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Journal List Mol Autism v.2; 2011 PMC3123633

Mol Autism. 2011; 2: 8.

Published online May 24, 2011. doi:  10.1186/2040­2392­2­8

PMCID: PMC3123633

A quantitative association study of SLC25A12 and restricted

repetitive behavior traits in autism spectrum disorders

Soo­Jeong Kim,  Raquel M Silva,  Cindi G Flores,  Suma Jacob,  Stephen Guter,  Gregory Valcante,  Annette M Zaytoun,  Edwin H Cook,  and Judith A Badner

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Abstract

Background

SLC25A12 was previously identified by a linkage­directed association analysis in autism. In this study, we investigated the relationship between three SLC25A12 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) (rs2056202, rs908670 and rs2292813) and restricted repetitive behavior (RRB) traits in autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), based on a positive correlation between the G allele of rs2056202 and an RRB subdomain score on the Autism Diagnostic Interview­Revised (ADI­R).

Methods

We used the Repetitive Behavior Scale­Revised (RBS­R) as a quantitative RRB measure, and conducted linear regression analyses for individual SNPs and a previously identified haplotype (rs2056202­rs2292813). We examined associations in our University of Illinois at Chicago­ University of Florida (UIC­UF) sample (179 unrelated individuals with an ASD), and then attempted to replicate our findings in the Simons Simplex Collection (SSC) sample (720 ASD families).

Results

In the UIC­UF sample, three RBS­R scores (ritualistic, sameness, sum) had positive associations with the A allele of rs2292813 (p = 0.006­0.012) and with the rs2056202­rs2292813 haplotype (omnibus test, p = 0.025­0.040). The SSC sample had positive associations between the A allele of rs2056202 and four RBS­R scores (stereotyped, sameness, restricted, sum) (p = 0.006­0.010), between the A allele of rs908670 and three RBS­R scores (stereotyped, self­ injurious, sum) (p = 0.003­0.015), and between the rs2056202­rs2292813 haplotype and six RBS­R scores (stereotyped, self­injurious, compulsive, sameness, restricted, sum)(omnibus test, p = 0.002­0.028). Taken together, the A alleles of rs2056202 and rs2292813 were consistently and positively associated with RRB traits in both the UIC­UF and SSC samples, but the most significant SNP with phenotype association varied in each dataset.

Conclusions

This study confirmed an association between SLC25A12 and RRB traits in ASDs, but the direction of the association was different from that in the initial study. This could be due to the examined SLC25A12 SNPs being in linkage disequilibrium with another risk allele, and/or genetic/phenotypic heterogeneity of the ASD samples across studies.

Background

Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are characterized by qualitative impairments in reciprocal social interaction and communication, and by the presence of restricted repetitive behavior

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Autism as a strongly genetic disorder: evidence from a British twin study. [Psychol Med. 1995]

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(RRB) [1]. ASDs are highly heritable complex genetic disorders with rare variants, oligogenic inheritance, and interactions between susceptibility alleles [2­8]. The heterogeneity of ASDs makes it difficult to identify risk alleles, but also supports the validity of a model that requires more than one genetic variant to contribute to the full syndrome of autism [9,10]. SLC25A12 (solute carrier family 25 member 12; OMIM *603667) on chromosome 2q24 encodes aralar, a mitochondrial aspartate­glutamate carrier isoform 1 (AGC1) protein. SLC25A12 spans about 110 kb. SLC25A12 was initially identified as an autism­susceptibility gene through a linkage­ directed association study and replication [11­14]. For instance, two independent groups reported overtransmission of the G alleles of two SLC25A12 SNPs in intron 3 (rs2056202) and intron 16 (rs2292813) in autism families [12,13]. Other groups also reported overtransmission of the G allele of either rs2056202 [11] or rs2292813 [14], or undertransmission of the A­A haplotype of rs2056202­rs2292813 [14] in autism families. Most recently, the G allele of rs908670, another SLC25A12 SNP in intron 8, showed an evidence for overtransmission in a genome­wide association study (GWAS) by the Autism Genome Project (AGP) Consortium (p = 0.0006 in combined AGP, Autism Genetic Resource Exchange (AGRE), and Study on Addiction: Genetics and Environment (SAGE) samples) [15]. However, not all studies have found evidence for association between SLC25A12 and autism [16­19]. This conflicting data may be explained by differences in phenotypic characteristics and/or genetic heterogeneity across study samples.

Interestingly, Silverman et al. (2008) examined the correlation between SLC25A12 and phenotypic data obtained from the Autism Diagnostic Interview­Revised (ADI­R), and found a positive correlation between the G allele of rs2056202 and an RRB­related subdomain, the 'routines and rituals' score [20]. This subdomain consists of two ADI­R items: 'verbal rituals' and 'compulsion/ritualistic behavior'. However, apart from the Silverman study, no other studies have examined the association between SLC25A12 and quantitative RRB traits.

In the present study, we hypothesized that SLC25A12 may confer risk for quantitative RRB traits in ASDs. We tested this hypothesis by examining associations between three SLC25A12 SNPs (rs2056202, rs908670 and rs2292813) and the Repetitive Behavior Scale­Revised (RBS­R), a quantitative measure of RRB. We examined associations first in our University of Illinois at Chicago­University of Florida (UIC­UF) sample (179 unrelated people with an ASD), and then attempted to replicate our findings in the Simons Simplex Collection (SSC) sample (720 ASD families). Because the SSC sample has parental genotype data available for these SNPs, we also examined transmission disequilibrium using family­based association tests.

Methods

Subjects and assessment

UIC­UF sample

This study was approved by the UIC and UF Institutional review boards (IRBs). All participants were provided with a description of the study before informed consent was obtained. The study participants (179 unrelated people with an ASD) were recruited mainly from two geographical regions (UIC sample from the Chicago, Illinois area; UF sample from north central Florida).

All UIC participants were assessed with the ADI­R [21] and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) [22]. For this report, we required all subjects to meet ASD or autism classification on both ADI­R and ADOS, along with a best­estimate diagnosis of an ASD (i.e., autistic disorder, Asperger disorder, or pervasive developmental disorder­not otherwise specified) by the criteria of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision (DSM­IV­TR) [1]. We excluded probands with an insufficient DNA sample for genotyping, and/or who lacked RBS­R data. In total, 88 probands (75 male, 13 female; mean age 8.3 ± 4.8 years) were identified as meeting the above criteria as of the data freeze on 1 December 2009, coinciding with data submission to National Database for Autism Research. In this group, 64.8% of participants were white; 6.8% were on concurrent psychotropic medications (these subjects were excluded from the neurochemical analyses of Autism Centers of Excellence (ACE) but were included for this report); and 72.7% were classified as 'strictly defined autism', as they met the autism classification on both ADI­R and ADOS. There were seven missing RBS­R data points (completion rate of 99.8%). These missing data points were treated as 'missing' for both affected subscale and sum scores.

For the UF sample, the inclusion criteria were chronological age between 6 and 18 years, clinical diagnosis of an ASD, sufficient DNA sample available for genotyping, and an absence of any specific genetic diagnosis. Because the UF sample was recruited primarily from a mail survey study, an independent validation of the clinical diagnoses was not conducted, therefore, we used the Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ) [23] and excluded anyone with an SCQ total score less than 15 in this report, as a validation study had suggested that the SCQ discriminated

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An analysis of candidate autism loci on chromosome 2q24­q33: evidence for association to the STK39 gene.[Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2008]

Mitochondrial aspartate/glutamate carrier SLC25A12 gene is associated with autism. [Autism Res. 2008]

Linkage and association of the mitochondrial aspartate/glutamate carrier SLC25A12 gene with[Am J Psychiatry. 2004]

Confirmation of association between autism and the mitochondrial aspartate/glutamate carrier SLC25A12[Am J Psychiatry. 2005]

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Association study of the SLC25A12 gene and autism in Han Chinese in Taiwan.[Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2010]

Autism­related routines and rituals associated with a mitochondrial aspartate/glutamate carrier SLC25A12[Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2008]

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well between patients with ASD and those with non­ASD, with a sensitivity of 0.85 and a specificity of 0.75 [24]. The UF sample consisted of 91 subjects with an ASD (75 male, 16 female; mean age 10.8 ± 3.6 years); 74.7% were white and 63.7% were on concurrent psychotropic medications. There were no missing RBS­R data points in the UF sample.

SSC sample

The phenotype and genotype data were obtained through the Simons Foundation Autism Research Initiative (SFARI) Base [25] with approval from the UF IRB and SSC. In total, 737 probands had available genotype data released on 27 July 2010; we excluded seventeen probands for this report; three probands who were twins of designated probands, and fourteen probands whose phenotypic data were not yet available from the SFARI collection version 10 released on 1 November 2010. Therefore, the SSC sample used in this report included 720 children (age 6.9 ± 2.8 years) who met the criteria for ASD or autism on both the ADI­R and ADOS (563 with 'strictly defined autism') and their biological parents (720 trio families). There were 620 male and 100 female children, and 81% of the children were white. There were 56 missing RBS­R data points (completion rate 99.8%), which were treated as 'missing' for both affected subscale and sum scores.

RRB assessment

We used the RBS­R as our primary RRB measure. The RBS­R is an empirically derived, standardized and psychometrically sound rating scale, targeting a variety of abnormal repetitive behaviors [26,27]. The RBS­R includes forty­three individual items grouped into six empirically derived subscales: stereotyped behavior, self­injurious behavior, compulsive behavior, ritualistic behavior, sameness behavior, restricted behavior, and a sum score. A recent factor analysis by Lam and Aman (2007) produced a five­factor solution; stereotyped behavior, self­injurious behavior, compulsive behavior, ritualistic/sameness behavior and restricted interests [28].

SNP genotyping

Three SLC25A12 SNPs (rs2056202, rs908670, rs2292813) were selected for this study, because rs2056202 and rs2292813 were the original two SNPs associated with ASDs, and rs908670 was the most strongly associated SNP within SLC25A12 in the AGP GWAS [15]. The SNPs were genotyped using a commercial assay (TaqMan SNP Genotyping Assay; Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA, USA) for the UIC­UF sample. For the SSC sample, the genotype data for these SNPs were available from the Illumina 1M/1Mduo Genechip data (https://sfari.org/sfari­base).

Statistical analyses

The associations between quantitative RRB measures (RBS­R subscale and sum scores) and specific SNPs or haplotypes were tested using linear regression analyses, as implemented in PLINK (http://pngu.mgh.harvard.edu/~purcell/plink/). The '­­hap­omnibus' option was used to jointly estimate all haplotype effects at that position. The potential confounding factors including age, gender, population (white versus non­white) and recruitment site (UIC versus UF for the UIC­UF sample), were treated as covariates. For the SSC sample, we used the DFAM and QFAM tests implemented in PLINK to examine the family­based association for qualitative traits (ASDs) and quantitative traits (RRB). In addition, for the SSC sample only, we added full scale IQ (FSIQ) into the linear regression model as an additional covariate to examine the effect of FSIQ. The '­­mperm 10,000' option was used to generate a single­point p value (EMP1) to correct for non­normal trait distributions, and a permutation p value to correct for multiple SNPs/haplotypes (but not multiple phenotypes) in this study. Furthermore, we transformed the mean and standard deviation of RBS­R subscale and sum scores to '0' and '1' to obtain a 'standardized' β (a regression coefficient) allowing β to be comparable across different samples and phenotypes. The criterion for significance was set at a permutation p value of <0.05. We also denoted any finding with a permutation p value of >0.05 but <0.1 as a trend in this report.

The IBM SPSS Statistics software (version 19; SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) was used for descriptive analyses to compare the characteristics across the three samples (UIC versus UF versus SSC), including age, gender, population (white versus non­white), three adaptive behavior domains (communication, daily living, socialization) and composite scores on the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale­II (VABS­II) [29], the RBS­R subscales and the Aberrant Behavior Checklist (ABC) [30] factor scores (Table 1).

Table 1 Descriptive analyses of sample characteristics across the sites of recruitment

The effect of each individual covariate on RBS­R was examined using linear regression analyses

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a

The Simons Simplex Collection: a resource for identification of autism genetic risk factors.[Neuron. 2010]

Varieties of repetitive behavior in autism: comparisons to mental retardation. [J Autism Dev Disord. 2000]

The Repetitive Behavior Scale­Revised: independent validation in individuals with autism spectrum[J Autism Dev Disord. 2007]

A genome­wide scan for common alleles affecting risk for autism. [Hum Mol Genet. 2010]

Diagnostic uses of the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales. [J Pediatr Psychol. 1985]

The aberrant behavior checklist: a behavior rating scale for the assessment of treatment effects.[Am J Ment Defic. 1985]

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in PLINK, while controlling for the effects of the other covariates and tested SNPs. The significance was set at an uncorrected p value of <0.05. The mean RBS­R subscale and sum scores for individual genotypes of the three SNPs were calculated using the PLINK option of '­­ qt­mean' (Table 2). Hardy­Weinberg equilibrium (HWE) and Mendelian errors were examined using the PLINK options of '­­hwe' and '­­me'. Quanto software (version 1.1; University of Southern California, CA, USA; [email protected]) was used for a power calculation assuming an additive mode of inheritance and type 1 error rate of 0.05 [31].

Table 2 The individual SNP genotypes versus RBS­R subscale and sum mean scores

Post hoc analyses

We also conducted analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) to examine the four ADI­R scores highlighted in the Silverman study [20] (i.e., age at phrase speech, overall level of language, circumscribed interests, and routines and rituals) by rs2056202 and rs2292813 genotype groups in both the UIC (n = 88 probands) and SSC (n = 720 probands) samples, using the General Linear Model, as implemented in the IBM SPSS Statistics software, with gender and age treated as covariates. These analyses were performed mainly because the direction of associated alleles in our study differed from the Silverman study [20]. Because the 'age at phrase speech' item included non­scale codes (e.g., 994, 996 and 997), we treated these codes as 'missing'. The numbers of non­scale codes were 16 in the UIC sample and 50 in the SSC sample. The three genotype groups were reduced to two (A/+ versus G/G) due to the low frequency of the A/A genotype.

Results

There were seven missing SNP genotypes [UIC­UF sample: rs2056202 (n = 1), rs908670 (n = 2) and rs2292813 (n = 0); SCC sample: rs2056202 (n = 1), rs2292813 (n = 1) and rs908670 (n = 2)]. The linkage disequilibrium (R ) was 0.07 between rs2056202 and rs908670, 0.70 between rs2056202 and rs2292813 and 0.05 between rs908670 and rs2292813. The minor allele frequencies (MAF) were 0.22 (UIC­UF) and 0.15 (SSC) for the A allele of rs2056202, 0.30 (UIC­UF) and 0.29 (SSC) for the G allele of rs908670, and 0.16 (UIC­UF) and 0.10 (SSC) for the A allele of rs2292813. The range of allele frequencies of the A alleles of rs2056202 and rs2292813 have been reported to be 0.09 to 0.20 in previous studies [13,14,16,18,20]. The distributions of the genotypes were consistent with HWE, and the SSC family data were free of Mendelian errors.

Descriptive analyses of sample characteristics (Table 1) showed that the levels of adaptive behaviors were much higher in the SSC sample, followed by the UIC and UF samples. In addition, the SSC participants had lower levels of maladaptive behaviors measured on the RBS­ R and ABC, whereas there were no significant differences in the mean scores of RBS­R and ABC between the UIC and UF samples. Interestingly, the mean scores of the RBS­R appeared to be related to the individual SNP genotypes (Table 2); for instance, subjects with A/G genotypes rs2056202 and rs2292813 had higher RBS­R scores than those with A/A or G/G genotypes in the UIC­UF sample. However, there were too few subjects with A/A genotypes of rs2056202 or rs2292813 for a valid interpretation. In the SSC sample, a trend toward reduction in RBS­R subscale and sum scores was seen across three genotype groups (A/A > A/G > G/G).

The linear regression analyses for individual SNPs revealed significant positive associations between the A allele of rs2292813 and three RBS­R scores (ritualistic, sameness, sum; permutation p = 0.017, 0.018, 0.034, respectively) in the UIC­UF sample. The SSC sample had significant positive associations between the A allele of rs2056202 and four RBS­R scores (stereotyped, sameness, restricted, sum; permutation p = 0.026, 0.021, 0.016, 0.027, respectively) and significant positive associations between the A allele of rs908670 and two RBS­R subscales (stereotyped, self­injurious; permutation p = 0.040, 0.009, respectively) (Table 3). For the SSC sample only, FSIQ was added into the linear regression model as a covariate along with age, gender and population (Table 4); the association results remained similar to the results shown in Table 3.

Table 3 Linear regression analyses for association between quantitative RRB traits and SLC25A12 SNPs after controlling for age, gender and population

Table 4 Linear regression analyses for association between

®  ® 

2

Autism­related routines and rituals associated with a mitochondrial aspartate/glutamate carrier SLC25A12[Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2008]

Confirmation of association between autism and the mitochondrial aspartate/glutamate carrier SLC25A12[Am J Psychiatry. 2005]

Mitochondrial aspartate/glutamate carrier SLC25A12 gene is associated with autism. [Autism Res. 2008]

Brief report: High frequency of biochemical markers for mitochondrial dysfunction in autism: no association[J Autism Dev Disord. 2006]

SLC25A12 and CMYA3 gene variants are not associated with autism in the IMGSAC multiplex[Eur J Hum Genet. 2006]

Autism­related routines and rituals associated with a mitochondrial aspartate/glutamate carrier SLC25A12[Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2008]

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quantitative RRB traits and SLC25A12 SNPs after controlling for age, gender, population and FSIQ in the SSC sample

The haplotype analyses were conducted for the previously identified haplotype (rs2056202­ rs2292813) (Table 5). In the UIC­UF sample, the haplotype omnibus test revealed significant associations with three RBS­R scores (ritualistic, sameness, sum; permutation p = 0.028, 0.025, 0.040, respectively). Individual haplotype analyses were consistent with the omnibus test, with positive correlations between the A­A haplotype and three RBS­R scores (ritualistic, sameness, sum; permutation p = 0.020, 0.017, 0.029, respectively), and a trend toward negative correlations between the G­G haplotype and ritualistic behavior (permutation p = 0.078). In the SSC sample, the haplotype omnibus test showed significant associations with six RBS­R scores (stereotyped, self­injurious, ritualistic, sameness, restricted, sum; permutation p = 0.002, 0.003, 0.021, 0.028, 0.019, 0.009, respectively). Individual haplotype analyses revealed positive correlations between the A­G haplotype and four RBS­R scores (stereotyped, self­injurious, compulsive, sum; permutation p = 0.002, 0.002, 0.020, 0.012, respectively) and negative associations between the G­G haplotype and four RBS­R scores (stereotyped, sameness, restricted, sum; permutation p = 0.022, 0.023, 0.014, 0.031, respectively). As a comparison, three­SNP­haplotype analyses (rs2056202­rs908670­rs2292813) were also conducted (Table  6), which showed similar trends to those from the two­SNP­haplotype analyses shown in Table  5.

Table 5 Haplotype analyses for association between quantitative RRB traits and rs2056202­rs2292813 haplotype

Table 6 Haplotype analyses for association between quantitative RRB traits and rs2056202­rs908670­rs2292813 haplotype

We also examined transmission disequilibrium (TD) of the three SLC25A12 SNPs in the SSC sample using the DFAM test as implemented in PLINK, because previous studies [11­14] suggested overtransmission of the G allele(s) of rs2056202 and/or rs2292813; however, we did not find any evidence of overtransmission of either allele (Table 7). In previous studies [11­14], the transmission rates of the G alleles of rs2056202 and rs2292813 were estimated at approximately 59 to 65% for rs2056202 and 57 to 65% for rs2292813. We examined if the SSC sample had enough power to detect TD, assuming an additive model for a qualitative trait and type 1 error rate of 0.05, using Quanto software. The SSC sample (720 trios) had 80% power to detect a locus with a relative risk of 1.4, which roughly translates to a transmission rate of 58%. Hence, the SSC sample had adequate power to detect an effect size similar to that detected in previous studies. On the other hand, the QFAM test for the quantitative RRB traits revealed positive associations between the A alleles of all three SNPs and the RBS­R scores (Table 8), which was consistent with linear regression analyses results.

Table 7 DFAM analyses for family­based association tests for ASD and SLC25A12 SNPs in the SSC sample (n = 720 trio families)

Table 8 QFAM analyses for family­based association tests for quantitative RRB traits and SLC25A12 SNPs in the SSC sample (n = 720 trio families)

Table 9 shows our post hoc analyses, the attempted replication of the Silverman study [20] for the examination of four ADI­R scores by rs2056202 and rs2292813 genotype groups in the samples from UIC (n = 88 probands) and SSC (n = 720 probands). The results from the Silverman study are included in the table for a comparison. Neither UIC nor SSC sample replicated the findings of the Silverman study; however, the SSC sample showed a trend toward more severe 'overall level of language' score (p < 0.05) in the G/G genotype groups of both rs2056202 and rs2292813. We estimated that the Silverman study had a standardized β of 0.42 for 'routines and rituals' and rs2056202 (adjusted mean difference of 0.51 and standard deviation of 1.2). We calculated our study power to see whether our samples had an adequate power to replicate Silverman's finding, using Quanto with an assumption of an additive model of a quantitative locus and type 1 error rate of 0.05. We estimated that the UIC­UF sample could detect a standardized β of 0.43 (R = 0.05) and the SSC sample a standardized β of 0.19 (R =2  2 

An analysis of candidate autism loci on chromosome 2q24­q33: evidence for association to the STK39 gene.[Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2008]

Mitochondrial aspartate/glutamate carrier SLC25A12 gene is associated with autism. [Autism Res. 2008]

Autism­related routines and rituals associated with a mitochondrial aspartate/glutamate carrier SLC25A12[Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2008]

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0.01), thus, we did have adequate power to replicate Silverman's study.

Table 9 Four ADI­R Trait scores highlighted by Silverman [20], grouped by the presence or absence of at least one A allele for rs2056202 and rs2292813.

Analyses of the effect of an individual covariate on the RBS­R revealed negative correlations between age and stereotyped behavior (β = ­0.004 to ­0.005; p < 0.005 to 0.0001), and between female gender and restricted behavior (β = ­0.228 to ­0.242; p < 0.05). In addition, positive correlations were shown between age and sameness behavior (β = 0.002; p < 0.01), between female gender and self­injurious behavior (β = 0.217; p < 0.05), and between population other than white, and self­injurious, ritualistic, and restricted behaviors (β = ­0.188 to 0.329; p < 0.05 to 0.005). Additionally, we found that FSIQ was a significant covariate for several RBS­R subscale scores in the SSC sample, which included stereotyped behavior (p = 0.00001 to 0.00003), self­injurious behavior (p = 0.019 to 0.027), compulsive behavior (p = 0.0002 to 0.0004) and RBS­R sum score (p = 0.0009 to 0.0017).

Discussion

SCL25A12 was implicated in ASD through a linkage­directed association study [12] and more than one independent replication association study [11,13,14], support from a recent GWAS [15], and its role in central nervous system development [32­35]. However, not all association studies between SLC25A12 and ASDs have been positive [17­19], indicating the need for further investigation of the basis of this inconsistency.

In the present study, we examined SLC25A12 as a quantitative trait locus for RRB in people with ASDs, based on a positive correlation between the G allele of rs2056202 and an ADI­R 'routines and rituals' subdomain score [20]. We initially found evidence for positive associations between the A allele of rs2292813 and RBS­R scores (ritualistic, sameness, sum) and between the A­A haplotype of rs2056202­rs2292813 and the same RBS­R scores in our UIC­UF sample. Although our finding of association between SLC25A12 and quantitative RRB traits (ritualistic, sameness behaviors) in the UIC­UF sample appeared to be comparable with the previous association finding [20], the direction of the associated allele was different (the A alleles of rs2056202 and rs2292813 in our samples versus the G allele of rs2056202 in the Silverman study).

This 'flip­flop' phenomenon brought up an important question about whether this study provides a confirmation of an association between SLC25A12 and RRB versus a false positive finding [36]. To clarify this issue, we examined the association in a much larger sample consisting of 720 trio families available from the SFARI database. Although the significantly associated SNPs­RRB varied between these two samples (i.e., rs2292813 in the UIC­UF sample, rs2056202/rs908670 in the SSC sample), both datasets showed consistently positive associations with the A alleles of rs2056202 and rs2292813, as evidenced by the positive β values in Table 3 and Table 4. The β values for the A­A and the G­G haplotypes were also consistent across the UIC­UF and SSC samples in the haplotype analyses (positive for the A­A haplotype and negative for the G­G haplotype in Table 5). The A­G haplotype was somewhat puzzling initially, as the A­G haplotype was found to have a negative β in the UIC­UF sample but a positive β in the SSC sample. Interestingly, in the UIC­UF sample, the positively associated 'A' allele of rs2292813 was present only on the A­A haplotype, whereas the negatively associated 'G' allele of rs2292813 was present on both A­G and G­G haplotypes, creating a negative β value for the A­G haplotype. In the SSC sample, by contrast, the more positively associated A allele of rs2056202 was present on the A­A haplotype about 70% of the time, and on the A­G haplotype about 30% of the time, creating a positive β value for the A­G haplotype. Therefore, the individual haplotype associations were consistent with the allelic associations; that is, positive association with the A allele of rs2292813 in the UIC­UF sample, and positive association with the A allele of rs2056202 in the SSC sample. In addition, the significantly associated SNPs and phenotypes may vary between datasets even in a true association [37]. For example, varying patterns of LD across samples could lead to the susceptibility variant to be associated with different variants in different samples. Taken together, these results argue against the probability of a false positive in these (UIC­UF and SSC) samples, despite the direction of the association being different from the Silverman study.

In this study, we also attempted to replicate the Silverman study directly, using the UIC and SSC samples, because it was not clear whether differences in the phenotype used (RBS­R in our study versus ADI­R in the Silverman study) or in the analytic methods (linear regression in our study versus ANCOVA in the Silverman study) might be contributing to the opposite direction of associated allele. Even with the same phenotypes and comparable analytic methods used;

a,b

See more ...

Linkage and association of the mitochondrial aspartate/glutamate carrier SLC25A12 gene with[Am J Psychiatry. 2004]

An analysis of candidate autism loci on chromosome 2q24­q33: evidence for association to the STK39 gene.[Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2008]

Autism­related routines and rituals associated with a mitochondrial aspartate/glutamate carrier SLC25A12[Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2008]

No gene is an island: the flip­flop phenomenon. [Am J Hum Genet. 2007]

Failure to replicate a genetic association may provide important clues about genetic architecture.[PLoS One. 2009]

Genetics in psychiatry: common variant association studies. [Mol Autism. 2010]

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however, our samples did not replicate the Silverman findings. This suggests that genetic and phenotypic heterogeneity of ASD samples may at least partly account for the differences across the studies. For instance, we estimated that 51% of the A/+ group, 57% of the G/G group and 55% of the entire Silverman sample had an overall level of language score of 0. These numbers contrast with 82% of the UIC group and 93% of the SSC group having a score of 0 in the overall level of language. In addition, 'overall level of language' would have affected the ADI­R score of 'verbal rituals' and the subdomain score of 'routines and rituals,' which may have influenced the association findings. Furthermore, it is possible that we overestimated our study power based on an estimate of effect size from the Silverman study. This is often referred as 'winner's curse' when the true effect size may have been much smaller than an estimate from the primary study [38]. Another point to consider is that the ADI­R is not as quantitative as the RBS­R. Therefore, scores may have not provided sufficient variability to observe the same association.

Several family­based association studies previously identified the G alleles of rs2056202 or rs2292813 as risk alleles for autism [11­14]. Although it sounds confusing, these results should not be confused with our study result (the A alleles of rs2056202 or rs2292813 associated with RRB), because our study did not examine associations with autism, but with RRB. Although not straightforward, the association is not expected to be the same even if they seem to be related (i.e., RRB and autism), when it is not the same phenotype. In other words, there is variability of RRB in subjects diagnosed with ASDs. If there were not, then it would not be possible to detect an association with degree of RRB within an autism sample. If an allele is associated with increasing RRB within an autism sample, then whether that allele will show an association with autism depends on the distribution of RRB in the sample. The association with autism may be with the same allele, the opposite allele or neither allele in a sample in which RRB tends to be high, low or mixed within the autism sample, respectively.

In this study, we did not find evidence for TD between ASDs and SLC25A12 in the SSC sample. Because the SSC sample was estimated to have adequate power to detect a locus with a relative risk of 1.4, this result further emphasizes the genetic heterogeneity of ASD (making the effect size smaller or non­existent in the SSC sample). Of note, the SSC sample data were contributed from multiple groups in various regions, increasing the genetic heterogeneity even more in this specific sample. In addition, we would need to consider that the true effect size may have been much smaller than 1.4, an estimate from the previous studies. We also confirmed the effect of age on stereotyped behavior (i.e., older subjects with less severe stereotyped behavior), which is consistent with previous studies [39,40]. In addition, we found gender and population effects on the RBS­R subscale scores in the SSC sample. Moreover, we did not find any effect of study site in the UIC­UF sample, which is particularly interesting because the UIC and UF samples are different in terms of recruitment and assessment protocols, geographic locations, and the rate of concurrent psychotropic medications.

Conclusions

Our study confirmed an association between SLC25A12 and RRB. Genetic and phenotypic heterogeneity may account for the flip­flop phenomenon of associated alleles between our study and the Silverman study, and for the absence of association between SLC25A12 and ASDs in the SSC trio sample. In addition, SLC25A12 may not be the risk allele itself but may be in LD with a real risk allele for RRB and/or ASDs. As anticipated based on the replication design, this study did not fully tag the gene, but was designed to replicate previous findings. Therefore, we identified seven tagging SLC25A12 SNPs with pair­wise r < 80% and MAF>10% from the International Hapmap project (http://hapmap.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/). Future research efforts should include searching for risk alleles nearby using denser genetic markers including (but not limited to) all tagging SNPs, and dense resequencing of the interval to find genetic variants possibly more directly related to phenotype.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors' contributions

SJK carried out sample recruitment, phenotypic data collection, data processing, genotyping and data analyses, and drafted the manuscript. RMS participated in the sample processing and genotyping. CGF participated in the sample recruitment and data processing at the UF. SJ participated in the sample recruitment and data processing at the UIC. SG participated in the sample recruitment and phenotypic data collection at the UIC. GV participated in the sample recruitment and phenotypic data collection at the UF. AMZ participated in the biomaterial processing and validation of data entry. EHC conceived of the study, participated in its design and coordination, and helped to draft the manuscript. JAB designed the data analyses plan,

2

An analysis of candidate autism loci on chromosome 2q24­q33: evidence for association to the STK39 gene.[Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2008]

Mitochondrial aspartate/glutamate carrier SLC25A12 gene is associated with autism. [Autism Res. 2008]

Review  Annotation: Repetitive behaviour in autism: a review of psychological research.[J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1999]

Early features of autism: Repetitive behaviours in young children. [Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2006]

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Go to:

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supervised statistical analyses and helped to draft the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgements

We extend our sincere gratitude to all of the families at our research clinics (UIC and UF) and at the participating SFARI Simplex Collection (SSC) sites. We are grateful to the SSC Genetics Committee and the principal investigators (A Beaudet, R Bernier, J Constantino, E Cook, E Fombonne, D Geschwind, D Grice, A Klin, D Ledbetter, C Lord, C Martin, D Martin, R Maxim, J Miles, O Ousley, B Peterson, J Piggot, C Saulnier, M State,W Stone, J Sutcliffe, C Walsh, and E Wijsman). We appreciate obtaining access to phenotypic and genetic data on SFARI Base. Approved researchers can obtain the SSC population dataset described in this study (include here the URL of the population used, obtained from SFARI Base) by applying at https://sfari.org/sfari­base. We gratefully acknowledge Emily Wray, Lindsay Bell and Susan Craft for their expert assistance, Sunday Francis for her critical review of this manuscript, and the UF Child and Adolescent Psychiatry fellows and the staff of the UF Center for Autism and Related Disabilities (CARD) for their assistance with recruitment. This work was supported in part by a 2007 NARSAD young investigator award (SJK), the 2008 PWSA (USA) Research Award (SJK), NIH R03MH083673 (SJK), NIH K23MH082883 (SJK), NIH K23MH082121 (SJ), NIH Autism Center of Excellence P50 HD055751 (EHC) and NIH/National Center for Research Resources (NCRR) CTSA grant 1UL 1RR029890.

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Quantitative autistic traits ascertained in a national survey of 22 529 Japanese schoolchildren

Kamio Y, Inada N, Moriwaki A, Kuroda M, Koyama T, Tsujii H, Kawakubo Y, Kuwabara H, Tsuchiya KJ, Uno Y, Constantino JN. Quantitative autistic traits ascertained in a national survey of 22 529 Japanese schoolchildren.

Objective: Recent epidemiologic studies worldwide have documented a rise in prevalence rates for autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Broadening of diagnostic criteria for ASD may be a major contributor to the rise in prevalence, particularly if superimposed on an underlying continuous distribution of autistic traits. This study sought to determine the nature of the population distribution of autistic traits using a quantitative trait measure in a large national population sample of children. Method: The Japanese version of the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) was completed by parents on a nationally representative sample of 22 529 children, age 6–15. Results: Social Responsiveness Scale scores exhibited a skewed normal distribution in the Japanese population with a single-factor structure and no significant relation to IQ within the normal intellectual range. There was no evidence of a natural ‘cutoff’ that would differentiate populations of categorically affected children from unaffected children. Conclusion: This study provides evidence of the continuous nature of autistic symptoms measured by the SRS, a validated quantitative trait measure. The findings reveal how paradigms for diagnosis that rest on arbitrarily imposed categorical cutoffs can result in substantial variation in prevalence estimation, especially when measurements used for case assignment are not standardized for a given population.

Y. Kamio1, N. Inada1, A. Moriwaki1, M. Kuroda1,2, T. Koyama1, H. Tsujii1, Y. Kawakubo2, H. Kuwabara2, K. J. Tsuchiya3, Y. Uno4, J. N. Constantino5 1Department of Child and Adolescent Mental Health, National Institute of Mental Health, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Tokyo, Japan, 2Department of Child Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan, 3Research Center for Child Mental Development, United Graduate School of Child Development, School of Medicine, Hamamatsu University, Hamamatsu, Japan, 4Department of Psychiatry and Psychiatry for Parents and Children, Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan and 5Departments of Psychiatry and Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA

Key words: autism; questionnaire; prevalence; classification; diagnosis

Yoko Kamio, National Institute of Mental Health, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, 4-1-1 Ogawa-Higashi, Kodaira, Tokyo 187-8553, Japan. E-mail: [email protected]

Accepted for publication October 1, 2012

Significant outcomes

• In a large Japanese child population, behaviorally measured autistic traits are continuously distrib- uted without any apparent deflection in the distribution plot that would signal a natural cutoff for categorical diagnoses. This is similar to the distribution pattern in US and European samples.

• Autistic traits measured quantitatively by parents differ slightly by culture, suggesting the need to interpret autism spectrum disorder (ASD) severity ratings with the use of culturally calibrated norms.

• Many children who do not meet the diagnosis of ASD exhibit elevations in autistic traits measured quantitatively, suggesting the need to reconsider current diagnostic systems that assume discontinuity between affected and unaffected populations.

Limitations

• The response rate of this nationwide survey was 29%.

• There is a possibility of bias that would differentiate respondents vs. non-respondents.

• High-scoring children in the sample as a whole were not confirmed using diagnostic instruments, although quantitatively measured autistic traits were extensively clinically confirmed for a separate smaller sample.

45

Acta Psychiatr Scand 2013: 128: 45–53 © 2012 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd All rights reserved DOI: 10.1111/acps.12034

ACTA PSYCHIATRICA SCANDINAVICA

Introduction

Although to date the designation of pervasive developmental disorders in children – and the ser- vices to which affected children are entitled – rest on categorical case definitions, the concept of an autistic spectrum, along which the number and intensity of autistic features vary continuously from mild to severe, dates back to early epidemio- logical research by Wing and Gould (1). Wing (2) subsequently developed the concept of the autistic continuum, broadening the case designation beyond classic autism to encompass the mildest (but most prevalent) of the autism spectrum disor- ders (ASDs), pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS) assigned by diag- nostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: text revision (DSM-IV-TR) (3). Several lines of sub- sequent research (4–7) now strongly suggest that the autism spectrum extends beyond this PDD-NOS subcategory to include subclinical levels of symp- tomatology, which are known to aggregate in the undiagnosed members of families with multiple-inci- dence autism. Very recently, Lord et al. (8) observed that diagnostic assignments of autistic disorder, As- perger’s disorder, and PDD-NOS made by expert clinicians varied considerably across sites, despite the fact that distributions of scores on validated measures were similar. They concluded that current taxonomies should be revised to place priority on characterizing the dimensions of ASD while control- ling for IQ and language level.

Clarifying the nature of the population distribu- tion of autistic traits and symptoms across cultures has substantial implications for understanding a rise in prevalence over time (9) and for establishing the ‘boundaries’ of clinical affectation. A recent Korean study (10) suggested the highest ever reported prevalence for categorically defined ASD in a total population sample; in that study, symp- tom counts were found to be continuously distrib- uted in the population.

Aims of the study

This study determined whether autistic traits would be continuously distributed in a population-based sample to establish the appropriate epidemiologic framework for interpreting the rise in estimated autism spectrum disorders prevalence over time.

Material and methods

Participants

The participants comprised a normative sample (n = 22 529) of schoolchildren, a child psychiatric

clinical sample (n = 417), and typically developing (TD) children (n = 61). The normative sample was exclusively assessed using the Japanese version of the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) (11). The latter two samples were more extensively assessed using standard diagnostic batteries for the purpose of validation and calibration of the Japanese ver- sion of the SRS.

In regard to the normative sample, question- naires were distributed by mail to the caregivers of all students attending mainstream classes at pri- mary or secondary schools in the 10 geographical areas making up Japan in 2010 (n = 87 548 care- givers). One hundred and forty-eight primary schools and 71 secondary schools participated in this study. All of them were community schools where >93% of children living in the community attend, according to the annual report of Japan’s Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, 2010 (12). Questionnaires were returned for 25 779 children aged 6–15 years (response rate 29.4%). Questionnaires with missing answers were excluded so that all analysis was based on a complete data set, leaving a final nor- mative sample of 22 529 participants (11 455 boys) with SRS data provided by their mothers (n = 20 430), fathers (n = 1728), both parents (n = 166), other caregivers (n = 119) or unspecified (n = 86). Each of the 9 grade levels comprised a minimum of 754 participants of each sex, and both sexes were proportionally represented (Table 1).

The clinical sample consisted of 257 children diagnosed with ASD (ASD group) and 157 chil- dren with psychiatric diagnoses other than ASD (non-ASD group) (Table 2). They were patients who visited one of 10 child psychiatric clinics dur-

Table 1. Social Responiveness Scale total raw score distributions in the normative sample by sex and age (grade)

Grade

Sex

t P d

Males Females

N Mean (SD) N

Mean (SD)

1 1655 37.3 (18.2) 1473 33.0 (16.7) 44.3 0.000 0.25 2 1521 36.2 (18.2) 1394 32.1 (16.3) 37.8 0.000 0.24 3 1384 35.4 (19.2) 1432 31.2 (16.4) 39.0 0.000 0.24 4 1375 33.7 (18.4) 1386 30.2 (16.3) 26.2 0.000 0.20 5 1449 33.0 (18.5) 1287 31.0 (17.5) 8.6 0.003 0.11 6 1203 31.9 (19.6) 1229 29.9 (17.8) 6.9 0.009 0.11 7 1072 32.3 (19.1) 1070 30.3 (17.8) 6.7 0.010 0.11 8 1007 32.7 (20.2) 1049 29.8 (18.2) 12.7 0.000 0.15 9 789 31.7 (20.7) 754 28.9 (18.6) 9.2 0.002 0.14 Total 11 455 34.1 (19.1) 11 074 30.9 (17.2) 13.4 0.000 0.18 Total children 22 529 32.5 (18.3)

Grade 1 children are usually 6–7 years old. Most grade 1 participants were 7 years old at the time of the survey.

46

Kamio et al.

ing 2008–2010 and whose caregivers gave informed consent to participate in this study. Their existing clinical diagnoses were confirmed according to DSM-IV-TR criteria (3) based on all of the clinical information available to our research team, which included experienced child psychiatrists and licensed clinical psychologists. Among the 257 children of the ASD group, 229 were subcategorized with 100% diagnostic agreement: 96 with autistic disor- der, 65 with Asperger’s disorder, 68 with PDD- NOS, and 28 were unspecified. Children in the non- ASD group were diagnosed with adjustment disor- der, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, anxiety disorder, eating disorder, schizophrenia, somato- form disorder, conduct disorder, mood disorder, or mental retardation. Moreover, 61 children recruited from local communities comprised a TD group and were confirmed in diagnostic interviews with the children and their parents to have no history of neu- ropsychiatric conditions.

The intellectual levels of the children in the clini- cal sample ranged from normal intelligence to severe mental retardation based on cognitive test- ing carried out at clinics [various versions of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale and the Revised Kyoto Scale of Psychological Development (13)] or edu- cational/administrative records. The proportions of children with normal intelligence in the ASD and non-ASD groups were not significantly different (v2 = 1.42, n.s.).

Measures

The social responsiveness scale. The SRS (11) is a 65-item questionnaire of autistic traits for use with 4- to 18-year-olds that can be completed in 15 min

by any adult who has observed the child over time in naturalistic social settings. The SRS was devel- oped to assess autistic symptoms or quantitative traits and has subsequently undergone extensive validation in US samples for use in subclinical and clinical child populations(4, 14–17) as well as in general child populations for behavioral genetic research (18–20). It also demonstrated satisfactory internal consistency (Cronbach’s a > 0.95), inter- rater reliability between parents and teachers (r = 0.78, P < 0.01), and concurrent validity with an interview-based instrument(21) (r = 0.86, P < 0.05 for preschoolers; r = 0.48, P < 0.05 for children aged 7–12; r = 0.77, P < 0.001 for adoles- cents aged 13–18) for Japanese children(22, 23) and also for German children(24). The Japanese version was used in this study. Higher scores on the SRS indicate higher degrees of social impair- ment. The 65 SRS items were further categorized into five treatment subscales (social awareness, social cognition, social communication, social motivation, autistic mannerisms) (11). The SRS total scores are generally unrelated to IQ in the normal range and distinguish children with ASD from those with other types of psychopathology (16).

The autism diagnostic interview-revised. The Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R) (25) is a parent-report interview and is a research standard for establishing a diagnosis of autism. To meet the ADI-R criteria for autism, the cutoff must be reached in each domain of reciprocal social inter- action, communication, and restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior. The Japa- nese version of the ADI-R was used in this study, which has demonstrated good reliability and valid- ity for Japanese children (26).

Ethical issues

The study protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of the National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Japan. Written informed consent to participate was obtained from the caregivers of each child participant.

Data analysis

Following examination of the SRS distribution as a function of age and sex, a cross-cultural compari- son of SRS total scores provided by parents was performed between previously reported US norms (the SRS manual, p. 28) (11) and the obtained Japanese scores using t-tests. Factor analysis was performed using principal components analysis

Table 2. Comparison of Social Responsiveness Scale total raw score between the United States and Japan

Grade

Country

t P d

Japan US

N Mean (SD) N Mean (SD)

1 3102 35.3 (17.6) 71 29.6 (25.6) 1.87 0.06 0.318 2 2891 34.2 (17.4) 92 34.9 (26.9) 0.25 0.80 0.041 3 2786 33.2 (18.0) 109 35.7 (26.8) 0.97 0.33 0.136 4 2739 31.9 (17.5) 227 35.3 (24.9) 2.02 0.04 0.188 5 2703 32.0 (18.0) 214 34.5 (25.3) 1.42 0.16 0.134 6 2408 30.8 (18.7) 211 31.7 (21.5) 0.59 0.56 0.049 7 2123 31.3 (18.4) 161 31.1 (20.6) 0.12 0.90 0.008 8 2040 31.1 (19.1) 137 31.9 (23.7) 0.39 0.70 0.040 9 1532 30.2 (19.7) 124 38.9 (29.2) 3.26 0.00 0.422

Total 22 344 32.5 (18.2) 1626* 33.6 (24.7) 1.76 0.08 0.051

Grade 1 children are usually 6–7 years old. Most grade 1 participants were 7 years old at the time of the survey. *US data were cited from the SRS manual (p. 28) (11).

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National survey of autistic traits in Japan

(PCA) on children in the ASD, non-ASD, and TD groups, and the most parsimonious model was subsequently examined by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in the normative sample. To address discriminant validity, comparisons of the SRS scores across diagnostic groups were made using analysis of variance (ANOVA) methods with Bonferroni correction whenever appropriate. In- traclass correlation coefficient (ICC) was computed for associations between SRS scores, full scale IQ, and ADI-R algorithm scores. In addition, a recei- ver operating characteristics (ROC) analysis was conducted to determine the cutoff points for pri- mary and secondary screening; for the former, the cutoff point was where the sum of sensitivity and specificity was the largest, and for the latter, it was where the likelihood was the largest for children in the ASD, non-ASD, and TD groups, for boys and girls separately. Analysis was performed using SPSS

18.0J for Windows (SPSS Japan Inc., Tokyo, Japan), with AMOS 17.0J for Windows (SPSS Japan Inc., Tokyo, Japan) used for the confirmatory fac- tor analysis.

Results

Population distribution

Social Responsiveness Scale score distribution among 6- to 15-year-old children in the Japanese general population is shown in Fig. 1, and mean SRS total raw scores by age group are presented for boy and girl subsamples in Table 1. To investigate the effects of age (grade) and sex on SRS scores, a 2-way ANOVA (grade 9 sex) was conducted on the total raw scores. The interac- tion was significant (F8,180,224 = 2.00, P < 0.05, g2 = 0.00), and the main effects of grade (F8,180,224 = 20.03, P < 0.001, g2 = 0.01) and sex (F8,180,224 = 157.37, P < 0.001, g2 = 0.01) were significant, although the effect size indicates that the differences in the SRS scores by grade and sex were modest.

Mean SRS score of each age group was within 0.2 standard deviations of the entire sample means for boys and girls respectively (boys 30.3–37.9, girls 27.5–34.3). Boys scored higher than girls across the entire age range, with the maximum sex difference seen for the youngest subgroup at grade 1 (t = 44.24, P < 0.001, d = 0.25). Therefore, we standardized the Japanese version of the SRS on each of the boy and girl subsamples across the age range (27).

Table 2 shows our Japanese normative data together with the original US parent and teacher rating data (the SRS manual, p. 28) (11) derived

from five different studies. Japanese children scored similarly to their US counterparts, except those in grades 4 and 9; here, Japanese children had significantly lower mean SRS scores than their US counterparts.

Factor structure. PCA suggested a one-factor solu- tion for the 475 children comprising the clinical and TD groups (Table 3). Seven items (items 24, 29, 35, 37, 44, 49, 51) with factor loadings >0.600 represented all three of the DSM-IV-TR criterion domains for autism. When 22 items with factor loadings <0.400 were excluded, the first factor explained 34.8% of variance in SRS scores in this sample, consistent with the original US and Ger- man data for child psychiatric patients. When per- formed with the mean scores of the five treatment subscales, rather than the mean scores of 65 items, PCA gave a one-factor solution accounting for 77.2% in this sample.

Next, the single-factor model suggested by PCA and by extensive prior research on the SRS (20, 24) was subjected to CFA using data from the normative sample. The comparative fit index, the goodness of fit index, the adjusted goodness of fit index, and root mean square error of approximation were 0.677, 0.739, 0.722, and 0.055 for all 65 items, 0.811, 0.854, 0.840, and 0.055 for 43 items with factor loadings >0.400 derived from PCA on the exploratory set, and 0.989, 0.987, 0.962, and 0.083 for the five treatment subscales. These findings lend sup- port to the notion of a unitary factor influencing the multiple aspects of dysfunction that charac- terize autistic symptomatology in children in the general population.

Fig. 1. Distribution of Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) total raw scores rated by caregivers in the general sample of 6- to 15-year-old children.

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Kamio et al.

Other psychometric properties

Table 4 indicated that the mean SRS total score of the ASD group was significantly higher than that of the clinical non-ASD (boys t = 4.87, P < 0.001, d = 0.65, girls t = 4.68, P < 0.001, d = 0.83) and TD (boys t = 11.73, P < 0.001, d = 2.29, girls t = 11.80, P < 0.001, d = 2.66) groups. The differ- ences in SRS score were not pronounced among the ASD subcategories: the score did not discrimi- nate between Asperger’s disorder and PDD-NOS for either sex, as previously reported (23). As shown in Fig. 2, the SRS scores of both ASD and non-ASD groups were distributed widely and with significant overlap with the general population dis- tribution. Table 5 shows the raw score cutoffs for the 99th, 97.5th, 95th, and 90th percentile values by sex for our normative sample and the propor- tion of boys and girls with diagnosed ASD who fell within the respective percentile cutoffs. In general, a higher proportion of diagnosed females were at the more extreme percentile rankings in compari- son with males.

Social Responsiveness Scale score did not corre- late with IQ (ICC = �0.23, n.s.) for 118 partici- pants with IQs > 70 for whom formal test data were available (ASD 46, non-ASD 11, TD 61), although the subgroup with mental retardation tended to score higher. With regard to autistic symptoms, SRS score was significantly correlated with ADI-R total score (ICC = 0.66, P < 0.001; Fig. 3), as well as scores for the social interaction domain (ICC = 0.68, P < 0.001), communication domain (ICC = 0.58, P < 0.001), and restricted and repetitive behavior domain (ICC = 0.50, P < 0.001) for a subsample for whom data from both the SRS and ADI-R were available (n = 36; ASD 20, non-ASD 10, TD 6; mean age 8.0 years, range 4–18 years).

Receiver operating characteristics analysis informed two sets of cutoff points depending on the purpose of use. When used for primary screen- ing of the general child population such as at

school entrance, an optimal cutoff point was 53.5 for boys (sensitivity 0.91, specificity 0.48) and 52.5 for girls (sensitivity 0.89, specificity 0.41). For sec- ondary screening of children referred to clinical settings, where a much higher rate of ASD is expected, the cutoff point of 109.5 for boys (sensi- tivity 0.23, specificity 0.96, likelihood ratio 6.14) and 102.5 for girls (sensitivity 0.32, specificity 0.95, likelihood ratio 5.73) increases the positive predic- tive value for ASD diagnosis up to 80.4% for boys and 79.2% for girls, given that the prevalence in Japanese child psychiatric clinics is 40%. Primary and secondary screening cutoffs correspond to a SRS T-score of 60 and 90 for boys and 62 and 92 for girls respectively.

Discussion

We conclude from these data involving a nation- wide representative sample of schoolchildren that autistic traits measured by the Japanese version of the SRS are distributed continuously in the popu- lation; that the clinical validity of the measure- ments (in essence, their relevance to autism) appeared strong; and that the findings of this cross-cultural study recapitulate and extend what has been observed in smaller epidemiologic studies of autistic traits in other countries.

The results of this study of quantitative autistic traits – the largest of its kind – add substantial evi- dence in support of the continuous nature of autis- tic traits in the general population. This does not mean that individual cases of autism are never dis- cretely or categorically determined. It has long been known, for example, that there exist categori- cal, relatively rare causes of autistic syndromes (e.g., fragile X syndrome, Rett syndrome, and tuberous sclerosis) caused by single gene abnor- malities. The notion of an autistic continuum remains consistent with the existence of such dis- crete entities. The same is true for mild to moder- ate intellectual disability, which constitutes the extreme end of a normal distribution (the so-called ‘bell curve’) but comprises a number of discrete syndromes (including but not limited to Down syn- drome, Fragile X syndrome, etc.) in the severe end of the symptom distribution. Similarly, segments of the autistic continuum may be comprised of small clusters of discrete disorders (e.g., SHANK 1 mutations, 15q duplications, 16p11.2 deletions) that contribute to intervals at the pathological end of the distribution (for example 75–85, 90–110), but overlap in severity with other cases that repre- sent quantitative accumulations of inherited liabil- ity transmitted by polygenic mechanisms or by gene–environment interactions. The causes of cases

Table 3. Principal components analysis of social responsiveness scale data

Component

ASD, non-ASD, and TD groups (n = 475)

Total % of variance Cumulative%

1 18.928 29.120 29.120 2 3.851 5.925 35.045 3 3.152 4.850 39.895 4 1.926 2.963 42.858 5 1.701 2.616 45.474

ASD, autism spectrum disorders; TD, typical development. The clinical sample consisted of participants with ASD (n = 257) and non-ASD (n = 157).

49

National survey of autistic traits in Japan

Ta bl e 4.

So ci al Re sp on si ve ne ss

Sc al e to ta lr aw

sc or e m ea ns

of th e AS

D, no n- AS

D, an d TD

gr ou ps

AS D

no nA SD

TD

AS D su bc at eg or y

Au tis m

As pe rg er ’s di so rd er

PD D- N OS

Un sp ec ifi ed

N (M al e/ Fe m al e)

25 7 (2 03

:5 4)

15 7 (7 8 :7

9) 61

(3 0: 31 )

96 (7 7 :1

9) 65

(4 8 :1

7) 68

(5 4 :1

4) 28

(2 4 :4

) Ag e (y ea rs )

M ea n (S D)

Ra ng e

10 .0 (3 .9 )4 –1 8

12 .1 (3 .7 )4 –1 8

9. 61

(2 .5 )6 –1 8

9. 0 (4 .2 )4 –1 8

10 .7 (3 .1 )4 –1 7

10 .0 (4 .1 )4 –1 8

11 .6 8 (3 .6 7) 6– 17

In te lle cu al le ve l( N )

N or m al

18 1

11 8

57 57

64 59

1 Bo rd er lin e

14 9

4 8

1 3

2 M ild

M R

10 12

0 5

0 3

2 M od er at e M R

7 3

0 2

0 1

4 Se ve re M R

12 8

0 2

0 0

10 M R (u nk no w n le ve l)

33 7

0 22

0 2

9 SR S M ea n (S D)

Ra ng e

M al es

87 .6 (2 7. 4) 15 –1 58 †

69 .7 (2 7. 9) 13 –1 41 †

27 .4 (1 6. 6) 6– 72 †

89 .5 (2 4. 0) 48 –1 39 ‡

82 .4 (2 6. 8) 15 –1 32

78 .4 (2 6. 5) 24 –1 44 ‡

Fe m al es

86 .1 (2 7. 9) 21 –1 53 §

62 .1 (2 9. 9) 12 –1 34 §

21 .4 (1 6. 2) 2– 65 §

91 .4 (2 7. 2) 21 –1 33

91 .0 (3 1. 4) 38 –1 53

74 .7 (2 5. 3) 40 –1 14

To ta l

87 .3 (2 7. 4) 15 –1 58 ¶

65 .9 (2 9. 1) 12 –1 41 ¶

24 .3 (1 6. 5) 2– 72 ¶

89 .8 (2 4. 5) 21 –1 39 **

84 .6 (2 8. 1) 15 –1 53

77 .7 (2 6. 1) 24 –1 44 **

SR S, So ci al Re sp on si ve ne ss

Sc al e; AS

D, au tis m sp ec tru m di so rd er s; TD ,t yp ic al de ve lo pm

en t; PD D- N OS

,p er va si ve

de ve lo pm

en ta ld is or de rn ot ot he rw is e sp ec ifi ed ;M

R, m en ta lr et ar da tio n.

†A SD

> no n- AS

D, TD

(t = 4. 87 ,P

< 0. 00 1, d = 0. 65 ;t

= 11 .7 3, P < 0. 00 1, d = 2. 29 ,r es pe ct iv el y) ,n on -A SD

> TD

(t = 7. 79 ,P

< 0. 00 1, d = 1. 67 ).

‡A ut is m

> PD D- N OS

(t = 2. 48 ,P

< 0. 05 ,d

= 0. 44 ).

§A SD

> no n- AS

D, TD

(t = 4. 68 ,P

< 0. 00 1, d = 0. 83 ;t

= 11 .8 0, P < 0. 00 1, d = 2. 66 ,r es pe ct iv el y) ,n on -A SD

> TD

(t = 7. 17 ,P

< 0. 00 1, d = 1. 52 ).

¶A SD

> no n- AS

D, TD

(t = 7. 53 ,P

< 0. 00 1, d = 0. 76 ;t

= 17 .1 9, P < 0. 00 1, d = 2. 45 ,r es pe ct iv el y) ,n on -A SD

> TD

(t = 10 .5 1, P < 0. 00 1, d = 1. 59 ).

** Au tis m

> PD D- N OS

(t = 3. 05 ,P

< 0. 05 ,d

= 0. 48 ).

50

Kamio et al.

represented by any given score in the distribution may be independent, partially overlapping, or fully overlapping with the underlying causes of other cases at the same level of severity. The result is a continuous distribution encompassing both dis- crete and quantitative pathways to affectation across a wide range of severity (28–32). We note that in a recent large general population twin study, Robinson et al. (33) demonstrated overlap in causal influence on autistic symptomatology at each of the first, second, and fifth percentiles of severity in the population.

In our study, there was no evidence of a natural cutoff that differentiated children categorically affected from those unaffected by ASD. The parent-report Japanese SRS cutoff scores for sec- ondary screening derived from our ROC analysis, 109.5 for boys and 102.5 for girls, would comprise approximately 0.5% of our normative sample. On the other hand, the ASD primary screening cutoff with the highest sensitivity, 53.5 for boys and 52.5 for girls, encompassing 10.9% of our normative sample, identifies subthreshold conditions in

children that might warrant clinical attention (11). Taken together, these findings complement a recent Korean study (10), in which categorical screening and diagnostic confirmation revealed (and validated) what a continuous distribution of symptom counts. In our normative sample, a parent-report Japanese SRS raw score of 74 for boys and 80 for girls would cut off approximately 3.74%, 1.47% of each gender-specific population distribution, which is very near the prevalence for ASD reported in the Korean study (2.64%) (10).

Our observation of higher quantitative autistic trait scores in males than in females confirms across cultures a subtle but statistically robust gen- der difference (11, 18, 24). The sex distribution pat- tern has potentially profound implications for sex disparities universally observed at the extreme end of the distribution (i.e., in clinical ASD cases), where such disparities would be expected to be accentuated, as is true for any normally distributed trait such as height. The magnitude of the sex dif- ference in our sample (d = 0.18) was smaller than that in the US data set (11) (d = 0.37) but similar to the German normative sample (24) (d = 0.16). Accentuation of the gender difference in the US data set could potentially relate to its being derived from a twin sample, given that male twins score higher than non-twins (34). Japanese children diag- nosed with ASD were rated as having somewhat lower quantitative trait scores than their US and German counterparts. Such cross-cultural differ- ences could be partly explained by cultural differ- ences in responding to Likert-type rating, on which Japanese informants have a higher tendency to use the midpoint on the scales and US informants a higher tendency to use the extreme values (35).

The results of the exploratory factor analysis for the clinical sample replicate those of previous

Fig. 2. Distribution of Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) total raw scores in child psychiatric patients with and without autistic spectrum disorders (ASD).

Table 5. Proportion of children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) corresponding to the 99th, 97.5th, 95th, and 90th percentile values among the ASD group of the Japanese clinical sample

Normative sample (n = 22 529) ASD group (n = 257)

Percentile value

Raw score cutoff N (%)

Males Females Males

(n = 203) Females (n = 54)

� 99 98 87 70 34.5% 28 51.9% � 97.5 81 73 117 57.6% 36 66.7% � 95 70 63 147 72.4% 42 77.8% � 90 58 53 173 85.2% 44 81.5%

Fig. 3. Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) total raw scores as a function of Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R) total scores for children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), non-ASD, and typical development (TD).

51

National survey of autistic traits in Japan

studies (17, 18), and the results of the confirmatory factor analysis for a very large general population underscore the presence of a primary underlying factor that influences the symptoms representing all three DSM-IV-TR criterion domains of autism. Factor structure has important implications for understanding the core neuropsychological mecha- nisms underlying autistic traits and symptoms, which are relevant to not only the pursuit of bio- markers and genetic susceptibility factors related to ASD but also diagnostic paradigms (20, 31).

There are two major limitations in this study. First, the response rate was low (29%), although it is keeping with what is expected from population- based surveys. Second, high-scoring children in 22 529 Japanese schoolchildren were not con- firmed using any diagnostic instruments, although quantitatively measured autistic traits were exten- sively clinically confirmed for the separate smaller sample.

In the present study, although the instrument capably distinguished children diagnosed with ASD from children diagnosed with other psychiat- ric conditions, the score distribution for both clini- cal groups overlapped. A possible interpretation of this observation, given that autistic traits exhibit considerable independence in causation from many forms of psychopathology in genetic epidemiologic research (15, 36), is that autistic traits, when pres- ent, exacerbate other types of psychopathology when they cooccur with autistic traits as comorbid conditions. For some neurodevelopmental condi- tions, however, it has also become increasingly clear that there are elements of genetic causation that genuinely overlap with the genetic cause of autism; these include ADHD, tic disorders, and develop- mental coordination disorders, among others (37).

In conclusion, our study provides strong evi- dence of the continuous nature of autistic symp- tomatology in the general population, as has been reported in previous studies (1, 18, 19, 37). The findings underscore the notion that paradigms for categorical case assignment are superimposed on a continuous distribution, which can result in sub- stantial variation in prevalence estimation, espe- cially when the measurements used in case assignment are not standardized for a given popu- lation (i.e. by gender, informant, culture, etc.). In other words, these data illustrate that when impos- ing an arbitrary, non-standardized cutoff for diag- nosis, small, clinically insignificant changes in the cutoff value can result in significant changes in prevalence, especially when operating at the stee- per slopes of the distribution. Our results support the importance, validity, and feasibility of deter- mining standardized quantitative ratings of autistic

traits and symptoms across cultures, the imple- mentation of which has the potential to advance international collaborative research on autism and related conditions. Finally, these results call for a rational approach to revising systems of diagnosis and service delivery that currently perpetuate the notion of discontinuity between ASD-affected and unaffected populations.

Acknowledgements

This study was supported by Research Grants from the Minis- try of Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan to Dr. Kamio (H19-KOKORO-006 and H20-KOKORO-004) and by a grant from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development to Dr. Constantino (HD42541). We would like to thank Drs. Norio Ozaki and Seiji Koishi for translating the SRS, Drs. Akiko Takaki, Miyako Shirakawa, Tokio Uchiy- ama, Masahiro Oshima, and Eiko Inokuchi for data collection, and Drs. Shoji Tanaka and Hisateru Tachimori for helpful discussion.

Declaration of interest

Dr. Constantino receives royalties for commercial distribution of the SRS, which is published by Western Psychological Ser- vices. No royalties were generated from use of the scale for this research study, and the study was exclusively designed to address scientific questions in the domains of epidemiology and public health.

The authors have no conflict of interests to declare with respect to this article.

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Research Materials/Coping Strategies of Mothers 2867-4885-1-PB.pdf

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Coping Strategies of Mothers having Children with Special Needs

Gehan EL Nabawy Ahmed Moawad ( PhD )

Lecturer of Pediatric Nursing , Faculty of Nursing Mansoura University , Egypt

Abstract

Families with a child who has special health care needs experience life differently than other families. Mothers

appear to carry the larger burden of care and may feel a need to be with their child at all times and experience

stress related to coping with the heavy load of care giving. the current descriptive research design is aimed to

identify existing coping strategies of mothers who have children with special needs and determine whether there

is a relationship between the coping strategies and the mothers’ demographic variables. Mother's coping

strategies were assessed using the Family Crisis Oriented Personal Evaluation Scale (F-COPES). The study

concluded that there is significance relationship between age and both reframing and passive appraisal, as well as

between birth order and mobilizing family to acquire and accept help. The study recommended that future

research should be done on larger populations and additional research might address the coping strategies of

other family members, such as siblings and the extended family.

Key Wards : Coping strategies, mothers, children, special needs, Family Crisis Oriented Personal Evaluation

Scale (F-COPES).

1. Introduction

For most parents, the birth of their child is a joyous time. However, nearly 4% of parents receive distressing

news about their child’s health. In fact, about every 3.5 minutes a parent is told that their child has a serious

chronic medical illness, health defect, disability, sensory impairment, or mental retardation . For these parents,

the time of their child’s birth may become mixed with stress and despair (Barnett &et al , 2003). Parenting is a

highly stressful job, and becoming a parent of a child with disability is one of the most stressful life events that

can occur. Families with a child who has special health care needs experience life differently than other families.

Mothers are usually the primary caregivers of these children because most of them remain in the family

environment during their treatment and they appear to carry the larger burden of care and they may feel a need to

be with their child at all times so they experience stress related to coping with the heavy load of care giving

(Thompson, 2000 & James & Ashwill, 2007 & Peters & Jackson, 2009 ).

Child with special needs is difficult to define, because there is no single definition or classification system

that is used .For many years a number of terms have been used to classify and describe children with special

health care needs. These terms include chronic illness, congenital disability, developmental delay, developmental

disability, disability, handicap, impairment, and technology-dependent child(Stein, Shenkman &Wegener,

2003).More recently there has been impetus to develop a definition of children with special health care needs to

be used .To date, children with special health care needs, as defined by the federal Maternal and Child Health

Bureau are "children who have or are at increased risk for a chronic physical, behavioral, developmental, or

emotional condition and who also require health related services of a type or beyond that required by children in

general. The terms “child with special needs” and "disability” are utilized interchangeably"( Hockenberry &

Wilson, 2007 & Miller, Recsky & Armstrong, 2004 & Msall, Avery & Tremont, 2003 & Beers, Kemeny

&Sherritt, 2003) .

Disability is described as any restriction or lack of ability to perform an activity in a manner or within a

range considered normal for human beings. There is a large and growing number of persons with physical,

mental, or sensory disabilities in the world today. However, the incidence and causes of disabilities vary

throughout the world according to age ,level of economic developmental, access to health care, educational,

environmental, and other factors( Harwood, Sayer &Hirscfeld, 2004).The estimated ratio of disabled persons

ranges between 5.2-18.2% in the world populations. In developing countries, up to 5% of the children are born

disabled or became disabled during their childhood .Disability is related to the population's health quality as well

as the individual's health problem. The type and causes of disabilities should be determined to detect the

precautions which prevent disability and planning approaches for rehabilitation for the disabled . Many factors

are responsible for the rising numbers of disabled children .Lack of oxygen in the fetus during birth due to

torsion of the umbilical and dystocia, various diseases in the postnatal period, heredity and genetic defects are

the most common factors of disabilities (Donbak & et al, 2006 & Cooke , 2005).

Mothers can never fully prepare themselves for the news that their child is different. Whether the diagnosis

of a disability is shortly after birth or later on in life, family dreams and expectations suddenly change. Mothers

may have to face immediate decisions about their child’s medical care and treatment (Case-Smith, 2004). More

ever, mothers of children with disabilities cope with the same responsibilities and pressures that other mothers

face; however, these mothers reported higher amounts of stress and they experience greater demands made by

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caring for a child with special needs. This sense of stress may be associated with a child’s characteristics, greater

financial and care-giving demands, feelings of being unprepared for the tasks of parenting, and a sense of

loneliness and isolation (Sullivan-Bolyai, Sadler & Knafl, 2003 & Oruche & et al, 2012).

Coping involves psychological resources and coping strategies that help to eliminate, modify, or manage a

stressful event or crisis situation . Having a child with special needs creates a crisis event, how mothers respond

to the stresses of raising their child with special needs depends on a wide variety of factors influencing their

ability to cope, such as their interpretation of the crisis event, the family’s sources of support, community

resources, and family structure .The personality characteristics of the family members, their financial status,

educational level, problem-solving skills, and spirituality all influence a family’s ability to cope. Strong marital

relationship and social support also help determine mother adjustment (Emerson, 2003 & Fazil, Wallace & Singh,

2004). The goal of coping strategies is to strengthen or maintain family resources , reduce the source of stress or

negative emotions , and achieve a balance in family functioning . Strategies directly aimed at coping with the

source of stress, such as problem solving and seeking information are more adaptive strategies than those efforts

to deny or minimize the situation (Bailey & Smith, 2000).

More ever ,the literature on the adaptation of families of children with special needs repeatedly indicates

that it is important for service providers to understand family belief systems, both in a general sense and entity.

Researchers document the importance of understanding families’ worldviews , values and spiritual beliefs and

day-to-day priorities and concerns (King & et al , 2009).

Because each family system is unique, each family may have different coping strategies. So, professionals

need to know that what coping strategies are helping each family. One should not assume that any one specific

strategy works well for all families. Professionals should identify family sources of support and promote the

utilization of both formal and informal support systems. Furthermore ,nurses who work with mothers who have

children with special needs must understand how to assist the mothers in coping with their stressors. In order to

accomplish this, nurses can help mothers realize their abilities and strengths, identify problems, develop

problem-solving strategies, and identify new coping strategies (Hockenberry & Wilson, 2007 & Woodgate,

Aleah & Seccol,2008).The professional-parent relationship is also very important. While professionals may

suggest ways to help a child with disabilities and offer information regarding the child’s disability, mothers are

the real experts on their child’s like/dislikes and how they communicate .Mothers and professionals need to work

together concerning their child’s level of care, as well as individual and family needs. Professionals should also

direct their attention towards what is helping the mothers cope with the added stressors of raising a child with

special needs (Sivberg, 2002& King,et al, 2009).

2. Significance of the problem

The statistical reports of Ministry of Health in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia ( 2011) stated that, the total number of

handicap was 720000 and this number account for 4% of total population of Saudi Arabia. In relation to children

it was reported that , birth rate is 400000 - 500000 per year , about 400 - 500 of them is handicap and they

account about 6.3% of all children in Saudi Arabia .

3. Aim of the Study

The aims of this descriptive study were to identify the coping strategies of mothers who have children with

special needs and determine whether there is a relationship between the coping strategies and the mothers’

demographic variables.

4. Methodology

4.1 Research design:

The current research design was a descriptive design aimed to identify the coping strategies of mothers who have

children with special needs and determine whether there is a relationship between the coping strategies and the

mothers’ demographic variables.

4.2 Setting:

The study was conducted at Out-Patient Clinics in Asser Central Hospital, Abha , Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

4.3 Subjects:

The study involved 146 mothers having children with different types of disabilities or special needs. The data

collected during three months started from February to April 2012. The mothers with their children was

attending out-patient clinics in two days only per week (Monday – Tuesday) for follow up .

4.4 Instrument

The data was collected using the following tools:-

(A) -The structured questionnaire sheet was developed by the researcher. It was written in simple Arabic

language. The questionnaire was concerned with gathering data related to:

1- Mothers’ demographic characteristics that include age, marital status, educational level, number of

children, sex and birth order of the child with special needs, family monthly income, and the nature of

the child’s disability.

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2- An additional open-ended question was added to ask the mothers to further state what was most helpful

in coping with their child’s disability (i.e., seeking spiritual support, maintaining a positive attitude,

seeking help from family members, seeking help from friends, community resources, acquiring

additional information, professionals support and others things ).

(B) - Mother's coping strategies were assessed using the Family Crisis Oriented Personal Evaluation Scale

(F-COPES) developed by (McCubbin, Olson, and Larsen ,1981). This 5-point likert, self-report scale was

designed to indicate the point at which a person agrees or disagrees with each statement (1= strongly disagree

and 5= strongly agree). The F-COPES contains 30-items that been divided into five coping pattern subscales:

acquiring social support, reframing, seeking spiritual support, mobilizing family to acquire and accept help, and

passive appraisal (McCubbin et al., 1991). Researchers have used the F-COPES in a variety of circumstances,

some of which include: parents coping with children who have learning disabilities, mental retardation, or

physical disabilities. F-COPES has been shown to have high construct validity and reliability.

4.5 Definition of variables:-

Acquiring social support is the family’s ability to actively engage in acquiring support from relatives, friends,

neighbors, and extended family (e.g., sharing our difficulties with relative).

Reframing assesses the family’s capability to redefine stressful events in order to make them more manageable

(e.g., knowing that we have the strength within our family to solve our problems).

Seeking spiritual support is finding comfort in a higher belief system (e.g., participating in religious or spiritual

activities).

Mobilizing family to acquire and accept help is the family’s ability to seek out community resources and

accept help from others (e.g., seeking assistance from community agencies and programs designed to help

families in situation).

Passive appraisal is the family’s ability to accept problematic issues that minimizes reactivity (e.g., believing if

we wait long enough, the problem will go away).

4.6 Methods:

Official permission to conduct the study was taken from the hospitals responsible authorities after explanation of

the aims of the study. Self-administered structured questionnaire sheet was developed and Family Crisis Oriented

Personal Evaluation Scale (F-COPES), was translated into Arabic by researcher.

A jury of 5 experts in the field of nursing was done to ascertain the content validity of the tool, necessary

modifications were carried out accordingly. A pilot study was carried out on 10 mothers having children with

special needs to ensure the clarity and applicability of the tools. Family Crisis Oriented Personal Evaluation

Scale (F-COPES), was tested for its reliability. Test and retest reliability was computed using a small sample of

mothers having children with special needs (10) and it was satisfactory for research purposes (r = 0.90).

Data was collected during actual visits to the previously mentioned setting. A self-report questionnaire takes

15-20 minute to be completed. The researcher take verbal consent from the participants after explanation of the

purpose of the study. The data was revised, coded, tabulated, and presented using descriptive statistics in the

form of frequencies and percentage for qualitative variables, and means and standard deviations for quantitative

variables. Qualitative variables were compared using 2-tailed test. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 and

0.01 level. Statistical analyses were performed using the SPSS (Version 17.0) software.

5. Results

Frequencies and percentages of the demographic variables will be presented. Descriptive statistics will be

reported on each of the five subscales, as well as the results of the open-ended question. In addition, this section

will also discuss any significance found between demographic variables and coping strategies .

Table 1 shows that, more than one third (31.5%) of studied mothers ,their age were more than forty years and the

highest percent (47.9%) of them had middle level of education. In relation to marital status, the majority(91.15%)

of studied mothers were married. Concerning number of children , more than two thirds (68.5%) of mothers had

four or more children and (5.5%) of them had one child. In relation to birth order of the child with special needs,

the ranking of (40.4%) of them were the fourth or more . As regards the sex of the child with special needs, more

than half of them (51.4%) were male. Regarding monthly income, more than half (52.7% ) of studied mothers ,

their income were sufficient while the income of ( 47.3%) were not sufficient.

Table 2 indicates that , 40.4% of studied mothers, the nature of their children disability were cognitive disability

(mainly Down's syndrome) while (2.1%) of them had psychological disability. In addition, (32.2%) of them had

physical disability and the rest (25.3%) of them had both physical and cognitive disability.

Table 3, it is observed from this table that, the most subscale coping strategies used by mothers was acquiring

social support followed by reframing.

Table 4 shows that, the most of mothers (43.2%) reported using more than one way in coping with the child's

disability is the most beneficial way in coping with the child's disability followed by seeking spiritual support

(14.4%) and the least way was seeking help and support from their friends (0.7%).

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Table 5 clarifies that, there is significance relationship between age and reframing and passive appraisal, as well

as between birth order and mobilizing family to acquire and accept help. Moreover, there is significance

relationship between income and reframing and mobilizing family to acquire and accept help. Meanwhile, there

is no significance relationship between marital status, level of education, number of children, sex of the child and

five subscales of coping strategies.

6. Discussion

When one becomes a parent it is always necessary to adjust to a new way of life and all parents wish for a

healthy baby, but some parents though not by their choice are gifted with child with special needs. Some are able

to cope up with such a situation and some experience psychological stress. Parenting those child is not an easy

task. Having a child with special needs places strain on the whole family (Nissel &et al , 2003). Parents having a

child with special needs experience a variety of ‘psychological stress’ related to the child’s disability. Parents

especially mothers need every help and encouragement possible in their difficult task, which is, indeed, easier for

them while the child is still a baby. An anxious love, on the part of the mother, may do much to exacerbate the

defective’s disability (Kumar,2008). Following the diagnosis of a chronic health condition in a child, changes

occur in the family's day to day routines, plans for the future, feelings and meaning about self ( Kuster & et al ,

2004). The child with special needs and his or her family are both affected by the child's condition and way of

living. Each member of the family experiences effects related to the child's special needs. Family members'

experiences and their responses to the child's illness influence each other directly (Kyle, 2008). Mothers who

have children with special needs report higher amounts of stress compared to mothers who do not have

children with special needs. A mother’s ability to adapt to stressful situations depends upon a number of

variables, including an individual’s psychological strengths, individual and family resources, and the type of

coping strategies utilized (Ahmann, 2006).The aims of this study were to identify the coping strategies of

mothers who have children with special needs and determine whether there is a relationship between the coping

strategies and the mothers’ demographic variables.

In relation to characteristics of the studied mothers, the findings of the present study showed that, more than

two thirds (63.7%) of studied mothers ,their age were more than thirty years and more than two thirds (68.5%)

of mothers had four or more children, the ranking of (40.4 %) of the child with special needs were the fourth or

more. In addition, (40.4%) of studied mothers, the nature of their children disability were cognitive disability

(mainly Down's syndrome).These results supported by Niazi &et al,(1995) who conducted a study in Riyadh to

determine the incidence and distribution of Down’s syndrome births during a 9-year period from July 1982 to

June 1991, found that an incidence of Down’s syndrome was 1 in 554 live births (1.8 per 1,000). A trend towards

an increased incidence of Down’s syndrome with advanced maternal age or increased maternal parity was found.

Similarly, this result is in agreement with Faud,(2006) who stated that, Down syndrome (DS) is a common

disorder that occurs in approximately 1:600 newborns; however, this incidence greatly increases among children

born to mothers over 35 years of age. Affected children almost always have mental retardation . Moreover, Riper,

(2007) who reported that Down syndrome is the most common chromosomal cause of intellectual disabilities

and the incidence of it remains steady, occurring once in every 800– 1,000 live births.

As regarding level of education, the results of the present study revealed that, the majority of the mother

( 71.2%) were educated .No significance was found regarding mother's coping strategies and their level of

education. These results are contradicted with Kumar, (2008) who stated that, mothers with higher educational

status had low psychological stress and high coping strategy scores. Most of the mothers who are educated seek

professional help for coping. Educated mothers are also able to provide appropriate and timely treatment for

various problems of the child. The mothers were aware of attending seminars and workshops to enhance their

coping strategies and to deal with the problems of the child successfully. Further, the educated mothers are more

exposed to the prevailing facilities that will improve their child’s condition and enhance the strategies that they

can adopt to cope effectively with the psychological stress and they have frequent contacts with the experts and

professionals.

Furthermore, more than half of mothers( 52.7%%) who had sufficient income. However, a significant

relationship was found between family income and reframing as well as family income and seeking spiritual

support and mobilizing family to acquire and accept help . Mothers who had a higher income utilized reframing

and seeking spiritual support coping strategies to a greater extent than those who had insufficient income. One

possible reason for this may be that mothers who have a higher income may also have more resources available

to them, which helps make the situation less stressful.

In the open-ended question, mothers had listed a variety of helpful coping strategies. The results found

that the majority of mothers (43.2%) listed that using more than one coping methods is more beneficial in

dealing with their children's disability. This result supported by Barentt,et al,(2003) who stated that having a

wide variety of strategies is more helpful than having only one or two. The results of the current study revealed

that, the most coping strategies used by mothers was acquiring social support followed by reframing. This

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finding is congruent with Totiska & et al , (2011) who reported that when caregivers are supported, they are

better able to cope with the challenges of providing care for a child with special needs. In addition, this result is

agreement with Pritzlaff,(2001) who conducted a study to examine the coping strategies of the parents who

have children with disabilities, found that, the two most frequently utilized coping strategies were acquiring

social support and reframing. Seeking spiritual support was the least utilized. This result is not correspondent

with Ayrault, (2001) who stated that some mothers avoid their relatives and friends, fearing that they may not

understand their children’s needs and spend much of their time caring for their children, taking them for

assessment, therapy or medical treatment . As a result, their social life is interrupted and their quality of life in

this domain decreases. Similarly, this is confirmed by Li-Tsang & Leung ,(2003) who reported that while it takes

time for mothers to accept their children, as the children grow, mothers might feel pressure from society,

especially on the occasions when their children exhibit unpredictable misbehavior in public, such as screaming.

In order to avoid these embarrassments, mothers sometimes refrain from social activities. Thus, they limit their

social networks. Moreover, this result was supported with Churchill & et al,(2010) who conducted a study on129

parents of children with special health care needs (CSHCN) to describe and quantify coping skills and

prevalence of depressive symptoms in those parents and describe the association of coping skills with parental

depressive symptoms, severity of child’s condition and family demographic characteristics, they found that ,the

most coping strategy used by parents was reframing followed by acquiring social support and the least one was

seeking spiritual support.

In general, parents of children with disabilities are more withdrawn from society. However, previous reports

have observed that some parents actively participate in parental self-help support groups. These parents tend to

be educated, with higher intellectual function, stable family backgrounds, no financial difficulties, outgoing,

confident, efficient, and motivated. Parents’ attitudes, rather than their children’s level of disabilities, seem to be

the main determinant for active social participation (Atkin, 2000; Li-Tsang, Yau & Yuen, 2001).

7. Conclusion and Recommendations

The present study concluded that, the most of mothers reported that , using more than one coping methods is

more beneficial in dealing with their children with special needs. The most used coping strategies was acquiring

social support followed by reframing. Furthermore, there is significance relationship between age and both

reframing and passive appraisal, as well as between birth order and mobilizing family to acquire and accept help.

Moreover, there is significance relationship between income and both reframing and mobilizing family to

acquire and accept help. Meanwhile, there is no significance relationship between marital status, level of

education, number of children, sex of the child and five subscales of coping strategies. This study recommended

that, future research should be done on larger populations , additional research might address the coping

strategies of other family members, such as siblings and the extended family. Examining parental coping

strategies at different stages of development, further research should focus on comparative study between coping

strategies used by mothers versus those used by fathers and personal interviews could be conducted to avoid

subjectivity.

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with disabilities. Intervention in School and Clinic. 35(5): 294-296.

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disabilities: some characteristics, attitudes and adaptive coping skills. British Journal of Developmental

Disabilities.47: 61–71.

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University of Mysore, Mysore© Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology. 34, (2): 227-231.

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thesis of Sciences Degree With a Major in Guidance and Counseling .The Graduate College. University

of Wisconsin- Stout.

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Spectrum Disorders and Parents with non-autistic Children.. International Journal of Circumpolar

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83

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19( 4) :276-287.

Tables

Table 1: Percentage distribution of mothers according to their characteristics.

Demographic variables Frequency Percent

Age

Less than 20 years 23 15.8

From 20 years to 24 years 11 7.5

From 25 years to 29 years 19 13.0

From 30 years to 34 years 24 16.4

From 35 years to 39 years 23 15.8

More than 40 years 46 31.5

X ± SD 4.03 ± 1.81

Marital status

Married 133 91.1

Divorced 6 4.1

Widow 7 4.8

Level of education

Illiterate 42 28.8

Middle level of education 70 47.9

High level of education 34 23.3

Number of children

One 8 5.5

Two 20 13.7

Three 18 12.3

Four or more 100 68.5

Birth order of the child with special needs

First 34 23.3

Second 34 23.3

Third 19 13.0

Fourth or more 59 40.4

Sex of the child with special needs

Male 71 48.6

Female 75 51.4

Income

Extremely not sufficient 29 19.9

Not sufficient 40 27.4

Sufficient 66 45.2

Extremely sufficient 11 7.5

Total 146 100.0

Table 2: Percentage distribution of type of special needs.

Type of disability Frequency Percent

- Physical 47 32.2

- Cognitive 59 40.4

- Psychological or emotional 3 2.1

- Combination 37 25.3

Total 146 100.0

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ISSN 2224-3208 (Paper) ISSN 2225-093X (Online) Vol 2, No.8, 2012

84

Table 3 : Descriptive statistics of five subscales of coping strategies.

Five subscales of coping strategies Mean Std. Deviation Maximum Minimum

Acquiring social support 33.0 9.4 85.00 15.00

Reframing 30.5 6.1 40.00 12.00

Seeking spiritual support 16.9 3.0 20.00 5.00

Mobilizing family to acquire and accept

help 15.8 3.6 20.00 7.00

Passive appraisal 12.3 3.2 20.00 4.00

Table 4: Percentage distribution of the most beneficial way in coping with the child's disability (open end

question ).

Items Frequency Percent

- Seeking spiritual support 21 14.4

- Maintaining a positive attitude 9 6.2

- Seeking help and support from family 16 11.0

- Seeking help and support from friends 1 0.7

- Professionals support 17 11.6

- Acquiring additional information 5 3.4

- Community resources 14 9.6

- Others ( more than one way ) 63 43.2

Total 146 100.0

Table (5) Relationship between demographic characteristics and five subscales of coping strategies

Characteristics

Acquiring

social support

Reframing Seeking spiritual

support

Mobilizing family

to acquire and

accept help

Passive

appraisal

Age -.053 .522 164

* .048 .155 .062 -.055 .510

.182 *

028

Marital status 146 -.135 146 -.155 .038 .647 -.052 .535 .010 .905

Level of

education -.028 .737 .155 .061 .077 .353 -.017 .840 -.037 .661

Number of

children -.017 .834 .044 .599 -.050 .552 -.118 .156 -.018 .825

Birth order -.089 .284 .044 .599 -.050 .552 -.188 * .023 -.018 .825

Sex of the

child -.069 .405 .087 .295 .045 .587 -.107 .197 -.110 .185

Income .114 .170 .190 * .022 .046 .579 .286

** .000 -.025 .76

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Research Materials/Deciphering Single Subject ASD.pdf

Tamiko Azuma

Teresa Cardon

SEE ALSO

References

Deciphering Single‐Subject Research Design and Autism Spectrum Disorders by Teresa A. Cardon & Tamiko Azuma

The number of children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) has risen at an astonishing rate over the past decade. Ten years ago, one in 10,000 children was diagnosed as having an ASD. Today, one in 110 children is diagnosed with an ASD (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2010). As the number of ASD cases continues to increase, autism research focusing on prevention, treatment, and intervention has become a high priority for the National Institutes of Health and other research organizations. It is imperative that speech­language pathologists read and understand the most current research available on this growing population.

Several different research methodologies are used with individuals with ASD; each has specific advantages and disadvantages as well as quality indicators of scientific rigor.

The Challenges of Conducting Research with Individuals with Autism

Research group designs, which compare two seemingly separate but equal groups of participants, are difficult to conduct with individuals with ASD and are used less frequently than single­subject research designs (SSRDs). Group designs pose a challenge for several reasons. First, group designs typically require random selection. Random selection requires a supportive, homogenous sample size, which is rarely present in populations with ASD. The range of symptoms and the severity across those symptoms result in a heterogeneous population and, therefore, difficulty in finding groups that are comparable. Also, given that intensive early intervention is recommended for individuals with autism (Interagency Autism Coordinating Committee; IACC, 2011), there are ethical considerations to consider if one group is placed in a treatment condition while leaving a second group in a no­treatment condition.

Finally, researchers also must be concerned with statistical power. Statistical power is a tool that can help researchers test if the particular effect they are looking for does, in fact, exist. Difficulties finding homogenous groups of participants with autism make it challenging to analyze statistical power and treatment effects.

This high degree of heterogeneity among children with ASDs poses serious challenges for researchers (National Research Council; NRC, 2001). A fundamental assumption of any rigorous research study is that the observed sample is representative of the general population. This assumption allows the researcher to extend the results beyond the study to the larger population. Given the heterogeneous nature of autism, it may not be feasible to assume that the results observed in a given sample can be readily extended to a larger population. This lack of homogeneity causes threats to both internal and external validity (NRC, 2001). Threats to internal validity arise when children are not, or cannot, be matched across possibly influential variables (e.g., age, cognitive level, verbal ability, etc.). Thus, observed differences in behavior may be due to the treatment, but also could be due to demographic or other differences. Additionally, unless all study participants are receiving identical interventions outside of the study, carryover effects could be responsible for any observed changes in behavior (NRC, 2001).

To accommodate the inherent heterogeneity in this population, Schreibman (2000) recommends that researchers include clear and specific descriptions of their study participants. Consumers of research should look for diagnostic information that includes complete descriptions of the assessment tools and the qualifications of the examiner (Reichow, Volkmar, & Cicchetti, 2008). Extensive descriptions that include demographic and behavioral profiles allow researchers to closely match the original study

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protocol when they attempt to replicate or extend the results and allow SLPs the opportunity to determine the clinical relevance of the research. Additionally, clear descriptors may reveal specific cognitive or behavioral profiles that interact with different treatment effects.

Single­Subject Research Designs  

The most common type of treatment design used when studying individuals with ASD is an SSRD. These designs allow for a degree of experimental control and provide information beyond the traditional descriptive case study (Horner, Carr, Halle, McGee, Odom, & Wolery, 2005). SSRD differ from group designs in that independent variables require systemic replication during baseline and treatment sessions rather than at single time points; effectiveness of treatments are traditionally determined via visual analysis (i.e., a review of graphs depicting both dependent and independent variables) rather than statistical analysis; and causal and functional results are based on behavioral observations of baseline vs. treatment conditions rather than on the confirmation of theoretical hypotheses or correlational relationships (NRC, 2001; Horner et al., 2005; Kazdin, 1982). 

The two most commonly used types of SSRD in autism research are the withdrawal (or reversal) design and the multiple­baseline design (NRC, 2001). Withdrawal designs involve administration and then removal of treatment to reveal how the absence of treatment affects the target behavior (Richards, Taylor, Ramasamy, & Richards, 1999). Withdrawal designs are typically shown using a schematic in which A represents the baseline phase and B represents the treatment phase (See Figure 1 [PDF]). For example, to study the effect of picture­card use on verbal expression, the A1 (no

treatment) phase would establish how many verbal expressions were made prior to treatment. During the B1 (treatment) phase, picture cards would be used and verbal expressions would be assessed. In

the A2 (withdrawal) phase, the picture cards are removed and verbal expression is again measured.

Typically, another B2 (treatment) phase would be implemented to replicate the treatment effect.

Withdrawal designs are helpful in identifying a functional or causal relationship between the target behavior and the treatment (Horner et al., 2005; Richards et al., 1999).

One of the strongest advantages of withdrawal designs is ease: they are simple to implement and do not require extensive training. They also can help identify and confirm a causal relationship between the treatment and the behavior, particularly when multiple series of the baseline and treatment phases are introduced in the same study (Richards et al., 1999). If a functional relationship is present, a withdrawal design can reveal it quickly and powerfully.

However, withdrawal designs are not always appropriate—for instance, in situations in which a target behavior cannot be eliminated after being learned (Richards et al., 1999). If the acquired skill—such as matching objects or reading words—cannot be "unlearned" later, then a withdrawal design is not appropriate. Important ethical issues also should be considered prior to implementing a withdrawal design. If the withdrawal of treatment could lead to harmful consequences for the child (e.g., the child is engaging in serious self­injurious behaviors that disappear during treatment), it may be unethical to withdraw the treatment for the sake of replication. Remember, the research design must be suitable to answer the proposed research question.

Another common SSRD is the multiple­baseline design, in which the baseline condition and the treatment condition are replicated multiple times across the same study. In contrast to the withdrawal design, baseline measures are implemented simultaneously until trends are established. As treatment starts for one participant or behavior, baseline continues for the others until everyone enters a treatment phase at a different point in time. Multiple­baseline designs are typically used to measure treatment effects across behaviors, environmental settings, or participants (Richards et al., 1999).

For example, a researcher may be interested in determining the effectiveness of a verbal elicitation treatment protocol. Specifically, the researcher may want to examine three children with ASD from the same preschool to determine if their verbal productions increase after exposure to the same verbal elicitation treatment (replication of the treatment effect across three children). Figure 2 [PDF] shows a schematic representation of a typical multiple­baseline design in which A represents the baseline condition and B represents the treatment condition. Following the example, all three children would begin phase A (baseline) with measures of current verbal output, until a stable trend is established. Baselines typically consist of a minimum of three points. Participant 1 would then begin phase B (verbal elicitation treatment) while the other two continued with phase A. Participant 2 would then enter phase B while Participant 3 continued with phase A (baseline). After Participant 3 completed baseline, all three children would be in phase B (verbal elicitation treatment). During a multiple­baseline study, treatment is implemented at different times across the participants to establish that changes in the target behavior are, in fact, related to the treatment and not due to other extraneous factors. Multiple­ baseline designs also can be used to analyze different target behaviors (e.g., self­help skills, play skills, picture matching) with the same child or to determine if one child can learn a target behavior across three different settings (e.g., home, school, child care).

It has been suggested that multiple­baseline designs are an appropriate design for clinical and educational research for several reasons (Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968; Gast, 2010). First, treatment does not have to be withdrawn, so there are no concerns over the ethical ramifications of removing treatment or the feasibility of behavior returning to baseline levels. Second, several individuals could potentially benefit from treatment at the same time. Third, strong functional relationships between the independent variable and the behavior should be evident after a visual inspection of the data (Horner et al., 2005).

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However, there is a concern that multiple­baseline designs provide weaker causal evidence than the withdrawal design (Richards et al., 1999). As there is no removal of treatment, it can be unclear if the behavior would continue to occur without treatment. To account for this possibility, some researchers strengthen their multiple­baseline designs by including a phase C (withdrawal), in which treatment is removed to determine the effect it has on the target behavior. Further, in multiple­baseline studies, the treatment is typically applied in only one condition. There is no return to baseline and no introduction of additional treatment variables, thereby limiting replication and extended treatment effects. Lastly, a multiple­baseline design requires more time to implement than a withdrawal design, because all participants must establish a clear baseline trend in behavior prior to the implementation of treatment. In research with multiple­baseline designs, stable baseline trends should be evident for each participant. In particular, target behaviors that appear to change during baseline—before treatment has been implemented—should lead to cautious interpretations and a closer evaluation of internal validity.  

The preferred method of analysis for analyzing SSRDs is a visual inspection of the data (Kromrey & Foster­Johnson, 1996). Indeed, over the past 30 years, visual analysis has accounted for 90% of the analysis on SSRDs (Busk & Marasculio, 1992). Researchers visually analyze the data to observe two specific outcomes: level of change (variability) in the dependent measure and consistent changes (trends) across data points of the independent variable (Richards et al., 1999). In the above example, the level of change in verbal output would be measured across the sessions of verbal elicitation treatment.  It is important to analyze the data visually within and between phases to examine the variability of the data. Close inspection of the data should allow the researcher to determine if changes are due to natural variability or to the treatment. Thus, having sufficient data point within each phase is critical to establishing natural variability patterns. Researchers examine the data to identify any apparent trends in the behavior.

Overall, visual analysis is a holistic approach that has a number of advantages for consumers of research articles. First, in SSRD, the data are displayed concisely, allowing readers to inspect the results visually. Second, visual inspection does not require extensive knowledge of statistical calculations (Kromrey & Foster­Johnson, 1996). Readers can identify clinically significant changes via visual analysis even when those same changes may not be large enough to be statistically significant (Richards et al., 1999). Finally, readers can glean important information from the visual data displayed in SSRD. Specifically, readers can analyze the participants’ starting skill level, the number of treatment sessions that were implemented, and how many treatment sessions were required before changes in the target behavior were observed.

Other Design Considerations 

Additional design concerns important to consider when reviewing autism research involve the replication of research findings (NRC, 2001; Odom, Brown, Frey, Karasu, Smith­Canter, & Strain, 2003). Novel treatments are often replicated in the same labs by the same researchers: that is, the originators of an intervention method and the students they have mentored are those who replicate findings. This situation is problematic because the effectiveness of the treatment may be due to the specific set of researchers and their students. There also could be a possibility of experimenter bias. This lack of diversified replicability affects the contributions the treatment could be making to the growing evidence base (Reichow, Volkmar, & Cicchetti, 2008). For example, an autism intervention known as Reciprocal Imitation Training (RIT) was developed by Ingersoll and Schreibman in 2006. Although the intervention has shown promise, only Ingersoll and colleagues had published results of RIT research until recently (Ingersoll, 2008a; Ingersoll, 2008b; Ingersoll & Gergans, 2007; Ingersoll & Lalonde, 2010; Ingersoll, Lewis, & Kroman, 2006). New evidence supporting RIT as a beneficial treatment program for children with autism has emerged as researchers from different labs across the country have replicated the original findings (Cardon & Wilcox, 2010).

It also is imperative that consumers of research understand issues related to treatment fidelity. Wheeler and colleagues (2006) conducted a meta­study to determine if behavioral intervention studies on children with ASD met the requirements for treatment fidelity, which the researchers defined as "the degree to which an independent variable is implemented as intended" (p. 45). In their analysis, they assessed how well the independent variables (i.e. the treatments) were clearly defined and measurable. The researchers identified 60 studies that met their inclusionary criteria (e.g., behavioral interventions, participants with ASD, published in recognizable journals, etc.) and analyzed them for evidence of treatment fidelity. Of the 60 studies, only 18% operationally defined the independent variable and reported measures of treatment fidelity. Surprisingly, 68% of the studies included no information on treatment fidelity (Wheeler, Baggett, Fox, & Blevins, 2006). Those investigating research on individuals with ASD should seek out research articles that operationally define a target behavior, provide a concise description of the intervention with step­by­step instructions, and define the expected outcomes of the intervention.

Quality Indicators for Single­Subject Research Designs 

Given that the focus of intervention research with individuals with ASD is to examine strategies that enhance individual development, SSRD is an appropriate method of evaluation (Reichow, Volkmar, & Cicchetti, 2008). SLPs examining autism research should look for quality indicators that have been recommended by both special education and autism researchers (e.g., Horner, et al., 2005; Parker & Hagan­Burke, 2007; Reichow, Volkmar, & Cicchetti, 2008; see Table 1). As the incidence of autism has continued to rise, the need for effective autism intervention also has increased. The translation of

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research results into clinical application could provide valuable tools for individuals with ASD and their families.

Teresa A. Cardon, PhD, CCC­SLP, an assistant professor at Washington State University­ Spokane, is pursuing a research career working with young children on the autism spectrum. She has worked with individuals on the autism spectrum for more than 19 years. Contact her at [email protected].

Tamiko Azuma, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of Speech and Hearing Science at Arizona State University. Her research focuses on working memory and language processing in young adults, older adults, and individuals with dementia. Dr. Azuma has taught undergraduate and graduate level courses focusing on research methods.She can be reached at [email protected].

cite as: Cardon, T. A.  & Azuma, T. (2011, June 07). Deciphering Single­Subject Research Design and Autism

Spectrum Disorders. The ASHA Leader.

References

Baer, D. M., Wolf, M. W. & Risley, T. R. (1968). Some current dimensions of applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 91–97.

Brookman­Frazee, L. (2004). Using parent/clinician partnerships in parent education programs for children with autism. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 6(4), 195–213.

Busk, P., & Marascuilo, L. (1992). Statistical analysis in single­case research: Issues, procedures, and recommendations, with applications to multiple behaviours. In T. Kratochwill & J. Levin (Eds.), Single case research design and analysis: New directions for psychology and education (pp. 159– 185). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Cardon, T. & Wilcox, M. J. (2010). Promoting imitation in young children with autism: A comparison of reciprocal imitation training and video modeling. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disabilities. DOI: 10.1007/s10803­010­1086­8.

Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).Autism Spectrum Disorders: Data and Statistics. Retrieved May 11, 2010, from http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/data.html. 

Durand, V. M., & Rost, N. (2005). Does it matter who participates in our studies? Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 7(3), 186–188.

Gast, D. L. (2010). Single subject research methodology in behavioral sciences. New York, New York: Taylor & Francis.

High, R. (2008). Important factors in designing statistical power analysis studies. Retrieved Nov. 22, 2008, from cc.uoregon.edu/cnews/summer2000/statpower.html.

Horner, R. H., Carr, E. G., Halle, J., McGee, G., Odom, S., & Wolery, M. (2005). The use of single­ subject research to identify evidence­based practice in special education. Council for Exceptional Children, 71(2), 165–179.

Ingersoll, B. (2008a). The social role of imitation in autism: Implications for the treatment of imitation deficits. Infants & Young Children, 21, 107–119.

Ingersoll, B. (2008b). Teaching imitation to children with autism: A focus on social reciprocity. Journal of Speech­Language Pathology and Applied Behavior Analysis, 2(3), 269–277.

Ingersoll, B., & Gergans, S. (2007). The effect of a parent­implemented imitation intervention on spontaneous imitation skills in young children with autism. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 28, 163–175.

Ingersoll, B., & Lalonde, K. (2010). The impact of object and gesture imitation training on language use in children with autism. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, published online July 10, 2010, as doi:10.1044/1092­4388(2009/09­0043).

Ingersoll, B., Lewis, E., & Kroman, E. (2006). Teaching the imitation and spontaneous use of descriptive gestures in young children with autism using a naturalistic behavioral  intervention. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 1446–1456.

Ingersoll, B., & Schreibman, L. (2006). Teaching reciprocal imitation skills to young children  with autism using a naturalistic behavioral approach: Effects on language, pretend play, and joint attention. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36, 487–505.

Interagency Autism Coordinating Committee (2011). The 2011 Interagency Autism Coordinating Committee Strategic Plan for Autism Spectrum Disorder Research.  Retrieved March, 25, 2011 from http://iacc.hhs.gov/strategicplan/2011/print_version.jsp. 

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Kanner, L. (1943). Autistic disturbances of affective contact. Nervous Child, 2, 217–250.

Kazdin, A. (2001). Behavior modification in applied settings. Toronto, Canada: Wadsworth.

Kromrey, J. D., & Foster­Johnson, L. (1996). Determining the efficacy of intervention: The use of effect sizes for data analysis in single subject research. The Journal of Experimental Education, 65, 73–93.

National Research Council (2001). Educating Children with Autism. Committee on Education Interventions for Children with Autism. Catherine Lord and James P. McGee, eds. Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.  

Odom, S. L., Brown, W. H., Frey, T., Karasu, N., Smith­Canter, L. L., & Strain, P. S. (2003). Evidence­based practices for young children with autism: Contributions or single­subject design research. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 18(3), 166–175.

Olive, M., & Smith, B. (2005). Effect size calculations and single subject designs. Educational Psychology, 25(2­3), 313–324.

Parsonson, B., & Baer, D. M. (1986). The graphic analysis of data. In A. Poling & R. W. Fuqua (Eds.), Research methods in applied behavior analysis (pp. 157–186). New York: Plenum.

Parker, R. I., Hagan­Burke, S. (2007). Useful effect size interpretations for single case research. Behavior Therapy, 38, 95–105. 

Power Analysis (n.d.). Retrieved Nov. 18, 2008, from www.statsoft.com/textbook/stpowan.html.

Reichow, B., Volkmar, F. R., & Cicchetti, D. (2008). Development of the evaluative method for evaluating and determining evidenced­based practice in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 1311–1319.

Richards, S., Taylor, R., Ramasamy, R., & Richards, R. (1999). Single subject research: Applications in educational and clinical settings. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Group.

Schreibman, L. (2000). Intensive behavioral/psychoeducational treatments for autism: Research needs and future directions. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30(5), 373–378.

Sparrow, Balla, & Cicchetti, (1984). Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.

Wheeler, J., Baggett, B., Fox, J., & Blevins, L. (2006). Treatment integrity: A review of intervention studies conducted with children with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 21(1), 45–54.

Yoder, P. & Compton, D. (2004). Identifying predictors of treatment response. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 10, 162–168.

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Research Materials/Dissertation interest.docx

Dissertation interest

Kathleen Tallent

Re:Abayomi's Response to Module 3 DQ 2

Hi Yomi,

Thanks for providing info about your dissertation interest. My 7-year-old son has been diagnosed with Asperger's Disorder, as well as ADHD so I'm very interested in a personal as well as professional level in your study. I'm curious, what are some of the questions/issues that you would like to explore regarding how parents cope with educating their children. I'd be very interested to hear some more of your thoughts based on your exploration of the research.

--Dr. Kathleen

Dr. Kathleen asked, what are some of the questions/issues that you would like to explore regarding how parents cope with educating their children?

It is not simple to be the parent of a child on the autism spectrum. There are happy moments, but there is no dismissing the hurdles parents face, and the damage this take. Parents are worried sick, struggle for services, forfeit careers, sunk in debt, and anger at the inequity of it all. They grieve. The nature of my study is just unwinding, developing and its unique structure. Explicit proposals will emerge once a distinct focus has started to develop during the course of the dissertation process (Punch, 2000). However to answer your question, I have a plethora of questions and issues which I am yet to narrow down.

Using Lofland (2002) ethnography Type (What is it? What are its defining features and its varieties?); Structure (What is its detailed organization?); Process (How does it operate?) and Agency (How do people strategize in or toward it?) • How do parents define ‘education’ in relation to their child with an ASD? The following questions readily come to mind.

• What meanings do parents make of such phrases as ‘disability’ and more especially ‘autism spectrum’ since giving birth of their baby with an ASD? • How do these definitions (‘education’, ‘disability’ and ‘autism’) inform parents’ actions in relationship to the indoctrination of their baby with an ASD? • Do parents identify more crucially with the culture of the disabled since the birth of their child with an ASD? • What circumstances if at all, make parents feel an affiliation and association with the culture of the disabled? • Do parents think there are culture explicit variations for parents who have a child with an ASD versus households who have children with other varying impediments?

• What is the composition and progression chosen by parents when teaching their child with an ASD? • Why do parents prefer such sequences and structures when striving to educate their child with an ASD? • How prosperous are such arrangements in relationship to the educational development of the child with an ASD and/or the total wellbeing of the family over time? What pedagogy and curriculum judgments are created by parents when attempting to teach their child with an ASD over time? • What underpins such decision making and do these decisions change over time?

• What circumstances guide parents in their decision making considering pedagogy and curriculum over time? • Is there an overriding maneuvering employed by parents to teach their child with an ASD over time? • Are various procedures needed by parents to handle various elements of the education process of the child with an ASD? • Does actual context has influence on the strategies required by various parents who own a child with an ASD? • Do parents’ settings have any bearing on their capacity to deal with the education of their child with an ASD? • Do these approaches remain static or change over time? • Do these artifices have components in common with other principles of how they handle the education of their child with a disability? • Or would such assumptions need adjustment in relationship to the task set before parents who have to deal with the education of their child with an ASD?

Dr. Kathleen as an insider and a professional I highly seek your advice and professionalism “another perspective “needed. Here is a link to http://iancommunity.org/search_adv/parental%20stress. You’ll have to delve into the articles to see which pertain to educational issues.

My regards,Yomi.

References:

Lofland, J. (2002). Analytic Ethnography: Features, Failings and Futures. In A.M. Huberman and M.B.

Miles The Qualitative Researcher’s Companion. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Punch, K. (2000). Developing Effective Research Proposals. London: Sage.

Research Materials/Families with children who have autism spectrum disorders.pdf

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Families with children who have autism spectrum disorders: stress and support.

Many individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have behavior repertoires that might be expected to have an impact on members of

both the immediate and extended family. This article examines this impact, reviewing relevant literature related to stressors and supports for

families of individuals with ASD. The focus of the article highlights research on stressors and supports in the following areas (a) stress in the

marital subsystem, (b) stress in the parental subsystem, (c) stress in the sibling subsystem, (d) coping strategies used by families, and (e)

informal and formal sources of support used by families. Implications and recommendations for future research and practice are discussed.

Report

Autistic children (Family)

Autistic children (Care and treatment)

Autism (Social aspects)

Stress (Psychology) (Causes of)

Parent training (Research)

Meadan, Hedda

Halle, James W.

Ebata, Aaron T.

09/22/2010

Name: Exceptional Children Publisher: Council for Exceptional Children Audience: Academic; Professional Format: Magazine/Journal

Subject: Education; Family and marriage Copyright: COPYRIGHT 2010 Council for Exceptional Children ISSN: 0014­4029

Date: Fall, 2010 Source Volume: 77 Source Issue: 1

Event Code: 290 Public affairs; 310 Science & research

Geographic Scope: United States Geographic Code: 1USA United States

236990582

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) refers to a wide variety of complex developmental disorders that typically appear during the first 3 years of

life. The fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM­IV­TR; American psychiatric Association, APA, 2000)

identifies ASD as part of a larger grouping, pervasive developmental disorders (PDD). According the DSM­IV­TR there are five subtypes of

PDD: autistic disorder, Asperger's syndrome (AS), childhood disintegrative disorder (CDD), Rett's syndrome, and pervasive developmental

disorder­not otherwise specified (PDD­NOS). The three core features of ASD are impairments in social interactions, impairments in verbal

and nonverbal communication, and restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior (APA, 2000). ASD affects approximately 1 in every 110

children and is growing at a rate of 10% to 17% per year (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.). This trend has roused a growing

interest in the impact of autism on the family.

Many individuals with ASD have behavior repertoires (e.g., limited verbal communication, deficits in social behavior, aggressive behavior) that

might be expected to have an impact on members of both the immediate and extended family (Hastings, Kovshoff, Ward, et al., 2005).

Parents, primarily mothers, of individuals with ASD reported significantly more stress and lower levels of well­being than both parents of

children without disabilities and children with other disabilities (e.g., Abbeduto et al., 2004; Baker­Ericzen, Brookman­Frazee, & Stahmer,

2005; Weiss, 2002). This stress could have a negative impact on parents, leading to depression, anger, anxiety, and marital discord

(Bromley, Hare, Davison, & Emerson, 2004; Higgins, Bailey, & Pearce, 2005; Weiss, 2002). In addition, parents of children with PDD reported

lower levels of quality of life compared to parents of children with cerebral palsy or mental retardation (Mugno, Ruta, D'Arrigo, & Mazzone,

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2007). Furthermore, a few researchers have reported negative outcomes (e.g., loneliness) for typically developing siblings of individuals with

ASD (Hastings, 2003a; Rivers & Stoneman, 2003).

Although research reveals an impact on family members of individuals with ASD, Hastings, Kovshoff, Ward, et al. (2005) emphasize that not

all family members experience similar effects as a result of having an individual with ASD in the family. For example, Hastings (2003b) found

that mothers of children with ASD reported more anxiety and negative outcomes than fathers in the same family. In addition, researchers have

found positive outcomes (e.g., limited conflicts within the relationship, high self­esteem and self­concept) for some typically developing

siblings of individuals with ASD (Kaminsky & Dewey, 2002; Pilowsky, Yirmiya, Doppelt, Gross­Tsur, & Shalev, 2004) and some parents

described the experience of having a child with ASD as being positive (Hutton & Caron, 2005).

To understand the different experiences of family members, researchers have examined the relationship between stress and negative

outcomes (e.g., depression) and between support systems or strategies (e.g., respite services, social network) and positive outcomes (Boyd,

2002; Jones & Passey, 2004; Shu & Lung, 2005). Researchers who conducted investigations (e.g., Sanders & Morgan, 1997; Sharpley,

Bitsika, & Efremidis, 1997) and authors who conducted reviews of investigations (e.g., Glasberg, Martins, & Harris, 2006) related to stress

and coping among family members of individuals with ASD, prior to 2000, found that (a) mothers of children with ASD reported more stress

than mothers of children with Down syndrome (DS) and with typically developing children; (b) mothers of children with ASD experienced more

stress, anxiety, and depression than fathers of children with ASD; (c) social support countered stress in parents of children with ASD; and (d)

there were contradictory findings related to the adjustment of siblings of children with ASD.

Hastings, Kovshoff, Ward, et al. (2005) reported that "the majority of research to date has considered the child with autism as a source of

stress and other family members' well­being as the outcome" (p. 636). This perspective describes only unidirectional relationships between

individuals with ASD and their family members. However, it is possible that these relationships could be bidirectional, meaning that family

members could also influence the individual with ASD (e.g., marital stress or maternal depression could influence the child's behavior). In

addition, the relationships among family members (e.g., parent­­typically developing children, mother­father) could also impact family

members' stress and outcomes. For example, Hastings (2003b) found that mothers' stress was related to behavior problems of a child with

ASD, whereas in the same families, fathers' stress was related only to their partners' depression.

Turnbull, Turnbull, Erwin, and Soodak (2006) argued that the family system must be examined as a whole, and that understanding family

patterns of interaction is necessary to understand a child with a disability and vice versa. According to Turnbull et al., within a traditional

nuclear family, there are four major subsystems: (a) the marital subsystem that includes interactions between spouses or significant others

who function as marital partners, (b) the parental subsystem that includes interactions between parents and their children, (c) the sibling

subsystem that includes interactions among brothers and sisters, and (d) the extended family subsystem that includes interactions among

members of the nuclear family and other relatives. We included only the first three subsystems in our framework. Interaction with the extended

family and other individuals outside of the family system will be discussed as one potential support system for the family. It is important to

consider potential bidirectional interaction among the three subsystems (see Figure 1)and the stressors and supports that are associated

with each subsystem; however, it must be noted that there is little research on bidirectional relationships in ASD families.

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

METHODS

We identified articles related to stress, coping, and support in families that have a member with ASD by conducting electronic and ancestral

searches. Criteria for inclusion in this literature review consisted of studies (a) published between 2000 and 2007; (b) published in a peer­

reviewed journal in English; (c/ that described a data­based study; (d) that included parents and/or siblings of individuals with ASD as the

focal participants; and (e) that focused on stress, coping, or support of the family members. Keywords used in an electronic search of ERIC

and PsycINFO databases included autism, autism spectrum disorder, pervasive developmental disorder, Asperger syndrome, family, mother,

father, siblings, brother, sister, stress, coping, support, and adjustment. (We chose not to include Rett's syndrome in our keyword search

because of its clear genetic origin and its rare incidence.) Additional articles were identified in the reference sections of articles retrieved from

the databases and of review articles and book chapters on this topic (i.e., ancestral methods). The search was limited to peer­reviewed

journal articles and did not include books, dissertations, and other publications that did not undergo peer review.

Although ASD encompasses five subtypes (APA, 2000), only a few of the studies identified included individuals with Rett's syndrome and

CDD. As many researchers did not report their results in terms of different subtypes, the findings cannot be specified for each subtype.

Our search resulted in 57 journal articles. Table 1 summarizes peer­reviewed, data­based articles published between 2000 and 2007. The

table does not include studies that had only a small percentage of individuals with ASD as their participants (e.g., Blacher & McIntyre, 2006)

and those that focused primarily on individuals with ASD (and not their families) and/or on interventions for individuals with ASD.

Based on our framework (i.e., subsystems within the family) and the focus of this article (i.e., stressors and supports), we organized the

content in the following sections: (a) Stress in the marital subsystem, (b) stress in the parental subsystem, (c) stress in the Sibling

subsystem, and (d) bidirectional relationships between subsystems. Families managed stressors by focusing on (e) coping strategies

employed by families, and (f) informal and formal sources of support employed by families.

Due to the limited information specifically related to ASD for a specific subsystem within the family, we included research that focused on

families of children with developmental disabilities (DD) and other disabilities. In these instances, we have indicated this focus explicitly.

STRESSORS

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MARITAL SUBSYSTEM

There is limited published information about the impact of having a child with ASD on the marital relationship. Some researchers have found

that having a child with a disability has a negative impact (e.g., higher divorce rate) on marriages; others have found no differences between

families with and without a child with a disability. In a review focused on marital adjustment in parents of children with disabilities, Risdal and

Singer (2004) found "a detectable overall negative impact on marital adjustment, but this impact is small and much lower than would be

expected given earlier assumptions about the supposed inevitability of damaging impacts of children with disabilities on family well being" (p.

101). Higgins et al. (2005) reported that mothers and fathers of a child with ASD had lower levels of marital happiness, family adaptability, and

family cohesion (i.e., less flexibility and a lack of warmth and connection) than normative data would suggest.

Due to the dearth of published information about the impact of having a child with ASD on the marital relationship, we also examined

information related to the family as a unit. Perry, Harris, and Minnes (2004) found that parents of children with autism reported the lowest level

of family harmony when compared to parents of children with other developmental disabilities (i.e., DS, Rett's syndrome, and Fragile X). The

authors argued that although families of children with DD report higher levels of stress than typical families, this stress may not produce

negative outcomes for the family. They reported that families with children with DD were doing as well as or better (in terms of coping

resources available, organization, and moral­religious emphasis) than families with typically developing children. Interestingly, these authors

(Perry et al., 2004) reported that family harmony was lower among families of children with autism and developmental disorders where the

cause of the child's DD was unknown versus clearly understood.

PARENTAL SUBSYSTEM

Mothers and fathers of children with ASD reported more stress than parents of children with DS and parents of typically developing children

(Hastings & Johnson, 2001; Perry at al., 2004; Poston et al., 2003). Benson (2006) reported that parents of children with ASD were at

increased risk for poor mental health, not only because of the demands of caring for a child with ASD, but also because of other stressors

engendered or exacerbated by their child's disability. In a longitudinal study of parental stress, Baxter, Cummins, and Polak (1995) concluded

that the time of diagnosis of a DD was the most stress­inducing period for parents, followed by the time when the child entered school and

then when they encountered the transition from school to work. Hare, Pratt, Burton, Bromley, and Emerson (2004) reported a strong

association between emotional stress and unmet need in parents of adults with ASD. It is possible that parents experience different

stressors when their children are at different ages.

In a longitudinal study of the psychological adaptation of parents of children with autism, Gray (2002) reported that the psychological well­

being of most of the participating parents improved over the 8 to 10 years between interviews. However, parents of children with autism who

had challenging behavior did not report improvement and indicated high levels of stress.

In their investigation, Sharpley et al. (1997) reported that the three most stressful factors for parents of children with ASD were (a) the

permanency of the condition, (b) the lack of acceptance of behavior associated with ASD by family members and society, and (c) the low

levels of support provided. The current review revealed additional sources of stress for parents of individuals with ASD that were identified by

other researchers including (d) the economic burden of raising a child with ASD, including the negative impact on parents' career and/or

income (Jarbrink, Fombonne, & Knapp, 2003; Sharpe & Baker, 2007); (e) parents' concerns about the future for their children, specifically

problems that may arise when the children reach adulthood (Hare et al., 2004; Pisula, 2007); (f) challenging behavior of children with ASD

(Bromley et al., 2004; Hastings, 2003b; Hastings, Kovshoff, Ward, et al., 2005; Lecavalier, Leone, & Wiltz, 2006); and (g) psychological

characteristics of the parents such as perceived self­efficacy, locus of control, and coping style (Dunn, Burbine, Bowers, & Tantleff­Dunn,

2001; Sivberg, 2002; see Table 1).

Mothers of Children With ASD. Mothers and fathers share parenting roles, but mothers typically assume a larger part of the responsibility of

meeting the needs of the child with ASD (Gray, 2003). Most of the research on stress levels of parents of individuals with ASD has been

conducted with mothers (e.g., Tomanik, Harris, & Hawkins, 2004). Although a few researchers (Benson, 2006; Hastings, Kovshoff, Ward, et

al., 2005) found no significant maternal­paternal differences in reported stress, other researchers have found that mothers of individuals with

ASD reported more stress, depression, and anxiety than fathers (Hastings, 2003b; Herring et al., 2006). In addition, mothers of individuals

with ASD reported more stress than mothers of individuals with DS (Pisula, 2007) and mothers of typically developing children (Yamada et al.,

2007).

The findings related to the variables that are associated with mothers' stress and adjustment are mixed. Duarte, Bordin, Yazigi, and Mooney

(2005) concluded that having a child with ASD is the main factor associated with a mother's stress. However, certain personality and

demographic factors of the mother also are associated with maternal stress. Expressing little affection, having low interest in people, and

being an older mother (34­45) were found to contribute to stress in mothers of children with ASD (Duarte et al., 2005). Pakenham, Samios,

and Sofronoff (2005) reported that older mothers (ages were not specified) of children with AS and those with higher annual income reported

better adjustment. Hastings and Johnson (2001) found that parents' (92% mothers) stress levels were predicted mainly by psychological

(e.g., coping strategies, social support) rather than demographic variables. In addition, Bromley et al. (2004) found that lower levels of

perceived support in mothers of children with ASD were associated with significant psychological distress. Mothers were more likely to report

lower levels of support if they were single parents, living in poor housing, or were parenting a boy with ASD.

In a few studies maternal stress and well­being were found to be related to children's challenging behavior and severity of the behavioral

symptoms (e.g., Abbeduto et al., 2004; Allik, Larsson, & Smedje, 2006; Bromley et al., 2004; Hastings, 2003b; Hastings & Johnson, 2001;

Herring et al., 2006). More specifically, Tomanik et al. (2004) reported that mothers of children with ASD reported the greatest stress when

their children were more irritable, socially withdrawn, hyperactive/noncompliant, unable to take care of themselves, and unable to

communicate or interact with others. (See Table 1 for more details).

Only a few studies have explored cultural differences in the relationship between stress and parenting a child with ASD. Bishop, Richler, Cain,

and Lord (2007) found that African American mothers of children with ASD reported lower levels of perceived negative impact of having a child

with ASD than Caucasian mothers. Similarly, Blacher and McIntyre (2006) reported that Latino mothers of children with intellectual disability

(8% with ASD) perceived their children to have more positive effect on their lives than Caucasian mothers. Interestingly, Blacher and McIntyre

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found that mothers of children with ASD reported more stress than the other groups, regardless of their cultural background.

Fathers of Individuals With ASD. Research pertaining to the impact on fathers of having a child with disabilities is mixed. Some researchers

have found favorable outcomes for fathers, whereas others have reported that fathers and mothers experience similar outcomes although

their stressors emanate from different sources (Hastings, Kovshoff, Ward, et al., 2005). Gray (2003) investigated gender differences in

parents of children with AS and found that fathers reported that their child's condition did not have a significant effect on them personally,

whereas mothers claimed that their child's AS severely affected their emotional well­being. There is limited research on the stress levels of

fathers who have children with ASD. Most researchers (e.g., Herring et al., 2006; Litde, 2002) have reported that fathers of individuals with

ASD experience less stress, depression, and anxiety than mothers. Paternal stress was not associated with the child's challenging behavior

(Hastings, 2003b; Hastings, Kovshoff, Ward, et al., 2005), but was found to be associated with a partner's depression (Hastings, Kovshoff,

Ward, et al., 2005). Sanders and Morgan (1997) identified several factors related to stress perceived by fathers of children with ASD, including

actual physical care of the child. They reported that fathers of children with ASD experience more stress as a result of time spent caring for the

child and the behavioral characteristics of autism that might make this responsibility difficult.

TYPICALLY DEVELOPING SIBLINGS OF INDIVIDUALS WITH ASD

The interactions between brothers and sisters provide them with opportunity to experience sharing, companionship, rivalry, and other

outcomes. Researchers who study ASD do not have a clear understanding of why some sibling pairs experience warm, supportive

relationships, whereas others experience conflict and isolation (Rivers & Stoneman, 2003). Many individuals with ASD have behavior

repertoires that might be expected to affect sibling relationships and the social, behavioral, and psychological adjustment of their typically

developing siblings. Findings regarding the effects of having a sibling with ASD have been mixed and inconsistent (Macks & Reeve, 2007;

Mascha & Doucher, 2006; Verte, Roeyers, & Buysse, 2003). Some researchers (e.g., Hastings, 2003a; Ross & Cuskelly, 2006) have reported

negative outcomes (e.g., loneliness, behavioral difficulties, depression) for the typically developing siblings, whereas other researchers (e.g.,

Kaminsky & Dewey, 2002; Mascha & Doucher, 2006) have found positive outcomes (e.g., less conflict within the relationship, high self­

esteem and self­concept) or no evidence of negative effects (Hastings, 2003c; Orsmond & Seltzer, 2007). Orsmond and Seltzer investigated

adult siblings of individuals with ASD and DS and found that typically developing adult siblings of individuals with ASD reported significantly

less contact and less positive effect in the relationship with their sibling with ASD than did the DS group. Pilowsky et al. (2004) reported that

most siblings of individuals with ASD were well adjusted, but emphasized that the stress of having a sibling with ASD cannot be overlooked.

Benson and Karlof (2008) recommended that because siblings of individuals with ASD are at "significantly heightened genetic, as well as

environmental, risk for developing ASD or a related disorder" (p. 594), researchers should attempt to take this genetic risk into account when

assessing adjustment. They suggested that the inconsistency in reported findings on the adjustment of siblings of individuals with ASD could

be the result of not taking into account the genetic vulnerability of the siblings.

Researchers have suggested that the adjustment of siblings of children with ASD is dependent on other demographic factors. Typically

developing siblings were found to have more adjustment problems when they were members of smaller families (Kaminsky & Dewey, 2002),

had a sibling with ASD with problem behavior (Ross & Cuskelly, 2006), and/or had marital stress in their family (Rivers & Stoneman, 2003).

Recently, Macks and Reeve (2007) reported that specific demographic characteristics (i.e., being male, coming from a family of low

socioeconomic status [SES], having only one sibling, being older than the child with ASD) were more likely to impact a sibling of a child with

ASD than a sibling of a typically developing child. Macks and Reeve concluded that when "multiple demographic risk factors are present, it

becomes more difficult for the non­disabled sibling to deal with the child with autism, both emotionally and psychologically" (p. 1065).

BIDIRECTIONAL RELATIONSHIPS BE TWEEN SUBSYSTEMS

Most of the research on families of individuals with ASD focuses on the influence of having an individual with ASD on family members' stress

and well­being (Hastings, Kovshoff, Ward, et al., 2005). However it is possible, even likely, that family members' behavior has an impact on

the individual with ASD and other subsystems within the family. Although it would seem logical that the effects are reciprocal (Hastings, 2007;

Patterson & Fisher, 2002) through bidirectional or transactional (i.e., mutual influences over time) processes (e.g., Bell, 1968; Lerner &

Spanier, 1980; Sameroff & Chandler, 1975), we found only limited information on such effects in the literature. Researchers have reported

that parents, especially mothers, of individuals with ASD experience high levels of stress. This stress often is associated with depression,

anger, and anxiety (Bromley et al., 2004; Higgins et al., 2005). Parental depression could affect (a) the marital subsystem (e.g., causing

conflict between parents and affect marital satisfaction), (b) the parental subsystem (e.g., affecting a child's level of stress and behavior), and

(c) the sibling subsystem and the individual with ASD (e.g., affecting relationships with the children in the family and childrearing practices).

The limited data available support reciprocal influences. For example, in families who have a member with ASD, Hastings, Kovshoff, Ward, et

al. (2005) found parental depression to be related to the partner's level of stress. In addition, Giallo & Gavidia­Payne (2006) found the level of

parental stress and family functioning to be related to level of adjustment of typically developing siblings. Low marital Satisfaction and conflict

within the family of individuals with ASD have been found to affect not just the parental relationships, but also sibling relationships. Rivers and

Stoneman (2003) found that when marital stress was higher, typically developing siblings reported less satisfaction with their sibling

relationships, and directed more negative behaviors and fewer positive behaviors to their siblings with ASD. Lecavalier et al. (2006) found that

child behavior problems and parental stress exacerbated each other over a period of 1 year, supporting a transactional model of influence

rather than simple unidirectional influences.

COPING AND SUPPORT STRATEGIES

Despite experiencing high levels of stress, many families of individuals with ASD cope successfully with their unique situation (Bayat, 2007;

Gray, 2006; Twoy, Connolly, & Novak, 2007). Moreover, families that receive informal support from their social networks and formal support

from agencies and health care providers are more likely to show positive adjustment (e.g., Chan & Sigafoos, 2001; Hastings & Johnson,

2001). We define coping as strategies and actions that are marshaled to manage a challenging situation and support as the availability of

instrumental or emotional support from formal (e.g., agencies) or informal (e.g., friends and relatives) sources. We also considered both

perceptions of support received from others as well as active attempts to seek out help and information.

COPING STRATEGIES

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Two models of coping are described in the literature: the approach­avoidance model and the problem­focused versus emotion­focused

model. Ebata and Moos (1994) emphasized that although there are similarities between the models, they are conceptually distinct. The

approach­avoidance model organizes coping responses according to their focus. In approach­oriented strategies, a person attends to a

stressor by seeking information about it, monitoring it, and trying to resolve it, whereas in avoidance­oriented strategies, a person ignores,

denies, minimizes, or diverts attention away from the stressor. The problem­ versus emotion­focused model organizes coping responses

according to their hypothesized function. In problem­focused strategies, a person attempts to solve a problem or change the situation,

whereas in emotion­focused strategies a person attempts to manage or regulate emotional states produced by the stressor (Ebata & Moos,

1994; Roth & Cohen, 1986).

Researchers (Ebata & Moos, 1994; Twoy et al., 2007) reported that the use of approach and problem­focused strategies have been

associated with better adjustment, whereas the use of avoidance or emotion­focused strategies have been found to be associated with

poorer outcomes. This is not to say that avoidance or emotion­focus strategies are not adaptive. Ebata and Moos were careful to point out that

these strategies may be adaptive in certain situations or at certain stages of a coping process, but that reliance on avoidance or emotion­

focused strategies in the absence of approach or problem­focused strategies may be maladaptive in the long run. Using ethnographic

methods, Gray (2006) investigated the coping strategies used by parents of individuals with ASD over a period of 8 to 10 years and found that

the coping strategies used by the parents changed over time. The total number of coping strategies reported by parents declined and there

was a shift away from problem­focused coping strategies toward emotion­focused strategies. At the beginning of the study parents coped by

relying on service providers and family support, whereas toward the end of the study, more parents coped by invoking their religious faith or

other emotion­focused strategies as they adapted to circumstances that would not change.

Successful adaptation to stressful events requires both strategies that come from within the family (e.g., cognitive and communication

strategies) and external supports that emanate from resources outside the family (e.g., support from social networks; Twoy et al., 2007). Twoy

et al. (2007) investigated the resiliency and coping strategies of parents with children with ASD and found that the level of adaptation and use

of coping strategies were similar to parents of typically developing children. Parents of children with ASD used reframing (i.e., redefining

stressful events in order to make them more manageable), considered by Ebata and Moos (1994) as an approach­oriented strategy that is

emotion­focused, and social support (i.e., actively recruiting support from family and friends) as the most frequent coping strategies (Luther,

Canham, & Cureton, 2005; Tunali & Power, 2002; Twoy et al., 2007).

Bayat (2007) found that "a considerable number of families of children with autism display resilience­­reporting having become stronger as a

result of a disability in the family" (p. 702). Bayat identified four categories of resilience in families with children who have ASD: (a) pulling

together resources and being connected, (b) making meaning out of adversity, (c) affirming strength and becoming more compassionate,

and (d) possessing a spiritual experience and belief system.

As previously discussed, negative, passive, Or escape­avoidance coping strategies are those that increase levels of stress or detract from

overall quality of life. Unfortunately, parents and families of children with ASD often employ these strategies (Twoy et al., 2007). Hastings,

Kovshoff, Brown, et al. (2005) found that avoidance coping strategies used by mothers and fathers of children with autism were associated

with higher levels of stress and more mental health problems than alternative strategies employed by those parents. Tarakeshwar and

Pargament (2001) reported that use of negative religious coping (e.g., passive waiting for God to solve the problem) by parents of children

with ASD was associated with increases in depressive affect, poor religious outcome, and greater anxiety. Similarly, Dunn et al. (2001)

discovered that parents who used escape­avoidance methods such as (a) ignoring or trying to forget relevant issues, (b) taking drugs, or (c)

hoping for miracles had higher levels of depression, isolation, and increased marital strain. The authors also touted the importance of using

a variety of coping strategies, explaining that those who did not do this encountered more negative outcomes as measured by a self­reported

questionnaire (i.e., the Parenting Stress Index). Finally, Sivberg (2002) found that parents of children with autism used more distancing and

escape strategies than parents of typically developing children.

The literature reveals that parents and families who use a variety of active coping strategies not only experience decreased levels of stress,

but also enjoy the benefit of increased family cohesiveness. For example, Hastings, Kovshoff, Brown, et al. (2005) reported that positive

framing can be a vital means with which individuals revise their understanding of a particularly stressful life event or situation and begin to

adapt to it. They found that both mothers and fathers 0f children with ASD who committed to such Strategies had lower levels of depression

than those who resorted to other methods. Finally, Jones and Passey (2004) found that the use of active coping Strategies, such as

remaining optimistic and maintaining family integration by parents of children with DD (30% with autism) and behavior problems, reduced

their level of stress. Parents who valued social support and had support services and family support had lower levels of stress. The authors

(Jones & passey, 2004) reported that parents who used active coping strategies found their experience to be more rewarding and satisfying

with less concern about their child's future.

SUPPORT

Mackintosh, Myers, and Goin­Kochel (2006) reported that the most frequent source of both information and support cited by parents of

children with ASD was other parents of children with ASD. Parents from low­income backgrounds were found to use less information and

fewer support sources than middle and upper­income families. Although the data from this study are informative, they do not provide a

perspective on how satisfied parents were with their sources of information and support. Tobing and Glenwick (2006) reported that

satisfaction with social support and not the number of supports was associated with lower levels of psychological distress of mothers of

children with ASD. Thomas, Ellis, McLaurin, Daniels, and Morrissey (2007) used a survey to assess access to autism­related services. They

found that families used a broad array of services, but that access to care was limited for minority families, families with low levels of

education, families who did not use major treatment approaches (e.g., applied behavior analysis [ABA], Treatment and Education of Autistic

and related Communication­handicapped Children [TEACCH]), and families living in nonmetropolitan areas. They also found differences in

service use by age group and diagnosis of the child with ASD. We identified three primary support strategies in the literature: social support,

respite care, and formal supports.

Social Support. "Social Support refers to a source of comfort found within group and individual relationships" (Turnbull et al., 2006, p. 213).

Social support includes support from one's spouse, family and friends, availability of leisure time to participate in recreational activities, and

availability of services and community programs for family members (Siklos & Kerns, 2006). Social and emotional supports were found to

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reduce parents stress and improve their well­being (Crnic & Low, 2002; Siklos & Kerns, 2006; Turnbull et al., 2006). Benson (2006) found that

informal parent support (e.g., help from family and friends) significantly decreased depression among parents of children with ASD. Crnic and

Low emphasized that, in general, parents' social support networks play an important role in affecting parental stress. Weiss (2002) reported

that both social support and individual characteristics (e.g., self­efficacy and perception of control) were found to aid effective coping and

reduce negative effects of stress.

One method found beneficial for parents and families of individuals with ASD involves the reliance on an extensive, supportive social network

(Dunn et al., 2001). These authors reported that accessibility to and use of social support could lead to reductions in stress, depression, and

anxiety for mothers of children with autism as well as increased life satisfaction for both parents. The latter benefit might emanate from the

intermarital support system and its overall positive impact on the family's ability to adapt.

Boyd (2002) found spouses provided the best informal source of support by providing respite time, dividing the responsibilities of household

management, and sharing the role of disciplinarian. Additionally, Dunn et al. (2001) found that support within the marriage correlated with

adaptability in families of boys with developmental disabilities and with increased overall life satisfaction for parents of children with autism.

Respite Care. Respite care, a second type of support, refers to a service whereby another adult assumes the role of the parent for children

with disabilities for short periods of time on a consistent basis (Chan & Sigafoos, 2001). Cowen and Reed (2002) expanded the definition to

include additional supports and services for the child and the family, such as referrals for other types of assistance.

Chan and Sigafoos (2001) reviewed studies that evaluated the effect of respite care services used by families of children with DD and

concluded that, at least in the short term, respite care can reduce the levels of stress in parents of children with disabilities. They also

reported that families who used respite services had decreased levels of stress and were better able to cope with caring for a child with

disabilities, relative to those who did not utilize respite care. Mullins, Aniol, Boyd, Page, and Chaney (2002) examined the effects of short­term

(3­7 days) respite care on both psychological distress and levels of stress for parents of children with DD. They concluded that parents who

received respite services showed (a) decreased levels of psychological distress that were maintained over time and (b) decreased levels of

stress. Although the latter finding was not maintained over time, the authors suggested that parents could benefit from the positive, short­term

effects of this service as it relates to day­today functioning and a general sense of being overwhelmed.

Although there is limited information about the effects of respite care on families of children with ASD, Sanders and Morgan (1997) found that

mothers and fathers of children with autism had higher levels of stress related to family problems (i.e., time demands and family

opportunities) than did other groups, and they reported feeling least able to access recreation and leisure services because of the demands

related to having a child with autism. The use of respite care allows parents to engage in these activities, which, as the authors suggested,

may reduce stress and provide them with time for personal development.

Formal Supports. A third type of support available to parents and families of children with ASD is access to formal support services, such as

support groups, health and professional services, and counseling. Siklos and Kerns (2006) found that parents of children with ASD reported

that the professionals who provided services to them and their families were more important than many other types of support, including

friendship opportunities for their children. Parents of children with ASD reported the desire for information and knowledge to help them

understand autism in general and their children's needs specifically (Whitaker, 2002). This speaks to the critical nature of a variety of

professional supports for this population.

Of the services reflected in the literature, there is a specific trend focusing on family well­being including opportunities for counseling,

financial planning, and support groups. These instrumental supports are aimed at the family and not directly at the child. Sanders and

Morgan (1997) have suggested that supportive therapy allowing parents to discuss issues and share concerns, such as financial planning

for the long­term care of their child with ASD, could help reduce parental stress and contribute to quality of life.

The literature on formal supports encompasses the use of support groups for both parents and siblings of children with ASD. Smith and

Perry (2005) examined the effectiveness of a sibling support group for children with autism. They reported that the siblings' self­concepts and

knowledge of autism improved from the beginning to the end of the support group meetings, demonstrating success in meeting the goals of

the support group. Although these findings are promising, it is important to note that the research design included only pre and post

measures and there was no control group, which limits the potential conclusions of this study.

Mandell and Salzer (2007) examined support groups for parents of children with ASD and found that these groups enable contact with other

families in similar situations and may reduce social isolation and stress and increase access to information about appropriate and available

services. The investigators emphasized the importance of including support groups for parents of children with ASD as part of the system of

care. Similarly, Shu and Lung (2005) recommended that the primary caregivers of children with ASD need access to regular support group

meetings and training services provided during these gatherings to cope with the unique issues they face.

Another form of formal support for family members is parent training programs and interventions. Researchers have investigated varying

parent training models/paradigms to support families of children with ASD (e.g., Brookman­Frazee, 2004; Koegel, Bimbela, & Schreibman,

1996; Tonge et al., 2006). In general, these studies suggest that parent education is effective in obtaining positive outcomes for both parents

and children. Brookman­Frazee emphasized that collaborative partnerships between parents and professionals often are associated with

positive outcomes for both child target behaviors and family quality of life. Parent­professional collaborations are necessary, but they are not

sufficient. It is important to note that parents' level of involvement in their children's intervention programs could influence their well­being.

Schwichtenberg & Poehlmann (2007) reported that mothers of children with ASD indicated fewer depressive symptoms when their children

received more ABA hours per week. However, mothers who spent more hours per week involved in their child's ABA program reported more

feelings of personal strain. Trudgeon and Carr (2007) investigated the impact of home­based behavior intervention on families of children

with ASD and concluded that although parents reported both positive and negative impacts of the program, the sources of support obtained

offset the demands of the programs.

Access to formal supports and services is not equally distributed across the population. Mandell and Salzer (2007) reported that support

groups for parents of children with ASD are underutilized in communities inhabited by low SES and African American families and that there is

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a need to increase the availability to such groups in these communities. In addition, Bromley et al. (2004) found that mothers of children with

ASD have a significant amount of psychological distress associated with a paucity of support when raising their child. They reported that

individuals from areas of higher SES often have lower levels of stress than those from rural or inner­city areas where assistance is not as

available or services cannot be easily obtained. The relationship between supports and SES suggests important implications for advocating

for the availability of more and better quality of services to all parents and families, regardless of income or circumstance.

LIMITATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

LIMITATIONS

In our effort to review the literature on the pervasive impact on families of having a child with autism, at least three primary limitations require

consideration: (a) the magnitude of relevant literature, (b) the wide range of demographic characteristics of the participants (family members

and individuals with ASD) and the sampling procedures employed, and (c) the variability in the targeted outcomes and their measurement.

Any review of the literature must consider both limitations of the review itself and limitations of the literature reviewed. In the case of the three

limitations we detail, the first applies to our review and the remaining two apply to the studies reviewed. We have provided detailed attention to

the themes that emerged from our review of the available literature: (a) stress for caregivers and siblings, (b) coping strategies used by family

members, (c) preferred methods of support, and (d) the potential for bidirectional influence. Although we cast a broad net when searching the

literature, we tried not to sacrifice care in locating relevant research. However, it is inevitable when searching for studies pertinent to marital,

parental, and sibling subsystems that we may have overlooked important contributions to this broad literature base. For example, we did not

find information related to stress experienced by families who have more than one child with ASD or stress in families who employed different

treatment paradigms (to determine their differential effects). It is possible that these areas have been investigated but were not identified in

our search. Further, the literature pertinent to families of children with autism is expanding at a rapid pace and we were limited by having set

arbitrary beginning and ending dates for the review.

A second limitation pertains to the wide range of demographic characteristics of the participants in the studies reviewed. The wide range of

characteristics and, in some cases, the dearth of information on demographic variables limited generalization of the findings and

distinguishing findings by participant group and conditions (e.g., subtype of ASD, age of participants, SES, race). In addition, most

researchers used convenience sampling procedures and included data on the participants who volunteered to participate in the studies,

which may limit the external validity of the results and the generalizability of the findings for varying participant groups.

For example, although the ages of the individuals with ASD who participated in the studies varied between 0 to 40 years, the average age of

most participants was between 6 and 12. Age of the child with ASD should be a primary factor when considering the effects on families

because of the unique issues encountered by families at various vulnerable transitions along the child's developmental pathway. These

vulnerable family­life transitions include (a) birth and early childhood, (b) time of diagnosis; (c) transition to elementary school; (d)

adolescence and transition to high school; and (e) adulthood, postsecondary education, independent living, and entering the world of work

(Turnbull et al., 2006). Research is needed to explore stress and support over time in families who have children with autism (Gray, 2006;

Hare et al., 2004) and at specific vulnerable times of transition. It would be useful to consider whether particular types of services, supports, or

interventions would be more effective at (or before) particular developmental transitions.

Other important information that could influence the findings of the studies reviewed includes the (a) specific subtype (e.g., autism, AS, PDD­

NOS), (b) characteristics of the individuals with ASD (e.g., communication abilities, level of intellectual functioning, challenging behavior, and

(c) characteristics of the family members (SES, culture, marital situation). The limited information available related to specific subtypes of ASD

and specific characteristics of the participants did not allow us to examine the findings by participant subtype or by other conditions and

renders any effort to assess generalization of the findings inconclusive.

A third noteworthy limitation of the literature reviewed encompasses the wide range of outcomes targeted, the clarity of their definition, and the

restrictiveness of the measures used to document the outcomes. The wide range of outcomes sought and the inadequate definitions

provided limits the opportunity to compare results across studies. Although many of the studies used self­reports (i.e., surveys,

questionnaires, checklists, scales), it was rare to find the same survey, questionnaire, checklist, or scale across studies. By employing the

same assessment instruments in studies with common purposes, researchers invite comparisons across studies that can facilitate broad­

scale evaluations.

The literature reviewed was replete with self­administered, self­report measures that varied on many dimensions; however, the studies

lacked other types of data that would make a substantive contribution to our understanding of how families are impacted by having a child

with ASD. The few exceptions to the almost exclusive use of self­report measures included (a) semi­structured interviews (e.g., Dale, Jahoda,

& Knott, 2006; Mascha & Boucher, 2006), (b) direct observation (e.g., Brookman­Frazee, 2004; Gray, 2006), and (c) a projective test (Duarte et

al., 2005). Although family members' self­report is relevant and valuable information in its own right, triangulation achieved by combining self­

reports with interviews and observational data may reveal findings that any one of these data sources alone could not.

Throughout this literature review, stress was a primary dependent variable in many of the studies. Unfortunately, stress is difficult to measure

and functions more like a mediator variable than a functional outcome. If the researchers' goal is to identify the family outcomes associated

with or produced by having a child with ASD, they need to employ objective outcome measures in addition to stress to assess family

functioning such as divorce rates, parents' time together or with their children, siblings' grades or friendship networks, parental abuse of

drugs, or documented depression for any family member. In a parallel analysis, we can assess objective outcomes associated with

coping/supports such as the number of times parents go out together monthly, weekly recreational activities for moms and duds, or family

trips; these same positive outcomes could be considered negative outcomes of stress if the results are poorer than a normative comparison

group. A specific variable that was assessed in many of the studies reviewed is maternal depression. Bailey, Golden, Roberts, and Ford

(2007) reviewed the literature on depression of mothers of children with disabilities and reported a need to make a distinction between

clinical depression and symptoms of depression. Their distinction may be important in understanding how a child with a disability influences

family members and what support services families need most.

The different objective measures identified previously cannot be the entire universe of outcomes; rather, these measures must be linked to

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each family's culture and to the traditions and activities that are unique to that family. As difficult a task as this may be, it is key to evaluating the

functional impact of any independent variable we decide to examine. What family members experience and then convey in their self­reports is

relevant, but it does not reflect the exclusive picture of the impact of having a child with ASD in the family. We urge those who engage in future

investigations to broaden their choice of dependent variables to encompass objective and functional outcomes that permit an assessment of

family functioning before, during, and after an intervention program is introduced. In so doing, we believe that some hypothesized

coping/support strategies will achieve empirical support and others will fall out of favor due to lack of evidence.

IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH

We have identified five promising areas for future research on children with autism and their families that have emerged from this review: (a)

bidirectional influence, (b) potential positive impact, (c) impact on fathers and siblings, (d) severity of autistic characteristics, and (e) rigor of

extant research. Perhaps the most fundamental aspect of research on stress and individuals with autism and their families is related to the

individuals themselves. In our bidirectional model, the impact on individuals with autism of mothers, fathers, and siblings, and their unique

relationships is a meaningful consideration as a source of stress for that individual. When family members are experiencing various forms of

discord due to having a child with ASD, it is likely they are contributing to a diminished quality of life for that child. Additional research on the

validity of reciprocal models, and ways in which families cope with this issue is needed to provide a deeper understanding of the bidirectional

influence of the relationship. In addition, we found limited information on a few of the subsystems (e.g., marital subsystem) comprising the

family system framework; additional research might illuminate the impact on these subsystems.

A promising area of inquiry warranting further investigation is the potential positive impact of having a family member with ASD (Bayat, 2007).

Although some of the research summarized in this review suggested that the presence of a child with ASD could enhance the psychological

and emotional development of typically developing siblings (e.g., Macks & Reeve, 2007), it is not clear how these results arise. What

mechanisms or processes operate to produce these desired outcomes? Research in this area would be helpful in determining how parents

and service providers could facilitate these positive outcomes. Further, some families report that having a child with autism has enhanced

particular aspects of family functioning (e.g., Hutton & Caron, 2005). This counter­intuitive perspective or the potential positive influence on a

family may provide families with an optimism they had not considered. Perry et al. (2004) reported that stress does not necessarily produce

negative outcomes for the family unit. Researchers might explore why stress leads to negative outcomes in some families but not others, and

what the mediating factors are for these differential outcomes.

Although there is an extensive amount of research available on mothers of children with ASD, the impact on fathers and siblings is limited.

Fathers of children with ASD may have different experiences and different support needs than mothers; therefore, it important to examine their

unique response to having a child with ASD. The extent to which fathers assume the primary caregiver role is not clear. More specifically, it

would be helpful to examine how increased parental responsibilities such as supporting the mother, managing financial burdens associated

with having a child with ASD, or dealing with marital discord due to many of the factors listed here lead to unique stressors for fathers. In

contrast, perhaps by assuming increased parental responsibility, fathers may become more involved in family cohesion, enhancing family

resilience and coping (Bayat, 2007).

As reported, there are mixed results on outcomes for and adjustment of typically developing siblings of individuals with ASD. Some siblings

appear to be positively affected (e.g., high levels of self­concept and social competence) by having a sibling with ASD, or at least to experience

no ill effects, whereas other siblings experience negative effects. The overall mixed findings and the findings about possible negative

outcomes emphasize the need to continue research in this area. Additional and comprehensive understanding of the experiences and

perceived needs of siblings of individuals with ASD may lead to the development of an effective support system based on these needs.

A fourth, potentially fruitful, area of inquiry is assessing the impact of varying levels of specific behavioral characteristics rather than just a

diagnostic category. Bromley et al. (2004), Hastings (2003b), Herring et al. (2006), and Tomanik et al. (2004) have identified children's

challenging behavior as a factor associated with maternal stress that leads to adverse outcomes. Similarly, we might consider the effects on

family functioning of a child with ASD who never develops speech or a symbolic language system or whose dominant means of

communication is echolalic relative to a child with ASD who has a well­developed repertoire of speech. These are questions that highlight

independent variables and their effects on the plethora of dependent variables (e.g., stress, family cohesion, friendships) assessed in the

extant literature. In addition, researchers might explore the impact on families of children with different subtypes of ASD, evaluating specific

effects associated with one or another subtype.

Finally, there is a need to enhance the rigor and breadth of research on the impact of having a child with autism on families. The type of

research needs to be expanded to include experimental work that explores the effect of independent variables such as the coping strategies

and supports that have been identified in the literature. The reports of the findings in the existing literature often imply cause­and­effect

relationships between variables when the research methodology cannot support such conclusions. Exemplary research might encompass

investigations of short­ and long­term benefits and outcomes of different support services (e.g., respite care, parent training) for diverse

groups of families with children with ASD. The breadth of research also might be expanded, as mentioned previously, by moving beyond the

multitude of studies of parent and family stress associated with having a child with autism and focusing more effort on identifying

strategies/interventions that produce measurable outcomes of enhanced family functioning.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

In addition to the vast array of interventions directed to the individuals with ASD, this review of literature reveals the need for interventions and

services that are directed specifically to other family members. Professionals and service providers should anticipate specific challenges to

families that are likely to occur during various transition periods for the child (e.g., beginning school, adolescence to adulthood) and consider

targeted types of services, supports, or interventions.

Many studies conducted prior to 2000 focused on stress in mothers of children with ASD. In the past few years, researchers have also

focused on coping strategies adopted by and support structures for families of children with ASD. There is increasing evidence that many

family members of children with ASD experience high levels of stress; our challenge now is to identify strategies to support these families.

Three topics have emerged as critical support strategies to foster the well­being of families who have children with ASD. These include the

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availability of (a) quality care and respite services benefitting all family members, (b) informal and formal supports for parents and siblings,

and (c) educational programs that offer parents and families' access to trained personnel and other services and benefits.

Perhaps the most consistent theme represented in the literature is the need for support such as respite care. Time afforded by respite care

provides parents and siblings with much­needed opportunity for recreation and leisure, and benefits individuals with ASD by offering them

new experiences with new people and possible exposure to more effective methods of service delivery. Respite care may also enhance

coping efforts of parents by providing cognitive and emotional "relief" that may be important to sustain active coping strategies over the long

term.

In addition to respite care, support groups also have been an important source of instrumental, informational and emotional support for family

members, parents and siblings. Dale et al. (2006) emphasized that "feelings of well­being may be related to the ability to strike a balance

between retaining personal control and still feel supported by those around them" (p. 476). Researchers (e.g., Mackintosh et al. 2006)

emphasize the importance of informal support from family members, friends, and parents of other children with disabilities. Professionals

could capitalize on this finding by developing specific interventions to enhance families embracing their natural supports (i.e., contacts with

extended family, friends, neighbors) and to encourage and promote parent­to­parent communication not only in formal settings such as

support groups, but also informally by meeting individually for coffee or play dates.

Parent education and training programs also are a vehicle that may contribute to feelings of control and support. According to Brookman­

Frazee (2004) parent education programs have consistently mediated positive effects on a variety of targeted behaviors and characteristics in

children. Parents of children with autism who participate in parent training experience improvement in mental health and well­being, reduced

stress, and more time for leisure activities (Brookman­Frazee, 2004; Tonge et al., 2006).

Support for positive outcomes from parent intervention/training also emanate from a metaanalysis review by Singer, Ethridge, and Aldana

(2007). These authors reviewed group intervention studies (i.e., behavioral parent training, cognitive behavioral training, and combined

training with other support services) for parents of children with DD. The researchers reported multiple benefits from these trainings,

including reduction in parental distress. The authors also reported that the most effective interventions were those that combined a focus on

changing children's behavior and parents' well­being. Singer et al. concluded that there is "evidence to support the claim that there are

established evidence­based interventions for reducing psychological distress at least in middle class mothers in the short term" (p. 357). The

implications of this finding are that there is a foundation of evidence on which to build and develop support systems for families with children

with ASD. Swenson (2005) described needed changes in the support system for families who have children with disabilities as including, "a

system of life­long, individual, community­ and family­based, flexible, person­centered supports that recognize the individual rights and needs

of family members" (p. 366). All of these issues point to the need for more inclusive service­delivery options, more highly trained

professionals in the field, and a greater commitment to a comprehensive educational system for children and families, including increased

funding for support groups, personal­futures planning, staffing, and respite care. Moreover, there is a specific need to increase the availability

of and access to support services for families in communities with lower SES and minority groups (Bromley et al., 2004; Mandell & Salzer,

2007).

Manuscript received January 2009; accepted November 2009.

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HEDDA MEADAN

Illinois State University

JAMES W. HALLE

AARON T. EBATA

University of Illinois­ Urbana­Champaign

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Hedda Meadan, Department of Special Education, Illinois State University,

Normal, IL 61790 (e­mail: [email protected]).

This article was supported, in part, by the Family Resiliency Initiative, University of Illinois and The Autism Program at the University of Illinois

at Urbana­Champaign.

HEDDA MEADAN (Illinois CEC), Assistant Professor, Department of Special Education, Illinois State University, Normal. JAMES W. HALLE,

Professor, Department of Special Education; and AARON T. EBATA, Associate Professor, Department of Human & Community Development,

University of Illinois at Urbana­Champaign.

TABLE 1

Peer­Reviewed, Data­Based Articles Published Between 2000 and 2007

                                                      ASD

Study (Year)       Purpose and Method(s)              Focus Group (a)

Abbeduto et al.    Purpose: To compare the            174 mothers

(2004)             psychological  well­being of       M = 46 years

                   mothers of individuals with

                   Fragile X, DS, and autism

                   Method: Mothers' self­

                   administered measures

Allik, Larsson,    Purpose: To evaluate the           31 mothers

& Smedje (2006)    health­related quality of life     M = 42 years

                   in parents of children with ASD    R = 28­54 years

                   or HFA                             30 fathers

                                                      M 45 = years

                   Methods: Parents' self­            R = 35­64 years

                   administered measures; Teachers

                   completed behavior checklist

Baker­Ericzen,     Purpose: To examine parental       37 mothers

Brookman­Frazee,   stress before and after            M = 32 years

& Stahmer (2005)   involvement in an inclusive        27 fathers

                   toddler program (parents of        M = 35 years

                   children with ASD and parents

                   of typically developing

                   children)

                   Methods: Quasiexperimental pre­

                   ­postdesign; Parents' self­

                   administered measures

Bayat (2007)       Purpose: To examine the            134 mothers

                   resilience in families with        30 fathers

                   children with autism               11 other

                                                      M = 41 years

                   Method: Qualitative analysis of

Demo Version ­ Winnovative Software Components

                   caregivers' written answers to

                   3 open­ended questions.

Benson (2006)      Purpose: To investigate the        60 mothers

                   relationship between the           8 fathers

                   severity of the child's            M = 38 years

                   symptoms, stress proliferation,    R = 28­61 years

                   and parent depression and to

                   examine the role of social

                   support in reducing stress

                   proliferation and depression

                   Method: Parents' self­

                   administered measures

Bishop, Richler,   Purpose: To examine the            110 mothers

Cain, & Lord       perceived negative impact of       6 fathers

(2007)             parenting a child with ASD

                   Methods: Parents: structured

                   interviews including a few

                   standardized measures;

                   Children: assessment measures

Bromley, Hare,     Purpose: To examine the impact     68 mothers

Davison, &         of having a child with autism

Emerson (2004)     on mothers' psychological well­

                   being

                   Methods: Structured interviews

                   including a few standardized

                   measures

Brookman­Frazee    Purpose: To examine the effects    3 mothers

(2004)             of two parent education

                   conditions (parent­clinician

                   partnership vs. clinician­

                   directed model) on mothers and

                   their children with autism

                   Methods: Repeated reversal

                   design; Observational data

Dale, Jahoda, &    Purpose: To examine the way        16 mothers

Knott (2006)       mothers make sense of the          R = 28­44 years

                   initial diagnosis of autism

                   Methods: Focus group; Mothers'

                   self­administered measures

Duarte, Bordin,    Purpose: To explore the causes     31 mothers

Yazigi, & Mooney   of stress for mothers of           M = 32.9 years

(2005)             children with autism               R = 22­45 years

                   Method: Standardized assessment

                   (Rorschach test)

Dunn, Burbine,     Purpose: To determine the          39 mothers

Bowers, &          effect of various stressors and    19 fathers

Tantlef Dunn       subsequent coping styles on the    M = 36 years

(2001)             well­being of parents of           R = 25­67 years

                   children with autism

                   Method: Parents' self­

                   administered measures

Gray (2002)        Purpose: To examine the            19 mothers

                   experiences of parents and         9 fathers

                   other family members in coping

                   with the changing problems of a

                   child with autism over time

Demo Version ­ Winnovative Software Components

                   Method: Semistructured

                   interviews

Gray (2003)        Purpose: To explore the role of    32 mothers

                   gender and coping among parents    21 fathers

                   of children with AS

                   Method: Semistructured

                   interviews

Gray (2006)        Purpose: To examine how parents    19 mothers

                   of children with autism cope       9 fathers

                   over time (8­10 years)

                   Method: Semistructured

                   interviews

Hare, Pratt,       Purpose: To investigate the        77% mothers

Burton, Bromley,   health and social care needs of    23% fathers

& Emerson          families supporting adults with

(2004)             ASD

                   Methods: Parents' structured

                   interviews including a few

                   standardized measures

Hastings (2003a)   Purpose: To explore the            78 siblings

                   adjustment of siblings of          R = 4­16 years

                   children with ASD engaged in       78 mothers

                   intensive ABA early                R = 26­51 years

                   intervention programs

                   Method: Mothers' self­

                   administered measures

Hastings (2003b)   Purpose: To investigate what       22 siblings

                   variables might affect             R = 4­16 years

                   adjustment of siblings of          26 mothers

                   children with ASD                  M = 41 years

                   Methods: Mothers' self­

                   administered  measures;

                   Teachers completed behavior

                   checklist

Hastings (2003c)   Purpose: To explore the            18 mothers

                   interrelationships between and     M = 41 years

                   psychological well­being of        18 fathers

                   mothers and fathers of a child     M = 43

                   with autism                        years

                   Methods: Parents' self­

                   administered measures; Teachers

                   completed behavior checklist

Hastings &         Purpose: To explore predictors     130 mothers

Johnson (2001)     of stress of parents               11 fathers

                   participating in intensive         M = 37 years

                   home­based intervention for        R = 26­53 years

                   young children with ASD

                   Method: Parents' self­

                   administered measures

Hastings,          Purpose: To explore                74 mothers

Kovshoff, Brown,   coping strategies,                 61 fathers

et al. (2005)      stress, and mental health

                   of parents of children

                   with autism

                   Method: Parents' self­

                   administered measures

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Hastings,          Purpose: To explore the            48 mothers

Kovshoff Ward,     psychological functioning in       M = 34 years

et al. (2005)      families of children with          41 fathers

                   autism                             M = 38

                                                      years

                   Methods: Parents' self­

                   administered measures;

                   Mothers: structured interview

Herring et al.     Purpose: To explore the effects    79 mothers

(2006)             of emotional and behavioral        72 fathers

                   problems in toddlers with PDD

                   and with developmental delays

                   on their parents and families

                   Methods: Parents' structured

                   interviews; Parents' self­

                   administered measures;

                   Children: assessment measures

Higgins, Bailey,   Purpose: To examine the            50 mothers

& Pearce (2005)    relationship between ASD           2 fathers

                   characteristics, family

                   functioning, and coping

                   strategies

                   Method: Parents' self­

                   administered measures

Hutton & Caron     Purpose: To examine how            19 mothers

(2005)             families adapt to having a         2 fathers

                   child with autism

                   Method: Parents' semistructured

                   interviews

Jarbrink,          Purpose: To describe how to        15 parents

Fombonne, &        approach the collection of cost

Knapp (2003)       information concerning informal

                   care of individuals with ASD

                   Method: Parents' self­

                   administered measures

Kaminsky &         Purpose: To examine the            30 siblings

Dewey (2002)       adjustment of siblings of          M = 12 years

                   children with autism compared      R = 8­18 years

                   to siblings of children with DS

                   or those who were typically

                   developing

                   Methods: Siblings' and parents'

                   self­administered measures

Lecavalier, Leone, Purpose: To examine the effects    86% mothers

& Wiltz (2006)     of behavior problems and level     14% fathers

                   of functioning of children with    M = 40 years

                   ASD on caregivers' stress

                   Methods: Parents' and teachers'

                   self­administered measures

Luther, Canham,    Purpose: To assess the             18 parents

& Cureton          perceived coping strategies and

(2005)             social support of parents of

                   children with autism

                   Method: Parents' self­

                   administered measures

Demo Version ­ Winnovative Software Components

Mackintosh,        Purpose: To examine sources of     498 parents

Myers, &           information and support

Goin­Kochel        reported by parents of children

(2006)             with ASD

                   Method: Parents' self­

                   administered measures

Macks & Reeve      Purpose: To examine and compare    51 siblings

(2007)             the psychosocial and emotional     R = 7­17 years

                   adjustment of siblings of

                   children with autism and

                   siblings of typically

                   developing children

                   Methods: Parents' and siblings'

                   self­administered measures

Mascha &           Purpose: To develop a method of    14 siblings

Boucher (2006)     gathering information about the    M = 15 years

                   subjective experiences of          R = 11­18 years

                   siblings of children with ASD

                   Method: Siblings'

                   semistructured interviews

Mugno, Ruta,       Purpose: To evaluate and           39 mothers

D'Arrigo, &        compare the quality of life of     30 fathers

Mazzone (2007)     parents of children with PDD,      M = 37 years

                   cerebral palsy, mental

                   retardation, and typically

                   developing children

                   Method: Parents' self­

                   administered measures

Orsmond &          Purpose: To examine whether        77 siblings ­

Seltzer (2007)     type of disability impacts         M = 38 years

                   sibling relationships, and         R = 21­56 years

                   whether disability type is

                   associated with positive and

                   negative aspects of the sibling

                   relationship

                   Methods: Siblings' and mothers'

                   self­administered measures

Pakenham,          Purpose: To understand the         47 mothers

Samios, &          factors influencing adjustment

Sofronoff (2005)   in mothers of children with AS

                   Method: Mothers' self­

                   administered measures

Perry, Harris, &   Purpose: To explore the family     55 mothers

Minnes (2004)      environment and family harmony     24 fathers

                   in parents of children with

                   developmental disabilities

                   (i.e., autism, Rett syndrome,

                   Fragile X, DS; unknown

                   etiology)

                   Method: Parents' self­

                   administered measure

Pilowsky et al.    Purpose: To examine the social     30 siblings

(2004)             and emotional adjustment of        M = 9 years

                   siblings of children with          R = 6­10­years

                   autism

                   Methods: Siblings' and parents'

Demo Version ­ Winnovative Software Components

                   self­administered measures and

                   interviews

Pisula (2007)      Purpose: Compare stress in         25 mothers

                   mothers of children with ASD to    M = 38 years

                   mothers of children with DS        R = 2C­56 years

                   Method: Mothers' self­

                   administered measures

Rivers &           Purpose: To examine if family      50 siblings

Stoneman           factors (i.e., marital stress      M = 9 years

(2003)             and coping by seeking social       R = 7­12 years

                   support) affect quality of         49 mothers

                   sibling relationships when one     1 father

                   child has autism                   M = 37 years

                                                      R = 30­49 years

                   Methods: Siblings' and parents'

                   self­administered measures

Ross & Cuskelly    Purpose: To investigate            25 siblings

(2006)             adjustment and coping              M = 10 years

                   strategies of siblings of          R = 8­15 years

                   children with ASD

                   Methods: Siblings' and parents'

                   self­administered measures

Schwichtenberg     Purpose: To assess how home­       41 mothers

& Poehlmann        based ABA program for children     M = 37 years

(2007)             with ASD impacts the family        R = 24­49 years

                   Method: Mothers' self­

                   administered measures

Sharpe & Baker     Purpose: To identify factors       333 parents

(2007)             associated with financial

                   problems in families with

                   children with autism

                   Method: Parents' self­

                   administered measures

Shu & Lung         Purpose: To explore the effect     27 mothers

(2005)             of support groups on the mental    M = 41 years

                   health and quality of life for     R = 30­51

                   mothers of children with autism    years

                   Methods: Quasiexperimental

                   pre­­postcontrol group design;

                   Mothers' self­administered

                   measures

Siklos & Kerns     Purpose: To explore and compare    56 mothers

(2006)             the perceived needs for social     M = 39 years

                   support by parents of children     R = 24­50

                   with ASD and DS                    years

                   Method: Mothers' self­

                   administered measures

Sivberg (2002)     Purpose: To explore and compare    37 mothers

                   family systems and coping          29 fathers

                   behaviors of parents of chil­      R = 25­62

                   dren with ASD and parents of       years

                   typically developing children

                   Method: Parents' self­

                   administered measures

Smith & Perry      Purpose: To examine the            26 siblings

(2005)             effectiveness of a sib­ling        M = 10 years

Demo Version ­ Winnovative Software Components

                   support group for siblings of      R 6­16

                   children with ASD                   = years

                   Methods: Quasiexperimental

                   pre­­postdesign; Siblings and

                   parents' self­administered

                   measures

Tarakeshwar &      Purpose: To assess the use of      43 mothers

Pargament (2001)   religious coping methods among     2 fathers

                   parents of children with ASD

                   Methods: Parents' self­

                   administered measures and

                   semistructured interviews

Thomas, Ellis,     Purpose: To identify family        383 families

McLaurin,          characteristics associated with    97% mothers

Daniels, &         use of autism services

Morrissey (2007)

                   Methods: Parents' self­

                   administered measures and

                   structured interviews

Tobing &           Purpose: To investigate the        97 mothers

Glenwick           psychosocial adaptation of

(2006)             mothers of children with ASD

                   Method: Mothers' self­

                   administered measures

Tomanik, Harris,   Purpose: To examine the            60 mothers

& Hawkins          relationship between the child     M = 35 years

(2004)             with ASD's adaptive and            R = 26­46 years

                   maladaptive behavior and

                   perceived levels of maternal

                   stress

                   Method: Mothers' self­

                   administered measures

Tonge et al.       Purpose: To examine the impact     105 parents

(2006)             of a parent education and          R = 25­43

                   behavior management

                   intervention on the mental

                   health and adjustment of

                   parents of preschool children

                   with autism

                   Methods: Randomized, group

                   comparison design; Parents'

                   pre­and posttreatment self

                   administered measures

Trudgeon & Carr    Purpose: To investigate the        9 mothers

(2007)             positive impacts and stressors     7 fathers

                   of families running early          R = 31­45 years

                   intensive behavioral

                   intervention programs

                   Method: Semistructured

                   interviews

Tunali & Power     Purpose: To examine and compare    29 mothers

(2002)             coping strategies of mothers of

                   children with and without

                   autism

                   Methods: Mothers' self­

                   administered measures and

                   semistructured interviews

Demo Version ­ Winnovative Software Components

Twoy, Connolly,    Purpose: To identify the coping    29 mothers

& Novak (2007)     strategies used by families        22 fathers

                   with children with ASD             R = 31­50 years

                   Method: Parents' self­

                   administered measures

Verte, Roeyers, &  Purpose: To investigate the        29 siblings

Buysse (2003)      psychological adjustment of        M = 11 years

                   siblings of children with HFA      R 6­16 = years

                   in comparison with siblings of

                   typically developing children

                   Methods: Siblings' and parents'

                   self­administered measures

Weiss (2002)       Purpose: To assess the effects     40 mothers

                   of social support and hardiness    R = 24­48 years

                   on the level of stress in

                   mothers of typical developing

                   children, children with autism,

                   and children with mental

                   retardation

                   Method: Mothers' self­

                   administered measures

Whitaker (2002)    Purpose: To assess parents'        mothers

                   levels of  satisfaction with

                   support services provided and

                   explore parental responses to

                   the different components of the

                   support offered

                   Method: Semistructured

                   interviews

Yamada et al.      Purpose: To evaluate emotional     147 mothers

(2007)             stress of parents of children      M = 38 years

                   with ASD and to explore the        122 fathers

                   correlates to their emotional      M 41

                   stress                              =

years

                   Method: Parents' self­

                   administered measures

                   Characteristics of

Study (Year)       Individuals With ASD   Main Findings

Abbeduto et al.    ASD                    Mothers of individuals

(2004)             73% M                  with ASD reported more

                   R = 10­23 years        distant relationship

                                          with the child with

                                          disability and higher

                                          levels of depression than

                                          comparison groups. The

                                          most consistent predictor

                                          of maternal outcomes was

                                          the behavioral symptoms

                                          of the individual with

                                          disability.

Allik, Larsson,    AS/HFA                 Mothers (but not fathers)

& Smedje (2006)    28M                    of school­age children

                   4 F                    with AS/HFA reported

                   M = 10 years           impaired health related

                   R = 8­12 years         to quality of life. A

                                          relationship between

                                          maternal well­being and

                                          child's behavior

                                          characteristics (e.g.,

Demo Version ­ Winnovative Software Components

                                          hyperactivity and conduct

                                          problems) was found.

Baker­Ericzen,     ASD                    Parents of toddlers with

Brookman­Frazee,   29 M                   ASD reported

& Stahmer (2005)   8 F                    significantly higher

                   M = 28 months          levels of child­ and

                                          parent­related stress com

                                          pared to parents of

                                          typically developing

                                          toddlers. Mothers of

                                          children with ASD showed

                                          significant reductions

                                          in child­related stress

                                          after program

                                          participation.

Bayat (2007)       ASD                    Despite extraordinary

                   141 M                  challenges faced by

                   34 F                   families of children with

                   M = 10 years for M     ASD, a number of these

                   M = 11 years for F     families show evidence of

                   R = 2 ­18 years        resilience: reporting on

                                          becoming stronger as a

                                          result of disability in

                                          the family.

Benson (2006)      ASD                    Raising a child with ASD

                   88% M                  can result in serious

                   12% F                  psycho logical distress

                   M = 7 years            in parents. Informal

                   R 4 ­10 = years        parent support

                                          ameliorated depression in

                                          parents whose children

                                          had milder symptoms.

Bishop, Richler,   ASD                    African American mothers

Cain, & Lord       98 M                   reported less perceived

(2007)             12 F                   negative impact than

                   M = 9 years            Caucasian mothers. Child

                                          characteristics were not

                                          predictors of perceived

                                          negative impact. Mothers

                                          with fewer children in

                                          the home re ported higher

                                          perceived negative

                                          impact.

Bromley, Hare,     ASD                    The results of the study

Davison, &         57M                    indicated that high

Emerson (2004)     14 F                   levels of psychological

                   R = 5­18 years         distress in mothers of

                                          children with autism were

                                          associated with low

                                          levels of family support

                                          and with high levels of

                                          child's challenging

                                          behavior.

Brookman­Frazee    Autism                 During the partnership,

(2004)             3 M                    condition mothers had

                   M = 31 months          lower levels of observed

                   R = 29­34 months       stress and higher levels

                                          of observed confidence

                                          compared to during the

                                          clinician­directed

                                          condition. Children also

                                          demonstrated more

                                          positive affect, higher

                                          levels of responding, and

                                          appropriate engagement in

                                          the partnership

Demo Version ­ Winnovative Software Components

                                          condition.

Dale, Jahoda, &    ASD                    Mothers had low levels of

Knott (2006)       11 M                   depression and high

                   5 F                    expectations for their

                   R = 3­9 years          children's future. The

                                          mothers' stress level was

                                          high. There was a great

                                          disparity in the

                                          attributions the mothers

                                          made in relation to their

                                          children.

Duarte, Bordin,    Autism                 Having a child with

Yazigi, & Mooney   29 M                   autism seemed to be the

(2005)             2 F                    main cause of stress;

                   M = 6 years            however, other factors

                   R = 3­12 years         such as poor affect, lack

                                          of interest in others,

                                          having a younger child,

                                          and being an older mother

                                          were also found to be

                                          contributing causes of

                                          stress.

Dunn, Burbine,     Autism                 The results indicated

Bowers, &          M = 7 years            that the relationship

Tantlef Dunn       R = 3­15 years         between stressors and

(2001)                                    negative outcomes was

                                          moderated by social

                                          support and coping style.

                                          The use of escape and

                                          avoidance as coping

                                          strategies was found to

                                          correspond to increased

                                          depression, isolation,

                                          and marital problems.

Gray (2002)        Autism                 Two thirds of parents

                   13 M                   reported that their

                   7 F                    situation was better than

                   R = 13­27 years        it had been 10 years

                                          before. Parents of chil­

                                          dren who exhibited

                                          aggressive behaviors

                                          reported high levels of

                                          stress and

                                          dissatisfaction with the

                                          level of ser vices they

                                          received.

Gray (2003)        AS                     Mothers assumed

                   R = 5­26 years         disproportionate

                                          responsibility for

                                          caregiving. Fathers

                                          reported an indirect

                                          effect of the child's

                                          disability on their

                                          lives, whereas mothers re

                                          ported emotional distress

                                          and lifestyle changes

                                          (e.g., abandoned a

                                          career) associated with

                                          the responsibility of

                                          interacting with medical

                                          and educational systems.

Gray (2006)        Autism                 Coping strategies changed

                   13 M                   over time. The total

                   7 F                    number of coping

                   M = 18 years           strategies reported by

                   (at follow­up)         parents declined. The

Demo Version ­ Winnovative Software Components

                                          researcher found a shift

                                          from problem­focused

                                          coping strategies toward

                                          emotion­focused coping

                                          strategies.

Hare, Pratt,       ASD                    Strong association

Burton, Bromley,   22 M                   between parental

& Emerson          4 F                    emotional distress and

(2004)             M = 27 years           unmet needs. Parents

                   R = 20­40 years        reported need for autism

                                          specific interventions

                                          and support.

Hastings (2003a)   Autism                 Study found no evidence

                   89% M                  of a negative effect on

                   11% F                  siblings of young

                   M = 5 years            children with autism

                                          engaged in intensive ABA

                                          programs.

                                          Siblings in families with

                                          children with autism who

                                          exhibited less severe

                                          behavior had fewer

                                          adjustment problems when

                                          formal social support was

                                          available to the

                                          families.

Hastings (2003b)   ASD                    Siblings of children with

                   17 M                   autism were found to have

                   9 F                    more peer problems,

                   M = 12 years           increased adjustment

                   R = 7­16 years         issues, and lower

                                          prosocial behavior than

                                          children in the normative

                                          sample.

Hastings (2003c)   Autism                 Mothers and fathers did

                   13 M                   not differ in their

                   5 F                    levels of stress or

                   M = 11 years           depression. However,

                   R = 8­17 years         mothers reported more

                                          anxiety than fathers.

                                          Child behavior problems

                                          and father's mental

                                          health were found to be

                                          associated with mother's

                                          stress.

Hastings &         Autism                 Parents of children with

Johnson (2001)     90% M                  autism reported more

                   10% F                  stress than parents of

                   M = 5 years            children with other

                                          disabilities. Adaptive

                                          coping strategies,

                                          informal social support,

                                          and belief in the

                                          efficacy of the

                                          intervention were

                                          associated with lower

                                          stress; more severe child

                                          symptoms were associated

                                          with higher stress.

Hastings,          Autism                 Active avoidance coping

Kovshoff, Brown,   59M                    and religious/denial

et al. (2005)      15 F                   coping were related to

                   R = 2­17 years         more stress and mental

                                          health problems in both

                                          mothers and fathers.

Demo Version ­ Winnovative Software Components

                                          Positive coping was

                                          associated with lower

                                          levels of depression, and

                                          problem­focused coping

                                          was not associated with

                                          parental stress or mental

                                          health.

Hastings,          Autism                 The results indicated

Kovshoff Ward,     41 M                   that paternal stress and

et al. (2005)      7 F                    positive perceptions were

                   M = 37 months          predicted by maternal

                   R = 28­45 months       depression. Maternal

                                          stress was predicted by

                                          their child's behavior

                                          problems and by their

                                          partner's depression. In

                                          addition, mothers and

                                          fathers identified

                                          positive perceptions

                                          about their child and his

                                          or her impact on

                                          themselves and other

                                          family members.

Herring et al.     Autism/PDD             Behavior and emotional

(2006)             R = 20­51 months       problems were found to

                                          have a significant impact

                                          on parent outcome, with

                                          the exception of father

                                          stress. Fathers

                                          consistently reported

                                          less stress than mothers.

                                          Fathers with children

                                          with PDD were more

                                          stressed than fathers of

                                          children with delays

                                          without PDD. Child

                                          emotional and behavioral

                                          problems contributed

                                          significantly more to

                                          mother stress than child

                                          diagnosis (PDD or

                                          non­PDD), delay, or

                                          gender.

Higgins, Bailey,   ASD                    Primary caregivers of a

& Pearce (2005)    48 M                   child with ASD reported

                   6 F                    lower marital happiness,

                   M = 10 years           family adaptability and

                                          family cohesion than

                                          normative data; however,

                                          there was no evidence of

                                          lower self­esteem. Coping

                                          strategies did not appear

                                          to be related to marital

                                          or family adjustment.

Hutton & Caron     Autism                 Most parents expressed

(2005)             17 M                   that the experience of

                   4 F                    having a child with

                   R = 3­16 years         autism was stressful. A

                                          few parents talked about

                                          the experience as being

                                          positive.

Jarbrink,          ASD                    Results indicated

Fombonne, &        14 M                   considerable economic

Knapp (2003)       3 F                    burden for parents and

                   M = 8 years            gave some indication of

                   R = 4­10 years         the associated costs of

                                          ASD.

Demo Version ­ Winnovative Software Components

Kaminsky &         Autism                 Results of study

Dewey (2002)       M = 10 years           indicated that siblings

                                          of children with autism

                                          were not at an increased

                                          risk for loneliness or

                                          difficulties with social

                                          adjustment; their

                                          perceptions of social

                                          support were also not

                                          different from those of

                                          children in the

                                          comparison groups, and

                                          they did not present with

                                          deficits in social

                                          competency.

Lecavalier, Leone, ASD                    Data indicated that

& Wiltz (2006)     243 M                  behavior problems were

                   50 F                   strongly associated with

                   M = 9 years            stress; however, the

                   R = 3­18 years         teachers and parents did

                                          not perfectly agree on

                                          the nature and severity

                                          of the behavior problems.

Luther, Canham,    Autism                 Families reported

& Cureton          14 M                   stressors in addition to

(2005)             4 F                    the child's disability,

                   M = 8 years            and most often used

                   R = 5­13 years         social support and

                                          reframing as coping

                                          strategies.

Mackintosh,        ASD                    Parents reported the most

Myers, &           398 M                  frequent source of both

Goin­Kochel        100 F                  support and information

(2006)             M = 9 years            was other parents of

                                          children with ASD.

                                          Lower­income parents used

                                          fewer supports and

                                          information sources.

Macks & Reeve      Autism                 Siblings of children with

(2007)                                    autism appeared to have a

                                          more positive

                                          self­concept than did

                                          siblings of typically

                                          developing children. The

                                          presence of a child with

                                          autism appeared to have a

                                          negative impact on the

                                          typically developing

                                          sibling as demographic

                                          risk factors increased.

Mascha &           ASD                    Although a majority of

Boucher (2006)     M = 11 years           participants reported

                   R = 7­20 years         some positive aspects of

                                          having a sibling with

                                          ASD, many perceptions and

                                          experiences were

                                          negative­specifically

                                          related to the

                                          individual's problem

                                          behaviors, being

                                          embarrassed by the

                                          individual, and

                                          aggressive behavior as

                                          demonstrated by the

                                          individual with ASD.

Mugno, Ruta,       ASD                    Parents of children with

Demo Version ­ Winnovative Software Components

D'Arrigo, &        42M                    PDD reported lower

Mazzone (2007)     11 F                   quality of life and

                   M = 7.5 years          impairment in physical

                   R = 3­17 years         activity and social

                                          relationships compared to

                                          the other groups. Mothers

                                          of children with PDD had

                                          lower quality of life

                                          compared to fathers.

Orsmond &          ASD                    Siblings of individuals

Seltzer (2007)     56M                    with ASD spent less time

                   21 F                   with and had less close

                   M = 35 years           relationships than

                                          siblings of individuals

                                          with DS; siblings of

                                          individuals with DS were

                                          more optimistic about

                                          their sibling's future. A

                                          closer sibling

                                          relationship was observed

                                          when the sibling used

                                          problem­focused coping

                                          strategies.

Pakenham,          AS                     Double ABCX model may

Samios, &          40 M                   explain adjustment

Sofronoff (2005)   7 F                    process. Maternal

                   R = 10­12 years        adjustment was related to

                                          higher levels of social

                                          support, low levels of

                                          child behavior problems,

                                          pile­up of demands,

                                          stress appraisals, and

                                          passive avoidant coping.

                                          Problem­focused coping

                                          was unrelated to

                                          adjustment.

Perry, Harris, &   Autism                 Family environment as

Minnes (2004)      R = 0­18 years         reported by participants

                                          resembled typical/healthy

                                          family's environment more

                                          than distressed families.

                                          Families of children with

                                          developmental delays of

                                          unknown etiology and

                                          children with autism

                                          reported the lowest

                                          levels of family harmony.

Pilowsky et al.    Autism                 Siblings of children with

(2004)             M = 9 years            autism were relatively

                                          well adjusted and were

                                          not necessarily

                                          associated with increased

                                          vulnerability for social

                                          and emotional

                                          difficulties.

Pisula (2007)      Autism                 Mothers of children with

                   17 M                   autism reported higher

                   8 F                    stress levels compared to

                   M = 11                 mothers of children with

                   years                  DS. Mothers of children

                   R = 4­20 years         with autism were most

                                          concerned about their

                                          children's dependence on

                                          the care of others, their

                                          children's future, and

                                          the permanency of their

                                          condition.

Demo Version ­ Winnovative Software Components

Rivers &           ASD                    When marital stress was

Stoneman           42 M                   higher, siblings were

(2003)             8 F                    less satisfied with their

                   M = 7 years            sibling relationship.

                   R = 4­12 years         Informal support buffered

                                          the deleterious effects

                                          of marital stress on

                                          positive, but not

                                          negative, aspects of the

                                          siblings' relationships.

Ross & Cuskelly    ASD                    Aggressive behavior was

(2006)             20 M                   the most commonly

                   5 F                    reported interaction

                   M = 11 years           problem between siblings,

                   R = 6­16 years         and anger was the most

                                          common response. Coping

                                          strategies and knowledge

                                          of autism were not

                                          associated with adjustment.

                                          Scores on the Child

                                          Behavior Checklist placed

                                          40% of siblings in the

                                          clinical or borderline

                                          range.

Schwichtenberg     ASD                    Mothers of children

& Poehlmann        M = 6 years            participating in ABA

(2007)             R = 3­14 years         program reported more

                                          depression than mothers

                                          of children with other

                                          developmental delays. ABA

                                          intensity was related to

                                          maternal depression and

                                          personal strain.

Sharpe & Baker     Autism                 This study indicated that

(2007)             R = 1­18 years         a diagnosis of autism for

                                          a family causes a large

                                          financial burden, which

                                          is more intense when

                                          early intervention occurs

                                          (due to the therapy

                                          needed).

Shu & Lung         Autism                 Mental health did not

(2005)                                    significantly improve in

                                          the intervention group

                                          compared to those in the

                                          control group. Subjective

                                          well­being and employment

                                          status were found to have

                                          an effect on mothers'

                                          mental health. Only the

                                          subjective well­being had

                                          an effect on their

                                          quality of life.

Siklos & Kerns     ASD                    Families of both groups

(2006)             39M                    reported a similar number

                   17 F                   of important needs and

                   M = 8                  important needs being

                   years                  met. Mothers of children

                   R = 3­18 years         with autism reported less

                                          satisfaction with

                                          services and help

                                          received since the time

                                          of the diagnosis.

Sivberg (2002)     ASD                    Lower levels of coping

                   21 M                   were associated with

                   16 F                   higher levels of strain

Demo Version ­ Winnovative Software Components

                                          on the family system, and

                   R = 1­26 years         the level of strain on

                                          the family system was

                                          greater in the families

                                          with a child with ASD.

                                          Parents of children with

                                          ASD used more distancing

                                          and escape strategies

                                          whereas those in the

                                          control group use more

                                          problem­solving

                                          strategies.

Smith & Perry      N/A                    Results indicated that

(2005)                                    siblings' self­concepts

                                          and knowledge of autism.

                                          improved significantly

                                          from the beginning to the

                                          end of the sibling

                                          support group.

Tarakeshwar &      Autism                 Religious coping

Pargament (2001)   36M                    accounted for better

                   9 F                    religious out comes and

                   M = 10 years           stress­related growth;

                   R = 4­24 years         negative religious coping

                                          was associated with

                                          increased depression and

                                          low religious outcome

Thomas, Ellis,     ASD                    Families used a broad

McLaurin,          333 M                  array of services. Access

Daniels, &         50 F                   to care was limited for

Morrissey (2007)   M = 7 years            low­income families and

                   R = 0­11 years         racial/ethnic minorities,

                                          those living in

                                          nonmetropolitan areas,

                                          and those not following a

                                          major treatment approach;

                                          increased stress is

                                          associated with higher

                                          service use.

Tobing &           ASD                    Parenting competence and

Glenwick           85 M                   satisfaction with social

(2006)             11 F                   support were negatively

                   M = 9 years            related to maternal

                   R = 2­18 years         distress. Number of

                                          coping strategies and

                                          number of social supports

                                          were not found to be

                                          significantly related to

                                          maternal distress.

Tomanik, Harris,   ASD                    Mothers of children with

& Hawkins          51 M                   ASD reported higher

(2004)             9 F                    levels of stress when

                   M = 5 years            their children were more

                   R = 2­7 years          irritable,

                                          lethargic/socially

                                          withdrawn, hyperac­

                                          tive/noncompliant, unable

                                          to take care of

                                          themselves, and unable to

                                          communicate or interact

                                          with others.

Tonge et al.       Autism                 Results indicated that

(2006)             R = 2­5 years          both a parent education

                                          and skills training

                                          program and a parent

                                          education counseling

Demo Version ­ Winnovative Software Components

                                          program for parents of

                                          young children with

                                          autism was of benefit to

                                          their mental health and

                                          well being.

Trudgeon & Carr    ASD                    Parents reported positive

(2007)             8 M                    and negative impacts of

                   1 F                    the programs. Sources of

                   R = 4­9 years          support obtained through

                                          the programs offset the

                                          demands of the programs.

Tunali & Power     Autism                 Mothers of children with

(2002)             22 M                   autism were more likely

                   7 F                    than mothers of typically

                   M =                    developing children to

                   years                  place less emphasis on

                   R = 5­14 years         career success, spent

                                          more leisure time with

                                          extended family, were

                                          less concerned about

                                          others' opinions of their

                                          child's behavior,

                                          emphasized spousal

                                          support and parental

                                          roles, had more

                                          difficulty under standing

                                          their child's behavior,

                                          and had a marginally

                                          higher tolerance for

                                          ambiguity.

Twoy, Connolly,    ASD                    Parents of children with

& Novak (2007)     < 12 years             ASD were resilient in

                                          adapting to challenges of

                                          raising a child with ASD.

                                          Using a social support

                                          system was a large part

                                          of the family's coping

                                          strategies. The support

                                          included close friends,

                                          extended families, other

                                          families with the same

                                          situation, and agencies

                                          and programs.

Verte, Roeyers, &  ASD                    Siblings of children with

Buysse (2003)      28 M                   HFA were not more

                   1 F                    susceptible to adaptation

                   M = 11 years           problems than siblings of

                   R = 9­16 years         children without

                                          disorders. Siblings

                                          between 6­ and 11­years

                                          old had more

                                          internalizing and

                                          externalizing behavior P

                                          problems than siblings of

                                          typically developing

                                          children. Sisters of

                                          children with HFA,

                                          12­16 years, had higher

                                          social competence and

                                          more positive self

                                          concept compared to the

                                          control group.

Weiss (2002)       Autism                 Mothers of children with

                   R = 2­7 years          autism experienced more

                                          negative effects of

                                          stress than mothers of

                                          children with mental

Demo Version ­ Winnovative Software Components

 

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                                          retardation and mothers

                                          of typically developing

                                          children. Both social

                                          support and individual

                                          characteristics were

                                          found to aid effective

                                          coping and reduce

                                          negative effects of

                                          stress.

Whitaker (2002)    ASD                    Parents valued practical

                   < 5 years              strategies for

                                          facilitating language

                                          and engaging in

                                          interactive play. The

                                          most frequently

                                          expressed unmet need at

                                          the point of diagnosis

                                          was for information about

                                          ASD in general and local

                                          educational and support

                                          options available.

Yamada et al.      ASD                    Parents of children with

(2007)             129 M                  ASD reported higher

                   29 F                   levels of stress compared

                   R = 7­12               to normative data. The

                   years                  personality trait of the

                                          parents, the children's

                                          behavior, and troubles

                                          with schoolmates were

                                          found to be the most

                                          closely associated with

                                          the parent emotional

                                          stress levels.

Note. ASD = autism spectrum disorders; M = mean age; R = age range;

M = male; F = female; ABA = applied behavior analysis; AS = Asperger's

syndrome; HFA = high functioning autism; DS = Down syndrome; PDD =

pervasive developmental disorder.

(a) Does not include information (e.g., number, gender, age) of

comparative groups (e.g., parents of typically developing children).

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Research Materials/Having Their Say Parents.pdf

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Having Their Say: Parents Describe Why and How They are Engaged in Their Children’s Learning

Karen L. Mapp

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to identify factors that lead to successful edu- cational partnerships between school staff and families. The method for this investigation focused on asking parents how and why they were involved in their children’s education and what factors influenced their participation. The study was conducted at the Patrick O’Hearn Elementary School, in Boston, MA, where, according to yearly survey data collected by the school, at least 90% of the parents participated in one or more of the home- or school-based family engagement activi- ties, despite the school’s urban, low socioeconomic setting. By gathering parents’ own descriptions of their participation in their children’s education, this research study sought to develop a deeper understanding of the parents’ perceptions of involvement and explored whether their descriptions would match existing typol- ogies or fall outside existing definitions. Another goal of the research was to inves- tigate factors that influenced parents’ involvement in their children’s education.

The findings from this study strongly support prior research showing that the majority of parents want their children to do well in school and have a desire to help their children succeed. The findings also indicate that O’Hearn parents understood clearly that their involvement helped their children’s educational development.

The most significant findings from the study indicate that, according to the

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parents describe involvement

37

eighteen parents interviewed, several social and school factors influence why and how they are involved in their children’s education. According to the parents, when school personnel initiate and engage in practices that welcome parents to the school, honor their contributions, and connect them to the school community through an emphasis on the children, these practices then cultivate and sustain respectful, caring, and meaningful relationships between parents and school staff. While many schools place the emphasis on the programming portion of their family involvement initiative, the data from this case study reveals that when parents have caring and trustful relationships with school staff, these relationships enhance their desire to be involved and influence how they participate in their children’s educa- tional development.

The intent of this study was to yield an understanding of factors that contribute to the development of partnership between families and schools. This study pro- vides critical information for parents, teachers, policy makers, and school officials attempting to design and implement family involvement initiatives, as well as impli- cations for further research.

Key Words: home-school partnerships, family involvement, parent involvement

Introduction

In the last decade, there has been a renewed national focus on the role that fami- lies play in their children’s educational development. More than three decades of research show that, regardless of economic, racial/ethnic, and educational back- grounds, there is a strong link between educational benefits to children and vari- ous forms of family engagement such as encouragement to succeed academically, involvement in at-home activities such as help with homework, volunteerism in schools, and participation in governance activities (Cochran & Henderson, 1986; Eagle, 1989; Epstein, 1996; Epstein, Simon, & Salinas, 1997; Gotts, 1989; Hen- derson & Berla, 1994; Henderson & Mapp, 2002; Hewitt, 1978; Ho & Willms, 1996; Jordan, Orozco, & Averett, 2002; McDill, Rigsby, & Meyers, 1969; Melnick & Fiene, 1990; Mowry, 1972; Schweinhart & Weikart, 1992). The educational benefits to children include higher grades and test scores, better school attendance, higher graduation rates, greater enrollment in postsecondary education, and more positive attitudes about school (Henderson & Berla, 1994; Henderson & Mapp, 2002). As a result of this link between family engagement and student outcomes, several of the current whole-school comprehensive reform efforts identify school, family, and community partnership as a component of successful schools. For example, the Comprehensive School Reform Demonstration Program (Obey-

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Porter Act of 1998) identifies “parent and community involvement” as one of its eight design requirements for strategies used by schools committed to achieving high standards for all students.

Despite this emphasis on partnership between schools and families, teachers, principals, and parents attempting to coordinate family involvement initiatives express frustration at low levels of success in creating programs that forge mean- ingful and lasting connections with families. In some cases, the failure of these pro- grams to take hold is attributed to low levels of involvement on the part of families. This claim of minimal family involvement is particularly heard in school systems serving low-income and minority families (Chavkin & Williams, 1993; Comer, 1980; Davies, 2001; Lareau, 1987; Lawrence-Lightfoot, 1978; Lopez, 2001).

Purpose of the Study

Given the new focus on the role of families in their children’s educational development, the purpose of this study was to identify factors that lead to suc- cessful educational partnership between school staff and families. The method for this investigation focused on asking parents why and how they were involved in their children’s education and what factors influenced their participation. (Please note that in this study the term “parent” refers to any adult caregiver.) The study was conducted from 1996 to 1999 at the Patrick O’Hearn Elementary School in Boston, Massachusetts. According to yearly survey data collected by O’Hearn, at least 90% of the parents participated in one or more of the home- or school-based family engagement activities. This urban, full inclusion K-5 school served a stu- dent body of 220 students in which approximately 67% of the students, based on family income, qualified for free or reduced-price lunch. The school population was racially diverse. Fifty-five percent of the students were African American, 34% were Caucasian, 6% were Hispanic and 5% were Asian. Twenty-five percent of the 220 students were categorized as special needs children. Between 1989 and 1995, the O’Hearn School’s average median percentile scores on the Massachusetts Achievement Test for students in grades one through five rose eighteen percentage points in English (from 44 to 62) and thirty-one points in math (from 48 to 79).

The O’Hearn Elementary School offered a rich setting in which to ask low- income parents about why and how they were involved in their children’s educa- tion and to explore factors influencing their participation because the majority of its school population is eligible for free or reduced lunch, it boasts a 90% rate of family involvement, and has demonstrated improvement in student achievement. Such a strong family partnership initiative combined with the urban, low socioeconomic setting provided a unique opportunity to conduct this study, given that the “hard to

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reach” or involve label is often bestowed on parents from such communities. The goal of this research study was to develop a deeper understanding of these parents’ perceptions about their involvement in their children’s education. The lack of involvement on the part of low-income parents is often attributed to their “lack of time, interest, or competence to be involved, and that some do not value education” (Davies, 1988, p. 53). By gathering parents’ own descriptions of their participation in their children’s education, the study explored whether parents’ descriptions would match existing typologies such as Epstein’s (1988, 1991, 1994) six types of involvement—parenting, communicating, volunteering, learning at home, decision making, and involvement with the community—or fall outside existing definitions, requiring a more expanded and/or culturally inclusive definition of family involve- ment (Delgado-Gaitán, 1990, 1994).

Another goal of the research was to investigate factors that influenced parents’ involvement in their children’s education in an attempt to understand the motiva- tions, incentives, expectations, and apprehensions influencing parents’ participa- tion in their children’s educational development and/or in family involvement programs (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1995, 1997).

This paper will provide a description of the family involvement initiative at the Patrick O’Hearn Elementary School, a summary of the research methodology, and a presentation of the major findings, followed by implications of the findings for both practice and research.

The O’Hearn School and the Evolution of its Family Involvement Program

Early in 1989, the Patrick O’Hearn Elementary School was selected as the first school in Boston to house a K-5 full inclusion program. In the summer of 1989, William Henderson was appointed the new principal of the Patrick O’Hearn Elementary School (hereafter referred to as O’Hearn).

At the beginning of the school year, Henderson surveyed the teaching staff to identify issues to be addressed as top priorities for the school. The results of the survey overwhelmingly identified the need for an increase in family involvement. Henderson asked the teachers to identify a group of parents from a wide spectrum of backgrounds and experiences as possible leaders. The O’Hearn teachers identi- fied a group of approximately ten parents, and these parents formed an O’Hearn family involvement committee. The committee was racially and socioeconomically diverse, and also represented differences in family composition: single parents, grandparents, and parents of children with and without special needs became members. The committee began to meet regularly to strategize how to reach out to families to encourage their involvement.

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Parents’ Participation in School Governance

In addition to the formation of the family involvement committee, with the support of Henderson, parents began active engagement in the governance of the school. In 1990, a policy went into effect in the district that allowed Boston schools to voluntarily adopt school site councils as a governance structure. (By 1993, the district policy became mandatory, and councils of principals, teachers, and parents were required to reflect the racial balance of the school population they represented.) Henderson, following through on the staff ’s request for more family involvement at the school, encouraged staff and members of the parent involvement committee to form a school site council. The teachers and parents agreed, and in 1990, O’Hearn was one of approximately thirty-five schools out of 117 to volun- tarily adopt the school site council system of governance. A racially mixed group of seven parents and seven teachers, along with Henderson, began to meet each month to concentrate on issues of teaching and learning at the school.

The Formation of the Family Outreach Program

In the fall of 1991, O’Hearn received a grant from the Institute for Respon- sive Education to assist the school’s efforts to enhance programs of partnership between themselves, their families, and the community. The grant called for the school to form a team consisting of parents, teachers, and the principal, charged with the task of expanding and strengthening the O’Hearn family involvement program. As a result of the funding, the O’Hearn “Family Outreach Team” was formed, consisting of new parents recruited to join the team, members from the previous family involvement committee, a teacher who volunteered to serve on the committee, and Henderson (Palanki & Burch, 1995). The group continued to be diverse, with approximately fifteen volunteer parents and grandparents of African American, White, and Latino backgrounds, and included some parents of special needs children. The grant also provided for a facilitator to work with the group one day a week.

The new O’Hearn Outreach Team was particularly interested in developing relationships with parents who rarely, if ever, made contact with the school. The Outreach Team decided that face-to-face, parent-to-parent contact was a way to begin building relationships between families and the school. The team developed a program of home visitation to families as an outreach strategy. Home visits were not designed to lecture parents on how they should be involved in their children’s education, but to deliver the message that families were respected and welcomed into the O’Hearn community.

As a result of the home visitation program, families who had never come to

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O’Hearn began coming to the school for the first time (Palanki & Burch, 1995). In the summer of 1992, the Outreach Team met and decided on a new policy for home visits. To develop positive relationships right from the start with families new to the school, the team decided to make home visits to families new to the school at the beginning of each school year. Beginning in the fall of 1992, families of every new child attending the school received a visit from an Outreach Team member.

The Opening of the Family Center

Working in collaboration with Henderson and teachers, the parent committee raised funds and organized the opening of a family center in the school library. In the spring of 1991, the “O’Hearn Family Center” was opened as a comfortable place for families to come and feel welcome in the school, to gather for refreshments and informal conversation on various social and educational topics. The Center was equipped with furniture, a refrigerator, and supplies for coffee and refresh- ments. As time went on, the Center was used regularly by both the parent group and teachers for events such as special breakfasts, parent/teacher conferences, and welcoming activities for families at the school.

Additional Components of the Family Involvement Program

The Outreach Team members continued to reflect on their work, meeting once a month to share their experiences. One outcome of their meetings was the team’s establishment of a community resource area in the Family Center for information on social service agencies and organizations in and around Boston that provided assistance to families. Several other family involvement projects branched off from the work of the Outreach Team, such as the publication of a school newsletter and the creation of an “O’Hearn Family Leadership Team.” The Leadership Team was designed to bring together the coordinators of the various projects of the Outreach program, such as the newsletter, the family center, and the home visitation program. Teachers were also members of the Leadership Team, and the group met monthly to continue to work on developing an inclusive and welcoming environment for all O’Hearn families.

Outreach Team members held additional workshops to improve on their own skills as outreach volunteers. Working collaboratively with the O’Hearn staff, they developed new strategies to encourage and welcome families to the school and to offer educational information and assistance to families.

Teachers and parents stated that the involvement of parents early on in the estab- lishment of the inclusion program at O’Hearn helped create a culture at the school that was open to and accepting of all levels of family participation. This culture supported a climate where all families, in whatever way they could, were encour- aged to be active members of the school community.

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Study Methodology

The research methodology chosen for this study was a qualitative, case study design. This case study strategy made it possible to explore, in an in-depth and intimate fashion, why and how parents from the O’Hearn School were engaged in their children’s education.

O’Hearn was chosen as the site for the study based on two important criteria. First, the school selected had to have an active family engagement program, with at least 40 to 50 percent of the families being involved in some aspect, either at home or at school, in their children’s education. Such a documented rate of participation would offer a pool of families engaged in a range of activities. Second, the school site had to have a population that was diverse racially, ethnically, and socioeconomi- cally.

The centerpiece of the data collection strategy took the form of one-on-one, in-depth interviews conducted in 1996-98 with eighteen O’Hearn parents whose children, based on family income level, qualified for free or reduced-price lunch. Sixteen women and two men were interviewed for the study. The group included nine African Americans, eight Whites, and one Hispanic American. Family com- position was diverse and included two couples (wife and husband), five married mothers, and nine single mothers (three were divorcees). Five of the families had children with special needs enrolled at the school.

The majority of the parents agreed to have the interviews conducted in their homes; one parent made arrangements to conduct the interview at her job location. Each parent was asked to sign a consent form indicating his or her agreement to par- ticipate in the study and granting permission to have the interviews tape-recorded. All parents were informed that pseudonyms would be used in all write-ups of the study to ensure confidentiality.

The average duration of each interview was two to three hours. Interviews were also conducted with seven members of the O’Hearn School staff, the principal, the secretary, the custodian, and four teachers, to gain important contextual informa- tion about the school’s culture and history. Observations were done at activities such as special events held for parents, school plays, and various school committee meetings.

Memos, field notes, and interview transcripts were analyzed to identify clusters of experiences and events that contributed to and defined coding schemes. Codes emerged both from the research questions and from the data itself. The data was organized for analysis using Folio Views, a data based management system.

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Major Findings

Five major themes emerged from the parents’ stories about why and how they are involved in their children’s education and the factors that influence their par- ticipation. The first three themes shed light on why and how parents are involved. Themes Four and Five address factors that influence parents’ involvement.

Theme 1. Parents wanted their children to do well in school, and they had a genuine and deep-seated desire to help their children succeed academically.

The stories told by the eighteen parents interviewed for this study strongly support the research stating that the majority of parents, regardless of race, ethnic- ity, or socioeconomic status, are intensely interested in their children’s education (Chavkin & Williams, 1993; Henderson & Mapp, 2002; Hidalgo, Siu, Bright, Swap, & Epstein, 1995; Rich, 1988; Ritter, Mont-Reynaud, & Dornbush, 1993). Parents expressed a genuine and deep-seated desire to help their children succeed in school. Parents wanted their children to succeed academically and were moti- vated to do what they could to ensure their children’s academic success. Many parents stated that they wanted to instill in their children a joy for learning and a sense that school is special. Betty Washington, a single mother with six children, three of whom were attending O’Hearn, and Sandi Pinsky, married with one of her three children attending O’Hearn, spoke about their desire for their children to understand the importance of a good education and of doing well in school.

I want [my children] to start knowing that they have to go to college and high school. School’s not an experiment. [Our kids] know how important it is to learn. Learning doesn’t stop at school. It’s also being reinforced in the home. Betty Washington

It’s [the parents’] job, too. You can’t just send [your kid] to school and think your child is going to learn on their own. You need to get involved and help out. You can’t just plant the seed and expect it to grow on its own. It’s not going to happen that way. I’m trying to get more involved for my daughter. I want to make sure that my kids do well. If my daughter needs help, I want to be able to give it to her or get it for her. I feel it is important. I’d like them to be able to do the best that they can so when they get older, they have options and choices and need not to just think about surviving. Sandi Pinsky

The notion that lower income parents “don’t care” about their children’s educa- tion was challenged by the stories told by the O’Hearn parents about their desire to

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do what they could to help their children succeed academically.

Theme 2. Parents understood clearly that their involvement helped their children’s educational development.

Parents described seeing differences in their children’s behavior and feelings about school as a result of their at-home and/or at-school involvement. Their children’s reactions to their involvement served as a motivating factor for parents’ continued support. Charlene Ewing, a single parent with two children at O’Hearn, spoke about the connection between her involvement and her children’s future academic success:

Parents who feel that their lives are too busy to really get involved—I’m sure they have hectic schedules. But what’s more important than your child’s education and the training that they’re going to receive? Do you really want someone else to mold your children and determine what they’re going to be like? Being involved with what’s going on with [my children] in school, to incorporate things at home with what they’re learning in school, knowing their teachers, the students they’re with, and the students’ parents, I think, will help me keep them interested in school and help them to enjoy learning. I think with a little bit of guidance and the parents’ involvement, it can make a world of difference about what the kids are going to learn and how they’re going to view learning.

Theme 3. Parents were involved in their children’s education both at home and at school. Many were involved in ways not recognized by school staff with a narrow vision of what constitutes legitimate participation.

All of the parents interviewed for this study were involved purposefully in some way with their children’s educational development. The involvement of parents captured a wide range of activities taking place both at home and at school.

At-Home Involvement

Verbal Support and Encouragement to Do Well in School. All of the parents interviewed for the study engaged in this type of activity. This type of at-home involvement included verbal encouragement and support to perform well in school, as well as frequent reminders to their children about the importance of receiving a good education. Parents made statements similar to the following:

We tell them, “You have a lot of school and you don’t stop school until you

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get your undergraduate degree.” They’re getting the foundation at O’Hearn, which is a good one. We’re putting them in the right direction and trying to teach them how to grasp what they need to grow up to be good men. Patty Harris

Other examples of this type of verbal support included asking the children how things went in school that day and praising them for good academic performance. Rosette Lincoln, who has two special needs children at the school, and Kelly Ferena, a mother of three with one special needs child at O’Hearn, talked about the importance of giving their children verbal support and encouragement:

I find out what they’re doing in school. Every day when they come back from school, I ask them how was school today, [and] what did they do. You can learn a lot from the child by doing that. They’re always going to tell you some- thing. If something happened, they will always tell you. Even if you don’t hear it from the teacher’s point of view, you can hear it from [the children]. The best thing to do is just to ask them every day after school, “How’s school, what did you do, and what did you learn?” Rosette Lincoln

Samantha comes home and she gets so excited about something she made at school. When the notebook comes home and she shows me, I’m always look- ing at her and saying, “This is fantastic, Samantha, you’re doing the best!” I have to keep doing that, I have to keep reassuring [her]. Kelly Ferena

Charlene Ewing also talked about how she employs verbal support to help with her children’s academic development:

I try to be involved in talking about what they’ve done during the day and then try to take things that they’ve talked about and done in school and incorpo- rate it with things we do at home.

Many of the parents stated that this type of verbal encouragement was important as an indicator to their children that they, as parents, were serious about the impor- tance of school and receiving a good education.

Verbal Support and Encouragement to do Homework. All of the parents described providing verbal support and encouragement for their children to work on homework. This support included firm directives to their children to do their homework, setting specific time schedules for homework completion, verbal support and coaxing the children not to “give up” and to complete the work, and providing space for the children to work on homework.

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“Do your homework. Do your homework.” I say it all day. All day, all night. I tell them, “You’ve got to do it now, because this is your education.” When they don’t want to do it, I say, “I don’t care what your attitude is, you’re staying in school and you’re going to do good.” Jean Handy

Direct, One-On-One Help with Homework. In addition to providing verbal support for homework, many of the parents, thirteen out of eighteen, provided direct one-on-one coaching and help with homework. These parents described helping their children with assignments in reading, math, and science. Patty Harris, a divorcee with two children at O’Hearn, and Sandi Pinsky discussed how they provide direct help to their children with their schoolwork.

We are involved in every aspect of their education, both me, and their father. At home, by reading to them and helping them with their arithmetic, every possible aspect that has to do with education, both he and I are very involved. Patty Harris

I just basically try to take the time out with my daughter to try to help her out with her reading, and I work with her on her math. I just basically show her how to do things, and then try to give her the space to do them. Sandi Pinsky It is important to note that many of the parents in the sample expressed a desire

to be more effective in helping their children with schoolwork. Some parents stated that they felt unable to provide their children with helpful feedback because they were stumped by the assignments and/or were unclear about how to be helpful to their children. Jean Handy, a single mother of two with one child at O’Hearn, described how she sometimes contacted O’Hearn teachers when she needed advice on how to help with her child’s homework. On other occasions, however, she admitted being at a loss to help with schoolwork:

Some things they do at school, I forgot how to do. That’s why I’m going back to school. Sometimes I write the teacher a note, but the parts of the work I don’t know, I ask her. Other times, I call the teacher and ask her, “How do I do this, because my son is stuck, and my memory is gone.” I tell you the truth, sometimes I just look it over and I’m like, “Okay, I’ll check it,” but truthfully, I never have time to check and there’s nobody to really help me out on that.

Some parents stated a desire for teachers to provide more information to parents

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about how to help their children with schoolwork. Another form of direct one-on-one involvement was parents’ help with motor or

auditory exercises for their children with special needs. Four of the six parents in the study whose children had special needs discussed providing one-on-one assis- tance to their children with special movement exercises or other specific activities. For example, Barbara Fisher discussed the one-on-one assistance she provides to her son, who is autistic:

I do all sort of exercises with my son, on the weekends, after school. We do ABCs, we talk in signs. I do as much research as I can on my own on the dif- ferent therapies that will help him, any learning techniques that might help him.

Involvement in Outside Activities. A few of the parents described involving their children in outside activities such as Bible study, Boys’ and Girls’ Clubs, sports teams, or after-school enrichment programs. They felt that these activities enhanced their children’s educational experiences and fully supported their chil- dren’s involvement in these activities. For example, Betty Washington talked about how her husband’s way of being involved with her children’s education includes working with them on Bible verses as well as their homework:

He just started this this year: he would put up a Bible verse up on the board that we have in the living room, and [the children] have to learn the Bible verse. When we have devotion three to four times a week, we go over the Bible verse that he puts up. When he’s home, once a week on his day off, he may ask them a question about it, “What does that verse mean?” He [also] helps them with their homework. When he is here, he takes the role of taking up the slack for me so I don’t have to do it alone.

Other parents reported involving their children in outside activities:

My children have always loved books, so we’ve always encouraged reading with them. They also do a lot of things, other things to help their learning. They go to art classes outside the school, and they’ve been doing Suzuki violin since they were three. They’re both very involved in that now. My oldest son is in an orchestra group as well. So, they do a lot of activities out- side of the school. Ellen Martin

I try to get my children involved in cultural activities in the community. They go to the Boys’ and Girls’ Club. I’m just trying to get them off the street and

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have something for them to focus on. Jean Handy

The Role of Extended Family in At-Home Activities. It is important to note the role of extended family members in at-home activities. Parents interviewed for the study described how extended family members, such as grandparents or siblings, play a key role in many of the at-home supportive activities. Of the parents interviewed for the study, three had extended family members living with them. All three described how extended family members also provided verbal encouragement or support to children to do well in school and verbal support with homework. Extended family also provided a type of indirect support by providing childcare while parents attended school activities. This role of extended family is often overlooked in studies of family involvement and is a topic that requires further research.

At-school involvement

At-school involvement ranged from attendance at school events and volunteer- ing at the school to participation on school governance committees. Many of the parents commented that their participation in at-school activities fluctuated over time as a result of scheduling and time constraints.

Attending School Events. The most consistent form of at-school involvement reported by the parents was attendance at O’Hearn school events such as orienta- tion, held at the beginning of every school year; O’Hearn open houses, held twice a year; and large-scale school performances, also held twice a year. Parents stated that the orientation and open house events offered them opportunities to meet with teachers to talk about their child’s progress and also to meet and talk with other parents. Many reported that it was at the orientations and open houses that they received support and encouragement from other parents and school staff to participate more actively in other school activities. Parents reported that sign-up sheets were always made available at these events to solicit parents’ participation or interest in future school events.

Many of the parents stated that they attended the two large-scale school perfor- mances held each year. They said that the performances were enjoyable and their children insisted on their attendance at these events.

Informal Visits to the School. Many of the parents took advantage of the school’s open door policy and described their informal, unannounced visits to the school. Parents stated that, for example, when they came to the school to pick up their children, they would come by early enough to stop by the front office, speak to the school secretary or principal, glance into their child’s classroom, or chat with par- ents and teachers in the hallway or in the Family Center. Because of the open door

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policy, several of the parents made statements similar to the following about feeling free to drop by the school:

The O’Hearn is like open doors. Any time you want to come visit, be our guest. So Friday, I haven’t told [my son] yet, I’m going up to the school Friday. I’m just going to see what my kids are doing when I’m not there, to see if they listen to the teachers or what. “Surprise, Mommy’s here.” Jean Handy Communication with Teachers. All of the parents who were interviewed

reported having phone or face-to-face communication at least twice a year with O’Hearn teachers. Approximately half of the parents had regular contact, at least once a month, with O’Hearn teachers. Parents stated that the O’Hearn’s open- door policy, the frequent events at the school, and teachers’ willingness to have flex- ible schedules to meet with parents created opportunities to have regular contact with O’Hearn teachers.

Visits to the Family Center. Although many of the parents stated that they were unable to visit the Family Center because of time constraints, several reported that they had, at one time or another, frequented the Family Center to meet other par- ents, attend workshops, or gain educational information of benefit to themselves and their children. Many reported that their visits to the Family Center occurred more often when they were new parents to the school. Parents reported being attracted to the Family Center because of the support and knowledge they gained there from other parents and staff. This activity provided networking opportuni- ties for parents to meet and speak with other parents concerning a variety of issues. Charlene Ewing described how the Family Center gave her a place to share informa- tion with other parents in a comfortable and supportive setting.

Some parents here encouraged me to come to the Family Center. I was under a lot of stress and things were kind of crazy at home. When my daughter first started coming here in 1992, my son was about 6 months old. He was a very, very active child, very demanding, and this behavior was new for me, because my daughter was nothing like that. I would come for a little peace of mind at the Family Center. It really helped me. I got ideas from parents on certain problems I had with my children. One of the parents that I enjoyed talking with gave me a lot of good ideas. I met her through the Family Center, and that was real nice. I enjoyed the association with the parents. Also, there were other young children there that my young one could interact with. That was also exciting; most other schools I had been to, he couldn’t come with me. So here was a place where he could come and be comfortable and I could relax.

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Volunteering. Some of the parents reported being active as volunteers either in the classroom or as chaperones for school field trips. Parent volunteers served as classroom helpers to teachers, working with small groups of children on reading assignments or assisting with recreational activities. Volunteering of this kind was heavily dependent on parents being available. Most of the parents who described participating in this type of activity were mothers who worked part-time or were not employed outside of the home. Among the mothers who described volunteering either sometimes or often, the group was racially diverse (four African American, two White, one Hispanic). A few of the mothers interviewed stated that their hus- bands had occasionally volunteered to act as chaperones on school field trips.

Participation in School Committees, Governance Groups. Most of the parents in the sample reported attending at least one school governance meeting—such as a parent council or school site council meeting—per year. Most of the parents who seldom attended these meetings cited scheduling conflicts and home responsibili- ties as the main reasons for their inability to attend. A few parents stated that lack of interest in school governance affairs kept them from attending the meetings on a regular basis.

Some of the parents reported that they had, at one time, been members of O’Hearn committees and attended meetings regularly, but because of scheduling conflicts, had to discontinue this level of participation. Two parents reported that, after years of sitting on school governance committees, they became “burnt out,” and therefore “retired” to give other parents a chance to do committee work.

Of the six parents who stated that they often participated in school governance, five had been or were officers or chairpersons of governance committees at the school at the time of the study. The group of parents holding committee positions was diverse (three African Americans, one Hispanic, one White).

Connections Between At-Home and At-School Involvement

The analysis of the data presented by parents about how they were involved indicated a link between parents’ at-home and at-school involvement. Parent vol- unteers or parents who reported having some contact with school staff through phone conversations with teachers, informal visits to the school, attendance at school activities, or visits to the Family Center, were among the group of thirteen parents able to provide direct, one-on-one homework help to their children. The five parents not providing direct one-on-one help were unable to participate in at- school activities other than attendance at plays and open house events. The parents in this latter group were also most vocal about wanting advice and help from school staff about assisting their children with homework. The at-home activities of those parents who had some regular exposure to the school community tended to be

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more directive, more focused, and more in line with the types of work being done at the school. These parents exhibited a knowledge of what was taking place in the classroom.

This finding raised the possibility that parents who had regular informal or formal contact with various members of the school community—other parents, teachers, and other school staff—were exposed to subtle and direct cues and information that increased their capacity to help with learning activities at home. Informal contact included activities such as seeing the children’s completed work on the walls of the school, overhearing conversations by parents and teachers about homework assignments, stopping by the classrooms to observe what the children were learn- ing, and having conversations about the children with other parents in the Family Center. Formal contact included scheduled appointments to talk to teachers about their child’s academic performance, as well as attendance at scheduled workshops at the Family Center. Both kinds of activities contributed to building parents’ capacity to assist their children at home with educational activities. This apparent link between parents’ capacity to provide assistance to their children at home and their connection to members of the school community highlights the impact of on- going communication and the existence of sound relationships between families and other members of the school community, particularly school staff.

Theme 4. Social factors emanating from the parents’ own experiences and history influenced their participation.

The eighteen parents’ stories revealed a significant influence of social factors affecting why and how they were involved in their children’s education. For each parent, social factors such as their own educational experiences in school, their own parents’ involvement while they were in school, their beliefs about family involve- ment as shaped by cultural norms and values, and additional responsibilities and time commitments influenced the manner and style of their involvement. Each parent constructed a unique role in his or her children’s education shaped by the combined influence of these various factors.

Parents’ Own School Experiences

Several parents described how their own performance in school had a profound influence on their desire to be involved in their children’s education. Many of the parents stated that they did not make the most of their K-12 or higher education experience.

I didn’t have a very good attitude about [school]. I felt like, “Get over and get out,” and that’s what I did. I’m going to make things different for my kids.

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Charlene Ewing

Some parents stated that, while in school, they focused on their social lives and did not take their education seriously. Others said that they were lured into the workforce before graduating from high school; some dropped out of school to raise children; some said that they missed out on higher education opportunities.

Their Own Parents’ Involvement

Parents described how their own parents’ level of participation in their educa- tion was a major influence on why and how they were involved in their children’s educational development. Forty-four percent of those interviewed described their parents’ involvement as active, 17% said that their parents were marginally involved, and 39% reported that their parents were rarely involved. Whether their parents’ participation was extensive or nonexistent, all of the O’Hearn parents reported that this factor influenced their own involvement.

Rare or Marginal Involvement. Of the parents who reported that their parents were involved rarely or marginally, many stated that they believed that their parents were supportive in spirit, but for various reasons, their active, visible support was absent. Several said that their parents were too busy working and/or raising families to get involved in school affairs. Others speculated that their parents were intimi- dated by school personnel.

My mother, she wasn’t able to be involved. I know she did the best job she could; she was more into working to make sure we got into the decent schools. I think spending time with my daughter is more valuable than any gift I can give her. I’m not saying what my mother did was wrong, that’s the way she decided to do it. But I remember as a child, I wished she was there for some of those extra activities [the school] had. I knew she couldn’t be, but that didn’t help me or stop me from wishing that she could be. For that reason, I think I get involved a lot. Bernice Lindsay

My mother and father, they never really made major time to be involved. You know what I really think it was, I think they were afraid to come into the school. I really do. Maybe their parents didn’t come into their school when they were coming up either. There was no reason why neither one of them couldn’t take forty-five minutes, an hour, or two hours to come in and see how we were progressing. They never did that. I really feel like they were intimidated or they felt afraid to approach the teachers, because the teachers had a degree. “They are teaching our children how to read and write and so

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who are [we] to come and look over their shoulders?” I really feel like my parents had that kind of attitude. Alma Dixon

Despite understanding the reasons for their parents’ lack of involvement, some expressed disappointment that their parents took so little interest in their education. No involvement on the part of their parents appeared to intensify the respondents’ own desire to participate in some way in their children’s education. Charlene Ewing and Betty Washington discussed the impact of their parents’ lack of involvement on their school performance as well as on their motivation to help their own children:

I don’t have good memories of school. My parents weren’t involved in my schooling at all, they didn’t even check to see if I had homework or anything. That helps me want to be more involved with my children and what’s going on. I think with a little bit of guidance and the parents’ involvement, it can make a world of difference about what kids are going to learn and how they’re going to view learning. Charlene Ewing

Because I didn’t see any involvement from my parents, because they were constantly working, I guess I kind of strayed away from education here, there, and everywhere. Because of that, I feel that if I constantly stay in my children’s education and show them it can be fun while you learn, then they will see that I’m involved in [their] education. Maybe that will give them a little more support. Betty Washington

Active Involvement. The parents who reported that their families were actively involved in their education described a link between the example set by their fami- lies and why and how they were involved. Parents described how their parents’ involvement planted a seed in them about the importance of participating in some way in their children’s education. Their family members’ involvement also pro- vided them with models of parental participation.

My father really promoted education. He pushed us on to do our best. They always promoted education, my family. I have older sisters as well, and I had one particular sister whom I was very influenced by. She did a lot of activities with her kids at home. I think her kids were all reading at three. They were all reading at home when they were really young. She did so much for them. My sister was involved in a lot of things at home and within the school. My parents promoted [education], my father especially. They always promoted education in my family, so most of my [siblings] did something after high

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school; they attended college or took some other courses. Ellen Martin

Most of the parents who reported that their parents were involved during their elementary school years noted that parental participation tapered off as they progressed through middle school and high school. Some parents stated that this diminished support contributed to their own poor performance in high school and/or missed post-secondary educational opportunities. Some said that this personal lesson made them committed to staying involved in their children’s education:

At the end of my grade school education, I wasn’t interested in going to col- lege. I hated school. There was a lot of conflict for me in school, so I just said, “No, just forget it, I’m not going to college.” I don’t remember my parents ever arguing with me about that, or anyone ever saying, “Oh come on, you have to.” I look back on that now, and I think that’s crazy. My parents should have made me go to college. The opportunity was there. I was smart enough to go. As I see it now, I just never learned the discipline of making the com- mitment to my education and working hard and following through. I’ve been thinking about this a lot now with my son. I see a lot of that same stuff in him. I want him to have some pride in achievement and feel that that’s important. I don’t know how to create that in him, but it was never created in me. It gives me a desire to do it differently. Kitty Jacobs

An Intergenerational Dynamic of Family Involvement. The parents’ stories about their own parents’ influence suggest an intergenerational dynamic regarding how they formulated their role in their children’s education. Parents reported that their own parents’ involvement, whether extensive or minimal, as well as how their parents were involved, influenced their own drive to be involved, and in some cases, the way they chose to be active. This finding suggests that working with today’s parents on how they can assist in their children’s academic development may have long-range effects: how parents are involved today creates a model for how their own children will be involved in the future.

The Influence of Cultural Norms and Values

Five of the parents interviewed for the study were born outside of the United States, in the Caribbean, Latin America, or Europe, where they completed all or a portion of their schooling. These parents reported that the role expectations for family involvement were vastly different in their native countries than in the United States. In their countries, parents were expected to teach their children to have a

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healthy respect for education and teachers. Parents were not, however, expected to get involved in the affairs of the school. In some cultures, at-school involvement, such as parent/teacher conferences or involvement in school governance, was unheard of and often seen as disrespectful to the teachers’ and principal’s author- ity.

In Haiti, there was not family involvement in the way it is here, with parents going to the school. The way I was raised was that my parents, especially my mother, always made sure that my homework was done. She made sure that I was doing well in school. She always checked my report card, things like that. It was different; there was no involvement like having to go to the school and stuff like that. If something was wrong, the school had the authority to correct it. Rosette Lincoln

My parents were quite involved in my education, but they weren’t involved in the school at all. They probably went to a parent/teachers meeting, but they never had anything whatsoever to do with the school. That’s the way it was. In my country, nobody ever had anything to do with the school. Ellen Martin

Some parents commented that they were surprised by expectations that they should attend school open houses or parent council meetings:

The one thing I’ve learned since I’ve come to this country is if you don’t jump in, you’re not seen. You can stay on the fringe forever. Unless you jump in and make yourself be heard and noticed, you can be on the fringe. We didn’t real- ize that you had to walk in and sit in the classes to see what’s going on. I was kind of surprised by that, that you could actually go in and out of [classes]. Jack Martin

Parents stated that the cultural norms they grew up with influenced how they envi- sioned their role with their own children here in the United States.

External Constraints

Work schedules, responsibilities of caring for children and elderly parents, and the lack of transportation affected parents’ ability to be involved in certain types of family involvement activities. All eighteen parents reported that coping with per- sonal demands and responsibilities influenced how they were involved. Day-to-day obligations such as employment, childcare, eldercare, and parents’ own attempts to

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go back to school were mentioned as challenges to participating in their children’s education either at home or at school. Some parents expressed disappointment at not being able to maintain past levels of participation.

I used to go to the school when they had shows, dance shows—all the shows that they had at the school. I liked to go, but have stopped because I am work- ing. One of my son’s friends—his mother used to call me and get me involved with things. I’d always have to work. She said to me, “Oh, I wish you could be at the school.” I said to her, “I wish I could be there, too.” When my first one was going to O’Hearn and my second one went right after him, I was very involved with the school. I was always going up to the school. Oh my, I miss it so much. Jean Handy

Changes in personal circumstances also altered the extent and manner of par- ents’ involvement. Many parents described how they went from being involved heavily in activities such as helping their children with homework, volunteering in classrooms, participating in Family Center events, or attending committee meet- ings, to very little direct involvement when circumstances in their lives changed.

Theme 5. School factors, specifically those that were relational in nature, had a major impact on parents’ involvement.

An important finding that emerged from the parents’ stories was how school factors, especially how the school community engages with families, influence why and how parents participate in their children’s education. When school staff engaged in caring and trustful relationships with parents, recognizing parents as partners in the educational development of children, these relationships enhanced parents’ desire to be involved and influenced how they participated in their chil- dren’s educational development.

Parents described a process by which these relationships were formed. This process has been operationalized by the O’Hearn School, whereby the school com- munity welcomed parents into the school, honored their participation, and connected with parents through a focus on the children and their learning.

Borrowing a concept from family systems literature, this “Joining Process” (Minuchin, 1981) of welcoming, honoring, and connecting with families created a school community in which parents felt like “members of a family.” Parents responded to this culture by participating in their children’s education in ways that they themselves had never foreseen and by becoming loyal members of the school community. The following section describes the Joining Process and outlines the impact of the process on parents’ engagement in their children’s education.

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The Three Components of the Joining Process

Welcoming. Parents reported that the process of welcoming created a sense of belonging, one in which parents felt that they belonged to the school and also that the school belonged to them. This sense of belonging motivated parents to be more active in their children’s schooling. Parents described several practices that illustrated how the welcoming of families was achieved and its impact on their involvement. For example, parents stated that the O’Hearn community—the prin- cipal, teachers, other staff members, and parents—communicated with them in ways that welcomed them and demonstrated a sincere desire to include parents in the life of the school:

When your child first starts the school, they have other parents call you up and welcome you to the school. That’s really nice. Then they have a new parent breakfast, which they have every year. I managed to drag myself there with my screaming child. He was really good there, and I met many of the par- ents that I see all the time now, and everybody was very friendly. That started the interest for me, to see how involved everyone was. I felt like it was a “wel- coming-into-the-school” kind of thing, and that made me feel like, “Look at all these people, doing all this for the parents.” So I try to do whatever I can whenever they have parties, make food or something. I do something to help out. That [event] brought me out to go ahead and do what I could for the school, too. Sandi Pinsky If [the school] is not a friendly place, you would have to push yourself into being involved. O’Hearn has given me the opportunity to be involved. By being a friendly place, it’s been easy for me to do it. I’m not fighting for per- mission. Everything is there for me to know. Rosette Lincoln

Some parents commented that the actual physical environment of the school had contributed to their feeling welcome when entering the school building. The colorful walls decorated with numerous examples of children’s artwork and the cleanliness of the school all added to the feeling of welcome.

The parents made clear the value of the welcoming process on the building of positive relationships between families and school staff and its influence on why and how they were involved in the school community.

Honoring. Parents described this second component of joining as one in which members of the O’Hearn community “honored” families by respecting and recog- nizing their strengths and affirming parents’ efforts to be involved in their children’s education. Parents described how they felt honored by members of the O’Hearn

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community when any effort they made to be involved was validated and when they were treated by school staff as true partners in the educational development of their children. Parents also stated that they were encouraged and supported by the principal and other members of the school staff to work on various decision-making committees and projects and, in doing so, they were often paired with more expe- rienced parent volunteers. This encouragement and support influenced parents’ involvement, in some cases motivating them to become involved in ways that they ordinarily would not.

Parents stated that school staff asked for and gave information about the chil- dren’s learning in a respectful and caring manner, and that parents’ comments about their children were always listened to and heard by teachers. Many parents said that they felt respected and validated when their ideas and concerns were heard and taken seriously. Even if teachers and parents disagreed over an issue, most parents felt that teachers were always willing to listen and took parents’ feedback seriously. Parents stated that relationships with staff were reciprocal, with ideas and feedback shared in a way that gave parents’ contributions equal weight and importance. Par- ents spoke about the school staff ’s practice of honoring and respecting the voices of parents:

I chose the O’Hearn School because it was clearly the only public school available to me where parents got any respect and counted, and where teachers and parents and kids really worked together in a genuine way. Kitty Jacobs

The O’Hearn School asks for [parents’] participation and advice all of the time. It seems like the school lets the parents make the decisions and that makes the parents become more involved. [Parents] feel like they’re really a part of it. At the meetings, it’s just like a family. Issues [are] being discussed, parents talk about what we feel is best for our child or for the school as a whole. Then [we] vote on it. If you have any suggestions, they’re always open to that. Betty Washington

The honoring component of the joining process focused on recognizing par- ents as equal partners in the educational development of their children. Parents reported being more likely to continue or even enhance their involvement in their children’s schooling when their efforts were respected and validated by the school community.

Connecting. O’Hearn school staff and families put children at the center and connect on education issues of common interest designed to improve learning opportunities for the children. Parents reported feeling connected to the school

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community through the school’s emphasis on improved teaching and learning for all children. The focus of all of the family involvement activities, from school plays to open houses, was improved educational achievement for all the children. Parents stated that the O’Hearn School staff cared for and had high expectations for the children. This show of caring by O’Hearn staff for not only the educational achievement, but also for the overall welfare of the children connected the parents and school staff.

They made me feel like they were there to teach my son. They were always giving me little insights that they saw about him. I knew they were paying attention to my son, that they knew my son. That made me feel good. They knew what his strengths and his weaknesses were. They were telling me things about him that I would have told them, which was so cool. Before the words were coming out of my mouth, they were telling me about his strengths and weaknesses and what should and shouldn’t be done. I said to myself, “They know my son.” Barbara Fisher

I have three children at the O’Hearn School. The closeness the teachers seem to have with my children makes me want to be more involved in their lives. The teachers seem more concerned, more involved in the children’s education. That makes you want to be more involved in your child’s life, when it comes down to school. Betty Washington

The connecting component, which placed the children’s education at the center, brought together parents and school staff. Parents and staff rallied around a goal that was meaningful and important to both. Parents became loyal advocates of the school when school staff demonstrated that they cared about and were committed to educating their children. The focus on the children was what kept parents con- nected, involved, and feeling like important members of the school community.

Implications for Practice

Dispelling the Myth that Parents Do Not Care

The O’Hearn parents’ stories suggest that school personnel should not assume that parents from different ethnic backgrounds and/or socioeconomic groups (1) care less or have dismissive attitudes about their children’s education, or (2) have little understanding of the importance of their involvement in their children’s education. Schools adopting the attitude that parents “don’t care” about their

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children’s education may be hard pressed to create environments conducive to cultivating effective partnerships between parents and schools.

Recognizing Various Forms of Family Involvement

One of the findings from the study suggests that parents may be involved in their children’s education in ways not recognized by schools with a narrow vision of what constitutes legitimate participation. School staff that only recognize as legitimate forms of involvement school directed and sanctioned activities that center on involvement at schools, such as fundraising, volunteering in classrooms, or participating on school leadership teams, may limit the ways that parents can be involved. These school communities may overlook ways that families with diverse backgrounds and cultures are involved in their children’s education. By not recog- nizing diverse forms of involvement that may take place beyond the school building and by not providing different outlets for family participation, schools may unwit- tingly restrict both the numbers of parents and the ways that parents can be involved in their children’s schooling. The study findings suggest that the lack of options for rather than a lack of interest in involvement may limit parents’ participation.

Understanding the School’s Role in Cultivating Family Engagement

One if the most important findings to emerge from the O’Hearn parents’ sto- ries is the major role school factors play in influencing parents’ involvement. The process of joining with families creates an environment where many of the parents’ past negative school experiences and/or feelings of alienation are diminished. Vali- dation of any contribution made by the parents helped them to feel like important contributors to the school community, increasing their efficacy and their sense of confidence in being able to help their child (Hoover-Dempsey et al., 1995, 1997). Connecting with parents by focusing on the children and their learning environ- ment brought the eighteen parents together with school staff over common goals and objectives.

These findings suggest that all three components of the joining process—wel- coming, honoring, and connecting—encourage active at-home or at-school involvement and foster relationships of partnership between parents and school staff. The ultimate impact of the joining process is the strengthening of parents’ capacity to help their children, thereby strengthening the school’s overall educa- tional capacity. Parents become connected to a caring educational community in a manner that is empowering.

Even in caring school communities, conflicts and tensions arise between par- ents and school staff. Some parents reported that they did not always agree with Principal Henderson’s style of participatory management and described their

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arguments with him. Other parents reported being angry at school staff. However, the foundation of trust established between families and staff created a community where conflicts happened but were often resolved, supporting Epstein’s (1995) assertion that schools that create caring communities by entering into relationships of partnership with families withstand conflicts:

In a caring school community, participants work continually to improve the nature and effects of partnerships. Although the interactions of educators, parents, students, and community members will not always be smooth or successful, partnership programs establish a base of respect and trust on which to build. Good partnerships withstand questions, conflicts, debates, and disagreements; provide structures and processes to solve problems; and are maintained—even strengthened—after differences have been resolved. Without this firm base, disagreements and problems that are sure to arise about schools and students will be harder to solve. (1995, p. 703)

This study suggests that parents’ involvement in their children’s education is influenced by a school culture that values and works aggressively to form relation- ships with families that are respectful and reciprocal. The language used by the eighteen parents interviewed for this study emphasizes relationship and trust as important influences on their involvement. Many school programs place their emphasis on the programming portion of their family involvement initiative and not the process of building relationships between home and school. At O’Hearn, however, the commitment to building relationships between parents and school staff goes beyond surface and superficial attempts at school/family collaborations. When O’Hearn parents and staff speak of being a part of the school family, this con- nection is deeply personal.

These findings also suggest that the commitment, support, and active involve- ment of the principal are required to create and sustain a school culture that embraces full participation on the part of families. According to staff and parents interviewed for the study, one of the most pronounced influences on the family involvement initiative at O’Hearn was the example set by the principal. When he arrived as the new principal, William Henderson embraced a high level of family involvement and demonstrated his commitment through his own actions. He also stressed the importance of family involvement to his school staff. This resulted in a school community in which its members were “on the same page” about parents’ involvement in their children’s schooling.

Too often schools pay lip service to the importance of family involvement and make half-hearted attempts to involve families. Some schools hire a lone parent or family coordinator to organize the entire family involvement initiative. Programs of this nature often disintegrate without the support and involvement of the leader-

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ship and school staff. Often, the failure of the program is attributed to families’ lack of interest. Data from this study suggest that the support of the school leadership and staff is the crucial ingredient for the success of family involvement initiatives.

Implications for Further Research

Given that this study was conducted in an elementary school, further research is needed to explore whether factors that the eighteen O’Hearn families said influ- ence why and how they are involved apply to the experiences of middle and high school parents as well. Do the same kinds of social and school factors influence the involvement of these parents? In-depth studies conducted at middle and high school sites are needed to shed light on whether similar or different factors influ- ence parents’ involvement.

This study identified the support and involvement of the principal as key in creating a school environment and culture that supports family involvement. What kind of school leadership fosters the development of a caring school community? What are the skills needed on the part of the principal to create effective partner- ships between schools and families? More research is needed to study the knowl- edge and skill base of those principals who lead schools with cultures that embrace family involvement.

In addition to identifying the skills required of the principal, what do teachers need to know and be able to do to foster partnerships with families? This informa- tion is needed to create teacher and administrator pre- and in-service programs that develop the competencies necessary to cultivate partnerships with families.

This study did not focus on the types of relationships existing among members of the O’Hearn teaching staff. However, it is interesting to note that a culture of part- nership and collaboration among the teaching staff exists at the O’Hearn School. Classes are team taught with two teachers working in close collaboration with each other. Krasnow (1990) suggests

The ecology of the school has a profound effect on the sense of control, empowerment, and motivation of teachers. Creating schools that are posi- tive learning environments for children may have to start with the creation of positive work environments for teachers. (p. 31)

Does, therefore, the culture of collaboration between the O’Hearn teachers influence the dynamic of partnership with families? Can schools with no history or culture of collaboration and partnership between staff members engage in effec-

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tive partnerships among families? One would intuit that the answer is “no.” This raises yet another important and interesting question for further investigation.

Conclusion

The eighteen O’Hearn parents interviewed for this study want their children to succeed in school and understand the importance of family participation in their children’s education. In addition, the parents report that social and school factors influence their involvement. These parents also reveal that their involvement is significantly influenced by a school environment that “feels like family.”

The limits of this study—its focus on parents from one school site and the sample size of eighteen parents and seven school staff—make it impossible to gen- eralize the findings beyond the research setting. However, these findings provide greater insight into family participation in urban schools. The study suggests that if school staff support a culture of family at their sites where all members of the school community are respected and honored, parents will respond by engaging in partnerships with staff that support students’ learning. The findings indicate that respectful relationships where power is shared between school staff and family members provide the glue that holds the community together and positively influ- ences parents’ involvement.

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Schweinhart, L. J., & Weikart, D. P. (1992). The High/Scope Perry Preschool Study, similar stud- ies, and their implications for public policy in the U.S. In D. A. Stegelin (Ed.), Early childhood education: Policy issues for the 1990’s (pp. 67-86). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Yao, E. L. (1993). Strategies for working effectively with Asian immigrant parents. In N. F. Chavkin (Ed.), Families and schools in a pluralistic society (pp. 149-156). Albany: State University of New York Press.

Karen L. Mapp is the president of the Institute for Responsive Education in Boston, Massachu- setts. She is also a visiting professor of education at Northeastern University in Boston. In 1997, Dr. Mapp was awarded a Spencer Fellowship for her research on how and why families are involved in their children’s education. In 2002, she co-authored A new wave of evidence: The impact of school, family, and community connections on student achievement with Anne Henderson. Karen L. Mapp can be reached at The Institute for Responsive Education, 21 Lake Hall, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, 02115, or at [email protected]

Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

Research Materials/Independent variable study of Autism Spectrum Disorder.docx

Module 3 DQ 2

Fill in the following for a

What is a possible study with one independent variable (IV) with two conditions/treatments and a dependent variable (DV) that is measured on a continuous scale (interval or ratio):

Independent variable = to see whether a new type of medication can treat behavioral aggression problem of a student with Autism Spectrum Disorder?

Condition A = the new type of medication

Condition B = take the placebo

Dependent variable = behavioral aggression problem.

How do you know this DV is measured on a continuous scale?

This dependent variable is treated as a continuous variable because it can have an infinite number of different values between two given points (ie, 0 to 200).

Now, how would you word the null hypothesis for your sample study?

Because the null hypothesis invalidates any alterations, h ence, the null hypothesis can be written as "a new type of medication can NOT reduce the pulse rate"

How would you word the alternative hypothesis for your sample study?

Since the alternative hypothesis fulfill an obligation of the inverse intention of the null hypothesis, then the alternative hypothesis can be written as "a new type of medication can reduce the behavioral aggression problem.

What alpha level would you set to test your hypothesis? Why?

Because we are performing a medical test, we need to set up the alpha level as small as possible in order to make the test result as accurate as possible. In such a situation, we may set alpha level as 0.01 in this case.

Yomi.

Reference

Gravetter, F. J. & Wallnau, L. B. (2013). Statistics for the behavioral sciences (9th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co.

Kelley Cadungug

Module 3 DQ 2

Fill in the following for a possible study with one independent variable (IV) with two conditions/treatments and a dependent variable (DV) that is measured on a continuous scale (interval or ratio):

•Independent variable = Supplementary Online Tutoring

Condition A = Traditional class lectures only

Condition B = Traditional class lectures AND online tutoring

•Dependent variable = student’s final grade

•How do you know this DV is measured on a continuous scale?

The dependent variable (DV) is a continuous scale for the simple fact that it is not nominal, which tend to only be mutually exclusive categories that have no quantitative value (e.g., gender or ethnicity). Additionally, along the classification of continuous scales, the DV is an ordinal scale since final grades are based on ranking (e.g., A: 100-90%; B: 89-80%; C: 79-70%; D: 69-60%; F: 59% and below)

•Now, how would you word the null hypothesis for your sample study?

Since the null hypothesis nullifies any changes, then it would simply read: the grades of students who received supplementary online tutoring will represent no significant difference from those who did not receive online tutoring.

•How would you word the alternative hypothesis for your sample study?

Since the alternative hypothesis serves the opposite purpose of the null hypothesis, then it would read: Students that were given supplementary online tutoring will have better grades than those who did not receive supplemental tutoring (Note: This is a directional hypothesis).

•What alpha level would you set to test your hypothesis? Why?

Lastly since the alpha level helps discern whether or not the results are a product of chance, I would use an Alpha of .05 (5%) as a basic, standard value since it is a safe estimation for a basic study.

Dennis Stull

Module 3 DQ 2

Fill in the following for a possible study with one independent variable (IV) with two conditions/treatments and a dependent variable (DV) that is measured on a continuous scale (interval or ratio):

•Independent variable = Personality assessment

Condition A = Valid personality assessment interpretation performed

Condition B = No valid personality assessment interpretation performed

•Dependent variable = Student success

•How do you know this DV is measured on a continuous scale? Most physical measures, such as height, weight, systolic blood pressure, distance etc., are interval or ratio scales, so they fall into the general continuous category.

•Now, how would you word the null hypothesis for your sample study? Personality assessment interpretation offers no predictive validity of student success.

•How would you word the alternative hypothesis for your sample study? Personality assessment offers predictive validity of student success.

• What alpha level would you set to test your hypothesis? Why? p <.05 So that there is 95% confidence that the results are accurate.

Reference

Gravetter, F. J. & Wallnau, L. B. (2013). Statistics for the behavioral sciences (9th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co.

Kelley Cadungug Response to Dennis

Re:Module 3 DQ 2

Hi Dennis,

Great job! It's good to finally see more research-oriented discussion questions that probe thinking toward our dissertation -- or at least the actual execution of it. Since my study is more qualitative, I decided to create a hypothetical study based on a previous job, but it looks like your proposal worked out just well for this assignment. The alpha levels (p < .05) and variables (i.e., personality assessment and student success) look very good! Just to be clear, how would you define student success for your study? Will it be based on overall grade/grade for the specific course (i.e., an interval scale of A, B, C, D, and F), or would you base it on success after the fact, let's say, attaining a relevant job/career (i.e., nominal scale)? As mentioned before, I am very interested in your study, especially with the boom of online classes, I am curious to see if studies similar to yours will trend, and really facilitate a deeper look at how valid the online format can be. Kudos once again, my friend!

Dennis Stull Response to Kelley

Module 3 DQ 2

Hi Kelley,

Thanks so much. Yes, I agree. I keep wondering if we are going to have any classes that are directly related to our dissertation. I sure hope so. So, I figured I would utilize this exercise in order to get some good feedback along the lines of figuring out my research purpose and so on. I had not thought of defining student success. That is a great point. If I had to decide that right now, I would say just a Pass/Fail basis. However, I suppose to make the study more interesting I could break it down to A,B,C,D and F. You know what though, I had never thought of this either, I would have to give the assessment prior to a class begining and then collect the results after the class has ended. So that is at least a two month period. Thanks for your interest Kelley and please share any thoughts you may have. I am sure there are many, many that I have not even considered.

Vivian Torres

Module 3 DQ 2

Dennis,

Your post was good and direct to the point. It is interesting that you selected Personality Assessment for your answer to this Module. I can’t recall if this is the area of your dissertation? However, it is an interesting topic. I found an article regarding Personality Assessment.

The MMPI was intended to identify psychopathology as specified in high scores on its clinical scales. All clinical scales was established by choosing items that discriminated one diagnostic cohort of psychiatric patients from all average patients and therefore was feasible to fit into the patients' investigative cohort. Low scores specified that the test taker did not fit into a particular investigative group and recognized fewer scale's items in the main development than the average normal subject in the normative sample (Keiller and Graham, 1993).

The outcomes of this examine specified that for an average subjects’ low scores on most MMPI-2 clinical scales provided explanatory evidence that low scorers on certain scales are likely to vary from high and medium scorers on those scales. The significant differences were such that low scorers were regarded as positive than medium scorers (Keiller, et al., 1993).

Overall, the outcomes of this investigation propose that for average subjects, low scores on most clinical scales of the MMPI-2 are related with positive features that are theoretically connected to the meaning of high scores on the same scales. More research is required to survey the overall outcome to additional populaces and settings. Further concerns are to be addressed and observed regarding the meaning of low scores on the content scales of the MMPI-2 and the meaning of low code types (Keiller, et al., 1993).

References

Keiller, S. W., & Graham, J. R. (1993). The Meaning of Low Scores on MMPI--2 Clinical Scales of Normal Subjects. Journal of Personality Assessment, 61(2), 211.

Daniel Stauffer

Module 3 DQ 2

Fill in the following for a possible study with one independent variable (IV) with two conditions/treatments and a dependent variable (DV) that is measured on a continuous scale (interval or ratio):

•Independent variable = Questions on an examination

Condition A = Questions that the participant knows the answer to

Condition B = Questions that the participant does not know the answer to

•Dependent variable = body temperature

•How do you know this DV is measured on a continuous scale?

Body temperature is measured in degrees and there is meaningful difference between degrees, which means this DV is measured on an interval scale

•Now, how would you word the null hypothesis for your sample study?

The null hypothesis would be H0: M = normal body temperature. Subsequently it would read: Encountering questions a test taker does not know on an examination has no significant effect on their body temperature.

•How would you word the alternative hypothesis for your sample study?

The alternative hypothesis would be H1: M> normal body temperature. Subsequently it would read: Encountering questions a test taker does not know on an examination apprears to have an effect on their body temperature.

•What alpha level would you set to test your hypothesis? Why?

I would set alpha at .01 as there are many factors that can cause an increase in body temperature and I would want to ensure the increase was actually caused by unknown questions on the examination.

Reference

Gravetter, F. J. & Wallnau, L. B. (2013). Statistics for the behavioral sciences (9th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co.

Kelley Cadungug Response to Daniel Stauffer

Module 3 DQ 2

Hi Daniel,

Now that is a very straightforward and very interesting experimental study! First and foremost, your variables are very clear and well defined; I especially enjoyed your choice for a dependent variable (i.e., body temperature). As we all are probably aware of by now, test anxiety can definitely thwart the accuracy of an individual's overall score, especially when a question is initially perceived as confusing. Along with muscle tension, loss of concentration, increased blood pressure, imbalanced oxygen distribution, and unsteady nerves, body temperature is practically synonymous with nervousness and anxiety.

It is kind of a random fact, but I actually used to study sports psychology and performance anxiety was/is one of the key concepts which can, at times, be appeased through what is known as psychological skills training. Your study would provide valuable insight as follow-up studies can re-assess students whose body temperatures rise -- assuming that other symptoms occur as well -- in hope to better train these individuals to stay relaxed and systematically work through problems perceived as more difficult. Great stuff, Daniel! If you don’t mind me asking, what influenced this idea?

Daniel Torres

Module 3 DQ 2

Fill in the following for a possible study with one independent variable (IV) with two conditions/treatments and a dependent variable (DV) that is measured on a continuous scale (interval or ratio):

•Independent variable = Indoctrination to Quality thinking

Condition A = Indoctrination of manufacturing personnel and empowering them to take ownership of product quality .

Condition B = Indoctrination of manufacturing personnel and not empowering them to take ownership of product quality.

•Dependent variable = Product Quality

•How do you know this DV is measured on a continuous scale? This variable is the ratio between product accepted over a one month period divided by product produce over the same period

•Now, how would you word the null hypothesis for your sample study? The Null Hypothesis states that p Condition A = p Condition B; there is no difference between indoctrinating manufacturing personnel and empowering them to take ownership of product quality or indoctrinating manufacturing personnel and not empowering them to take ownership of product quality.

•How would you word the alternative hypothesis for your sample study? The Alternative Hypothesis states that p Condition A ≠ p Condition B; there exists a difference between indoctrinating manufacturing personnel and empowering them to take ownership of product quality or indoctrinating manufacturing personnel and not empowering them to take ownership of product quality.

•What alpha level would you set to test your hypothesis? Why? Alpha set at 0.05, the rationale is to avoid the risk of committing a Type II error or failure to detect a change in the quality performance of the manufacturing personnel when a change has occurred. The probability of a Type I error = 0.05 is acceptable given this study is not a safety critical process and will be run to industry standards for non-safety related processes.

Vivian Torres

Module 3 DQ 2

Fill in the following for a possible study with one independent variable (IV) with two conditions/treatments and a dependent variable (DV) that is measured on a continuous scale (interval or ratio):

Independent variable = Examined the properties of Counseling Addiction and Educational

•classroom participation among incarcerated patients.

Condition A = inmates participate in classroom lectures

Condition B = inmates participate in classroom lectures and classroom journaling

•Dependent variable = Classroom lecturing and journaling does increase the patient’s concept and understanding of Recovery.

•How do you know this DV is measured on a continuous scale?

Dependent variable is measure by the interval or ratio scales, so they descent into an overall continuous category.

•The first, and most important, of the two hypotheses is called the null hypothesis.

The null hypothesis indicates that the management has no effect. The null hypothesis conveys that there is no alteration, no influence, no variance—nothing occurred, therefore it’s null. The null hypothesis is identified by the symbol H0. (The H stands for hypothesis, and the zero subscript indicates that this is the zero-effect hypothesis) (Gravetter, et al., 2013).

•Now, how would you word the null hypothesis for your sample study?

The study offered no noteworthy change from those who did not receive non-humorous recall.

•How would you word the alternative hypothesis for your sample study?

The alternative, hypothesis (H1) states that the treatment has an effect on the dependent variable. The alternative hypothesis (H1) states that there is a change, a difference, or a relationship for the general population. In the context of an experiment, H1 predicts that the independent variable (treatment) does have an effect on the dependent variable. Inmates that were provided classroom lecture and journaling will have an enhanced perception of Recovery than those who did not receive journaling.

•What alpha level would you set to test your hypothesis? Why?

The alpha level, or the level of significance, is a probability value that is used to define the concept of “very unlikely” in a hypothesis test. I would utilize 5% of the sample means from the most likely 95% of the sample means.

Reference

Gravetter, F. J. & Wallnau, L. B. (2013). Statistics for the behavioral sciences (9th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co.

Xinyu Zhang

Module 3 DQ 2

Fill in the following for a possible study with one independent variable (IV) with two conditions/treatments and a dependent variable (DV) that is measured on a continuous scale (interval or ratio):

Independent variable = Lighting condition

Condition A = Standard lighting

Condition B = Alternative lighting

Dependent variable = Productivity

This research studies the effect of lighting conditions on workers’ productivity in a mineral processing plant. The standard lighting condition is usually set according to the industry standards in the work area of the plant. The alternative lighting condition could be designed with softer, more balanced lights. The change of lighting condition may increase or decrease workers’ productivity, or may have no significant effect at all.

How do you know this DV is measured on a continuous scale?

The dependent variable, productivity, is a continuous variable that is measured as the weight of the minerals processed in a working day. According to Gravetter and Wallnau (2013), a continuous variable can have an infinite number of possible values that fall between any two observed values, it is divisible into an infinite number of fractional parts, and “weight is a continuous variable” (p. 21). Therefore this DV is measured on a continuous scale.

Now, how would you word the null hypothesis for your sample study?

The null hypothesis is stated as: the alternative lighting condition has no effect on workers’ productivity.

How would you word the alternative hypothesis for your sample study?

The alternative hypothesis is stated as: the alternative lighting condition does have an effect on workers’ productivity.

Because it does not specify whether the effect is to increase or decrease the productivity, this hypothesis results in a directional hypothesis test.

What alpha level would you set to test your hypothesis? Why?

By convention, commonly used alpha levels in research are .05 (5%), .01 (1%), and .001 (0.1%) (Gravetter & Wallnau, 2013). I would set alpha level to .01 in this hypothesis testing. It is set less generous than the common 5% level of confidence in order to reduce Type 1 error which results from rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true. Because alternative lighting is a very expensive investment, this research needs to find out whether or not the investment can significantly improve productivity.

Reference

Gravetter,F. J. & Wallnau, L. B. (2013). Statistics for the behavioral sciences (9th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co.

Research Materials/Latest Research.pdf

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Latest Research Date: August 30, 2007

Funding autism research is a primary goal of Autism Speaks. While ten years ago there were only a handful of scientists working on this problem, now there are well over 400, and more begin work on autism every day.

To help you keep up on their efforts, we'll provide a regular digest of the latest scientific and medical research on autism. Because many are reprinted from scientific journals, they may contain technical language. Also note that due to copyright issues, abstracts may link you to sites where the full text of the article is available for a fee.

Remember to check back regularly to find updates on the latest autism research.

New Model for Autism Suggests Women Carry the Disorder and Explains Age as a Risk Factor

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Read more.

Study: Children Can Be Diagnosed with Autism by Age One

Researchers at the Kennedy Krieger Institute published a study this week showing that autism can be diagnosed in children as young as one year old. To read more,  click here.

NIH Scientists Discover Correlation Between Growth Hormone Levels and Autism

Researchers at NIH discovered an increase in growth­related hormones, weight, height and head size in autistic boys as compared to typically developing boys. To read more,

click here.

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Scientists have discovered a change in size of the amygdala in children with autism that is associated with deficits facial expression recognition. The neuroanatomical findings observed in adolescents are linked to social impairments evidenced in early childhood. Click here to read more.

Announcement ­ Call for Scientific Papers

Dr. Abha Chauhan and Science Publications, New York, USA announce a Special Issue of The American Journal of Biochemistry and Biotechnology (ISSN: 15533468) on Autism Spectrum Disorders, to be published in 2007. Click here to read more.

Scientists Gather to Discuss "Hormones of Emotion"  Translational Medicine Meeting Convenes Top Researchers in Chemistry of Emotional Regulation 

Experts met last month to review recent discoveries on how the hormones oxytocin and vasopressin might regulate emotion and complex social behavior, in an Autism Speaks­sponsored gathering in Atlanta. Oxytocin and vasopressin are two peptide hormones found in the brain and shown to participate in social behavior, stress, anxiety

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and affiliative behaviors including social communication. Click here to read more.

Vitamin B12 Injections for Autism Show No Signs of Benefit 

Preliminary results of a small ongoing study of vitamin B12 injections for children with autism showed no signs of significant benefit, researchers reported on Oct. 30, at the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry meeting in San Diego, but they remained hopeful. Click here to read an article from Psychiatric Times.

Nature and Neuroscience Focus on Childhood Developmental Disorders

Nature Neuroscience, a multidisciplinary journal that publishes papers in all areas of neuroscience, has produced a special focus on childhood developmental disorders, including autism. The journal explores different perspectives on the overlap between normal and abnormal development, as well as the commonalities between different disorders. Autism Speaks, Cure Autism Now and March of Dimes are sponsors of this special publication which is available online at no cost through December 2006.

To browse the special focus from Nature Neuroscience, visit  www.nature.com/neuro/focus/childhood

Autism Speaks Hosts Gastroenterology Workshop 

Responding to community interest, Autism Speaks hosted a workshop on autism and gastroenterology in Boston on October 13, 2006. The objectives of the workshop were to (1) review current scientific evidence for GI issues associated with autism, (2) develop consensus scientific priorities for autism gastroenterology research, and (3) suggest an approach to establish best clinical practices for autism gastroenterology. Click here to read more.

Multi­Center Research Team Discovers Genetic Link to Autism 

In a multi­center study of 222 families in the United States, scientists have found a strong genetic link to autism on chromosome 7. The study, in which five large universities participated, was part of the National Institutes of Health Collaborative Programs of Excellence in Autism, or CPEA . Click here to read more.

New Study Discovers Statistically Significant Link between Abnormally Low Cholesterol Levels and Autism Spectrum Disorders Finding Leads Kennedy Krieger Researchers Down New Road in Autism Research 

A study published in the American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B (Neuropsychiatric Genetics) found that a small subgroup of children with ASD have abnormally low cholesterol levels (hypocholesterolemia), leading researchers to believe cholesterol may play a role in the cause of some cases of the disorder. Click here to read more.

Report: Early Abnormality in Autism

Researchers Find Placental Tissue Changes in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders 

In search of early markers for autism spectrum disorder, researchers at Yale School of Medicine have found abnormalities in placental tissue from children later diagnosed with the disorder.

In a report in the June 26 online issue of Biological Psychiatry, the research team told of finding a three­fold increase in placental trophoblast inclusions, a distinct abnormality, in children with autism spectrum disorder, or ASD, compared to a control group of unaffected children. Click here to read more.

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Animal Studies Show Abnormalities Caused by Excessive Ultrasound  Developing Mouse Embryo Brains Affected; Connection to Autism Remains Unclear

Prolonged and frequent use of ultrasound waves on pregnant mice caused abnormalities in the brain of the developing mouse embryo, Yale School of Medicine researchers reported in the August 7, 2006 issue of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Science. Click here to read more.

Understanding the Role of Chromosome 15 in Autism

While it is thought that many genes on multiple chromosomes contribute to symptoms of autism, numerous research studies have focused on mutations of chromosome 15. In order to better explain the relationship between mutations of chromosome 15 and autism, Dr. N. Carolyn Schanen answers some of the most frequently asked questions about chromosome 15 and autism spectrum disorders. Click here to read more.

Autism Genome Project Researchers Spearhead New Genetics Discovery

Researchers have found that different genes may be responsible for causing autism in boys than in girls. The findings also support the notion that multiple genes contribute to autism spectrum disorder. Click here to read more.

Research Links Autism to Brain Structure Cells in Amygdala Implicated, According to Autism Speaks­funded Research

A new study published by Autism Speaks­funded researcher David Amaral in the July 19, 2006 issue of the Journal of Neuroscience examined the relationship between the size of the brain structure known as the amygdala and autism­specific behaviors. Click here to read more.

Tracing the Origins of Autism: A Spectrum of New Studies

Environmental Health Perspectives (EHP), a monthly journal of peer­reviewed research and news on the impact of the environment on human health, published a survey of recent autism research in its July 2006 issue. EHP is published by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. Click here to read the article.

Researchers, Scientists Share New Autism Research Findings

Nearly 900 researchers, scientists, students, parents and others were on hand in Montreal on June 1­3, 2006, at the International Meeting for Autism Research, the largest­ever of leading autism researchers from around the world. Autism Speaks was among the sponsors. For a summary of the research presented, click here.

Neurobiology of Autism Workshop Summary Made Available

A summary has been made available of a workshop focusing on the neurobiology of autism organized by Autism Speaks board member and Scientific Affairs Committee member Dr. Emanuel DiCicco­Bloom. Experts in diagnosis, neurobiology, neuroanatomy, neuroimaging, animal models and genetics gathered together at the Nov. 11, 2005, program to share the most recent scientific advances in their fields, and outlined the most important questions to answer with future research. For the summary from the Society of Neuroscience, click here (PDF).

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Research Materials/Learning Environments for Autistic Children.docx

Learning Environments for Autistic Children

Autism and the Classroom

Tammi Reynolds, Yahoo Contributor Network

Mar 1, 2006 "Share your voice on Yahoo websites. Start Here."

Children who are diagnosed within the autism spectrum of disorders have symptoms that make it difficult for them to communicate and to interact with others. These individuals often exhibit unusual behaviors and appear to be in a world of their own. The article "Autism" by Fred Volkmar and David Paul’s states, "At present, at least one in 1000 children exhibit autism, with a larger number showing some features of autism but not meeting full criteria."(2003).

This illustrates that the symptoms of autism fall within a wide range of severity. One of the most significant concerns parents of with children diagnosed within the autism spectrum have is the question of which learning institution is best for their child. This paper illustrates this concern and offers options for parents to explore in the search for the most appropriate learning environment for their child.

Autism is a mysterious developmental disorder that affects brain function. The cause is unknown and the symptoms differ in degrees of severity. Some autistic children are very high functioning and some are very low functioning. Determining the severity of the symptoms is a good starting point for parents in the decision-making process for finding the most appropriate learning environment for their child. The symptoms fall under three categories: social interaction, communication and interests.

Symptoms that fall under social interaction include lack of eye contact and an indifference to other people. Autistic children often do not respond to their names and they have difficulty interpreting facial expressions and tone of voice. They seem to be unaware of other people's feelings and this is reflected in their lack of response. Many autistic children resist physical contact with others. They also have difficulty communicating with others.

Communication is a very significant category because autism profoundly interrupts the child's ability to use words, signs and gestures to express their wants and needs. Their receptive processing skills are impaired and autistic children have difficulty following through with directions, especially if the directions are spoken. Some autistic children use no words. Others simply repeat words they hear but have difficulty using functional language.

Since autistic children have such difficulty communicating, they exhibit negative behaviors and often tantrum. This could be out of frustration. However, autistic children also have sensory issues that factor into their behavior. Many autistic children engage in self-stimulatory behaviors like spinning, flapping their hands or flapping objects and many autistic children become obsessed with an object or parts of the object. These symptoms fall under category three.

Autistic children often have limited interests in activities and play. Many autistic children prefer to play alone and they have great difficulty reciprocating play. Autistic children are resistant to change and often have a need for sameness. They often like to put objects in a line and become very upset if this order is disrupted. Some may become very agitated if their routine is disrupted. For example, if the school bus takes a different route to school, an autistic child may have a tantrum.

The behaviors that result from the lack of social interaction, lack of communication skills along with the unusual interests hinder the autistic child's successful integration into a general school environment. However, these obstacles can be overcome depending on their severity. Here is where it is essential for parents to collaborate with educators, therapists and psychiatrists as a team to determine how well their children will integrate into a general classroom setting.

"Autism and Education Alternatives" is a survey that was administered to parents, behavior specialists and therapists who are concerned about which learning environment is best for autistic children. Five people were sampled from each of the three groups. This paper focuses on the parental responses. The survey found that each parent considers deciding which education program is best suited for an autistic child to be difficult and information is difficult to access. The parents who were surveyed communicated different concerns about their child's performance in school. Two of the five parents chose behaviors as their primary concern. Two of the parents chose academic difficulties and one parent chose communication as her primary worry.

The parents surveyed each stressed improved teacher training, smaller class size, teacher aides and technology as very effective in improving schools. However, each parent chose teachers who specialize in autism to be the most valuable resource. Surprisingly, parents were indifferent to charter schools run by local parents, scoring between somewhat effective and not too effective. However, the five parents stressed the importance of a curriculum designed specifically for autistic students, each indicating that it would be very effective. Curriculum specialized to meet the needs of the autistic child and teachers specialized in autism were found to be the most prevalent in this survey. "Specialized" is the operative word. It reflects the importance of meeting the individual needs of each autistic child.

It is important to consider the individual needs of each child when deciding placement in school. In the article, "Determining an Appropriate Educational Placement," the Autism Society of America, located in Bethesda, Maryland provides a valuable tool for parents in their search for the best learning environment. No date or author is provided in the article. However, the full article can be found at http://asa.convio.net/upload/pdf/educational_placement.pdf and it is highly recommended. "Determining an Appropriate Educational Placement" provides instructions for parents to follow.

Parents should have their child evaluated to determine their child's level of functioning and assess their child's needs. In order to get an evaluation, the article recommends that the parents contact the school principal or special education administrator. Parents should give written permission to have the evaluation done. The evaluation will be the basis for the child's Individual Education Plan.

The Individual Education Plan (IEP) is created through a collaborative effort with parents, teachers and school administrators. This core team develops the IEP, but a behavior specialist could also be extremely helpful in determining the child's needs in a school setting as well. "Determining an Appropriate Educational Placement" illustrates the specific needs traditionally addressed in the IEP. These needs mirror the major concerns parents have about sending their autistic child to a general school setting.

According to the article, the IEP addresses communication and determines if the school has the appropriate accommodations for the child. For example, the child may not use spoken words to communicate. The school would need a Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) or someone who can communicate through sign language. Following communication, the IEP addresses behavior and part of the plan illustrates an appropriate crisis intervention plan. Sensory problems can lead to behaviors and interfere with an autistic child's ability to learn. The school would need to create a comfortable environment that suits the autistic child's needs.

The autistic child's unusual behaviors and sensory issues along with their resistance to interaction with others, make socialization very difficult. The IEP also determines if the child will have an opportunity to interact with peers and if that interaction is structured. Structure is extremely important to the autistic child's progress in academics. The article, "Determining an Appropriate Educational Placement," states that the IEP also includes the child's academic level and determines what interventions, such as one-on-one instruction, are necessary. The process of developing an IEP helps the team explore the child's individual needs and an IEP helps the team determine if full inclusion, autistic support class or an entirely different learning institution would be the most appropriate learning environment. The article does not address one crucial step in the search for the most appropriate learning environment for an autistic child. Parents need to visit different learning environments and observe the class to assess whether or not their child will adapt to the setting and teaching strategies.

Autistic children do have difficulty transitioning into general school settings. However, if the right environment is created and the appropriate teaching strategies are used, many autistic children flourish in school. One thing to look for is structure and routine. The article, "Instructional Management Tips for Teachers of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder," provides useful suggestions for teachers. This article stresses the importance of routine and organization. An autistic child will usually perform better if he knows what is expected and what to expect. The article also states that autistic children are usually visual learners, and visual aides and graphic organizers are invaluable. The article suggests using visual aides to keep autistic children on task during whole class activities. Using the child's interests and strengths is a good technique to use to help him stay focused, increase ability to communicate and transition.

It may seem difficult to recognize the strategies in action, but there are specific techniques to look for when visiting a classroom. Is there a schedule? Each activity should have a concrete beginning, middle and end and should be visual. This also helps an autistic child transition. What visual aides are used during whole class activities? The autistic child needs to remain engaged and it is extremely difficult during activities that rely on auditory skills.

The less words used in instruction, the better. This helps the autistic student process instruction better because there is less to filter. "Billy, why don't you come over here and bring a pencil so we can start on this handout together?" could be narrowed to, "Billy, get your pencil. Come here." It helps to use gestures while giving instructions for reinforcement. Another way to keep an autistic child's attention is to use rhyme and rhythm. This engages the child's preference for repetition. Nonverbal cues can also keep the child on task. The Susan Marks (et al) article suggests making "secret signals" that cue the student to get back on task. Lectures are very difficult for an autistic child because it does require processing many spoken words. A teacher could give the autistic student a list of important terms to track during a lecture. This way the student is listening for key terms that can be used to build concepts through modified classroom activities.

The strategies presented by Susan Marks (et al) all work together to create a safe, structured learning environment that fosters communication and works with the child's unusual interests to promote learning. However, it is important that teachers get to know the individual child and no one is more qualified than parents to help teachers do this. It is crucial for parents to get involved with their child's learning. As a team, parents, educators and administrators can build the foundation for an environment that works with the individual needs of an individual autistic child.

References:

Volkmar, Fred R. and David Pauls. "Autism," The Lancet. Vol. 362, Iss. 9390; p. 1133 Oct 4, 2003.

"Determining an Appropriate Educational Placement." Autism Society of America. Retrieved on January 12, 2004 from:

http://asa.convio.net/upload/pdf/educational_placement.pdf

Instructional Management Tips for Teachers of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Marks, Susan Unok; Shaw-Hegwer, Jennifer; Schrader, Carl; Longaker, Tricia; Peters, Iris; Powers, Fran; Levine, Mark; TEACHING Exceptional Children, v35 n4 p50-54 Mar-Apr 2003 (EJ664508)

Research Materials/My Dissertation Topic.docx

MY DISSERTATION TOPIC

EXPLORATORY ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECTS OF ANXIETY ON SPECIFIC QUANTIFIABLE VARIABLES OF HOW PARENTS COP EDUCATING THEIR CHILDREN WITH AN AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER?

How parents cop educating their children with an Autism Spectrum Disorder? A constructivist grounded theory study. The aim of my research is to expand upon substantive theory about how parents cope with educating their offspring diagnosed with an Autism Spectrum Disorder. In-depth case research, conceptualized within the social theory of representative interaction, using both developing qualitative Inquiry and constructivist indoctrinated theory approaches to generate dense explanation and description. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (4th TR ed.) of the American Psychiatric Association (2000), Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) or Pervasive Developmental Disorders (PDD) are delineated by uncompromising and pervasive impairment in manifold domains of development: communication skills, reciprocal social interaction skills, or the habitancy of stereotyped way of life, activities and interests (p.69). ASD’s is lifelong disorders, which have no identified aetiology or cure (Frith, 2003). There are five complex, often severe, neurological disorders under the PDD category where manifestations vary greatly depending upon the developmental level and chronological age of the individual. These are Autistic Disorder, Rett’s Disorder, Childhood Disintegrative Disorder, Asperger’s Disorder and Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise Specified (Including Atypical Autism).

Yomi.

References:

American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th TR ed.) Washington, DC : American Psychiatric Association.

Frith, U. (2003). Autism: Explaining the enigma. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing

Jeanette Shutay

Abayomi's Response to Module 1 DQ 1

Hi Abayomi, I think that this is an up and coming topic for research, and it is much needed! From your response, it sounds like you may already have identified one or more theories to support your research. Is this the case? If so, then quantitative research may be more appropriate. If not, then I can see how qualitative research may be appropriate.

Prof. Jeanette

Abayomi’s Response to Prof. Jeanette

A notable tenement of research exists that explore the stressors of rearing a child with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD. There are a couple of studies, nonetheless, that delves into distinct effective coping maneuverings of mothers of children with an ASD. My qualitative research will traverse mothers' perceptions of effectual coping maneuverings for their parenting stressors. I will conduct in-depth interviews 11 to 13 mothers to inquire about their personal coping methods. I will code Interviews and emergent subject matter will be named that included coping procedures such as planning, "me time," awareness is power, lifting the restraints of labels, sharing the load, and knowing the joys. The derived knowledge from my study will profit mothers of children with ASD and give information to pediatric therapists rendering services to children with ASD and their families.

Yomi.

Research Materials/New Autism Study.docx

New Autism Study

PUBLIC RELEASE DATE: 29-Oct-2014

http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2014-10/cshl-nsc102814.php

Contact: Peter Tarr

[email protected]

516-367-8455

Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory

@CSHLnews

New study casts sharpest light yet on genetic mysteries of autism

Cold Spring Harbor, NY – Our picture of how genetic errors contribute to autism has just gotten sharper. The latest series of clarifications in what, in its totality, is a very complex puzzle, emerges from new research published in Nature today by a team co-led by investigators at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (CSHL), Yale University, the University of California, San Francisco, and the University of Washington, Seattle.

Most important among the new findings are greatly refined estimates of the total contribution to autism spectrum disorder (ASD) attributable to a particular kind of genetic mutation called de novo mutation. These are mutations that arise "spontaneously" in a child and do not occur in either parent. At least 30% of all ASD is caused by de novo mutations, according to CSHL Assistant Professor Ivan Iossifov, a quantitative biologist and first author of the paper presenting the new research.

This 30% is a conservative estimate -- and consists of three subtypes of de novo mutations. Among these are three major contributors. One kind are called "missense" mutations. Another are called "likely gene-disrupting" mutations (abbreviated as LGD). Both subtypes are small in size – "misspellings" involving 20 DNA letters or less. Missense mutations (which lead to errors in proteins that affect their function), are more common but individually less harmful; LGD mutations are rarer, but are often devastating. The third type are large-scale copy number variations, which the team described in earlier work. All these mutations hit the coding part of genes, but there are other types of mutations that the teams cannot yet detect using current technology, which is why the 30% is a conservative estimate.

One of the team's findings is that missense de novo mutations cause a total of 12% of all autism, while LGD de novo mutations cause 9%. Together, then, they account for some 21% of autism. However, not every mutation carries the same weight: about 13% of missense de novo mutations, or 1 in 7, were thought to cause ASD in the group under study. In contrast, 43% of the less frequent LGD mutations were deemed causal.

A second major finding of the new study, which analyzes the genomes of over 2,500 "simplex" families – those in which a single child but neither parent nor siblings, if any, have ASD – is that the pool of spontaneously mutated genes contributing to ASD across the population totals about 400. Humans have roughly 21,000 genes. The key question, of course, is which genes confer the highest risk of ASD when mutated.

The new study was able to demonstrate something not shown previously: that ASD caused by de novo mutations generally divides into two different risk classes. In one class are comparatively high-IQ males (who are also the highest-functioning). The other class includes males with low IQ and all nearly all affected females, who tend to have low IQ.

Importantly, the team found recurrent de novo gene-disrupting mutations in 27 genes, which make them highly likely to be causal factors in the most severe cases – i.e., in low-IQ males with ASD and in females with ASD. Such disruptive mutations are so rare that finding them more than once in a sample of several thousand people is powerful proof of their importance in ASD.

Girls are thought to have a protective factor, still unidentified, against the impact of potentially causal mutations. But the new data reinforces the view that when females do get ASD, it is often because genes that are highly active in early development incur devastating, disrupting mutations. No such temporal pattern is seen in boys. But the same mutations, in boys, are hypothesized to be responsible for the more severe male ASD cases, including boys with low IQ.

The research in the new paper is based on what scientists call whole exome sequencing – sequencing only the 2% of the full human genome that encodes proteins.

Prior exome studies of intellectual disability and schizophrenia, the authors note, have turned up sets of genes significantly overlapping those identified in the new ASD study. The largest overlap is seen in genes that express messages to which proteins called FMRP bind. FMRP is the protein encoded by the gene FMR1, whose dysfunction causes Fragile-X syndrome and is a major risk factor in intellectual disability.

"Our findings lend new weight to the hypothesis that there are specific functional categories of genes – likely conserved by evolution in development of the human neurological system and brain – that strongly contribute to autism's causation, such as genes expressed during embryonic development and genes that encode proteins that remodel chromatin, the bundles in which our DNA is stored," says Research Assistant Professor Michael Ronemus, a member of the CSHL team.

###

Other CSHL contributors to the study include Assistant Professor Dan Levy, Associate Professor Michael Schatz and Professor W. Richard McCombie. Dr. Evan Eichler of the University of Washington, Seattle, and Dr. Matthew State, formerly of Yale University and now at UC San Francisco, were co-prinicipal investigators, alongside CSHL's Wigler.

The research described here was made possible in part by grants from the Simons Foundation Autism Research Initiative, HHMI, and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research.

"The contribution of de novo coding mutations to autism spectrum disorder" by Ivan Iossifov et al appears online in Nature on October 29, 2014. The paper can be obtained at: http://www.nature.com/nature/index.html

About Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory

Founded in 1890, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (CSHL) has shaped contemporary biomedical research and education with programs in cancer, neuroscience, plant biology and quantitative biology. CSHL is ranked number one in the world by Thomson Reuters for the impact of its research in molecular biology and genetics. The Laboratory has been home to eight Nobel Prize winners. Today, CSHL's multidisciplinary scientific community is more than 600 researchers and technicians strong and its Meetings & Courses program hosts more than 12,000 scientists from around the world each year to its Long Island campus and its China center. For more information, visit http://www.cshl.edu.

Research Materials/Proposed Study.pdf

1

The University of Western Australia Graduate School of Education

PhD Research Proposal Student Name: Jasmine McDonald Student Number: Supervisors: Professor Keith Punch & Associate Professor Anne Chapman A. PROPOSED STUDY

(i) Project Title How parents deal with the education of their child with an Autism Spectrum Disorder: a constructivist grounded theory study.

(ii) The Research Aim The aim of this study is to develop substantive theory about how parents deal with the education of their child diagnosed with an Autism Spectrum Disorder. A series of in-depth case studies, conceptualised within the social theory of symbolic interaction, will use both autoethnographic and constructivist grounded theory methods to generate thick description and explanation. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (4th TR ed.) of the American Psychiatric Association (2000), Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) or Pervasive Developmental Disorders (PDD) are “characterized by severe and pervasive impairment in several areas of development: reciprocal social interaction skills, communication skills, or the presence of stereotyped behaviour, interests, and activities” (p.69). ASD’s are lifelong disorders which have no identified aetiology or cure (Frith, 2003). There are five complex, often severe, neurological disorders under the PDD category where manifestations vary greatly depending upon the developmental level and chronological age of the individual. These are: Autistic Disorder, Rett’s Disorder, Childhood Disintegrative Disorder, Asperger’s Disorder and Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise Specified (Including Atypical Autism). Prevalence rates for all forms of ASD’s have risen dramatically over the last twenty years from 1 in 10,000 in the 1980’s to 1 in 166 today (Fombonne, 2003; Gillberg, 2004; Kirby, 2005). Such increases have, most often, been attributed to changes in case definition and an increasing community and professional awareness of the diagnostic criteria for PDD (Fombonne, 2003) although other theories (Kirby, 2005) are also now apparent in mainstream discourse. To further complicate matters families with one affected child have a 45 times greater recurrence risk of siblings also being affected by an ASD than would occur in the general population (Jamain et.al., 2003). Along with any ASD diagnosis there is also a 25% greater susceptibility of comorbidity with another psychiatric disorder and/or medical condition (Gillberg & Billstedt, 2000). Autism is associated with mental retardation in about 70% of the cases and is over represented amongst males with a male to female ratio of 4.3:1 (Fombonne, 2003). “Follow up studies suggest only a small percentage of individuals with the disorder go on as adults to live and work independently. In about one-third of cases, some degree of partial independence is possible” (American Psychiatric Association, 2000, p.73). It is increasingly evident that there is no single best suited and universally effective educational method for all children with an ASD over time. Research has found that the best programs are those that incorporate a variety of objectively verified practices and are designed to address and support the needs of individual students and the professionals and families with whom they are linked (National Research Council, 2001; Olley, 1999; Simpson, 2005). This places families, and especially parents, in very demanding circumstances regarding adoption of appropriate and effective educational practices regarding their individual child with an ASD. Consequently there is a long standing tradition by parents of children with an ASD of accepting educational methods and strategies that lack efficacy and proven utility (Gresham et.al., 1999; Heflin & Simpson, 1998; Simpson, 2004; Simpson, 2005). Families do

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not have access to educational research of specific students with an ASD which meets rigorous peer review and has a history of yielding positive results (Simpson et.al., 2004). The difficulty is that there are only limited samples of students with an ASD with similar characteristics, programs and needs because of the highly idiosyncratic nature of the disorder (Simpson, 2005). There is a call to provide different research methodologies to answer different questions in regard to education of child/ren with an ASD so that parents are able to determine whether a particular strategy or educational method is suitable for their individual child/ren with an ASD (Horner et al., 2005; Shavelson & Towne, 2002; Simpson, 2005). The preferred source of such information is at the local level where parents and professionals who possess the most knowledge and information about individual students can be found (Simpson, 2005). Longitudinal ethnographic research tracing the development of problems and responses over a substantial period is relatively rare as compared to the many cross-sectional studies which have been undertaken (Gray, 2002; Fleishmann, 2005). This researcher has been unable to locate any research specifically focussing on how parents deal with the education of their child with an ASD over time. Western Australia (WA) is a good site for a study of this type because WA is the only state in Australia which has a diagnostic register, established in 1999, which provides a breakdown of children diagnosed with an ASD by their autism classification, age, gender, intellectual functioning, adaptive behaviour, communication skills and origin of birth (WA Register for Autism Spectrum Disorders, 2000). This would allow future studies to use the findings of this proposed study as a basis for more extensive research into how parents deal with the education of their individual child with an ASD over time. Also WA is seen by some as currently providing some of the best support for children with an ASD in Australia (Eccleston, 2005). The government are also presently committed to providing evidence based, flexible and responsive support to students with an ASD in public schools (Banks, 2005). Against this background, this researcher seeks to provide an in-depth understanding and explanation regarding how a limited number of WA parents in different families deal with the education of their individual child/ren with an ASD over time. The research envisaged will have an autoethnographic component which will seek to capture rich data and an insider perspective in the form of the researcher’s own involvement in the field of educating her own child with an ASD over the last seventeen years. The research will also seek to develop substantive theory about how parents deal with the education of their individual child with an ASD over time. The research will provide insight into educational strategies which could be adopted to reduce stress and mental illness and improve educational outcomes in families who have a child with an ASD.

(iii) Definition of Terms The definition of ‘child with an ASD’ refers to any offspring/s of differing ages with an ASD in the family. The term ‘perspectives’ refers to frameworks through which people make sense of their worlds (Woods, 1992). ‘Inclusion’ is understood to mean where the education of the student with an ASD is “embedded within the normative educative pathways within the classroom and school” (Uditsky, 1993, p.88). ‘Deal with’ refers to how people see, define, interpret and consequently respond to a situation (Woods, 1992). ‘Education’ will incorporate both formal and informal elements of the educational process used over the lifetime of the child with an ASD,

(iv) Background/Context of the Project Historically, education of the intellectually disabled in WA has followed the linear pattern set by other states in Australia and countries in the Western world (O’Donoghue & Chalmers, 1998). The pattern has been initially exclusion (1830’s to 1920’s), through to segregation and integration (1930’s to 1960’s) and finally to limited inclusion (1970’s to late 1990’s) (O’Donoghue & Chalmers, 1998). Presently, WA children diagnosed with an ASD may experience a range of segregated,

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integrated, inclusive or home-schooling educational settings with varying degrees of success (Chapman & O’Donoghue, 2000; O’Donoghue & Chalmers, 1998; Reilly, 2001; Wills and Jackson, 2000). Legislation, in the form of The Equal Opportunity Act 1984 (amended 1988), Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission Act (1986), the Commonwealth Disability Discrimination Act (1992), the WA Disability Services Act (1993) and the WA School Education Act (1999), underpins many of the educational initiatives undertaken to provide a more inclusive schooling community for the disabled in WA. This legislation means that all schools in WA must enable all students to access educational services and schools cannot deny access where unjustifiable hardship to the school has not been proven. Australian ASD prevalence rates indicate that incidence ranges from 2 to 21 per 10,000 births, with boys four times more likely to have the condition (Fleming, 2005). The WA Autism prevalence rate is currently being tracked by the WA Register for Autism Spectrum Disorders. The register puts the Autism prevalence rate for WA at 8 per 10,000 children compared to the lower rate of 5.1 per 10,000 recorded in NSW (Fleming, 2005). According to the National Autism Forum 2005 this translates to an average of 200 people being diagnosed per year in Western Australia with 10% being over the age of thirteen years (Palm Consulting Group, 2005). In Western Australia the responsibility for educational service provision to children with an ASD, below school age, rests with the Disability Services Commission (DSC). To receive government funding for early intervention parents must seek a diagnosis but this has often proven to be a protracted experience with limited funding at the end of the process. Diagnosis currently involves a multi-disciplinary team made up of a paediatrician, clinical psychologist and speech pathologist conducted either privately or through the health or disability sectors (Palm Consulting Group, 2005). A representative at the Autism Centre of Disability Services Commission (DSC) confirmed on 19 July, 2005, that diagnosis of children under six could take anywhere from three to five months, whilst diagnosis of school age children could presently take twelve to twenty four months. After diagnosis, parents who qualify for funding must choose from four accredited Autism early intervention providers who provide a choice of early intervention models (Palm Consulting Group, 2005). Funding for three of the four models offered is generally adequate, however one of the most efficacious interventions based on long term research is grossly under-funded. This model, provided by Intervention Services for Autism and Developmental Delay (ISADD), is based on the Applied Behaviour Analysis / Discrete Trial Training (ABA/DTT) method (Birnbrauer & Leach, 1993; Eccleston, 2005; Lovaas 1987; Lovaas, 2003; Lovaas & Smith, 1989; McEachin, Smith & Lovaas, 1993; Smith & Lovaas, 1998). Government funding for this model is inadequate (approximately ten hours per week) and does not cover the thirty to forty hours per week of recommended intervention needed in best practice models. Most families struggle to find up to $60,000 per year to cover the intensive therapy needed to conduct this model (Eccleston, 2005) even though it is seen as one of the most efficacious early educational interventions (Palm Consulting Group, 2005). Presently there are four targeted kindergarten and pre-school units for 5 year olds in the metropolitan area which offer up to two days per week of ABA (Palm Consulting Group, 2005). These Autism Early Intervention Units have had two independent evaluations undertaken with follow-up of students now in mainstream. Results indicate that students make encouraging progress and that these gains are sustained in mainstream settings with minimal support (Banks, 2005). From the commencement of school age the major educational service provision for children with an ASD rests with the Department of Education and Training (DET). Presently students with an ASD are found in mainstream schools, schools with Education Support Units, Education Support Schools/Centres and in home schooling

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environments. Present day figures indicate there are 1046 students with an ASD attending public schools throughout Western Australia (Palm Consulting Group, 2005). A 1998 report, Models of Educational Service Provision for students with an ASD within Government Mainstream Schooling, sought information about existing practices so that policy and a range of educational options could be developed to cater for the varying needs of students with an ASD in WA government schools. However, most of the information gathered was from primary school and home schooling sites with only one parental response gained from a high school context. Results indicated that in order to meet the needs of a wide range of students with an ASD in a variety of mainstream schools a flexible approach to the delivery of educational services was essential. A range of issues were identified that impact on the ability of the DET to develop and implement effective models of service delivery for students with an ASD. No single approach completely addressed all the issues as many of the solutions have a degree of incompatibility with solutions to other issues (Crosby, 1998). Parents’ responses for this 1998 report indicated that there was difficulty in catering for the needs of a very diverse group of students. Areas of concern were: lack of clear guidelines for schools to follow upon enrolling students with an ASD; lack of consultation with parents about their own child’s needs; lack of appropriate training of both aides, teachers and school staff; lack of expertise, continuity and coordination of support services; lack of teacher aide time; lack of social skills programs in the curriculum; and infrequent, inefficient use of case conferences devising Individualised Education Plans (IEP’s). Along with highlighting many areas of concern, parents described situations where, on occasion, situations were working well. A common feature of such situations was the establishment of good communication between parties and a willingness to work together to achieve outcomes (Crosby, 1998). The WA Autism Management Group who oversee state-wide educational services for students with an ASD indicated during the 2005 Parliamentary Estimates Hearings that there is an ever increasing number of students with an ASD attending public schools (197 in 1995 to 1047 in 2005); and that there are limited planning and strategies in place to support students with Autism in the area of transition from primary to secondary school; and there is a low level of retention and participation of students with an ASD in secondary schools (Banks, 2005). The government are presently committed to providing evidence based, flexible and responsive support to students with an ASD in public schools (Banks, 2005). Key initiatives include an Autism Intervention Team and Team Leader (Autism) based at Centre for Inclusive Schooling (CIS); specific training of school psychologists, teachers and teacher aides in knowledge and understanding of ASD’s; allocation of funds to establish four Principal Consultants and 211 (0.3FTE) Learning Support Coordinators (LSC); extra support for a targeted high school group of students with an ASD; establishment of a Joint Wrap Around Project to allow agencies to be more responsive to families; and in future, education support schools will be located on mainstream school sites (Banks, 2005; Autism Management Group, 2005). It is clear that while there is some feedback (Crosby, 1998) from parents regarding their experiences educating a child with an ASD at primary school in WA, we know little about parents’ experiences with early intervention, high school and post- secondary options in regard to educating their child with an ASD in WA. Presently there is a Masters student at Murdoch conducting needs assessment research of secondary aged students diagnosed with an ASD. No researcher has attempted to develop an in-depth, longitudinal understanding or explanation as to how WA parents deal with the education of their individual child with an ASD over time.

(v) Literature Review Research on the social impact on families having a child with an ASD has shown that the child’s behaviours can be a constant source of stress to both caregivers and siblings (Sanders and Morgan, 1997; Sivberg, 2002). Parents, especially mothers, of

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children with an ASD are more likely to experience serious psychological distress, including depression and anxiety, than parents of children with other developmental disabilities (Bromley et. al., 2004; Grayson, 2004). Extremely antisocial and disruptive behaviours such as self-injurious, tantrum, obsessional, compulsive and violent behaviours can often make normal family life almost impossible (Gray & Holden, 1992). Many families feel isolated (Seligman and Darling, 1997) and the self-confidence and self-esteem of family members are often at risk (Gray & Holden 1992, Powers, 1989). The most pronounced stress being experienced during initial diagnosis (and the subsequent search for appropriate treatments and education for the child with an ASD) and transition periods in the child’s life (Gray, 2002). Research has shown that the stress experienced by mothers has an inverse relationship with the educational progress of their child with an ASD (Robbins et al., 1991). Research into appropriate educational choices for parents is complicated by the heterogeneity of the condition and the accompanying comorbid conditions which may also present along with the ASD diagnosis. Reasonably comprehensive early intervention research shows that early, intensive, behavioural and psycho-educational intervention can sometimes dramatically improve the bleak prognosis given to children diagnosed with an ASD. (Birnbrauer & Leach, 1993; Green, 1996; Jordan, 2005; Lovaas, 1987; Lovaas, 2003; Lovaas & Smith, 1989; McEachin et.al., 1993; Matson et.al., 1996; Smith & Lovaas, 1998). A research review of ten years of research into effective educational practices for students with an ASD revealed six best practice core elements: individualized supports and services for students and families; systematic instruction, comprehensible/structured learning environments, specialized curriculum content, functional approach to problem behaviour; and family involvement (Iovannone, et.al., 2003). There is more limited research concerning inclusion of students with an ASD in mainstream education. This research has found that some students with an ASD benefit more from partly or fully segregated programs depending upon their individual profile, development and the educational context they must negotiate with or without support (Bondy, 1996, Jordan, 2005; Myles & Simpson, 1993; Myles & Adreon, 2001; Newson, 1995; Simpson, 1994; Simpson, 1995a; Simpson & Myles, 1993; Smith, 1996; Tomchek et.al, 1992). Research into education of students with an ASD in high school environments has shown that the most salient features of the student’s autism are accentuated during adolescence and this can lead to serious academic and social problems (Adreon & Stella, 2001; Myles & Adreon, 2001). Little research has been conducted on the post secondary circumstances of students with an ASD (Powell, 2003). In terms of students with general learning difficulties and/or psychiatric disorders, tertiary study has been found to be very challenging. Depression and anxiety are commonly reported concerns (Arthur, 1998). The more complex demands of university life often result in exacerbating the student’s learning, oral communication and social interaction difficulties (Westby, 2000). Such students often show a lack of understanding of their own learning needs, lack self advocacy skills and feel uncomfortable about disclosing their conditions because of possible stigmatisation; all of which interfere with their ability to seek support (Smith et.al., 2002; Patwell & Herzog, 2000). It is therefore timely for this researcher to produce longitudinal ethnographic research which provides an insider perspective and theory to explain how parents deal with the education of their child/ren with an ASD over time.

(vi) Substantial and Original Contribution to Knowledge The proposed study will make several substantial and original contributions to knowledge: • This study will develop substantive theory in an area where no such theory

presently exists. • The theory will lead to an understanding and explanation of the situation faced by

parents trying to educate their child/ren with an ASD.

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• The theory will be relevant to the development of policies concerning parents trying to educate their child with an ASD in WA.

• This study will provide a unique, autoethnographic, in-depth perspective of the situation faced when trying to educate a child with an ASD in WA.

B. RESEARCH METHODS This research will be conducted as a series of case studies (Stake, 2000) and will be informed by feminist, ethnographic research practice (Haraway, 1988; Olesen, 2000; Oliver (1992); Reinharz, 1992). The study is conceptualised within the social theory of symbolic interaction (Blumer, 1969; Woods, 1992), and will use both autoethnographic (Bochner & Ellis, 1999, Bochner & Ellis, 2002; Ellis, 1995; Ellis, 2004; Ellis & Bochner, 1996a; Ellis & Bochner, 2000) and ‘constructivist’ grounded theory methods (Charmaz, 1990, 1991, 1995c, 2000; Glaser, 1978; Glaser, 1992; Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss, 1987; Strauss & Corbin, 1990, 1998) to achieve the dual aim of developing: (a) theory explaining how WA parents deal with the education of their child/ren with

an ASD over time. (b) an authentic, credible and in-depth understanding of how WA parents deal with

the education of their child/ren with an ASD over time. (i) Case Studies

To use Stake’s (2000) terminology, it is intended that an ‘instrumental’ autoethnographic case study will be initially carried out followed by a ‘collective’ case study. The initial ‘instrumental’ autoethnographic case study will seek to examine a single case in order “to provide insight into an issue” (Stake, 2000, p.437). Following on from this a ‘collective case study’ will be undertaken in the manner described by Stake (2000) as an “instrumental study extended to several cases” (p.437). Selection of cases will be in line with grounded theory’s use of the ‘constant comparative method’ which seeks to compare different people’s views, situations, actions, accounts and experiences (Charmaz, 2000). Theoretical sampling will take place within and between cases “whereby the analyst jointly collects, codes and analyses his data and decides what data to collect next and where to find them, in order to develop his theory as it emerges” (Glaser, 1992, p.101).

(ii) Feminist ethnographic practice Given that much traditional research has been seen as representing ‘the disabled’ in ways which they view as disempowering (Morris, 1992; Oliver, 1990, 1992, 1996; Slee,1996), it is important that new research recognize the power dynamics that exist in all research production. Barnes (1992) calls for research into disability to become ‘emancipatory’ whereby “research is about the systematic demystification of the structures and processes which create disability, and the establishment of a workable ‘dialogue’ between the research community and disabled people in order to facilitate the latter’s empowerment” (p. 122). Such awareness is paramount in constructing a study which seeks to understand the disabled (and those who advocate on behalf of them) in ways which they view as emancipatory rather than discriminatory. Hence feminist ethnographic research practice (Haraway, 1988; Olesen, 2000; Oliver, 1992; Reinharz, 1992), will be adopted in this study. While the researcher’s voice will be inevitably privileged, every effort will be made to reduce the distance between the researcher and the researched to allow those with the least powerful voices (or their advocates) to be heard. At the same time though the researcher will “try to maintain a delicate balance between achieving as complete an understanding of insiders’ perspectives as possible and sociological distance, thus permitting rigorous analysis of them” (Woods, 1992, p.355).

(iii) Symbolic Interactionism Chicago sociologist Herbert Blumer first coined the term “symbolic interactionism” in 1937, and this approach required the study of people in their natural environment not through abstracted forms or artificial experiments (Woods, 1992). Symbolic interactionism is understood through Blumer’s (1969) “three central principles: (1)

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human beings act toward things on the basis of the meanings that the things have for them, (2) this attribution of meaning to objects through symbols is a continuous process, and (3) meaning attribution is a product of social interaction in human society”(Woods,1992, p.338). Human conduct is always ‘situated’ and can only be understood in the context in which it is found. Such notions as self, significant others, time, place, culture and structure are key components of ‘situation’ and these exist only if the individual deems them important (Blumer, 1969). As indicated by Woods (1992) “people act on the basis of meanings that objects have for them. They do not respond to an objective reality or to how others perceive it but, rather, to how they interpret it” (p.351). This study will explore what symbolic meanings and/or actions participants share in terms of their situation; and how and why these relationships exist and if they hold over time and educational contexts. (v) Autoethnographic Writing. In the initial instrumental case study autoethnographic writing (Bochner & Ellis, 1999, Bochner & Ellis, 2002; Ellis, 1995; Ellis, 2004; Ellis & Bochner, 1996a; Ellis & Bochner, 2000), in combination with constructivist grounded theory methods, will be used so that the researcher may capture rich data from her own experiences of the research field spanning some seventeen years. Autoethnographic writing is described by Ellis and Bochner (2000) as “an autobiographical genre of writing and research that displays multiple layers of consciousness, connecting the personal to the cultural” (p.739). This entwining of methods is embedded in the understanding that “discourses are about what can be said and thought, but also about who can speak, when, where and with what authority” (Ball, 1994). Slee (1996) calls for disability research to give much more consideration to the more “authentic voices” of those in the field (parents; disabled students and their advocates; and disabled activists). The researcher recognizes that autoethnographic writing cannot accomplish all representational goals but it does allow a unique, concentrated insight into one perspective of the research area and as such is a valuable addition to more traditional research.

(vi) Constructivist Grounded Theory Methods Early grounded theory studies were conducted by its founders, Glaser and Strauss (1967), with a positivist understanding that qualitative research was an objective social science whereby some neutral observer researched an external reality which was there to be ‘discovered’ (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). By contrast, Charmaz (2000) explains that constructivist grounded theory “assumes the relativism of multiple social realities, recognizes the mutual creation of knowledge by the viewer and the viewed, and aims toward interpretive understanding of subjects’ meanings” (p.510). It is the intention of this researcher to follow Charmaz’s (2000) lead and “form a revised, more open-ended practice of grounded theory that stresses its emergent, constructivist elements” (p. 510). Charmaz (2000) retains the following strategies of grounded theory: simultaneous collection and analysis of data; data coding processes; comparative methods; memo writing aimed at the construction of conceptual analyses; sampling to refine the researcher’s emerging theoretical ideas; and integration of the theoretical framework (p. 510/511). In the context, theory is defined as something which “explicates a phenomena, specifies concepts which categorize the relevant phenomena, explains relationships between concepts and provides a framework for making predictions” (Charmaz, 1990, p.1164). C. RESEARCH PLAN

(i) Guiding Questions The three central principles of symbolic interactionism guide the initial set of general questions outlined below. The nature of this study is unfolding, emerging and open- ended and its distinctive structure, including specific questions, will develop once a particular focus has begun to emerge during the course of the study (Punch, 2000). Lofland’s (2002) suggestion of inclusion of general questions regarding type, structure, process and agency when conducting analytically ethnographically inclined research informs the construct below. The movement of questions from general to specific is organized under headings as suggested by Lofland (2002, p.143,144):

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Type (What is it? What are its defining features and its varieties?) • How do parents define ‘education’ in relation to their child with an ASD? • What meanings do parents make of such terms as ‘disability’ and more

specifically ‘autism’ since the birth of their child with an ASD? • How do these meanings (‘education’, ‘disability’ and ‘autism’) inform

parents’ actions in relation to the education of their child with an ASD? • Do parents identify more significantly with the culture of the disabled since

the birth of their child with an ASD? • What factors, if any, make parents feel an affinity and membership with the

culture of the disabled? • Do parents feel there are culture specific differences for families who have a

child with an ASD versus families who have children with other varying disabilities?

Structure (What is its detailed organization?) • What is the structure and sequence chosen by parents when educating their

child with an ASD? • Why do parents choose such structures and sequences when trying to educate

their child with an ASD? • How successful are such decisions in relation to the educational progress of

the child with an ASD and/or the overall well being of the family over time? Process (How does it operate?)

• What curriculum and pedagogy decisions are made by parents when trying to educate their child with an ASD over time?

• What underpins such decision making and do these decisions change over time?

• What factors influence parents in their decision making regarding curriculum and pedagogy over time?

Agency (How do people strategize in or toward it?) • Is there an overarching strategy used by parents to educate their child with an

ASD over time? • Are different strategies required by parents to manage different parts of the

education process of the child with an ASD? • Does historical context impact on the strategies needed by different parents

who have a child with an ASD? • Do parents’ backgrounds have any impact on their ability to deal with the

education of their child with an ASD? • Do these strategies change or remain static over time? • Do these strategies have elements in common with other theories of how

parents deal with the education of their child with a disability? • Or would such theories need modification in relation to the task set before

parents who have to deal with the education of their child with an ASD? (ii) Selection of Participants

The study sample will be a small number of metropolitan Perth based families who are presently dealing with and have formerly dealt with the education of their child with an ASD. Ideally the families will be dealing with the education of their child with an ASD in a metropolitan primary, high school or in some post compulsory school context during 2006 and 2007. Included in those families will be an autoethnographic examination and explanation of the researcher’s own family situation dealing with the education of her seventeen year old son diagnosed with an ASD. The children will have an official diagnosis of an ASD and be registered with DSC. The researcher will use her involvement with fellow parents of children with an ASD over the last seventeen years to access appropriate participants. Otherwise contact will be made with the Autism Association of Western Australia or DSC to seek direction in accessing alternative appropriate participants Choice of families will be determined by accessibility, positioning in the formal education process and involvement in differing government, private or home schooling educational contexts. In this way any emerging theory may account for

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variation across different educational contexts (Charmaz, 2000). In keeping with theoretical sampling in grounded theory, number and type of participant families will be determined by the needs of the emerging theory whereby data will be collected and analysed and subsequent collection will be guided by emerging directions in that analysis (Punch, 2005, p.158). Such sampling will continue until theoretical saturation is reached and new data reveals no additional insights (Glaser and Strauss, 1967; Punch, 2005).

(iii) Data Collection Semi-Structured Interviews Semi-structured interviews will be the main, preferred data collection method where participants are able to freely discuss their individual situations as to how they deal with the education of their child with an ASD over time. Interviews will be conducted as “active interactions between two (or more) people leading to negotiated, contextually based results” (Fontana & Frey, 2000, p.646). Questions will be open- ended and a relatively unstructured interviewing format will be adopted. Interviews will take place at times and in settings where participants feel comfortable to speak about important life issues (Taylor & Bogdan, 1998). The researcher will seek permission to tape record such sessions and participants will be offered an aide memoire or semi-structured interview guide prior to each interview so that they can be reflective about their responses. Given that this is an unfolding study, grounded theory theoretical sampling principles will be used to reach theoretical saturation on any particular category being investigated. This means that interviews cannot be thoroughly planned before the study commences. The first round of interviews will be used to gain a formative understanding of each parent’s perspectives and actions with the general research questions outlined above being used as a guide. Subsequent interviews will be driven by the needs of the emerging theory whereby data will be collected and analysed according to emerging directions in that analysis (Punch, 2005). Participants will be asked to discuss and verify, individually and in groups, the accuracy of the researcher’s representation of their views and the theory emerging from such views. Informal Group Meetings To support the main data collection method of semi-structured interviews informal group meetings will take place. At the initial meeting a brief, general explanation of feminist ethnographic research practice, autoethnography, proposed data collection and constructivist grounded theory methods will occur. Ethical issues, informed consent, right to privacy and protection from harm will be discussed and consent forms will be distributed. Subsequent group meetings will occur occasionally throughout the research process as a form of ‘member checking’ to keep all participants informed of the progress of the research. Observation The researcher will also seek permission to observe educational situations in both home and school settings. Observations will be used to confirm interview data or investigate disparities between the actions undertaken by the participants and the meanings they have attributed to that situation in previously undertaken semi- structured interviews (Woods,1992). Document Study Official and public documents, including organisational documents, newspaper articles, government reports (Taylor & Bogdan, 1998) will be sourced to give the researcher a broad understanding of the educational context. The researcher will also seek access to private family records and reports detailing assessments and diagnoses conducted over the history of the life of the child/ren with an ASD. This would enable the researcher to have a strong understanding of the child involved in the study and provide triangulation regarding the parent’s perspective of that child.

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(iv) Data Analysis Throughout data collection, data analysis will take place through systematic procedures regarding abstraction and comparison outlined in the constructivist grounded theory method (Charmaz, 1990, 1991, 1995c, 2000; Glaser, 1978; Glaser, 1992; Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss, 1987; Strauss & Corbin, 1990). The constructivist grounded theory approach, like its grounded theory counterpart, uses an iterative pathway moving from data collection to emergent theory and back again until theoretical saturation is reached. Charmaz (2000) retains use of the three grounded theory coding methods: open coding, axial coding and selective coding with the understanding that a researcher may alternate between all three forms of analysis depending upon the changing circumstances of the study (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Coding is seen as “the pivotal link between collecting data and developing an emergent theory to explain the data” (Charmaz, 1995c, p.37). Charmaz (1995c, 2000) recommends line-by-line open coding to start the chain of theory development whereby actions or events are interpreted into open codes. These initial open codes serve to break open the data into categories, help the researcher to begin to see processes and keep the researcher grounded in the data (Charmaz, 1995c). Axial coding is concurrently used to reassemble the data so that relationships between categories and conditions which give rise to the category can emerge (Charmaz, 2000). Selective coding is used in conjunction with other coding to sort large amounts of data to a higher level of abstraction and to ‘check on the fit between emerging theoretical framework and the empirical reality it explains’ (Charmaz, 2000, p.516). Charmaz (2000) retains use of dimensionalizing and conditional matrices to allow researchers’ emerging theories to become more complex and precise (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Memo writing is seen by Charmaz (2000) as occurring throughout the analytic process whereby memos elaborate processes, assumptions, and actions that are subsumed under codes. Feedback will also be sought throughout the analytic process from both participants and other researchers to ensure that analysis conducted by this researcher is grounded in the data (Charmaz, 1995).

(v) Proposed Timing March – December 2005 • Commence literature review / Submit research proposal / Obtain ethics approval Jan 2006 – April 2006 • Locate participants / Hold 1st informal meeting / Continue literature review May 2006 – Sept 2006 • Conduct 1st round of interviews / Transcribe interviews / Seek feedback • Analyse data / Observe learning environments • Continue literature review Oct 2006 – Feb 2007 • Conduct 2nd round interviews • Obtain official records/public documents / Observe learning environments • Transcribe interviews / Seek feedback / Analyse data / Continue literature review Mar 2007 – July 2007 • Hold 2nd informal meeting/ Conduct 3rd round interviews /Transcribe interviews • Observe learning environments/ Seek feedback • Analyse data / Continue literature review Aug 2007- Dec 2007 • Conduct 4th round of interviews/Observe learning environments • Transcribe interviews / Seek feedback / Analyse data • Continue literature review Jan 2008 – Dec 2008 • Prepare first draft of thesis / Hold 3rd informal meeting Jan 2009 – Feb 2009 • Revise thesis to produce final draft Mar 2009 • Submit final thesis/ Final informal meeting

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C. FACILITIES (i) Supervision

Professor Keith Punch, of the Graduate School of Education, is a specialist in research methods and will bring significant experience and knowledge to support this study, especially in the area of grounded theory research methods. Associate Professor Anne Chapman, of the Graduate School of Education brings significant experience and knowledge regarding qualitative research methods to support this study.

(ii) Special Literature The majority of literature needed to assist this study will be obtained though the UWA library, either through access to their collections, or through interlibrary loans. Other literature will be sourced through relevant government and private organisations. D. LEADING SCHOLARS Professor Kathy Charmaz, Sociology Department, Sonoma State University. [email protected] Professor Carolyn Ellis, Communication and Sociology Department, University of Southern Florida. [email protected] Associate Professor David Leach, School of Psychology, Murdoch University. [email protected] E. ESTIMATED COSTS GSE has made available $1,190 per annum to cover the costs of this study. This will cover: copying ($100); printing ($250); telephone ($120); email and downloads ($120); and IT support ($300). Application will also be made to GSE to provide $300 per year to cover software or minor equipment. This should cover the cost of a micro audio recorder needed during this study. F. CONFIDENTIALITY AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY Throughout the study conscious efforts to maintain confidentiality will be made. All information provided by participants will be used solely for the proposed research and will be securely stored in the Graduate School of Education to ensure privacy for all families involved. REFERENCES Adreon, D., & Stella, J. (2001). Transition to middle and high school: Increasing the success of

students with Asperger Syndrome. Intervention in School and Clinic, 36, 266-271. American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th

TR ed.) Washington, DC : American Psychiatric Association. Arthur, N. (1998). The effects of stress, depression and anxiety on postsecondary students’ coping

strategies. Journal of College Student Development, 39, 1, 11-22. Autism Management Group (2005). Minutes of 23 February, 2005 Meeting. Perth, WA: Department of

Education and Training. Baker, E., Wang, M. & Walberg, H. (1995). The effects of inclusion on learning. Educational

Leadership, 52, 4, 33-35. Ball, S. (1994). Education Reform: A Critical and Post-structural Approach. Buckingham: Open

University Press. Banks, M. (2005). Autism Management Program. 2005 Parliamentary Estimates Hearings. Perth,

WA: Department of Education and Training. Barnes, C. (1992). Qualitative Research: valuable or irrelevant? Disability, Handicap & Society,

7(2)115-124. Birnbrauer, J.S. & Leach, D.J. (1993). The Murdoch early intervention program after two years.

Behaviour Change, 10, 63-74. Blumer, H. (1969). Symbolic Interactionism: Perspective and Method. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:

Prentice-Hall. Bochner, A.P. & Ellis, C. (1999). Which way to turn? Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 28, 500-

509.

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Bochner, A.P. & Ellis, C. (2002). Ethnographically Speaking. Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira. Bondy, A. (1996). What parents can expect from public school programs. In C.Maurice, G.Green &

S.C.Luce (Eds.), Behavioural interventions for young children with autism, 323-330. Austin, Texas: Pro-Ed.

Bromley, J., Hare, D.J., Davison, K. & Emerson, E. (2004). Mothers supporting children with autistic spectrum disorders. Autism, 8 (4), 409-423.

Chapman, A & O’Donoghue, T.A. (2000). Home Schooling: An emerging research agenda. Educational Research and Perspectives, 27 (1), 19-36.

Charmaz, K. (1990). “Discovering” chronic illness: Using grounded theory. Social Science and Medicine, 30, 1161-1172.

Charmaz, K. (1991). Good days, bad days: The self in chronic illness and time. New Brunswick, NR: Rutgers University Press.

Charmaz, K (1995c). Grounded theory. In J.A. Smith, R. Harre, & L. Van Langenhove (Eds.), Rethinking methods in psychology (pp.27-49). London:Sage.

Charmaz, K. (2000). Grounded theory: Objectivist and constructivist methods. In N.K. Denzin & Y.S. Lincoln (Eds). Handbook of qualitative research (2nd Ed.) pp.509-535. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Crosby, I. (1988). Models of Educational Service Provision for students with Autism Spectrum Disorder within Government Mainstream Schooling. Perth, WA: Department of Education and Training.

Eccleston, R. (2005, Oct 8-9). A World of their Own. The Australian, 26-30. Ellingson, L. (2005). Communicating in the Clinic. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press. Ellis, C. (1995). Final Negotiations. Philadelphia: Temple University Press Ellis, C. (2004). The Ethnographic I. Walnut Creek, CA:Alta Mira. Ellis, C. & Bochner, A.P.(1996a). (Eds.) Composing Ethnography: Alternative forms of qualitative

writing. Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira. Ellis, C. & Bochner, A.P. (2000). Autoethnography, personal narrative, reflexivity. In N.K. Denzin &

Y.S Lincoln (Eds.) Handbook of Qualitative Research (2nd Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Fleischmann, A. (2005). The hero’s story and autism. Grounded theory study of websites for parents of

children with autism. Autism, 9,3, 299-316. Fombonne, E. (2003). Epidemiological surveys of autism and other pervasive developmental disorders:

an update. J. Autism Dev. Disord., 33, 4, 365-82. Fleming, K. (2005, Feb 7). High rate of autism in WA. The West Australian, p.14. Fontana, A. & Frey J.H. (2000). The Interview: From Structured Questions to Negotiated Text.

Handbook of Qualitative Research (2nd Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Frith, U. (2003). Autism: Explaining the enigma. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. Gillberg, C. (2004). Autism Spectrum Disorders – Are we there yet? Plenary Presentation, Biennial

Australian Autism Conference 2004, Canberra. Gillberg,C. & Billstedt, E. (2000). Autism and Asperger syndrome: coexistence with other clinical

disorders. Acta Psychiatr. Scanda., 102, 5, 321-30. Glaser, B.(1978). Theoretical Sensitivity. Mill Valley, CA:Sociology Press. Glaser, B.(1992). Basics of Grounded Theory Analysis: Emergence vs Forcing. Mill Valley, CA:

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Maurice, (ed.) Behavioral Intervention for Young Children with Autism. Austin, Tex: Pro-Ed., 29-44.

Gresham, F., Beebe-Frankenberger, M., & MacMillan, D. (1999). A selective review of treatments for children with autism: Description and methodological considerations. School Psychology Review, 28, 4, 559-575.

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Haraway. C. (1988). Situated knowledges: The science question in feminism and the privilege of partial perspective. Feminist Studies, 14, 575-599.

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Horner, R., Carr, E., Halle, J., McGee, G., Odom, S. & Wolery, M. (2005). The use of single- subject research to identify evidence-based practice in special education. Exceptional Children, 71, 2, 165-179.

Iovannone, R., Dunlap, G., Huber, H., & Kincaid, D. (2003). Effective Educational Practices for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities; 18, 3, 150-165.

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Research Materials/Prospectus Template 2014_v.6_021214.docx

20

Dissertation Prospectus

<Insert Prospectus Title >

Submitted by

<Insert Name>

<Insert Submission Date>

<Insert Chair Name>

Prospectus Instructions:

1. Read the entire Prospectus Template to understand the requirements for writing your Prospectus. Each section contains a narrative overview of what should be included in the section and a table with criteria required for each section. These criteria will be used to assess the prospectus for overall quality and feasibility of the proposed research study.

2. As you draft each section, delete the narrative instructions and insert your work related to that section. Use the criteria table for each section to ensure that you address the requirements for that particular section. Do not delete/remove the criteria table as this is used by you and your Committee to evaluate your prospectus.

3. Prior to submitting your prospectus for review by your Chair or Methodologist, use the criteria table for each section to complete a self-evaluation, inserting what you believe is your score for each listed criteria into the Learner Self-Evaluation column.

4. The scoring for the criteria ranges from a 0-3 as defined below. Complete a realistic and thoughtful evaluation of your work. Your Chair and Methodologist will also use the criteria tables to evaluate your work.

5. Your Prospectus should be between 6-10 pages when the tables are deleted.

Score

Assessment

0

Item Not Present

1

Item is Present, But Does Not Meet Expectations: Not all components are present. Large gaps are present in the components that leave the reader with significant questions. All items scored at 1 must be addressed by learner per reviewer comments.

2

Item Approaches Meeting Expectations, But Needs Revision: Component is present and adequate. Small gaps are present that leave the reader with questions. Any item scored at 2 must be addressed by the learner per the reviewer comments.

3

Item Meets Expectations: Component is addressed clearly and comprehensively. No gaps are present that leave the reader with questions. No changes required.

2

Dissertation Prospectus

Introduction

The Prospectus is 6-10 page document that serves as a road map for the dissertation. It provides the essential framework to guide the development of the dissertation proposal. The Prospectus builds on the 10 Strategic Points (shown in Appendix A). The Prospectus will be expanded to become your dissertation proposal (Chapters 1, 2 and 3 of your dissertation), which will in turn, be expanded to become the complete dissertation (Chapters 1-5). Prior to developing the Prospectus, the 10 Strategic Points should be reviewed with the Chair and Committee to ensure the10 Strategic Points are aligned and that you have a clear, defined, and a doable study. Your 10 Strategic Points should be included in Appendix A of this Prospectus document.

The Introduction section broadly describes the research focus that will be addressed by the dissertation and why that focus is worthy of further investigation. The Introduction should clearly define how the study will extend prior research. Additionally, it should identify examples of the studies on the topic that illustrate the current research. It is also important to ensure the Prospectus is well written from the very first draft. Prior to submitting it to the Committee Chair, ensure paragraphs are developed that (1) contain a topic sentence defining the focus of the paragraph, (2) discuss only that single topic, (3) contain three to seven sentences, and (4) include a transition sentence to the next paragraph or section. The sentences should also be structurally correct, short, and focused. Throughout the dissertation process, learners are expected to always produce a well-written document. Committee members and the AQR reviewers will not edit writing. If it is not well written, reviewers will provide a high-level, general comment on the overall areas that need to be improved before they will review the document again.

Criteria (Required Components): score 0-3

Learner Self-Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Chair or Reviewer Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Introduction

This section briefly overviews the research focus or problem, why this study is worth conducting, and how this study will be completed.

The recommended length for this section is one paragraph.

1. Dissertation topic is introduced.

2. Describes how the study extends prior research or fills a “need” or “defined gap” from current literature.

NOTE: This Introduction section elaborates on Point #1(the Topic) from the 10 Strategic Points. This Introduction section provides the foundation for the Introduction section in Chapter 1 of the Proposal.

NOTE: When writing this section ensure it has a logical flow, as well as uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, tense, punctuation, and APA format.

Comments from the Evaluator:

Background of the Problem

The Background of the Problem section of the Prospectus uses the literature to provide the reader with a brief historical perspective of the problem or research gap the study will address. A gap is defined as a need or opportunity that has been identified in the existing body of research literature (empirical research articles or dissertations). A gap is not defined as research on a topic for which there is no related research in the existing body of literature. A dissertation research topic must emerge from the existing body of research literature and not from a personal agenda. From this section, the reader should be able to discern how and when this problem originated and how it developed over time. This section, then, defines the current problem, that needs to be studied based on the literature and prior studies on the topic. This section must include citations from the past 5 years of the literature that clearly present evidence defining the current problem or opportunity that needs to be further researched. The studies referenced should help to justify the need for your specific research study.

Criteria (Required Components): score 0-3

Learner Self-Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Chair or Reviewer Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Background of the Problem

The background section explains both the history of and the present state of the problem and research focus.

The recommended length for this section is two-three paragraphs.

1. Identifies the “need,” or “defined gap” that will lead to the research problem statement in a following section. Citations from the literature in the last 5 years describe the problem as a current “need” or “gap” for further research.

2. Discusses how the “need” or “defined gap” has evolved historically into the current problem or opportunity to be addressed by the proposed study.

3. ALIGNMENT: The problem statement for the dissertation will be developed from and justified by the “need” or “defined gap” that is described in this section and supported by the Literature.

NOTE: This Background of the Problem section uses information from Point #2 (Literature Review) in the 10 Strategic Points. This Background of the Problem section becomes the Background of the Study in Chapter 1 in the Proposal. It is then expanded to develop the comprehensive Background to the Problem section in Chapter 2 (Literature Review) in the Proposal.

NOTE: When writing this section ensure it has a logical flow, as well as, uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, tense, punctuation, and APA format.

Comments from the Evaluator:

Theoretical Foundations and Review of the Literature/Themes

The Theoretical Foundations section of the Prospectus provides a big picture of the theory(ies) or conceptual models that will provide the foundation for the study and addressing the problem statement. The preliminary Review of the Literature/Themes section defines and describes the major topics or themes related to the dissertation topic. The Theoretical Foundations, as well as, the problem statement help to define the Research Questions.

Theoretical foundations/conceptual framework . This section names and describes the theory(s) or model(s) that will provide the Theoretical Foundation for the research study. Additionally, it describes their relevance to the proposed study topic and the stated problem that came out of the Background section. Citations from seminal and/or other sources are provided to justify the selected theory(s) or model(s). For a quantitative study, it should provide the theory or model for each variable as well the rationale for studying the relationship between the variables. For a qualitative study, it should discuss how the theories or models are relevant to understanding the phenomenon.

Review of the literature/themes. This section on the Review of the Literature/Themes lists and describes the major themes or topics found in the literature related to the research topic and problem statement for the dissertation. This list of themes or topics is presented as a bulleted list of the major themes/topics related to the research topic. Each theme or topic should have a three to four sentence summary that describes the theme and its relevance to the dissertation topic. Include at least two empirical research citations from the past 5 years for each topic or theme.

Criteria (Required Components): score 0-3

Learner Self-Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Chair or Reviewer Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Theoretical Foundations and/or Conceptual Framework

This section identifies the theory(s) or model(s) that provide the foundation for the research. This section should present the theory(s) or models(s) and explain how the problem under investigation relates to the theory or model. The theory(s) or models(s) guide the research questions and justify what is being measured (variables) as well as how those variables are related (quantitative) or the phenomena being investigated (qualitative).

Review of the Literature

This section provides a broad, balanced overview of the existing literature related to the proposed research topic. It describes the literature in related topic areas and its relevance to the proposed research topic findings, providing a short one-two sentence description of each theme/topic and identifies its relevance to the research topic supporting it with at least one citation from the literature.

The recommended length for this section is two-three paragraphs

1. Theoretical Foundations section identifies the theory(s), model(s) relevant to the variables (quantitative study) or phenomenon (qualitative study). This section should explain how the study topic or problem coming out of the “need” or “defined gap” in the Background to the Problem section relates to the theory(s) or model(s). (One paragraph)

2. Review of the Literature Themes/Topics section: This section lists the major themes or topics related to the research topic. It provides a short one-two sentence description of each theme/topic and identifies its relevance to the research topic supporting it with at least one citation from the literature. (One or two sentences per theme/topic).

3. ALIGNMENT: The Theoretical Foundations models and theories need to be related to and support the problem statement or study topic. The sections in the Review of the Literature are topical areas needed to understand the various aspects of the phenomenon (qualitative) or variables/groups (quantitative) being studied; to select the design needed to address the Problem Statement; to select surveys or instruments to collect information on variables/groups; to define the population and sample for the study; to describe components or factors that comprise the phenomenon; to describe key topics related to the study topic, etc.

NOTE: The two parts of this section use information from Point #2 (Literature Review) from the 10 Strategic Points. This Theoretical Foundations section is expanded upon to become the Theoretical Foundations section in Chapter 2 (Literature Review). The Theoretical Foundations section is also used to help create the Advancing Scientific Knowledge section in Chapter 1. This Review of Literature Themes/Topics section is expanded upon to provide the Review of the Literature section in Chapter 2 (Literature Review). The Review of the Literature Themes/Topics section is also used to provide the basis for the Significance of the Study section in Chapter 1.

NOTE: When writing this section ensure it has a logical flow, as well as uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, tense, punctuation, and APA format.

Comments from the Evaluator:

Problem Statement

This section of the Prospectus should begin with a one-sentence Problem Statement in the format appropriate for the design. It should clearly state the problem or research focus. This problem or research focus should evolve from the Background to the Problem section discussed above. The problem statement should begin with a clear declarative statement. This section describes the significance, magnitude, and importance of the problem that makes the study worthwhile. This section should be supported with citations from the literature.

Criteria (Required Components): score 0-3

Learner Self-Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Chair or Reviewer Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Problem Statement

This section includes the problem statement, the population affected, and how the study will contribute to solving the problem.

The recommended length for this section is one paragraph.

1. Presents a clear declarative statement that begins with either: “It is not known how or why…” (qualitative),

or

“It is not known if or to what degree/extent…” (quantitative).

2. Clearly describes the magnitude and importance of the problem, supporting it with citations from the literature.

3. ALIGNMENT: The problem statement is developed from and justified by the “need” or “defined gap” defined by the Literature that is discussed in the Background to the Problem section above.

NOTE: This section elaborates on Points #3 (Problem Statement) from the 10 Strategic Points. This section becomes the foundation for the Problem Statement section in Chapter 1(and other Chapters where appropriate) in the Proposal.

NOTE: When writing this section ensure it has a logical flow, as well as uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, tense, punctuation, and APA format

Comments from Evaluator:

Research Question(s) and Phenomenon or Research Questions, Hypotheses, and Variables

The Research Question(s) and Phenomenon or Research Questions and Hypothesis section of the Prospectus specifies the Research Questions to be answered by the study. For a qualitative study, this section specifies the Research Questions as well as the Phenomenon to be studied. For a quantitative study, it defines the Research Questions, the Hypotheses, and the Variables for which data will be collected. The Research Questions should be derived from the Problem Statement, as well as, the model(s) or theory(s) selected to provide the theoretical foundations for the research. If the study is qualitative, state two or more research question(s) that guide the research for collecting the information needed to answer the problem statement and describe the phenomenon being studied. If the study is quantitative, state two or more research question(s) and associated hypotheses. Additionally, identify and define the specific variables in the hypothesis for which data will be collected. The Research Questions are later used to define the data collection and analysis.

HINT: Many researchers use their problem statement to develop a Primary Research Question they use to develop their other research questions. This is done by simply converting the Problem Statement into a question format. Below is an example for a qualitative and quantitative study. Assume the Problem Statement for a qualitative study is “It is not known how a high-minority, low-SES school in Atlanta outperforms all of the high SES schools in and around its district on state tests in literacy, mathematics and science.” The Primary Research Question becomes: “How does a high minority low SES school in Atlanta outperforms all of the high-minority, high-SES schools in and around its district on state tests in literacy, mathematics and science?” Assume the Problem Statement for a quantitative study is “It is not known if and to what degree there is a correlation between level of transformational leadership in principals and school climate.” The Primary Research Question is “Is there a correlation between level of transformational leadership in principals and school climate?”

Qualitative (Research Questions and Phenomena Description)

Phenomenon:

R1:

R2:

OR

Quantitative (Research Questions, Hypotheses and Variables)

Variable 1:

Variable 2:

Variable 3:

R1:

H1:

H01:

R2:

H2:

H02:

OR

A Mixed Research Study (Includes both the Quantitative and Qualitative Sections from above).

NOTE: A Mixed Methods Study approach is generally not recommended unless the learner has a significant amount of extra time to master both the qualitative and quantitative designs, collect the qualitative and quantitative data, as well as, learn how to do both the quantitative and qualitative data analysis.

NOTE: Hypotheses are not required for quantitative descriptive survey studies.

Criteria (Required Components): score 0-3

Learner Self-Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Chair or Reviewer Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Research Question(s) and/or Hypotheses

This section narrows the focus of the study and specifies the research questions to address the problem

statement. Based on the research questions, it describes the variables or groups and their hypothesized

relationship for a quantitative study or the phenomena under investigation for a qualitative study.

(2-3paragraphs)

· The recommendation is a minimum of two research questions along with related hypotheses and variables is required for a quantitative study.

· Also recommended is a minimum of two research questions along with the phenomenon description is required for a qualitative study.

· Put the Research Questions in the appropriate Table in Appendix B based on whether the study is qualitative or quantitative.

1. Qualitative Designs: States the research question(s) the study will answer, and describes the phenomenon to be studied. or

2. Quantitative Designs: States the research question(s) the study will answer, identifies the variables, and presents the hypotheses.

3. ALIGNMENT: The research questions are based on both the Problem Statement and Theoretical Foundation model(s) or theory(s). There should be no research questions that are not clearly aligned to the Problem Statement.

NOTE: This section elaborates on Points #5 (Research Questions) & #6 Hypothesis/variables or Phenomena) from the 10 Strategic Points. This section becomes the foundation for the Research Question(s) and/or Hypotheses section in Chapter 1 in the Proposal.

NOTE: When writing this section ensure it has a logical flow, as well as uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, tense, punctuation, and APA format.

Comments from the Evaluator:

Significance of the Study

This section of the Prospectus describes the significance of the study. First it describes the implications of the potential results. Second, it discusses how the research may extend or contribute to the models or theories being used for the theoretical foundation. Third, it describes professional and practical applications to the field.

Criteria (Required Components): score 0-3

Learner Self-Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Chair or Reviewer Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Significance of the Study

This section identifies and describes the significance of the study and the implications of the potential results based on the research questions and problem statement, hypotheses, or the investigated phenomena. It describes how the research fits within and will contribute to the current literature or body of research. It describes potential practical applications from the research.

The recommended length for this section is one paragraph.

1. Describes how the proposed research will contribute to the Literature, relating it specifically to other studies from the Background to the Problem and Problem Statement above.

2. Describes how the proposed research will contribute to the literature on the selected theory(s) or model(s) that comprise the Theoretical Foundation for the study.

3. Describes how addressing the problem will have practical value for the real world considering the population, community, and/or society.

4. ALIGNMENT:

Part 1 is based on specific studies from the Background to the Problem and Problem Statements sections above and identifies how this research will contribute to that Literature. Part 2 is based on specific model(s), theory(s) or variables from the Theoretical Foundations section above and identifies how this research will contribute to the knowledge on those model(s) or theory(s). Part 3 reflects on potential practical applications of the potential research findings based on Literature in the field of practice.

NOTE: This section does not directly come from any section of the 10 Strategic Points. However it does build on the Background to the Problem, Problem Statement and Theoretical Foundations sections that are developed from the 10 Strategic Points. This section becomes the Significance of the Study section in Chapter 1 in the Proposal.

NOTE: When writing this section ensure it has a logical flow, as well as uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, tense, punctuation, and APA format.

Comments from the Evaluator:

Rationale for Methodology

This section of the Prospectus identifies and explains the rationale for selecting a quantitative or qualitative methodology for the study. Develop a single paragraph to describe and justify the methodology selected as being qualitative or quantitative (or mixed methods). The methodology should be selected based on the best approach to address the problem statement and collect the data to answer the research questions. As stated before, Mixed Methods are not recommended because they take considerably more time to complete and may require taking additional dissertation continuation courses. Complete Table 1 (quantitative studies) and Table 2 (qualitative studies) in Appendix B as well. (NOTE: If doing Mixed Methods complete both Tables1 and Table 2).

Criteria (Required Components): score 0-3

Learner Self-Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Chair or Reviewer Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Rationale for Methodology

This section clearly justifies the methodology the researcher plans to use for conducting the study. It argues how the methodological framework is the best approach to answer the research questions and address the problem statement. It uses citations from textbooks and articles on research methodology and/or articles on related studies.

The recommend length for this section is one paragraph and completion of Table 1 (quantitative) and/or Table 2 (qualitative) in Appendix B.

1. Identifies the specific research methodology for the study (quantitative, qualitative, or mixed).

2. Justifies the research methodology to be used for the study by discussing why it is the best approach for answering the research question and addressing the problem statement. Uses citations from original sources in the literature on the specific research methodology to support the arguments. (NOTE: Books such as those by Creswell, which are secondary sources summarizing others approaches to research, may not be used as sources in this section).

3. ALIGNMENT: The selected methodology should be justified based on the Problem Statement and Research Questions.

NOTE: This section elaborates on the methodology part of Point #7(Methodology and Design) in the 10 Strategic Points.

This section becomes the foundation for the Research Methodology in Chapter 1 of the Proposal and the basis for developing Chapter 3, Research Methodology.

NOTE: When writing this section ensure it has a logical flow, as well as uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, tense, punctuation, and APA format

Comments from the Evaluator:

Nature of the Research Design for the Study

This section of the Prospectus discusses the specific Research Design. The design is selected based on the selected research methodology (qualitative or quantitative). Quantitative and qualitative methodologies each have a set of distinct designs. Explain the rationale for selecting the specific design based on the variables and research questions/hypotheses (for a quantitative study) or the research questions and phenomenon being studied (for a qualitative study). Provide citations both to describe the design and to justify its use.

It is important to use resources in terms of scholarly articles, as well as, current books on research that are written by experts in either qualitative designs or quantitative designs both for describing and justifying the design. Various resources on design can be located in the Research and Residency sections on the DC Network. Please do not use secondary sources such as Creswell that primarily provide a summary of work from others.

Criteria (Required Components): score 0-3

Learner Self-Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Chair or Reviewer Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Nature of the Research Design for the Study

This section describes the specific research design to answer the research questions and why this approach was selected. It describes the research sample being studied as well as the process that will be used to collect the data on the sample.

The recommend length for this section is one paragraph and completion of Table 1 (quantitative) and/or Table 2 (qualitative) in Appendix B.

1. Identifies the specific type of research design chosen for the study as well as a sample appropriate for the design. (e.g., Quantitative designs include descriptive/survey, correlational, causal-comparative, quasi-experimental, and experimental. Qualitative designs include case study, narrative, grounded theory, historical, and phenomenological.) Although other designs are possible, these are the designs GCU recommends doctoral learners use to help ensure a doable study.

2. Discusses why the selected design is the best design to address the research questions as compared to other designs.

3. ALIGNMENT: The selected Research Design should be justified based on the research questions as well as the hypotheses/variables (quantitative) or phenomenon (qualitative). It should also be aligned with the selected Research Methodology.

NOTE: This section also elaborates on the Design part of Point #7 (Methodology and Design) in the 10 Strategic Points . This section provides the foundation for Nature of the Research Design for the Study in Chapter 1.

NOTE: When writing this section ensure it has a logical flow, as well as uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, tense, punctuation, and APA format.

Comments from Evaluator:

Purpose of the Study

The Purpose of the Study section of the Prospectus summarizes the study by providing a reflection of the Problem Statement, methodology, design, target population, and study location. This section should begin with a declarative statement, “The purpose of this (qualitative, quantitative, or mixed method/ with design) study is to (describe, improve, predict, or examine)…”. From the purpose statement, the reader should be able to discern the problem being addressed, the research method (qualitative, quantitative, or mixed), the research design, the variables or phenomenon to be studied, the target population, and the general geographic location of the study.

Creswell (2009) provided some sample scripts for developing purpose statements aligned with the different research methods (qualitative/quantitative/mixed) as follows:

The purpose of this qualitative ______________ (case study, ethnography) is to _________ (understand, describe, explore, develop) the ____________________ (phenomenon being studied) for _______ (participants) at ________________ (research site/geographical location). At this stage in the research, the __________________ (central phenomenon being studied) will be generally be defined as ___________ (provide a general definition).

The purpose of this quantitative ___________ (correlational, descriptive, etc.) research is to ____________ (compare or see to what degree a relationship exists) between/among ______________________ (independent variable) to ___________________ (dependent variable) for ________________ (participants) at ___________________ (research site/geographical location). The independent variable ________ will be defined/measured as/by _______ (provide a general definition). The dependent variable will be defined/measured as/by ______ (provide a general definition).

The purpose of this mixed methods study will be to explore participant views with the intent of using this information to develop and test an instrument with a sample from a population. The first phase will be a qualitative exploration of _______________ (central phenomenon) by collecting _____ (data) from _____ (participants) at __________ (geographical location/research site). The second phase will use a quantitative research method. Themes from this qualitative data will be developed into an instrument (or a ______ instrument will be used) to (related, compare) ________ (the independent variable) with _________ (dependent variable) for _________ sample of population) at __________ (geographical research site).

Please note that Creswell may not be cited as an authoritative resource to justify the methodology, design or statistics. Primary, authoritative sources from the scholarly literature must be used. Creswell is an excellent introductory research textbook with excellent educational examples such as above. However, it is considered a secondary source, like most textbooks, and therefore, is only used for training and education purposes.

Criteria (Required Components): score 0-3

Learner Self-Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Chair or Reviewer Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Purpose of the Study

The purpose statement section provides a reflection of the problem statement and identifies how the study will be accomplished. It explains how the proposed study will contribute to the field.

The recommend length for this section is one paragraph.

1. Presents a declarative statement: “The purpose of this _______study is….” that identifies the research methodology, research design, target population, variables/groups (quantitative), or phenomena (qualitative) to be studied, and geographic location. It often includes a version of the Problem Statement as a way to define the phenomenon or variables/hypotheses.

2. ALIGNMENT: The Purpose Statement includes: Research Methodology, Research Design, and Problem Statement from the previous sections. It also includes the target population, which should be of sufficient size to provide a large enough sample to complete the study and provide significant (quantitative) or meaningful (qualitative) results.

NOTE: This section elaborates on Points #8 (Purpose Statement) in the 10 Strategic Points. This section becomes the foundation for the Purpose of the Study in Chapter 1 of the Proposal.

NOTE: When writing this section ensure it has a logical flow, as well as uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, tense, punctuation, and APA format.

Comments from the Evaluator:

Instrumentation or Sources of Data

This section of the Prospectus identifies and describes the types of data that will be collected and how they will be collected (e.g. observations, standardized tests, surveys, interviews, documents). Use the Instrumentation heading if the study uses a quantitative methodology. Use the Sources of Data heading if the study uses a qualitative methodology. The data collection approaches should be specific to the selected methodology and design for the study. The learner should check on the costs and certification requirements for the learner and/or faculty for validated quantitative instruments, which can be expensive, and may require formal certification training. The learner should get written permission from the owner of any data collection instruments or sources to be used. When doing a quantitative study, the learner should find a validated survey or instrument that has been used to collect the data for each of the variable(s) being studied. Developing a quantitative instrument could add 6 to 12 months to the study time because of the time to run validation studies. Developing a quantitative instrument based on a model or theory is often a doctoral dissertation by itself. Use the literature to find data collection instruments. Additionally, www.buros.org is a good source to use to look for validated tests and instruments.

For a qualitative study, the researcher may use and/or modify a previously-developed interview, questionnaire or observation form if they receive permission from the author. Or, the researcher may develop their own data collection tools. When developing qualitative data collection tools such as interview guides or observation guides, it is important to ensure they will collect all of the data needed to answer the research questions. Both the research questions, and the theories or models to provide the theoretical foundation for the study, should be used to develop qualitative instruments. Qualitative instruments or tools (interviews, questionnaires, or observation forms) need to be validated by a group of at least three experts AND must be field tested prior to data collection.

Criteria (Required Components): score 0-3

Learner Self-Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Chair or Reviewer Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Instrumentation or Sources of Data

Describes, in detail, all data collection instruments and sources (tests, questionnaires, interviews, data bases, media, etc.). Discusses the specific instrument or source to collect data for each variable or group (quantitative study). Discusses specific instrument or source to collect information to describe the phenomena being studied (qualitative study).

The recommend length for this section is one paragraph AND completion of Table 1 (quantitative) and/or Table 2 (qualitative) in Appendix B.

1. Identifies and describes the types of data that will be collected to answer each Research Question for a qualitative study. Identifies the data that will be collected for each Variable/Group in a quantitative study.

2. Identifies tools, instruments, or databases to be used to collect the data (e.g., observations, interviews, questionnaires, documents, media (qualitative), standardized tests, surveys, and databases (quantitative)). For a qualitative study, identify the specific tools, instruments, or databases for each research question in a qualitative study. For a quantitative study, identify the name of the specific “validated” and “previously used in quantitative research” survey or data source to be used to collect data for each variable, providing a citation for the instrument or data source.

3. ALIGNMENT: Aligns with the Research Questions (qualitative) or Variables (quantitative) previously described in the Research Question(s) and Phenomena or Research Questions, Hypotheses, and Variables section above. Identifies and describes the data and data source that will be used to answer each Research Question for a qualitative study. Identifies, describes, and names the type of numerical data and specific data collection instrument or source that will be used for each variable and group in a quantitative study.

NOTE: This section elaborates on Point #9 (Data Collection) from the 10 Strategic Points.

This information is summarized high level in Chapter 1 in the Proposal in the Nature of the Research Design for the Study section. This section provides the foundation for Instrumentation (quantitative) or Sources of Data (qualitative) section in Chapter 3.

NOTE: When writing this section ensure it has a logical flow, as well as uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, tense, punctuation, and APA format.

Comments from the Evaluator:

Data Collection Procedures

This section of the Prospectus includes a description and size of the target population and the expected sample to be realized from the target population. It also provides an overview of the step-by-step process that will be used to collect the data using the tools described in the previous section.

Criteria (Required Components): score 0-3

Learner Self-Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Chair or Reviewer Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Data Collection Procedures

This section details the entirety of the process used to collect the data. It describes each step of the data collection process in a way that another researcher could replicate the study.

NOTE: It is recommended that the researcher get written approval (or at the very least unofficial approval) to conduct their research study in their selected organization. Ensure the person (who is usually a school superintendent, school boards, or corporate officer) providing approval is authorized by the organization to grant approval for research. Do not assume your organization will allow you to collect data since many organization do not allow research to be completed within the organization.

The recommended length for this section is two paragraphs.

1. Defines the target population and the expected sample size, which comprises the people or organizations being studied , as defined in the problem statement. For quantitative studies, it justifies why the target population and expected sample size (final number of people or organizations being studied for which data will be collected) is large enough to produce statistically significant results (quantitative) or meaningful results (qualitative).

2. Provides an overview the proposed step-by-step procedure to collect data using the tools, instruments, or databases from the section above. Includes the steps (e.g., obtaining initial informed consent from participating organization; IRB review; sample selection; groupings; protecting rights/well-being; maintaining data security; sample recruitment; data collection instruments and approaches; field testing instruments; notifying participants; collecting the data, etc.) in a way another researcher can replicate the study. Steps may be provided in a list format.

3. ALIGNMENT: Shows the steps and approach to collect data for each and every data source identified in the Instrumentation or Sources of Data section. Defines the sample as the set of people or organizations being studied for which data will be collected. The sample size must be correct for the type of design selected to get statistically significant (quantitative) or meaningful (qualitative) results.

NOTE: This section elaborates on Points #4 (Sample and Location) and #9 (Data Collection) in the 10 Strategic Points .

This section provides the foundation for the Data Collection Procedures section in Chapter 3 in the Proposal. And it is summarized high level in Chapter 1 in Nature of the Research Design for the Study in the Proposal.

NOTE: When writing this section ensure it has a logical flow, as well as uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, tense, punctuation, and APA format.

Comments from the Evaluator:

Data Analysis Procedures

This section of the Prospectus provides an overview of the procedures that will be used to analyze the data. For each of the stated hypotheses (quantitative), it describes the types of statistical analyses (descriptive statistics and inferential statistics) to be used to do data analysis. For each research question (qualitative), it identifies the type of data analysis to be used to answer the research question. Data analysis for qualitative studies often uses descriptive statistics to summarize data. Additionally, it uses qualitative data analysis techniques that are often specific to the research design. Many qualitative studies use coding and thematic analysis as a part of their data analysis. Others use case study summaries, comparative case analysis, model creation, network analysis (Bernard and Ryan, 2010). Identify the specific data analysis approaches to be used in Table 1 for each hypothesis (quantitative) or in Table 2 for each qualitative research question (Appendix B).

Criteria (Required Components): score 0-3

Learner Self-Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Chair or Reviewer Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Data Analysis Procedures

This section describes how the data were collected for each variable or group (quantitative study) or for each research question (qualitative study). It describes the type of data to be analyzed, identifying the descriptive, inferential, and/or non-statistical analyses. Demonstrates that the research analysis is aligned to the specific research design.

The recommend length for this section is one paragraph AND completion of Table 1 (quantitative) and/or Table 2 (qualitative) in Appendix B.

1. Describes the analysis to examine each stated research question and/or hypothesis. For quantitative studies, describes the analyses including the inferential and/or descriptive statistics to be completed. F or qualitative studies, describes the specific analytic approach appropriate for the Research Design and each research question to be completed. In qualitative research the different research questions may require different approaches to doing qualitative data analysis, as well as descriptive statistics.

2. ALIGNMENT: For qualitative studies, there is a clear and obvious alignment between each research question, data to be collected, tool or data source, as well as data analysis to understand/explain the phenomenon. For quantitative studies, there is a clear and obvious alignment between each variable, data to be collected, instrument or data source, as well as data analysis for each hypothesis.

NOTE: This section elaborates on Point #10 (Data Analysis) from the 10 Strategic Points. This section provides the foundation for Data Analysis Procedures section in Chapter 3 in the Proposal.

NOTE: When writing this section ensure it has a logical flow, as well as uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, tense, punctuation, and APA format.

Comments from the Evaluator:

Ethical Considerations

This section of the Prospectus discusses the anticipated ethical issues surrounding the research including how human subjects and data will be protected. This section should also reference necessary IRB approval(s) required to conduct the research, the subject recruiting and informed consent processes, and how site authorization will be obtained.

Criteria (Required Components): score 0-3

Learner Self-Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Chair or Reviewer Evaluation Score

(0-3)

Ethical Considerations

This section discusses the potential ethical issues surrounding the research, as well as how human subjects and data will be protected. It identifies how any potential ethical issues will be addressed.

The recommended length for this section is one paragraph.

1. Discusses potential ethical concerns that might occur during the data collection process.

2. Describes how the identities of the participants in the study and data will be protected.

3. Describes subject recruiting, informed consent and site authorization processes.

4. ALIGNMENT: Ethical considerations are clearly aligned with, and relate directly to the specific Data Collection Procedures. This section also identifies ethical considerations related to the target population being researched and organization or location as described in the Purpose Statement section.

NOTE: This section does use information from any of the 10 Strategic Points.

This section provides the foundation for Ethical Considerations section in Chapter 3 in the Proposal.

NOTE: When writing this section ensure it has a logical flow, as well as uses correct paragraph structure, sentence structure, tense, punctuation, and APA format.

Comments from the Evaluator:

References

Bernard, H. Russell, and Ryan, Gery W. (2010). Analyzing qualitative data: Systematic approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Creswell, J.W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods Approaches. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Appendix A

The 10 Strategic Points for the Prospectus, Proposal, and Dissertation

Introduction

In the Prospectus, Proposal and Dissertation there are 10 key or strategic points that need to be clear, simple, correct, and aligned to ensure the research is doable, valuable, and credible. These points, which provide a guide or vision for the research, are present in almost any research. They are defined within this 10 Strategic Points document.

The 10 Strategic Points

The 10 strategy points emerge from researching literature on a topic that is based on, or aligned with, the defined need in the literature as well as the learner’s personal passion, future career purpose, and degree area. The 10 Strategic Points document includes the following 10 key or strategic points that define the research focus and approach:

1. Topic—Provides a board research topic area/title.

2. Literature review—Lists primary points for four sections in the Literature Review: (a) Background of the problem/gap and the need for the study based on citations from the literature; (b) Theoretical foundations (models and theories to be foundation for study); (c) Review of literature topics with key theme for each one; (d) Summary.

3. Problem statement—Describes the problem to address through the study based on defined needs or gaps from the literature.

4. Sample and location—Identifies sample, needed sample size, and location (study phenomena with small numbers and variables/groups with large numbers).

5. Research questions—Provides research questions to collect data to address the problem statement.

6. Hypothesis/variables or Phenomena—Provides hypotheses with variables for each research question (quantitative) or describes the phenomena to be better understood (qualitative).

7. Methodology and design—Describes the selected methodology and specific research design to address problem statement and research questions.

8. Purpose statement—Provides a one-sentence statement of purpose including the problem statement, methodology, design, population sample, and location.

9. Data collection—Describes primary instruments and sources of data to answer research questions.

10. Data analysis—Describes the specific data analysis approaches to be used to address research questions.

The Process for Defining the Ten Strategic Points

The order of the 10 strategic points listed above reflects the order in which the work is done by the learner. The first five strategic points focus primarily on defining the focus for the research based on a clearly defined need or gap from the literature as well as the learner’s passion, purpose and specialty area focus. First, a learner identifies a broad topic area to research for their dissertation based on a clearly defined need or gap from the literature—that they are interested in because it is based on their personal passion, future career purpose, and degree being pursued. Second, the learner completes a review of the literature to define the need or gap they will address, the theories and models that will provide a foundation for their research, related topics that are needed to demonstrate their expertise in their field, and define the key strategic points behind their proposed research. Third, the learner develops a clear, simple, one- sentence problem statement that defines the problem, or gap, that will be addressed by the research. Fourth, the learner identifies some potential population samples they would have access to in order to collect the data for the study, considering the fact the quantitative study sample sizes need to be much larger than those for qualitative studies. Fifth, the learner develops a set of research questions that will define the data needed to address the problem statement.

Based on the above five strategic points the learner now defines the key aspects of the research methodology through the last five strategic points. Sixth, the learner either describes the phenomena to be studied (if it is a qualitative study), or develops a set of hypotheses (matching the research questions) that defines the variables that will be the focus for the research (if it is a quantitative study). Seventh, the learner determines if the study will be qualitative, quantitative or mixed research based on (a) the best approach for the research, (b) the size of the sample they can get permission to access, (c) availability of data collection tools and sources, and (d) time and resources to conduct the study. Additionally, they select the best design approach considering these same factors. Eighth, the learner develops a purpose statement by integrating the problem statement, methodology, design, sample and location. Ninth, the learner identifies the data they will need to collect to address the research questions or hypotheses and how they will collect the data (e.g., interviews, focus groups, observations, tested and validated instruments or surveys, data bases, public media, etc.) Tenth, they identify the appropriate data analysis, based on their design, to be used to answer their research questions and address their problem statement.

Criteria for Evaluating the Ten Strategic Points: Clear, Simple, Correct and Aligned

When developing research, it is important to define the 10 strategic points so they are simple, clear and correct in order to ensure anyone who reviews them will easily understand them. It is important to align all of the 10 strategic points to ensure it will be possible to conduct and complete the research. The problem statement must come out of the literature. The research questions must collect the data needed to answer the problem statement. The methodology and design must be appropriate for the problem statement and research questions. The data collection and data analysis must provide the information to answer the research questions (qualitative) or test the hypotheses (quantitative). Developing the 10 Strategic Points as a two to three-page document can help ensure clarity, simplicity, correctness, and alignment of each of these ten key or strategic points in the prospectus, proposal, and dissertation. Developing these 10 strategic points on a two to three page document also provides an easy-to-use use template to ensure the 10 strategic points are always worded the same throughout the prospectus, proposal, and dissertation.

Appendix B

Variables/Groups, Phenomena, and Data Analysis

Instructions: Complete the applicable table to assist with your research design. Use Table 1 for quantitative studies. Use Table 2 for qualitative studies. Use both tables for mixed method studies. This table is intended to define how you will collect and analyze the specific data for each research questions (qualitative) and each variable (quantitative). Add additional rows to your table if needed.

Table 1

Quantitative Studies

Research Questions:

State the research Questions

Hypotheses:

State the hypotheses to match each Research question

List of Variables/Groups to Collect Data For:

Independent and Dependent Variable(s)

Instrument(s)

To collect data for each variable

Analysis Plan

Data analysis approach to (1) describe data and (2) test the hypothesis

1. 1.

2. 2.

3.

Table 2

Qualitative Studies

Research Questions: State the Research Questions that will be used to collect data to understand the Phenomenon being studied

Phenomenon:

Describe the overall phenomenon being studied by the research questions

Sources of Data:

Identify the specific approach (e.g., interview, observation, artifacts, documents, database, etc.) to be used to collect the data to answer each Research Question

Analysis Plan: Describe the specific approach that will be used to (1) summarize the data and (2) analyze the data.

2. 1.

3. 2.

3.

Prospectus Template v6.2.14.14

Research Materials/PSY815.v10R.10KeyStrategicPoints.docx

The 10 Key Strategic Points for the Prospectus, Proposal, and Dissertation

Introduction

In the prospectus, proposal and dissertation there are ten key strategic points that need to be clear, simple, correct, and aligned to ensure the research is doable, valuable, and credible. The 10 key strategic points emerge from researching literature on a topic which is based on or aligned with the learner’s personal passion, future career purpose, and degree area. These points provide a guiding vision for the research.

The Ten Strategic Points

A document outlining the 10 key strategic points includes the following that define the research focus and approach:

1. Topic – Provides a board research topic area/title.

2. Problem Statement - Describes the phenomena to study (qualitative) or variables/groups (quantitative) to study, in one sentence.

3. Purpose Statement – Provides one sentence statement of purpose including the problem statement, sample, methodology, and design.

4. Research Questions – Provides research questions to collect data to address the problem statement.

5. Hypothesis/Variables or Phenomena - Provides hypotheses with variables for each research question (quantitative) or describes the phenomena to be better understood (qualitative).

6. Literature Review - Lists primary points for four sections in the Literature Review: (a) Background of the problem/gap; (b) Theoretical foundations (models and theories to be foundation for study); (c) Review of literature topics with key theme for each one; (d) Summary.

7. Methodology and Design - Describes the selected methodology and specific research design to address problem statement and research questions.

8. Sample and Location – Identifies sample, needed sample size, and location (study phenomena with small numbers and variables/groups with large numbers).

9. Data Collection – Describes primary instruments and sources of data to answer research questions.

10. Data Analysis – Describes the specific data analysis approaches to be used to address research questions.

The Process for Defining the Ten Strategic Points

The order of the ten strategic points listed above reflects the order in which the work is done by the learner. The first five strategic points focus primarily on defining the focus for the research based on the learner’s passion and purpose as well as the review of the literature. First a learner identifies a broad topic area to research for their dissertation that they are interested in because it is based on their personal passion, future career purpose, and degree being pursued. Second, the learner than completes a preliminary, and then ongoing, review of the literature to define the gap or problem they will address, the theories and models that will provide a foundation for their research, related topics that are needed to demonstrate their expertise in their field, and define the key strategic points behind their proposed research. Third, the learner develops a clear, simple, one sentence problem statement that defines the problem, or gap, that will be addressed by the research. Fourth, the learner identifies some potential samples they would have access to in order to collect the data for the study, considering the fact the quantitative study sample sizes need to be much larger than those for qualitative studies. Fifth, the learner develops a set of research questions that will collect the data needed to address the problem statement.

Based on the above five strategic points the learner now defines the key aspects of the research methodology through the last five strategic points. Sixth, the learner either describes the phenomena to be studied (if it is a qualitative study), or develops a set of matching hypotheses that defines the variables that will be the focus for the research (if it is a quantitative study). Seventh, the learner determines if the study will be qualitative, quantitative or mixed research based on (a) the best approach for the research, (b) the size of the sample they can get permission to access, (c) availability of data collection tools and sources, and (d) time and resources to conduct the study. And they select the best design approach considering these same factors. Eight, the learner develops a purpose statement by integrating the problem statement, sample, methodology, and design. Ninth, the learner identifies the data they will need to address the research questions or hypotheses and how they will collect the data (e.g., interviews, focus groups, observations, tested and validated instruments or surveys, data bases, etc.) Tenth, they identify the appropriate data analysis to be used to answer their research questions and address their problem statement.

Criteria for Evaluating the Ten Strategic Points: Clear, Simple, Correct and Aligned

When developing research, it is important to define the ten strategic points so they are simple, clear and correct in order to ensure anyone who reviews them will easily understand them. It is important to align all of the ten strategic points to ensure it will be possible to conduct and complete the research. Developing the 10 Strategic Points as a two to three-page document can help ensure clarity, simplicity, correctness, and alignment of each of these ten key strategic points in the prospectus, proposal, and dissertation. Developing these ten strategic points on a two to three pages provides an easy-to-use use template to ensure the ten strategic points are always worded the same throughout the prospectus, proposal, and dissertation. A rubric has been developed and is included in the appropriate classrooms to assist you in evaluating your work in the creation of the ten strategic points.

Value of the 10 Strategic Points Document

This 10 Strategic Points document can be used for communicating and aligning key stakeholders for the dissertation. This document can be used to get agreement between the learner and the chair on the initial focus and approach for your research. The document can be used to review the proposed research with the people or organizations where the learner needs to get permission to conduct their research which is needed before the learner develops their Proposal. The document is useful for communicating the dissertation focus when attracting a Content Expert as well as for reviewing the proposal with the dissertation committee and the AQR reviewers. Further, submitting this document with the prospectus to the Methodologist will assist in demonstrating to the methodologist the methodology, design, data collection, and data analysis align with the problem statement, research questions, and hypotheses or phenomena.

Examples of the 10 Strategic Points Document

It is important that the ten strategic points are clear, concise, doable, and align throughout the prospectus, proposal, and dissertation. Following are samples for a quantitative study and a qualitative study. A mixed method study requires the completion of a sheet for both a quantitative and qualitative method and therefore takes more time and resources to complete. Additionally the learner must be able to do both qualitative and quantitative data analysis. A qualitative study with numbers or descriptive statistics does not mean it is mixed method study. Qualitative data can be displayed using tables, charts, graphs and descriptive statistics.

Example 1: Ten Strategic Points for a Quantitative Correlational Study:

1. Topic – Provides a board research topic area/title: Relationship of Servant Leadership behaviors in principals, school culture, and student performance

2. Literature review - Lists primary points for four sections in the Literature Review: a. Background of the problem/gap; b. Theoretical foundations (models and theories to be foundation for study); c. Review of literature topics with key theme for each one; d. Summary.

a. Background of the problem/gap;

i. The national call for school accountability is a critical issue that has gained attention from federal educational lawmakers given the rate at which American students are falling behind other countries influenced federal lawmakers in the creation of the NCL Act (Koretz, 2009).

ii. The school principal of the twenty first century has been asked to do and be competent in more and more tasks than the previous two centuries of school principals including improving student performance and the school culture (Kafka, 2009).

iii. The characteristics of school culture are complex, and a leader must understand these complex variables before they create change with the school (MacNeil et al., 2009).

iv. Black (2010) conducted a mixed method correlated study showing relationship of servant leadership and school climate.

v. Pritchard et al. (2005) explored the relationships between district and school culture and student achievement.

b. Theoretical foundations (models and theories to be foundation for study);

i. Servant leadership model (Greenleaf, 1977; Patterson 2003)

ii. School culture models (MacNeil, 2009; Schein, 1985)

iii. Broad set of studies exploring relationship among these two models and performance in school. (Halawah, 2005; MacNeil et al.,2009)

c. Review of literature topics with key theme for each one;

i. National Agrenda: Need to improve the performance of students in schools to be competitive as a nation (Koretz, 2009 ).

ii. Changing Role of Principal: The role of the principal in American schools has changed dramatically from its beginnings of uniformed education (Rousmaniere, 2007).

iii. Servant Leadership in Principals lead to More Effective leaders: The study used the Self-Assessment for Servant Leadership Profile (SALS) to assess whether or not a leader was a servant leader and the Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) to assess principal effectiveness. (Taylor et al., 2007).

iv. Principal’s Behavior influence School Culture: The principal’s influence on school culture has an indirect effect on organizational and cultural factors of a school (MacNeil et al., 2009).

v. School Culture influences Student Performance: A strong relationship exists between school culture and student performance (McCoach et al., 2004).

vi. Measuring Servant Leadership Behaviors: About 10 validated/tested Instruments exist to measure Servant Leadership Behaviors some of which have been used in schools

vii. Measuring Culture: Validated/tested instruments to measure culture exist and have been used in schools.

viii. Measuring Student Performance: State Test Scores are a standardized way to measure student performance used across all schools in a state.

d. Summary.

i. Gap/problem: There is a need to identify different approaches to improve student performance

ii. Prior studies: Prior studies show various relationships between tweo of the three variables (servant leadership behaviors, culture and student performance) with only one exploring all three

iii. Quantitative study: Instruments and sources of data exist to collect numerical data on the three variables

iv. Significance: research will add to the broad area of correlating leadership, culture and performance; research may identify specific approaches to be use by school leadership to improve student performance

3. Problem statement - Describes the phenomena to study (qualitative) or variables/groups (quantitative) to study, in one sentence: It is not known if there is a relationship between the level of a principal’s servant leadership behaviors and characteristics as perceived by teachers in principals and school climate as perceived by teachers.

4. Sample and location – Identifies sample, needed sample size, and location (study phenomena with small numbers and variables/groups with large numbers).

a. Location: Alaska

b. Population: All schools in rural Alaska

c. Sample: One district in rural Alaska with approximately 20 principals who each lead a single school

d. Number of observations for each principal in the sample: There are 5 to 10 teachers in each school all of whom will be asked to complete the instruments on the principal

5. Research questions – Provides research questions to collect data to answer the problem statement: R1: What is the relationship between teacher-perceived principal servant leadership characteristics and teacher-perceived school culture? R2: Are there relationships between teacher-perceived principal servant leadership characteristics and student achievement? R3: Are there relationships between teacher-perceived school culture and student achievement?

6. Hypothesis/variables or Phenomena - Provides hypotheses with variables for each research question (quantitative) or describes the phenomena to be better understood (qualitative).

a. H1: There is a significant relationship between a principal’s servant leadership characteristics as perceived by teachers and measured by the SLAI and teacher-perceived secondary school culture as measured by the SCS.

b. H10: There is not a significant relationship between a principal’s servant leadership characteristics as perceived by teachers and measured by the SLAI and teacher-perceived secondary school culture as measured by the SCS.

c. H2A: There is a significant relationship between the principal’s servant leadership characteristics as perceived by teachers and as measured by SLAI and student achievement measured by the SIVS.

d. H2A0: There is not a significant relationship between the principal’s servant leadership characteristics as perceived by teachers and as measured by SLAI and student achievement measured by the SIVS.

e. H3A: There is a significant relationship between teacher perceived secondary school culture as measured by the SCS and student achievement as measured by the SIVS.

f. H3A0: There is a significant relationship between teacher perceived secondary school culture as measured by the SCS and student achievement as measured by the SIVS.

7. Methodology and design - Describes the selected methodology and specific research design to address problem statement and research questions: This study will use a Quantitative methodology with a Correlation Design

8. Purpose statement – Provides one sentence statement of purpose including the problem statement, sample, methodology, and design: The purpose of this quantitative correlational study was to develop an understanding of the relationships between secondary school principals teacher-perceived servant leadership, teacher-perceived school culture, and student achievement in all of the schools in the Lower Kuskokwim School District.

9. Data collection – Describes primary instruments and sources of data to answer research questions:

a. Independent variable: Level of principal’s servant leadership characteristics /behaviors: Data will be collected using one of the standard instruments/surveys that measure the Servant Leadership Style by measuring level of servant leadership characteristics in 6-10 dimensions currently used for similar studies (Dennis and Bocarnea; 2005)

b. Dependent variable: Level of climate in the school: : Data will be collected using one of the standard instruments/surveys currently used for similar studies that measure School Climate by measuring the different dimensions of climate (MacNeil et al., 2009).

c. Dependent Variable: Student performance will be measured by the state/school standardized test scores (SIVS).

10. Data analysis – Describes the specific data analysis approaches to be used to address research questions.

a. Descriptive statistics will be used to summarize the sample descriptive data and the data on the three variables

b. To test the hypotheses and research questions, inferential statistics were calculated for the hypothesis (H1, H2A, H3A) tested using simple linear regression analysis.

c. A test for univariate outliers will be conducted to determine if any cases may not statistically be part of the sample collected.

Example 2: Ten Strategic Points for a Quantitative Causal Comparative Study:

1. Topic – Provide a board research topic area/title: Impact of teacher collaboration within Mathematics PLCs on Texas state math assessments

2. Literature review - List primary points for four sections in the Literature Review: a. Background of the problem/gap; b. Theoretical foundations (models and theories to be foundation for study); c. Review of literature topics with key theme for each one; d Summary:

a. Introduction and Background

i. Gap exists in tactics that contribute to improved performance in mathematics state test scores especially for low SES Hispanic students (NCES, 2010). .

ii. Opportunity to quantity the relationships between collaboration in teachers and higher state mathematics test scores (DuFour, 2011).

b. Theoretical Foundation

i. Models of collaboration (Naughton, 2006). 

ii. Models of high performing schools (Sanders, 2010; Wilson, 2011),

c. Review of Literature topics with key theme:

i. Trends in Education at the National & State Level: Gaps exist in the performance on state mathematics tests (NCES, 2010)

ii. Characteristics of the Low SES Student Population: Although performance gaps continue to be higher for some high minority low SES schools (NCES, 2010), others are high performing or excelling schools on state test results (Jensen, 2009; Dyson, H. 2008). .

iii. Professional Learning Communities (PLCs): PLCs are being established with departments to improve collaboration and identify tactics to improve student performance (DuFour, DuFour, Eaker, & Many, 2006).

iv. Teacher Collaboration: Collaboration has been shown to contribute to school and student success in qualitative but not quantitative studies (Piccardi, 2005; Erkens, 2008; DuFour, 2011).

v. Teacher Collaboration (independent variable) can be measured using a tested and validated instrument (dependent variable) (Naughton, 2006); Student Achievement can be measured using mathematics results on state test scores

d. Synthesis/Summary

i. Background: There is Need to Close the Mathematics Achievement Gap

ii. Gap/Problem: Demonstrate relationship between collaboration in PLC and mathematics achievement in high minority low SES grade schools

iii. PLCs: The Way to Implement Change is through Collaboration through PLCs

iv. Collaboration: Collaboration is a mean to Impact Student Achievement

v. Final Thoughts

3. Problem statement - Explain the phenomena to study (qualitative) or variables/groups (quantitative) to study, in one sentence: It is unknown what differences exist, if any, in the levels of perceived teacher collaboration within PLCs in schools identified as high performing versus those reported at low performing schools, which serve both a high percentage of low SES students and Hispanic students, on state math assessment.

4. Sample and location – Identify sample, needed sample size, and location (study phenomena with small numbers and variables/groups with large numbers): Need at least 30 grade schools that are high performing and 30 that are low performing on state mathematics test scores with a part of the state of Texas. Schools need to have established PLCs for mathematics.

5. Research questions – Provide research questions to collect data to answer the problem statement: R1: What differences exist, if any, between the levels of perceived teacher collaboration within PLCs in schools identified by the state of Texas as high performing versus those perceived at low performing schools that serve both, a high percentage of low SES and Hispanic students, on state math assessment?

6. Hypothesis/variables or Phenomena - Develop Hypotheses with variables for each research question (quantitative) or describe the phenomena to be better understood (qualitative)

a. Compare high performing schools on their state test scores in mathematics (group 1) to low performing schools (group 2) on their perceived level of collaboration in the mathematics PLCs.

b. HA: There would be a significant difference between the levels of perceived teacher collaboration within PLCs in schools identified by the state of Texas as high performing versus those perceived at low performing that serve both, a high percentage of low SES and Hispanic students, on state math assessment.

c. H0: There would be no significant difference between the levels of perceived teacher collaboration within PLCs in schools identified by the state of Texas as high performing versus those perceived at low performing that serve both, a high percentage of low SES and Hispanic students, on state math assessment.

7. Methodology and design - Describe the selected methodology and specific research design to address problem statement and research questions: Quantitative methodology with a causal comparative research design

8. Purpose statement – Provide one sentence statement of purpose including problem statement, sample, methodology, and design: The purpose of this causal comparative quantitative study is to examine to what extent the level of teacher collaboration within Mathematics PLCs is a factor that affects the mathematics achievement level on the Texas mathematics assessment of elementary schools identified as 'high performing' or 'low performing', serving a majority of low SES and Hispanic students.

9. Data collection – Describe primary instruments and sources of data to answer research questions: For the independent variable, this study will use the Mathematics Staff Interaction Questionnaire (MSIQ) developed by Naughton (2006). To measure the dependent variable, the researcher will use archival data (provided by the district’s Research Review Board office) for each elementary school in one North Texan school district to rank schools based on achievement level as indicated by the 2011 Texas mathematics assessment.

10. Data analysis – Describe the specific data analysis approaches to be used to address research questions: Descriptive statistics will describe the sample characteristics and variable results. An independent t-test will test for difference between the two groups of 30 schools (high performing versus low performing on mathematics) on level of collaboration: A priori analysis will be used to justify the sample size.

Example 3: Ten Strategic Points for a Qualitative Case Study:

1. Topic – Provides a board research topic area/title: A Case Study of how a comprehensive global programme, the International Baccalaureate Middle Years Programme, influences the success of a single middle school.

2. Literature review - Lists primary points for four sections in the Literature Review: a. Background of the problem/gap; b. Theoretical foundations (models and theories to be foundation for study); c. Review of literature topics with key theme for each one; d. Summary.

a. Background of the problem/gap:

i. Prior studies which show a relationship between achievement in mathematics and literacy and taking a language identified need to study how taking a foreign language leads, especially in immersion programs, to higher levels of cognitive development as reflected in higher scores in mathematics and literacy (Stewart, 2008).

ii. Dr. Celestine Gail Carr (1994) concluded that further studies on the effects of foreign language studies on vocabulary, mathematical concepts, and mathematical computations examining for a correlation between foreign language aptitude and mathematical aptitude at the middle school level.

iii. Dr. Carolyn Joyce Taylor-Ward (2003) identified the need for future sties on relationship between studying elementary school foreign language and academic achievement on state test scores.

b. Theoretical Foundations (models and theories to be foundation for study);

Lev Vygotsky, a pioneer in developmental psychology researched the development of language and its relationship to thought (Vygotsky, 1986). Vygotsky studied cognitive development and its relationship to the role of social interaction with the environment (Vygotsky, 1978). Vygotsky proposed that language, along with environmental social interaction helps a child to learn to reason (Vygotsky, 1978). Learning a foreign language is a social activity that involves a learner’s interaction with the environment and their teacher. Vygotsky’s model supports the assumption that cognitive development transfers in the Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky, 1978). The International Baccalaureate Middle Years Program provides a medium for which a More Knowledgeable Other and the Zone of Proximal Development take place. Learners demonstrate through interaction in organized debates, hands-on experimentation projects, investigations, and problem solving activities.

c. Review of literature topics with key theme for each one;

i. Historical Events: Historically, there have been laws enacted, government initiatives, and global events that have driven the need for support of a global education as well as improved performance in basic areas such as mathematics and literacy within the United States of America.

ii. National Security: Today’s global realities make it imperative for the United States to adapt a global perspective including learning foreign languages as a priority for U.S. national security and to help the U.S. remain a global leader.

iii. Global Literacy: There are high performing schools that have comprehensive global learning programs, which have contributed to students’ cognitive development and resulting improvements of national and state standardized test scores.

iv. Cognitive Development: Empirical research shows that a relationship exists between cognitive development, comprehensive global learning, and student success in areas such as mathematics and literacy.

d. Summary.

i. United States priority for global literacy to be competitive and secure.

ii. Learning foreign languages leads to improved cognitive development and student performance.

iii. Gap in terms of additional research needed to examine these findings.

3. Problem statement - Describes the phenomena to study (qualitative) or variables/groups (quantitative) to study, in one sentence: It is not known how the International Baccalaureate Middle Years Programme influences the success of a single middle school in the state of Georgia.

4. Sample and location – Identifies sample, needed sample size, and location (study phenomena with small numbers and variables/groups with large numbers).

a. Location: The state of Georgia of the United States of America.

b. Population: A school district with over 25 schools.

c. Sample: A single middle school that uses the International Baccalaureate Middle Years Programme and has over 500 students.

5. Research questions – Provides research questions to collect data to answer the problem statement:

10. R1: What is the nature and structure of the International Baccalaureate Middle Years Programme?

10. R2: How does the International Baccalaureate Middle Years Programme impact school success including Annual Yearly Progress?

10. R3: What factors of the International Baccalaureate Middle Years Programme contribute to cognitive development?

10. R4: What factors of the International Baccalaureate Middle Years Programme contribute to global literacy?

10. R5: How does the leadership of an International Baccalaureate Middle Years Programme contribute to a schools’ success?

10. R6: How is the International Baccalaureate Middle Years Programme evaluated?

6. Hypothesis/variables or Phenomena - Provides hypotheses with variables for each research question (quantitative) or describes the phenomena to be better understood (qualitative).

a. Phenomenon: Understanding the nature and impact of an International Baccalaureate Middle Years Programme in a single middle school in the state of Georgia on global literacy and improvement in cognitive development as well as mathematics and literacy performance.

7. Methodology and design - Describes the selected methodology and specific research design to address problem statement and research questions: The methodology is qualitative. The design is a single case study of a single program and how it influences a single middle school.

8. Purpose: The purpose of the qualitative single case study is to determine how the International Baccalaureate Middle Years Programme influences the success of a single middle school in the state of Georgia.

9. Data collection – Describes primary instruments and sources of data to answer research questions:

a. The researcher will get an overview of the International Baccalaureate Programme through the website provided by the International Baccalaureate.

b. The investigator will look at the Georgia Department of Education’s public database to determine if state standardized test scores of this single middle school show success in performance and other dimensions of performance that display on the public database.

c. The investigator will interview the founders of and curriculum developers of the International Baccalaureate to understand focus of program and how it develops global literacy and may lead to improved cognitive development reflected in mathematics and literacy scores on state tests.

d. The investigator will interview the International Baccalaureate Middle Years Programme school-based principal, programme coordinator, and foreign language teachers.

e. Media, curriculum (designer and school based), and evaluation reports about International Baccalaureate Programme will contribute to the study.

f. The researcher will look at factors of the International Baccalaureate Middle Years Programme (curriculum, reports, interviews with developers and the school-based principal) that contributes to cognitive development and global literacy.

10. Data analysis – Describes the specific data analysis approaches to be used to address research questions.

a. Data will be organized and prepared for analysis.

b. Descriptive statistics will summarize the data.

c. Coding will generate themes used to address the research questions.

Research Materials/Quantitative Nature of Social.pdf

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How to Cite this Article

ISRN Neurology Volume 2013 (2013), Article ID 201719, 5 pages http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/201719

Review Article

Quantitative Nature of Social Vulnerability and Autism: An Important Paradigm Shift in the DSM-5 for Autism Spectrum Disorder Shinji Ijichi, Naomi Ijichi, Yukina Ijichi, Kazumi Hirotaki, Hisami Sameshima, Yoichi Kawaike, and Hirofumi Morioka

Health Service Center, Kagoshima University, 1-21-24 Korimoto, Kagoshima 890-8580, Japan Institute for Externalization of Gifts and Talents (EGT), 7421-1 Shimofukumoto-cho, Kagoshima 891-0144, Japan

Received 25 March 2013; Accepted 11 April 2013

Academic Editors: A. Martinuzzi, D. Mathieu, and A. K. Petridis

Copyright © 2013 Shinji Ijichi et al. is is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract

In the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition (DSM-IV), autistic characteristics in social interaction and communication are described as qualitative impairments. However, the difference between autistics and nonautistics in the dra of the 5th edition (DSM-5 dra) is quantitative rather than qualitative. e word “qualitative” is deleted in the dra text, and it is speci ed that the relation between social demands and individual limited capacities is critical for symptom manifestation (criterion C). Because the proposed levels of support requirement in the dra are mere observable outcomes of social vulnerability, the boundary between level 1 and nonautistic condition is determined by the relation between social demands and individual capacities. In addition to the introduction of the single category (autism spectrum disorder (ASD)) to cover the entire case spectrum, the DSM-5 dra is clearly based on a conviction that ASD is indistinguishable from the normal behavioral range. is concise review provides an explanation for this implicit paradigm shi from qualitative to quantitative. Importantly, the conditional role of social demands for symptom manifestation in the draft can be plausibly interpreted using a unique liability-probability model.

1. Introduction

e development process of the h edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) is nearing its conclusion, and it is already scheduled for release in May 2013 (http://www.dsm5.org/). Although there has been a lot of debate on the new dra criteria for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) [1–3], the official commentaries from the DSM-5 workgroup on neurodevelopmental disorders suggest minor additional revisions in the upcoming nal version [4]. Because the proposals in the dra are supported by more than a decade of scientific evidences after the launch of DSM-IV, the implications in the draft proposals are significant, and it is quite meaningful to designate the implicit differences between the draft and the former version.

In DSM-IV, autistic characteristics in social interaction and communication are described as qualitative impairments. However, the difference between autistics and nonautistics in the DSM-5 dra is quantitative rather than qualitative. e word “qualitative” is deleted in the dra text, and it is suggested that the diagnosis of ASD may not be con rmed until social demands exceed limited capacities as documented in the criterion C. e proposed levels of support requirement in the dra are mere observable outcomes of social vulnerability. erefore, the boundary between level 1 ASD and non-autistic condition is determined by the relation between social demands and individual capacities. e DSM-5 dra is clearly based on a conviction that ASD is indistinguishable from the normal behavioral range. is important paradigm shi to a quantitative construction on autism is implicitly introduced in the dra. Here we challenge to illustrate the backgrounds of this paradigm alteration and introduce a unique liability-probability model to explain the entire structure of autism.

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2. Autism and Biological Markers

Autism is a developmental lifelong condition of the human brain, and a behavioral characterization as a spectrum is the best way to de ne this complex trait [5]. e predominant presence of autistic cases without comorbidity [6] clearly means that the biological effects associated with the known concomitant medical conditions (cytogenic abnormalities, fragile X syndrome, tuberous sclerosis, congenital infection, maternal thalidomide use, epilepsy, etc.) cannot be the common prerequisite for autism at least in the majority of the cases. e involvement of genetic factors is evident from the results of twin study, and many gene variants which seem to affect brain development and synaptic functions have been reported in association with ASD [7]. However, the reported gene variants are, at present, nothing but one of the concomitants in a small percentage of the cases [8]. ere is as yet no qualitative biological marker which is cosegregated with ASD, and even the molecular deviations associated with the reported gene variants have not been con rmed [8]. Because the apparent involvement of genetic factors or high heritability does not vindicate the condition as a diagnostic category [9], the evolutionary survived trait may be the dimensional diversity itself [8].

3. Two-Dimensional Properties of Autism in the Draft of DSM-5

While the dra of DSM-5 is at the nal revision stage, the core amendments associated with ASD seem to be reserved for the May 2013 release [4]. e core proposals in the dra include introduction of the single category to cover the entire case spectrum, uni cation of the social and communication criteria, creation of severity criteria, and development of a new related category (social communication disorder). Although the introduction of the case spectrum named ASD attracts a vast researcher’s attention [1–3], the other important conceptual alteration associated with the whole dimension of social vulnerability is implicitly introduced to DSM-5, as summarized the following (Section 3.2).

3.1. The ASD Case Spectrum Which Incorporates DSM-IV Separate Subtypes

e potential bene ts for research and clinical practice of incorporating a dimensional component into the existing categorical classi cation system in the DSM have been underscored in the review and planning process for DSM-5 [10]. e presence of the continuity between typical autistic cases and the so-called other subtypes had consistently been recognized [1, 5, 11]. However, in order to increase the apparent reliability across diagnosticians, related diagnoses including Asperger’s disorder, childhood disintegrative disorder, and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise speci ed had been introduced in DSM-IV (1994) as distinct categories. is position, which has sometimes caused a misunderstanding that there are clear clinical distinctions among diagnostic subtypes of ASD [12], has completely been changed in the dra of DSM-5. e proposal by the neurodevelopmental work group recommends to employ a dimensional umbrella, ASD, which would incorporate previously separate diagnoses, including autistic disorder, Asperger’s disorder, childhood disintegrative disorder, and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise speci ed. e move from subgrouping to the unifying description is supported by some recent studies [13–16]. In addition, in our opinion, hyperactive children with a diagnosis of attention-de cit/hyperactive disorder (AD/HD) have also difficulty in social communication and obsessive traits and should be involved in this ASD case spectrum [17].

3.2. The Whole Dimension

Excellent authorities appreciated the smooth behavioral continuum between individuals with ASD and the non-autistic majority [5, 18], but autistic characteristics have sometimes been represented as qualitative impairments [19]. DSM-IV speci ed that the behavioral de cits in social interactions and communication must be qualitatively out of proportion to the individual’s cognitive level, without de ning the difference in quantitative terms [20]. Although it was repeatedly emphasized that the supposed qualitative diagnostic segregation can be judged by an experienced clinician [5, 21], there is no evidence that any aspect of the autistic phenotype is qualitatively distinct from normal development. e term “qualitative” was used in the categorical approach to illustrate the range of impairments [19] on the assumption that the autistic behavioral range is qualitatively distinguishable from the normal range. Many population studies challenged this assumption and revealed that ASD is best characterized as an extreme of a bell-shaped behavioral dimension that distribute quantitatively from normal development to autistic development [22–31]. In the DSM-5 dra for ASD, there is no description of “qualitative,” and it is demonstrated that a balance between social demands and individual limited capacities is critical for the diagnosis. If social demands do not exceed limited capacities in an individual, autistic symptoms may not become fully manifest (Criterion C), and if educational or social support is not required because of the fewer social demands, the condition cannot ful ll the criteria for the lowest severity level (Level 1). In contrast to DSM-IV, the DSM-5 dra is clearly based on a conviction that ASD is indistinguishable from the normal behavioral range.

3.3. Subdimensions in the Whole Dimension

Proposed changes in the DSM-5 dra include reducing the domains from three to two by merging the social interaction and communication domains into a single domain (social communication domain). Regarding the three domains of DSM-IV, population-based quantitative studies have provided important information which suggests that the phenotypic components of the triad may arise from different genetic or environmental clusters [25, 26, 32]. is complex structure was illustrated as a “family of dimensional phenotypes” that includes symptoms and level of functioning [33]. Because the modest correlations between each subdimension [25, 26, 32] may make it troublesome to illustrate each implication in the whole dimension, a putative parameter which can indicate the degree of net autistic characteristics in each individual is postulated as the whole dimension in this paper for further consideration.

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4. Population Settings and Clinical Settings

In spite of the converging evidence that ASD is best characterized as an extreme of a bell-shaped behavioral dimension that distribute quantitatively from normal development to autistic development [22–31], ASD can still be documented as a categorical entity in clinically ascertained samples [34]. is fact in clinical settings may be the underpinning for the qualitative or categorical de nitions in DSM-IV. In order to illustrate the backgrounds of the important paradigm alteration in DSM for autism from qualitative to quantitative, samples of research data should be divided according to the sampling elds, population settings or clinical settings. Population settings provide the eld of population studies, population-based twin studies, screening studies, and community sample studies. Clinical settings involve the eld of clinically ascertained studies, proband- based studies, outpatient studies, and institutionalized sample studies.

5. Backgrounds of the Paradigm Shift from Qualitative to Quantitative

In the traditional liability-threshold model, susceptibility to a condition, where there are two apparent phenotypic classes, affected or not affected, is recognized as an underlying dimensional continuity (liability) with a threshold, which imposes a discontinuity on the visible expression [35]. Here, the putative parameter which can indicate the degree of net autistic characteristics in each individual is introduced as described previously, and a sigmoid relationship is assigned between the autistic continuity and the social vulnerability (Figure 1). To interpret the DSM-5 criterion, “symptoms may not become fully manifest until social demands exceed limited capacities,” this vulnerability value should be mere a probability, and the actual maximum value is less than 1.0 in this sigmoid model. erefore, there is no absolute threshold in this liability-probability model.

Figure 1: Two-dimensional properties of autism in different settings. e rst one (the case spectrum) in clinical settings is designated as a small skewed distribution (black) at the bottom right of the gure. e other (the whole dimension) in population settings is located at the top of the gure, which has a sigmoid relationship with social vulnerability and involves both nonautistics and autistics as described in text. Under this liability- probability model, the vulnerability is low but not zero in the majority (white part), modest in the border zone (grey), and very high but not the maximum in the extreme tail (black).

e two distributional dimensions are illustrated in the Figure 1. As reviewed previously, the rst one (the case spectrum) is well considered in the DSM-5 dra as a unifying category, ASD. e other (the whole dimension) has a sigmoid relationship with the social vulnerability. ASD merges into what can be called eccentric normality (the border zone) and there is no clear cutoff point as described by Wing [5]. Importantly, even in the autistic extreme tail, only if social demands exceed their limited capacities, the autistic individuals can be resigned to the susceptibility resulting in maladaptation, socioeducational withdrawal, or isolation, and the autistic symptoms can become fully manifest, as described in the DSM-5 dra. Because ASD cases can be easily distinguished from non-ASD cases in clinical settings, both diagnostic accuracy and interrater reliability are high enough for the expert diagnosticians to enjoy the applause as “true gold standard” (diagnosis) providers [4]. In population settings, however, especially for individuals in whom social demands do not exceed their limited capacities, both autistic characteristics and the individual social vulnerability cannot be the absolute determinant to accurately expect coming limitation of everyday functioning.

6. Discussions

e signi cance of a balanced sampling in both settings, population and clinical settings, was already suggested by several research authors [3, 34]. e referral bias can in uence sensitivity and speci city in studies to evaluate criteria [3]. Especially in taxometric studies, which are usually used to distinguish a categorical model from a dimensional model, population-based samples may be critical for a comprehensive understanding [34]. DSM-5 may have a broader perspective to view the entire situation of autism researches than former criteria, and in the dra the case spectrum in clinical settings and the conceptual alteration concerning social vulnerability are both introduced as described previously. is concise review provides an explanation for the con ict between the qualitative framework [34] and the quantitative framework [22–31]. Importantly, the conditional role of social demands for symptom manifestation in the dra can be plausibly interpreted using a unique liability-probability model.

In population settings, none of the autism screening tests has been shown to be able to ful ll the properties of accuracy [36]. e difficulty in the implementation of a routine population-based screening program for autism can be explained from our perspective. As described in the DSM-5 dra, even in the autistic extreme tail, only if social demands exceed their limited capacities, the autistic individuals can be resigned to the susceptibility resulting in maladaptation, socioeducational withdrawal, or isolation, and the autistic symptoms can become fully manifest. For individuals in whom social demands do not exceed their limited capacities, both autistic characteristics and the individual social vulnerability cannot be the absolute determinant to accurately expect coming limitation of everyday functioning. erefore, the occurrence of misdiagnosis and overdiagnosis may be inevitable in screening programs using available tools in population settings [36].

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In proband-based family studies, the probands are cases in clinical settings, but the nonprobands (siblings, cotwins, etc.) are in population settings with a sampling bias. e low compatibility of recent results with previous data regarding sibling recurrence risk and twin concordance rates may be partly attributable to the poor interrater agreement in the diagnostic decisions for nonprobands [37, 38].

7. Conclusions

In 1999, the research on autism was metaphorically depicted as a situation in which “myopic investigators are still patting the elephant” [20]. Can we say now that the confused state is merely historical [33, 39]? DSM-5 for ASD may at least have a broader perspective to view the entire structure than former criteria, and in the dra the case spectrum in clinical settings and the conceptual alteration concerning social vulnerability are both introduced. We hope that these proposals warrant further constructive considerations from broader viewpoints after the launch of DSM-5.

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Research indicates significant health disparities for individuals with autism. Insight into characteristic

sensory, cognitive, communication, social, emotional, and behavioural challenges that may influence...

Teaching social–emotional skills to school­aged children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A treatment versus control trial in 41 mainstream schools

December 2014

Belinda Ratcliffe | Michelle Wong | David Dossetor | Susan Hayes

This study examined the effectiveness of ‘Emotion­Based Social Skills Training (EBSST)’ a manualised

social–emotional intervention designed to improve emotional competence in school­aged children with...

Increasing physical activity in young adults with autism spectrum disorders

December 2014

Kate B. LaLonde | Brian R. MacNeill | Laura Wolfe Eversole | Steven P. Ragotzy | Alan Poling

Although regular physical exercise is clearly beneficial, many people with autism spectrum disorders do not

exercise regularly. The present study used a multiple­baseline­across­participants design...

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Autism and lack of D3 vitamin: A systematic review

December 2014

G. Pioggia | A. Tonacci | G. Tartarisco | L. Billeci | F. Muratori | L. Ruta | S. Gangemi

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by social

communication deficits and restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior. Several medical conditions

including...

Differential electrophysiological responses to biological motion in children and adults with and without autism spectrum disorders

December 2014

Masahiro Hirai | Atsuko Gunji | Yuki Inoue | Yosuke Kita | Takashi Hayashi | Kengo Nishimaki | Miho

Nakamura | Ryusuke Kakigi | Masumi Inagaki

Although atypical processing of biological motion (BM) in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

has been reported, the temporal profile of the neural response to BM is not well explored. In...

The Roland–Morris disability scale for the assessment of non­specific low back pain outcomes among disability sector workers

December 2014

Jin­Ding Lin | Sheng­Fang Su | Lan­Ping Lin | Shang­Wei Hsu | Jia­Ling Wu | Cordia M. Chu

Low back pain (LBP) is the most common cause of time lost from work and has significant personal

impacts and societal burdens. Caregivers for patients with disabilities have a high LBP prevalence that...

Serum vitamin D and folate levels in children with autism spectrum disorders

December 2014

Çağatay Uğur | Cihat Kağan Gürkan

It has recently proposed that vitamin D and folate may be involved in the aetiology of autism. We

investigated the serum levels of vitamin D, calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), alkaline phosphatase (ALP)...

Social and non­social deficits in children with high­functioning autism and their cooperative behaviors

December 2014

Jing Li | Liqi Zhu | Jing Liu | Xue Li

The persistent deficits in social communication and social interactions of individuals with high­functioning

autism (HFA) may impair their cooperative behaviors. This study investigated the relationship...

Broader autism phenotype as a risk factor for postpartum depression: Hamamatsu Birth Cohort (HBC) Study

December 2014

Ryosuke Asano | Kenji J. Tsuchiya | Nori Takei | Taeko Harada | Yumeno Kugizaki | Ryuji Nakahara |

Chikako Nakayasu | Akemi Okumura | Yukiko Suzuki | Shu Takagai | Norio Mori

The broader autism phenotype (BAP), which refers to the expression of behavioral and cognitive

propensities that are milder but qualitatively similar to those defining autism spectrum disorder, can...

Characteristics of aggression among persons with autism spectrum disorders

November 2014

Johnny L. Matson | Hilary L. Adams

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a commonly occurring life long developmental disorder with core

symptoms of communication and social skills deficits. Stereotyped and repetitive behaviors are also...

Normative sample of the PEAK relational training system: Direct training module and subsequent comparisons to individuals with autism

November 2014

Mark R. Dixon | Jordan Belisle | Seth W. Whiting | Kyle E. Rowsey

The present data provide a normative sample of the PEAK: direct training module assessment and a

subsequent comparison to individuals with autism. Altogether, 206 typically developing participants and...

Inflectional morphology in high­functioning autism: Evidence for speeded grammatical processing

Demo Version ­ Winnovative Software Components

November 2014

Matthew Walenski | Stewart H. Mostofsky | Michael T. Ullman

Autism is characterized by language and communication deficits. We investigated grammatical and lexical

processes in high­functioning autism by contrasting the production of regular and irregular past­tense...

Autistic children do not exhibit an own­race advantage as compared to typically developing children

November 2014

Sarina Hui­Lin Chien | Liang­Huei Wang | Chien­Chung Chen | Tzu­Yun Chen | Hsin­Shui Chen

The characteristics of aberrant face processing in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have

been extensively studied, but the aspect regarding sensitivity to race is relatively unexplored....

The effect of intellectual disability on the presence of comorbid symptoms in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder

November 2014

Rachel L. Goldin | Johnny L. Matson | Paige E. Cervantes

Research is limited in examining the presence of comorbid symptoms in children and adolescents with

autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and co­occurring intellectual disability (ID). The current study aimed...

Emerging cognitive profiles in high­risk infants with and without autism spectrum disorder

November 2014

A. Jessica Brian | C. Roncadin | E. Duku | S.E. Bryson | I.M. Smith | W. Roberts | P. Szatmari | I. Drmic | L.

Zwaigenbaum

This paper examined early developmental trajectories in a large, longitudinal sample at high­risk for ASD

(‘HR’) and low­risk (‘LR’) controls, and the association of trajectories with 3­year diagnosis....

Altered right frontal cortical connectivity during facial emotion recognition in children with autism spectrum disorders

November 2014

Michael K. Yeung | Yvonne M.Y. Han | Sophia L. Sze | Agnes S. Chan

A growing body of evidence suggests that autism spectrum disorders (ASD) is associated with altered

functional connectivity of the brain and with impairment in recognizing others’ emotions. To better...

Early intervention for autism: Who provides treatment and in what settings

November 2014

Johnny L. Matson | Matthew J. Konst

Early intensive interventions have become popular. Thus, not surprisingly, the amount of research

surrounding this topic has increased and evolved rapidly. The persons providing treatment, the settings...

Assisting students with autism to actively perform collaborative walking activity with their peers using dance pads combined with preferred environmental stimulation

November 2014

Ching­Hsiang Shih | Man­Ling Chang | Shu­Hui Wang | Chang­Lu Tseng

The purpose of this study was to provide students with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) the opportunity to

cooperate with their peers. This experiment was designed so that students with ASD and their...

Methodological considerations when assessing restricted and repetitive behaviors and aggression

November 2014

A.J. Keefer | L. Kalb | M.O. Mazurek | S.M. Kanne | B. Freedman | R.A. Vasa

Methodological issues impacting the relationship between aggression and restricted, repetitive, and

stereotyped behaviors and interests (RRSBI) were examined in 2648 children and adolescents with

autism...

Systems analysis of associations over time between maternal and sibling well­being and behavioral and emotional problems of children with autism

November 2014

Richard P. Hastings | Michael A. Petalas | Leah Jones | Vasiliki Totsika

Demo Version ­ Winnovative Software Components

Taking a family systems perspective, several research studies have shown that the family context

(especially maternal well­being) predicts psychological adjustment in children with autism. This work...

The relationship between autism quotient, anxiety, and internet addiction

November 2014

Michela Romano | Roberto Truzoli | Lisa A. Osborne | Phil Reed

This study investigated internet addiction across the broad autism phenotype, and assessed the degree to

which internet addiction in individuals with higher autism quotient scores may be mediated by...

Emotional intelligence modulates cortisol awakening response and self­reported health in caregivers of people with autism spectrum disorders

November 2014

N. Ruiz­Robledillo | L. Moya­Albiol

Caring for people with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) has negative consequences for caregivers’

health. Specifically, caregivers of people with ASDs have been observed to have more somatic symptoms,...

Increasing social approach and decreasing social avoidance in children with autism spectrum disorder during discrete trial training

November 2014

M. Alice Shillingsburg | Crystal N. Bowen | Steven K. Shapiro

Instructions presented during discrete trial training (DTT) may evoke problem behavior and exacerbate

social avoidance in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Given the importance of DTT in...

Impact of DSM­5 on epidemiology of Autism Spectrum Disorder

November 2014

Luke Y. Tsai

This paper extensively and comprehensively reviews the literature on epidemiology of autism focusing on

the prevalence rates of Autistic Disorder (AD) and Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), and the potential...

A contrast of comorbid condition and adaptive function between children with Autism Spectrum Disorder from clinical and non­clinical populations

November 2014

Ju Hee Park | Young­Shin Kim | Yun­Joo Koh | Jungeun Song | Bennett L. Leventhal

To investigate factors that might hamper early identification of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), the present

study examined differences between comorbid conditions and adaptive functions measured by...

Exploring the persuasive writing skills of students with high­functioning autism spectrum disorder

November 2014

Heather M. Brown | Andrew M. Johnson | Rachael E. Smyth | Janis Oram Cardy

Previous studies of students with high­functioning autism spectrum disorder (HFASD) have shown great

variability in their writing abilities. Most previous studies of students with HFASD have combined...

Children assessed for Autism Spectrum Disorder: Developmental delay and change over time in BDI­2 developmental quotients

November 2014

Lindsey W. Williams | Johnny L. Matson | Rachel L. Goldin | Hilary L. Adams

Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) often have overall developmental delays and delays in

developmental domains outside of the core ASD symptoms. Research results have been mixed

regarding...

One­year course and predictors of abdominal pain in children with autism spectrum disorders: The role of anxiety and sensory over­responsivity

November 2014

Micah O. Mazurek | Amy Keefer | Amy Shui | Roma A. Vasa

To examine the one­year course of parent­reported abdominal pain in children with autism spectrum

disorder (ASD), and to determine whether anxiety and sensory over­responsivity (SOR) contribute to the...

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Research Materials/Research Aim.docx

The Research Aim

The aim of this study is to develop substantive theory about how parents deal with the education of their child diagnosed with an Autism Spectrum Disorder. Exploratory Analysis of the Effects of Stress on Specific Quantifiable Variables of How parents deal with the education of their child with an Autism Spectrum Disorder.

See research proposal of Jasmine McDonald pdf using qualitative method. This Research will use Quantitative method. Use Jasmine McDonald pdf as a model methodologies will differ considerably.

Question 1

Based on Exploratory Analysis of the Effects of Stress on Specific Quantifiable Variables of How parents deal with the education of their child with an Autism Spectrum Disorder, identify two categorical/nominal scale IVs and one continuous scale DV you could incorporate for your study. State the null and alternative hypotheses based on this design (with a planned analysis using a factorial ANOVA). (Research support is not required for this question.)

Question 2

Considering the variables and design that you described in the first question, what information would a factorial ANOVA provide you (think of which F-values are computed and evaluated)? Why would this be significant to your research? (Research support is not required for this question.)

Research Materials/Voices_From_Within_Dena_Gasner_Summer_2013.pdf

F A A S T i m e s

Voices from Within: One Family’s Story about College

By Dena Gassner, MSW ,

Page 9

My son, PK*, is not traditional college material. I admit that. Diagnostically speaking, he’s not a “Big Bang Theory” kid — more like a “Forrest Gump.” But, like Forrest, he will “run, Forrest, RUN!” to achieve.

We decided college (maybe not four years but a residential stay) was his goal, due to his

sheer determination and never ending work ethic. He’s not the most academically gifted student; perfectionism wasn’t an issue. He has Asperger Syndrome and multiple learning disabilities. But he never quits.

As you consider college for your child, recognize how critically important these qualities are. Many students are very intelligent and academically gifted but fear failure in an incapacitating way, or have such intense desires to learn independently that classwork is “boring.” Others are still insecure and not confident in themselves.

College placements to support these needs are out there but burdensome to address— especially if you are looking at a long-distance placement.

Our trajectory to success started with PK ordering his first Happy Meal. It continued when I left our home with PK and we moved three times to pursue his high school diploma, with which he finally graduated in 2010 with

What I Wished I’d Known: What You Should Anticipate with the Transition to College

He has Asperger Syndrome and multiple learning disabilities.

But he never quits!

F A A S T i m e s

Voices from Within (cont.)

By Dena Gassner, MSW ,

Page 10

a 3.1 GPA. We worked on independent living (skills and exploring adaptations) through all of middle and high school. I intentionally took a travel job during his last two years of high school and we used pals from the hockey team

(he was their manager) and church to provide

peer-to-peer support so his dependency on me would lessen and learning to depend on others would expand.

Note that we weren’t trying to make him independent per se, but dependent on others in an appropriate fashion.

Soon it was time to do some campus-based trials. We signed up for a three-week transition program with a prominent company at a hugely (in my opinion) unreasonable expense, but with few options, we did it. He went to another state across the country. I ignored my better instincts (technology was to be left at home—that should’ve caught my eye as you can’t force social interaction by denying downtime) and left him there.

They did not understand the most basic way to communicate with a student who has limited language under pressure. They did not provide the activities they said they would. They most certainly did not provide a safe environment (he was bullied by other participants and he could not get his accommodated, reported food needs met). I was sick. But he survived it.

F A A S T i m e s

Then we looked at regional college programs.

We tried the neighborhood community college only to find there was no community in community college. There were no windows in the classroom (visual sensitivities to fluorescent lights could not be supported). There were inconsistencies in the teaching from the teacher’s methodology and the tutoring office. The teacher was never available. And all the independent living skills we’d worked on would regress if he was left at home (If you’re there to do the laundry, you’ll be doing the laundry.)

We considered our region’s two residential colleges with

autism support programs. (Disability service programs are rarely sufficient or

properly prepared for the uniquely different learning styles and gaps of those with

autism conditions.)

We caught a break in that the two in-state programs mandated a higher ACT score for enrollment to the college. This allowed us to look outside the state for options and still

benefit from Vocational Rehabilitation funding. Still, we needed to “interview” with the

Autism programs in the region to demonstrate that they would not

accept him.

Page 11

V o i c e s f r o m W i t h i n ( c o n t . )

F A A S T i m e s

The interviewers did all the same things wrong. □ Interviewed a male student using female social strategies

(face-to-face rather than a sideways conversation). □ Interviewed him in an office (many ASD students have had many

traumatic events that involved office settings such as behavior issues, testing and evaluations, and isolation by bad people).

□ Asked abstract, open-ended questions (most ASD students struggle to “find” words to

communicate when non-direct and non-specific questions are posed). □ They refused to consider a video we compiled that showed him in a place of job and

accomplishment (alternative interviewing strategies should be accepted) and disregarded his 3.1 GPA because the grades did not match the low ACT score and the outward expression of his autism (he’s absurdly shy).

□ Faced with a challenged communicator, they—the interviewers—experienced their own

anxiety and a cycle of fearful energy developed. I often see that in these situations; less experienced facilitators mirror the student’s discomfort and transfer their own feelings of inadequacy back onto the person with ASD. The shared anxiety becomes palpable.

□ In one setting, with tangible anxiety manifesting, the interviewer reminded PK that “his

mother would not be there to help him.” Not the best way to reduce anxiety.

Page 12

V o i c e s f r o m W i t h i n ( c o n t . )

What are your thoughts about attending college?

Page 13

V o i c e s f r o m W i t h i n ( c o n t . )

Now, with evidence that there was no in-state option and the funding that provided, we looked for the smallest campus we could find which specialized in learning differences. This took us to a college for the learning disabled. Red flags abounded but we had no ideas of where else to look.

His Barriers at the LD Program:

□ An inability to interview. (Duh, he DOES have AUTISM). For some bewildering reason, the one skill that his disability most impacted was the one they measured the most. They refused to consider the DVD and suggested it was “produced” (yeah, with a flip camera and I am some tech wizard).

□ From that, they presumed incompetence. I did smile and beam when he rocked a

request to interpret the actions in a scene from Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein. Instead of seeing this as evidence of ability, they looked at him like it was a once in a lifetime savant task. They were not impressed—more like— shocked.

□ They required his first term to be a summer term. Most typical students can’t

survive a four-week summer term. The pace is frenetic. □ None of us recognized the issues with the heat. It was a southeastern state in June

and July. The heat exhausts many kids with ASD.

His Requested Accommodations:

□ Note-taker

□ A weekly schedule of class responsibilities for executive function

□ Assistance in composing papers from the writing center

□ Teacher Power Points and outlines

□ Study guides

□ Books for use by Kurzweil reader

F A A S T i m e s

V o i c e s f r o m W i t h i n ( c o n t . )

Page 14 F A A S T i m e s

College Issues:

□ The only accommodation that he was meaningfully provided was the support from the writing center. Even there, supervision accused him of cheating because he could do the work.

□ Class notes were provided however he was still required to take notes, as were all the other students, many of whom shared his dysgraphia.

□ Upon observation, the teachers had not adapted their teaching styles to be inclusive. The only thing different in 3 of 4 classroom was that they were smaller.

□ They were short-staffed, resulting in only one hour per week of tutorial support. □ The “insider” who recruited us left after one month.

□ The “phenomenal” teachers were intolerant, uncaring and inflexible.

□ Unlike a typical college classroom where 3/30 students had special needs, all 15/15 did.

□ There were no other classes to shift to. Small is good– tiny is terrible.

□ They were so unprofessional as to be unable to give us his grades the week prior to the term, resulting in him having to take three W’s (withdrawals). $30,000 per year for three W’s and it wasn’t his fault.

□ I asked for suggestions of private tutors to help, which they refused to support.

□ Even meeting with the college president was met with inaction.

V o i c e s f r o m W i t h i n ( c o n t . )

Page 15 F A A S T i m e s

What a disaster!

I was sure he would give up, but this is PK who never quits. He took another term off while we searched. Throughout this crisis, the voices that assured me that our expectations were “reasonable” and “doable” were Dr. Jane Thierfeld Brown of College Autism Services (a private contractual college placement and Skype based student support program at autismcollege.com) and Dr. Marc Ellison of Marshall University.

They listened as I cried and railed at the misrepresentation and injustice of it all. They were very generous to teach me, specific to PK’s needs, what was “reasonable” under the law and what was “beyond the scope of what could be expected.” This would be key as Jane’s insight into specific limitations of disability services helped me to reshape my own expectations including the reality that it would take a private support person for him to succeed.

Now I Knew What I was Looking For:

□ I would use the interview style to identify those who “got it” from those who didn’t. The college AND the family are interviewing EACH OTHER– it’s not only for the university.

□ I would not allow the interview UNTIL the DVD was watched. He needed them to have that as their first impression.

This book is by

Jane Thierfeld Brown, EdD

& colleagues!

V o i c e s f r o m W i t h i n ( c o n t . )

Page 16

□ I would hire a 10-12 hour a week academic tutor for executive function support. If the university was unwilling to make referrals for that, we needed to move on. □ I needed a more moderate climate for his physical needs.

□ I would stop living in a scarcity-thinking mode and recognize that my son was good enough for somewhere.

Finally, Marshall University (MU) came to our rescue, and agreed to a preliminary interview.

Here’s what went right:

□ The majority of the interview took place in a lounge with the interviewer sitting beside PK (no demand for eye contact).

□ When the interviewer saw anxiety manifesting, he shifted the questions to me (no questions about PK– just random chatting to reduce the pressure).

□ Upon seeking PK pull out a prized movie, the interviewer used his special interest to engage PK in a discussion that was concrete, focused and one that would build his confidence. He soared!

□ The interviewer weighed PK’s capacity to talk about what interested HIM to ascertain his abilities rather than weighing his ability to make random chatter.

□ The program considered the individual—not their “success rate” alone as a priority. This one is a big hidden issue in many post-secondary programs degreed and otherwise. They only want to take the most obviously capable students to ensure they have good numbers. Marshall wants the most committed students. One many not be the same as the other.

F A A S T i m e s

What else has gone right? Well, we have found MU to be collaborative with families.

While independence is what we strive for, we can’t expect it on Day One. Since

MU embraces that the parents know their kids best, they engage parents in

strategizing, problem-solving and identifying goals for each term while

maintaining a respectful level of privacy for the individual. This is very different

from most programs that assert involved parents are “helicopter parents” and

simply cut parents off at the door. In my opinion, this is the reason for most

programmatic failures (it is not the student). And, just as an FYI, parents ONLY

become overly involved on the front end because they see that their child is not

adequately communicating under pressure or because they see that anxiety is

interfering with performance. Students who have physical reasons they can’t

speak are provided translators—kids with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) need

that accommodation too. Meet the students’ needs and we are outta there!

V o i c e s f r o m W i t h i n ( c o n t . )

Page 17 F A A S T i m e s

V o i c e s f r o m W i t h i n ( c o n t . )

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Marshall helped us find two incredible tutors: a specialty tutor in geology first term, and a full-time one-to-one person who has been PK’s “external executive function” all year. A learning disabilities specialist, Kenny, has been the linchpin in what it would take for PK’s work to be timely and task-driven. MU works intimately with Kenny to ensure that they understand what they need for PK’s academic needs and they communicate those needs to the faculty. Standard disability services and most college autism programs could not reasonably provide this. While MU doesn’t either, they are willing to facilitate opportunities for parents to interview and discover these critically needed academic mentors. Simply put, without Kenny, PK could not be in college. Without MU’s willingness to collaborate with Kenny, PK would not be in college. Without the highly trained graduate assistants who serve as his “communicator”, PK would not be in college. An unexpected gift was that we found the professors to be more flexible and creative than they were at a learning disabilities college specially designed for “different learners.” They are reasonable. They are approachable. They are generous. One retiring professor established such a close bond with PK as to agree to meet with him twice weekly during a summer class that’s taught on-line.

Marshall has a Regent’s Bachelors of Arts (RBA) Diploma that does not mandate a foreign language or math (for students who have exited high school (HS) more than four years from HS graduation). While I wish he’d been more successful initially, the delays benefited him by making him eligible for the RBA. His area of emphasis is history and he seeks employment in museums with his degree. (FYI, some students have gone on to graduate school with this degree. )

F A A S T i m e s

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F A A S T i m e s

Most of all, the team at MU has seen MY SON. They saw the happy, well-adjusted, dedicated kid in the video that treated every day of being the hockey team manager as a “job.” They realized how far he had come to complete an honors diploma in high school, even if his ACT scores were not a good measure of that.

They appreciate that, given an Excel Spreadsheet schedule each Monday, PK is totally self- sufficient at navigating campus and keeping his essential appointments. They see a “low drama” student who is very responsible and never gives up. They appreciate his higher independent living skills and personal organization. They respect that he spends in excess of 33 hours a week in tutoring or studying to accomplish 12 hours of coursework (with grades this term of A, B, B, C!).

This. Kid. Never. Quits. That was the hardest part for me to grieve. None of the other programs could see his work ethic and commitment. I ached that this was not recognized, appreciated or validated. Here at MU, that happens. The flow of work between all of the parties is seamless. We are a team. His needs were considered in a highly individualized manner. He’s learned to use public transportation. He’s generalized his laundry skills to a key card operated system. He’s independently found, embraced, and now lunches with one of the surviving coaches from the MU plane crash in 1970. I know, all of the guys are over 70, but he’s developed relationships.

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He belongs. He bleeds green. Oh, and by the way—I was only in the office twice this semester. How’s THAT for “independent?” The so-called “helicopter mom” has graduated. That’s what happens with positive reinforcement, right?

Dena Gassner is a licensed social worker who operated the Center for Understanding in

Nashville, Tennessee, a systems navigation support program designed to expedite individuals

and families affected by ASDs through existing systems for support. She is an advisory board

member for the ASA and GRASP national offices. She is the parent of Patrick, 23, a sophomore

at Marshall University, who is benefiting from their Asperger’s program, and Brooke, 27, the

Assistant Director of Creative Design for a major university.

PK and Coach at PK’s birthday celebration!