what is present, real, and tangible, and use

feeling to weigh the values involved, to fac-

tor in the so-called people side. SF types have

special interests and skills in caring for

people—teaching children or working in

hands-on health care, sales, and service.

Neither table has many SF types, though

counselors outnumber managers. Some

might predict that the counseling profession,

with concerns for understanding and help-

ing people, would attract more sympathetic

and friendly types than appear in Table 2. An

SF explained to me why not: "When I see

someone is in trouble I do something! I go offer to take care of their kids or bring them

soup. You psychologists just sit around and

talk to them."

Column 3: NF—"Enthusiastic and in-

sightful types." NF types are often referred

to as the communication types. They use in-

tuition to see possibilities, abstractions, im-

ages, theories, and nuances of meanings.

They use feeling to weigh the values in-

volved, to factor in the people side. Their

special interests are in communication

through words, symbols, and the arts. They

emphasize possibilities for people. The dra-

matic differences in the small number of

communication types in managers and the

large number in counselors suggests an op-

portunity and a challenge for the counselors

who enter consulting.

Column 4: NT— "Logical and ingenious

types." NT types use intuition to see pos-

sibilities, images, theories, and nuances of

meaning. They use thinking to analyze causes

and effects of decisions impersonally. Their

special interests lie in research, science, and

strategic or long-range planning. Managers

have more NTs than counselors, but the dis-

tributions are close.

The tough-minded TJ types. The TJ

types in the four corners of the type table are

the tough-minded, logical decision makers.

They are analytical and objective (T) and de-

cisive and organized (J). On type tables for

managers in organizations, the four corners

may be as high as 60% to 90%. Counselor

samples have 30% or less of the tough-

minded TJs.

The independent, spontaneous NP

types. Table 2 has a clear majority of in-

tuitive types. More of them prefer perceiv-

ing to judging. These are the types who

seek out new possibilities (N) and enjoy

change (P). They are independent spirits,

and they are the types least likely to think

within the box.

Contrasting Viewpoints of

Counselors and Leaders in

Organizations

Counselors enter a new culture when

they choose to consult with organizations.

Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research

Spring 2000

125

Although psychological training requires

analytical analysis and research, Table 2

shows that most counselors are from a

culture that values the insight of intuition,

the empathy of feeling, and the spontane-

ity of perceiving.

Counselors come to consulting with as-

sumptions about and values for clients, such

as the following:

• The integrity and value of human be-

ings is a given.

• People can change for the better.

• Prevention is better than cure.

• Life is complex; there are no simple

answers.

• Long-range approaches are probably

better than short term quick fixes.

• Valuable qualities are self esteem, in-

dependent thinking, self-direction,

openness of expression, communica-

tion skills, and interest in life-long

learning.

• Change is an interesting challenge.

In MBTI terms, these are examples of

intuition primarily, and feeling second-

arily. Counselors take for granted the im-

portance of their assumptions and knowl-

edge. These describe the tools of their

trade. Consulting will challenge many of

their assumptions.

Counselors Enter New Territory

When They Consult With

Organizations

Table 1 and Table 2 describe two very dif-

ferent cultures. From the type perspective,

what can one expect as assumptions and val-

ues in organizations managed by TJ types?

Here are examples of assumptions and

frames of minds of the leaders in Table 1: • Hierarchical structures and chain of

command are taken seriously.

• Behavior is governed by rules and

regulations.

• Be fair. Treat all the same—less inter-

est in individuality and feelings. • Communication is on a need-to-know

basis, otherwise it's a waste of time.

• Move fast or the opportunity will be

lost. Don't waste time thinking about

it.

• There is a natural tendency to be ob-

jective, analytical, and decide quickly.

Tell, don't ask.

• Announce, don't inspire.

• The bottom line governs, often the next

quarter's bottom line.

• People are needed for group effort and

should submerge individuality on the

job.

• Decisions come from the top and are

implemented according to the plan

from the top.

• Be brief and businesslike on the job:

No long-winded reports. Get to the

point.

• Psychological variables are not under-

stood or considered important.

• In order to be taken seriously, dress and

behave formally.

• Toughness and power are important.

How, then, do managers in the tough-

minded, analytical, competitive culture of

Table 1 and the insightful, human develop-

ment communicators of Table 2 come to un-

derstand and respect each other? The chal-

lenge goes both ways.

Think for a moment of the implications

of these data for counselors entering consult-

ing at this time of business globalization.

Business leaders are being told to "Become

more adaptable." "Become more open to

change." "Less top-down decision making!"

"Delegate decisions to teams." "Use the in-

telligence of your people more." "Be more

creative in meeting challenges." "We need

transformational leadership!" "Communi-

cate, communicate, communicate!"

From the type perspective, outsiders are saying to executives, "Give up the SJ and TJ

structures that have served you so well. You

need to use more NF and NP skills. Your

hard-earned experience is no guide to the

future. Your systems that created quality products are irrelevant."

126 Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research Spring 2000

The management literature these days has

a strong extraverted-intuitive bias. It talks

about big leaps and paradigm shifts. Many

of the new and imaginative theories, of

course, are being developed by intuitive

types, NF and NT. Intuitives are good at vi-

sioning, but details and common sense are

not their strong suit, intuitive leaders tend to

explain the new vision in global terms. The

conservative, dependable SJ types will natu-

rally start asking, "What about my work?

What do I drop? What do I keep doing?"

"Why do we have to change? How? When?"

The tendency of the new intuitive leader (or

the new consultant) is to say something like,

"At this point, we are just telling you the gen-

eral direction (N). We can work out the de-

tails as we go along. It's really perfectly

clear."

I was recently talking with a business con-

sultant, who told me that the most frequent

question he hears from intuitive managers

is, "I have a magnificent plan, well-reasoned,

far-reaching and strategic. Why can't people

see it? How do I get people to buy in and

just get on board?"

The UBTI Problem-Solving Model

The MBTI problem-solving model,

known familiarly as the "Zig-Zag," can be a

powerful tool for reducing communication

barriers and for the important goal of bring-

ing people on board early so that they have

ownership of new plans. Briefly, the Zig-Zag

working group addresses a problem using the

four functions systematically:

S: What are the facts of the issue? What

needs to be known? (Sensing types provide

the best input in the fact-finding stage.)

N: What are the implications? Future

possibilities? (Intuitives provide the best in-

put in this brainstorming stage.)

T: What would be the effects of adopting

different possibilities? Logical outcomes?

Unintended consequences? (Thinking types

contribute their best input in this analytical

stage.)

F: What would be the impact of the deci-

sion on the values at stake? People? (Feeling

types contribute their best input in this evalu-

ative stage.)

In theory, a good plan should rest on a

solid assessment of the facts (S), open new

possibilities (N), stand up under logical

analysis (T), and be the best for people and

consistent with the organization's values (F).

Along the way, introverted energy (I) will

make sure the concepts are clear, and extra-

verted energy (E) will make sure there is an

action plan. Perceptive energy (P) will keep

options open until the ground is covered thor-

oughly, and judging energy (J) will make sure

the process comes to closure. When well

done, the Zig-Zag is an example of the posi-

tive effects of using the MBTI as a consult-

ing tool.

Communicating in a Time of Change

MBTI data give us a model for under-

standing the changes going on in organiza-

tions. Essentially, the STJ structures that built

efficient manufacturing do not go far enough.

The NF and NP processes that have been

undervalued are now needed to bring adapt-

ability and the concerns of people into deci-

sion making.

The MBTI provides a practical model for

teaching why people who intend to work to-

gether often frustrate or talk past one an-

other. Let us consider an example. When

John, who is arguing for giving more weight

to the pressures of the external business en-

vironment, confronts Joe, who is arguing for

the basic ideas at issue, both have new in-

sights when they see that John is presenting

the extraverted position and Joe the intro-

verted viewpoint. Or when Sam takes time

going over each detail of "the way we have

always done it" and Pauline can only see that

the organization needs to grasp new possi-

bilities, they begin to listen to each other

with more understanding and respect when

they truly understand that Sam's sensing and

Pauline's intuition provided two different and

Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research

Spring 2000

127

important pictures of the issue. And when Bill is accused of being cold and insensitive in a decision and Elizabeth is criticized for making exceptions to the rules and is there- fore unfair to "the people who do the work," they can discuss the decision more construc- tively when taught to use their thinking to analyze the situation objectively and their feeling to weigh the values involved. The Zig-Zag encourages mutual respect and the constructive use of differences. Feel-

ing types and sensing types, who have of- ten felt out of place in the old corporate cultures, are now treated with more respect and gain confidence in themselves. Partici- pants broaden their skills but are not asked to change their personalities. Changes learned in the Zig-Zag carry over to other situations.

Think what we are asking when the world tells the solid, dependable SJs and the tough- minded TJs that they need to develop NFP imagination, flexibility, and people skills. Think what it would mean if the situation were reversed. Pretend we counselors are in a changing world where absolute structure and control are necessary to sustain life. We must cut off our imagination. We must fo- cus on the immediate situation. No more trusting intuitive insights. We must trans- form ourselves into people who have a task, who keep their eyes on that task, who ask "How?" but not "Why?" or "What if?" And we must be happy, motivated, productive people as we live our new life. For us, the new life would be like prison. For the STJs being asked to focus on acting as imagina- tive, flexible, caring NFP people, their new life would seem like living on an uncharted, incomprehensible, unsubstantial cloud.

The Transition From Counselor to Consultant

In much of our education and relation- ships with colleagues, counselors are in a world of NFs talking to other NFs. Unlike engineering, where sensing and intuitive

types are more evenly balanced, we have few sensing psychologists to question our basic assumptions. In fact, I worry that we psychologists are so alike that we may be missing opportunities to develop treat- ments that would help the sensing major- ity of our population. Unless our clients teach us, as clients always do, we may look at the world through our mainly intuitive, especially NF, lens and come to consult- ing with assumptions we have taken for granted.

Counselors bring to consulting valuable skills in listening (P), information gather-

ing (P), establishing rapport (F), diagnos- ing (N), and communicating (ENF). We learn how to address differences of opin- ion, a necessary tool in a business world of thinking types, who tend to be naturally skeptical, especially of so-called soft sci- ence.

Together, the training and type prefer- ences of counselors provide the concepts, theories, and research results that serve as our tools as consultants. We see patterns and connections between verbal and non- verbal behaviors, between history and present problems, and in ego development and the effects of stage of life. Our intu- ition provides clinical insights about people. We have learned from experience when our intuition is trustworthy.

A good counselor can have excellent one-to-one skills in working with indi- vidual clients but will need a whole other subset of knowledge, skill, and perspec- tives for insights to be trustworthy in a dif- ferent specialty. When experience is sound enough, the counselor can say, "1 knew if I followed my gut response my interven- tion would be on target." Tables 1 and 2 show that consulting requires a bigger leap of new experience than moving from work with individuals to work with couples. The following suggestions from successful consulting psychologists describe the new k n o w l e d g e , s k i l l s , and perspectives needed when counselors enter consulting.

128 Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research Spring 2000

Learn the Structure of the Organization

What does the organization truly feel

like? Listen, watch, and learn how the sys-

tem works. Study the structure and the

people. What customs has it inherited? Learn

the specific ST knowledge needed to "cre-

dential" the consultant—the language of the

workplace, the vocabulary and shorthand

terms, and the unwritten rules.

Discover the big picture NT rules at work

in the organization or in the industry in gen-

eral. Try on the corporate view. Look at

people in terms of the organization's needs,

not as individuals. Remember the impor-

tance of stockholders. What behaviors are

influenced by competition? What does it

mean to "live with the sharks"? The more

counselors learn about the culture of the or-

ganization in which they consult, the more

accurate their intuitive insights will be.

Patterns of Understanding

Counselors learning to be consultants can

be taken aback when they have to describe

or defend the truth or relevance of ideas they

take for granted. For example, it is a given

for counselors that communication is valu-

able. It is obvious to them that giving and

receiving information will increase the wis-

dom of decisions and the dedication of the

workforce reaching new goals. Consultants

are taken aback to hear clients say, "Com-

munication wastes work time," "Don't ask,

tell," or "Just send out an announcement to

those who need to know." If one assumes

the situation is one where the counselor is

right, the MBTI can be a useful tool. Here is

an example of using the MBTI to teach a

point about communication.

In the 1950s, Edward N. Hay, personnel

director of a large Philadelphia Bank,

learned about the unpublished MBTI from

a neighbor, Isabel Briggs Myers. His staff

started using type to transfer "misfits" to

jobs where they would be more successful.

In the 1960s, I heard him tell the Philadel-

phia Industrial Relations Association, "If the

person you are talking to is tuned in to facts

and figures, it is stupid of you to transmit

on hearts and flowers." MBTI translation:

"If you are an NF talking to an ST, translate

from NF to ST language. You are supposed

to have the NF skills to do it. STs are not."

(In later years Edward N. Hay started what

is now an international consulting firm

whose consultants still use the MBTI.)

The Biases in Appreciating One's

Own Gifts

Members of all types live their type so

naturally that they may discount the gifts of

their own type. What comes so easily is taken

for granted as normal. For example, the

training and type preferences of counselors

makes them assume that it is normal to see

what is going on within and between indi-

viduals, to stay open to the process, and to

facilitate change. It is so easy that everyone

must know how to do it. For an NFP cul-

ture, being a good communicator and being

able to read people is a given, no big thing.

Those without these skills may even be seen

as less intelligent. Even further, we may not

appreciate the gifts of another type. For ex-

ample, NFPs may not be aware of the gifts

of STJs, who take a chaos of material and

seemingly effortlessly get all the facts in

good order. When an NFP is frustrated by

requests of an STJ to spell out the facts un-

derlying his or her vision, the NFP may not

see the importance of those facts and dis-

miss the STJs as merely so-called bean

counters.

When counselors move into the TJ con-

sulting world, they will be in a culture of TJ

assumptions that it is easy and normal to be

orderly, fair, logical, and accountable. These

qualities do not come easily to NFP counse-

lors. The message for counselors is clear: It

is strategically wise to look "normal" in a

TJ world. Write brief reports. Learn to talk

bottom-line facts. Meet deadlines.

Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research

Spring 2000

129

Administering and Interpreting the MBTI in Consulting

Psychologists use many psychological

diagnostic instruments in their roles as

consultants.

Table 1 alerts us to expect that thinking

types in organizations will be skeptical of

psychological tests. They may or may not

voice questions such as "Will the test show

1 am crazy?" "Who will know the results?"

"Will the boss know? Could it affect my

job?" "Will it show anything useful, or am I

wasting my time?" "Is it safe to tell it like it

is?" Consultants who use psychological tests

are very aware of the need to establish and

maintain trust and confidentiality.

It can seem at first that the MBTI is im-

mune from these concerns. After all, the

MBTI is about normal people. It describes

different kinds of excellence. It does not de-

scribe psychopathology. In actual fact, how-

ever, issues of trust and confidentiality are

as important, or even more important, for

the MBTI. Powerful learnings can come

from being willing to share perspectives in

type-alike groups. Work teams who know

each others' type can use the information to

strengthen communications.

The assumption that type will be shared

is not part of Table 1 's TJ culture. How does

the counselor balance privacy and confiden-

tiality against the valuable learning that oc-

curs if people share knowledge of their type?

Here are guidelines for keeping the balance.

Answering the MBTI is optional. Inter-

pretation of results, individually or in a

group, includes a clear description of the

theory and preferences, a written descrip-

tion of the type reported, and an opportu-

nity to validate whether or not the reported

type is the best fit. As the MBTI spreads

through an organization and is used with

teams, the consultant should make sure that

individuals give permission for sharing re-

sults on a type table or in type-alike groups.

In actual practice, when the MBTI is well

taught, most people are pleased to share

type information. Consultants need to be

prepared, however, for accommodating

those who are not willing to share their

types. If all goes well, the MBTI spreads

through an organization and newcomers

learn from the grapevine that the MBTI is

interesting, valuable, and safe. Then, the

consultant is drawn into more sophisti-

cated applications and the MBTI becomes

a more powerful consulting tool. Re-

sources for using the MBTI in organiza-

tions include Barger and Kirby (1995),

Barr and Barr (1994), Demarest (1997),

Fields and Reid (1999), Hirsh (1992),

Myers, McCaulley, Quenk, and Hammer,

(1998), Pearman (1998, 1999), and Quenk

(1993).

Explaining Type Dynamics

Counselor-consultants should understand

type dynamics but may or may not use type

dynamics explicitly with clients. However,

in normal MBTI feedback, it is often useful

to talk about dynamics in concrete, behav-

ioral terms. Issues will arise about what

comes easily (dominant and auxiliary func-

tion abilities) and what is hard (tertiary and

inferior function abilities.) For example, an

INTJ is upset and depressed over a serious

factual error. The consultant can explain that

excellence for an INTJ comes from devel-

opment of intuition and thinking. The energy

for this development has been at the expense

of less favored sensing and feeling. The fo-

cus on the richness of imagination and in-

sight has logically left less energy for devel-

opment of sensing. The mistake was not

evidence of stupidity. Details simply are not

on the INTJ radar screen. The INTJ's great-

est contributions will come from the rich-

ness of his developed intuition. When sens-

ing is needed, he will benefit by consciously

paying extra attention to details in any im-

portant activity. The message is that being

less competent in the sensing and feeling

functions is logical because the dominant

intuition and auxiliary thinking have mo-

130 Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research Spring 2000

nopolized the psychic energy. Forgiving him-

self about guilt over weakness with details,

followed by a plan to counteract it, lets him

move on quickly without defensiveness.

Avoiding Misuses of Type

The consultant needs to remain alert for

misuses of type. Most misuses come from

an implicit assumption that every member

of a type has all the assets of a well-devel-

oped example of the type. Therefore it is rea-

sonable to use type as the criterion for hiring

or job placement or membership on a team.

The MBTI indicates preferences, not skills.

Most careers have more of the types that in

theory should find that career attractive.

However, all 16 types can be found in all

careers. Career counselors know that some

people choose careers where they have few

kindred spirits for the challenge of bringing

new perspectives; other people find them-

selves unhappy inadvertent pioneers. The

type distributions in Tables 1 and 2 are a good

example. However, it is not appropriate to

assume all ESTJs will make excellent man-

agers but poor psychologists or that all

ENFPs will make good psychologists but

poor managers. Counselors understand this,

of course, but they will find managers who

want the so-called practical benefits of us-

ing the MBTI in hiring or in making assign-

ments based on type alone.

The MBTI is much more complex than it

looks. It is essential that those introducing

type know it well and describe all the types

evenhandedly. I have met consultants whose

plans to introduce the MBTI were rebuffed

because of a previous experience in the com-

pany where the MBTI was introduced

stereotypically and with statements that some

types are better than others.

Final Comments on the

Two Cultures

The MBTI as a consulting tool has ad-

vantages not shared by most psychological

diagnostic measures. The questions are less

invasive—though they may be seen as too

trivial to be relevant to management. The

basic constructs are readily recognized in

everyday life. People already are familiar

with the differences between outgoing and

quiet people, between practical and innova-

tive people, between tough-minded and

warm-hearted people, and between orga-

nized and spontaneous people. The type de-

scriptions in everyday language focus on

type at its best and set the stage for appre-

ciation of "gifts differing." Organizations

find that as type becomes widely known in

an organization, respect for differences in-

creases, teams seek out the viewpoints of

team members different from themselves,

and type language becomes part of dialogue

(e.g., "Will you extraverts give us introverts

some air time?" and "We have some good

possibilities. Let's focus on the practical

details that could get in the way or make it

work."). To the TJ world of organizations,

the MBTI provides a clear, (deceptively)

simple, logical model for understanding the

people side of business. Consultants who

learn to understand and respect the TJ cul-

ture of organizations use the MBTI as a very

useful tool to do the following:

• encourage and teach communication;

• show managers that communication

saves money by reducing mistakes and

improving morale, especially in times

of change;

• use counseling skills to show TJ man-

agers how to understand and express

feeling; and

• help rare types to see how their being

different can be an asset, not a liability.

From my admittedly biased viewpoint as

a psychologist, I see many ways in which we

have very important contributions to make

through consulting with organizations. To do

so, we'll need to open our own minds and

stretch our understanding. We have a major

challenge to translate what we see into the

language of the majority. We need to value

our insights and face up to our blind spots.

Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research

Spring 2000

131

Jung (1921/1971) has given us a power-

ful model "to answer the need for some kind

of order among the chaotic multiplicity of

points of view" (p. xiv). Isabel Myers has

given us a sophisticated tool to make Jung's

theory understandable and useful in people's

lives. Many MBTI users have led the way to

use type in organizations. Counselors who

wish to expand their counseling skills into

consulting will find the MBTI a valuable tool

to help the organizations and the people

within them gain greater respect for their dif-

ferences, work together more productively,

and develop as individuals.

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