Annotated Bibliography
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ADMINISTRATOR CONNECTIONS: ELAINE BERNSTORF
Reading Acquisition in Music and Language: The Cry for Preschool Music Endures
Kodály is famous for saying that a child's
music education "should begin nine months
before the birth of the mother" (Interview
with Ernö Daniel, Santa Barbara, CA, 1966).
Research in infant and child development
continues to support this premise. Kodály
and othet early-childhood researchers, such as
Pestalozzi, Montessori, and Piagét, advocated
for early-childhood experiences that foster
exploration of sound, especially musical
sound, as a precursor to literacy. Today, a va-
riety of music programs have been designed
for infants, toddlers, and preschoolers in
both public and ptivate settings. Researchers
in fields such as neuropsychology, audiol-
ogy, and speech pathology have joined forces
with musicians, music therapists, and music
educators to consider the role of music acqui-
sition in child development. Reading special-
ists are taking note of this movement as well.
In this article I explore parallels for music and
language literacy acquisition that may inform
administtators who, in times of fiscal scarcity,
ate forced into difficult decisions about in-
cluding pteschool music ptograms.
Sound Acquisition: Language and Music in Infancy
From a child's birth until the end of his
or het schooling, patents, teachers, and other
professionals chart a child's developmental
milestones. Important milestones relate to
communication, especially receptive and
expressive language, and record how children
respond to the sounds in theit world. Almost
every developmental chatt contains an early
milestone similar to "tutns head to sound" as
one of the markers of normal development.
Since it is so important for communication,
health professionals may even teach patents
ways of getting babies to turn their heads
toward sounds, especially for babies who may
have potential heating difficulties (University
of Minnesota, 2009). In addition to first
wotds, references to a "favorite song" or the
child's singing will be noted on many charts
(University of Washington, n.d.).
Music educators should consult these
milestone charts and become familiar with
milestones that relate to music learning (see
sidebar of selected milestone charts). While
most music educators in public schools do
not provide ditect services for infants and
toddlers, music educators can and should
advocate fot parents and caregivers to en-
gage their infants and toddlers in auditory
development through sound exploration
and music experiences.
Brain Research and Music Researchers have demonstrated that hu-
man infants who ate exposed to the sounds
of music and language can process language
and music with more sophistication than we
might realize, given their inability to know
and understand all the content those sounds
represent (Saffron, 2003, p. 1). Intetprofes-
sional research has begun to document that
while music and language ate different enti-
ties to adults, there are many parallels and
some overlaps for music and language pro-
cessing in young children (Patel 2003, 2008;
McMullen & Saifran, 2004).
Asoridou and McQueen (2013) state
that a "cottelation between the ability to
perceive, discriminate and process music
sounds, on the one hand, and the ability to
perceive and pronounce non-native speech
sounds in musically naive individuals on
the othet, suggests that common processing
mechanisms mediate both" (p. 2).
Nina Kraus has shepherded many stud-
ies on music and language (see listing at
www.soc.northwestern.edu/brainvolts). In
a recent atticle, "A Little Goes a Long Way:
How the Adult Btain Is Shaped by Musical
Training in Childhood," Skoe and Kraus
(2012) describe neural benefits of music
training related to the number of years of
music practice. They also show that these
neural changes persevere even after many
years of discontinued practice. They suggest
that "musical training during development
may produce long-lasting positive effects on
the adult brain" (2012, p. 11509). Othet
research suggests that the subcortical areas
of musicians' brains actually function differ-
ently, and those differences seem related to
their musical ttaining, rather than musicians
having different inherent structures (Strait,
Parbery-Clark, O'Connell, & Kraus, 2013).
So what does all this mean for music
educatots and theit administrators? Overall,
brain research continues to indicate that
early-childhood music education does make a
difference in learning. It appears that the re-
sulting neurological differences continue for
many years and that the experiences enhance
abilities in auditory processing, aspects of
language, and reading acquisition. In sum-
Selected Milestone Charts American Speech Language Hearing Association: Typical Speech and Language Devel-
opment, www.asha.org/public/speech/development/default.htm.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Developmental Milestones, www.cdc .gov/ncbddd/actearly/milestones/index.html
First Signs, Inc.: Hallmark Developmental Milestones, www.firstsigns.org/healthydev /milestones.htm
National Institute on Deañiess and Other Communication Disorders: Speech language developmental milestones. N I H Publication No. 10-4781, www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/
voice/pages/speechandlanguage.aspx#2
NICHY: The National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities: Develop- ^ ^ mental milestones, http://nichcy.org/disability/milestones
24 KODALY ENVOY
mary, musicians show
• enhanced auditory processing of a nature
that supported stronger responses to
sound than their nonmusical peers (Skoe
Ô£ Kraus 2012),
• better attention and working memory
(Tierney and Kraus, 2013), and
• better processing of speech in noise
(Strait, Parbery-Clark, O'Connell, &
Kraus, 2013).
All these skills relate to beginning reading.
Reading Acquisition: Music and Language Join Forces
Many excellent books and articles dis-
cuss how the brain processes and supports
both music and language. Among the most
comprehensive are writings by Patel (2003,
2008), McMuUen and Saffran (2004), and
Asaridou and McQueen (2013). The techni-
cal nature of these studies may not make
them the easiest bedtime reading for a busy
musician—teacher, but the results of the re-
search show that music educators have been
on the right path for a very long time. It ap-
pears that when we bring good music literacy
experiences to young children and youth, we
provide the very same benefits as those who
teach language reading, plus the enjoyment
of an arts experience. Good for us!
In times of economic stress in schools,
music programs often are reduced. When
that happens, it seems we seldom cut the
high school pep band or the musical as those
entertaining venues give identity to the
school and appropriate social outlets for ado-
lescents' raging hormones. No, the cuts usu-
ally start with preschool music and also may
be reflected in fewer and shorter sessions for
elementary music (unless it is the contractual
planning time for other teachers).
With block schedules and increased
time for Common Core curriculum, music
educators are working hard to maintain the
programs they have. How can they encour-
age offerings for even younger students? By
developing a music curriculum that overlaps
and intertwines with language literacy yet
maintains the very features of music that
research now shows enhance learning. In
2002, Dee Hansen and I explored possible
connections between music and literacy
learning. We discussed aspects of decoding
and comprehension in both disciplines with
suggested language for how music teachers
and reading teachers could support each
other's work. We now have strong research
to support that earlier theoretical discussion.
Studies by a variety of researchers were
summarized in an article by Asaridou and
McQueen (2013). Their recent work sup-
ports the anecdotal evidence that music edu-
cators have experienced for many years. They
argue that there are bidirectional interactions
between language and music, especially in the
area of pitch recognition. Asaridou and Mc-
Queen described studies that have compared
speakers of tonal languages (such as Manda-
rin) and trained musicians, as well as research
that compared trained phoneticians, linguists,
and language interpreters with musicians.
Across the board, there were behavioral, elec-
trophysiological, and neuroimaging data that
showed effects for language experience on
music and sound processing. In other words,
as learners learn more about sound, they ac-
tually begin to process sound differently.
Asaridou and McQueen (2013) cited
additional evidence that experience in mu-
sic supports improved language and sound
processing. They explained that the systems
of music and language seem to be interac-
tive; yet in many cases, trained musicians
seemed to excel at both music and language.
Asaridou and McQueen described music as
providing benefits that they term "perceptual
attunement." Perceptual attunement is the
idea that, with experience, perceptual abilities
are refined to a point of being "tuned" (p. 10).
These authors continued to hst even more
studies with other positive outcomes. In sum-
mary, they said, "other higher-order cognitive
functions such as auditory working memory,
IQ, and executive fixnctions are also enhanced
in musicians and contribute to their behav-
ioral performance superiority" (p. 10).
Internationally, music educators have
been interested in the relationship between
music and language for decades, but the
flurry of new studies brings additional
excitement to the field and truly validates
their work. Today, advocacy for music can
be about more than feeling good or school
spirit. It literally is about perceiving the world
in a different and "higher-order" way. As we
give students music experiences, especially in
early childhood, we enhance both their music
and language learning. Even when working
with young children, we routinely plan les-
sons where children do the following:
Attend to musical sounds but then shift their
focus to the language to work on lyrics
and diction.
Focus on the specific characteristics of indi-
vidual elements of sound (timbre, time,
intensity, frequency) but then shift focus
toward the complex combinations evi-
dent as texture, harmony, form, and style.
Listen to a specific musical line within a
multipart texture, thereby helping their
speech recognition in noise.
Structure what they hear into chunks (pat-
terns) and then recognize and remember
those patterns (auditory working memory).
Classify and categorize patterns as same or
different, as repetitions, as contrasts, as
imitations or sequences.
Order the remembered patterns and label them
by place (first, second) or as type of form.
Follow aural directions and then later be
able to talk about what they heard, did,
and learned using very discipline-specific
vocabularies (notation, words, solfège,
rhythm syllables).
Ultimately, we ask children to master
their executive functions to skillfully/ÍW^CÉ'
sounds hy predicting, controlling, and then
executing vocal or physical responses inde-
pendently, yet synchronized with others in
very precise ways.
Our ultimate goal is to help students de-
code the specific components of music, and
then develop a comprehensive understanding
of those same musical sounds (including the
linguistic aspects of vocal music).
Elementary music educators generally
don't think of music and language as totally
separate—for us every song is one thing.
Most elementary teachers structure their
teaching in ways that strengthen the ties
between music and language. The Kodály
system develops music and language through
meaningfU games and activities designed to
encourage child literacy for both music and
language. In the text Kodaly Today, Kodály is
quoted, "Without literacy today there can no
more be a musical culture than there can be
a literary one " (Houlahan & Tacka, 2008, p.
115). They also cite Elliot's observation that
"the ability to decode and encode a system
of musical notation is not equivalent to mu-
Fall 2013 25
sicianship. It is only part of the formal and
procedural dimensions of musicianship" (p.
115). Elliot indicated that literacy should be
learned "parenthetically and contextually—as
a coding problem to be gradually reduced
within the larger process of musical problem
solving through active music making" (p.
115). Education reforms now stress develop-
ing a child's problem-solving ability. Yes, we
already do that!
However, just "singing and doing music
in context" will not get the job done. It is not
enough to just make music. Students don't
just discover literacy. They must be carefully
taught using direct or guided instruction
(Rosenshine, 2012). This is what is termed
top-down processing. In their summary of
research for how speech and music "shape
the listening brain," Asaridou and McQueen
(2013, p. 1) indicated that musicians have a
distinct advantage. They cite the work of Pa-
tel (2011). Patel infers that music experience
triggers cognitive or top-down auditory pro-
cessing mechanisms for music htczxise focused
attention xnA purposeful repetition are essential
elements of music training. Asaridou and
McQueen feel that explicit training to "pay
attention to sounds offers a great advantage
to musicians over tone language speakers, for
instance" (p. 10). Asaridou and McQueen
also suggest that when a child acquires his or
her own native language, "little explicit focus
is placed on phonology and other sound
properties of the speech signal (contrary to
what's happening when learning a second
language)" (p. 10).
However, as a speech pathologist, I may
slightly disagree with these gentlemen about
there being little focus on phonology (sound
properties) of the speech signal when learning
a native language. In my experience, good
parents, especially mothers, do focus a child's
attention on the sounds of the language and
work with that child to refine pronuncia-
tion of certain sounds (for example, animal
sounds, car and truck sounds, tongue click-
ing) and fiinctional words. Many parents and
adult caregivers work repeatedly to refine a
child's speech sounds so that even unfamiliar
listeners can meet the child's needs if the care-
giver is not there to interpret. Unclear speech
is one of the primary reasons parents refer
their child for a speech or hearing evaluation.
Parents also introduce their children
to the coding system that represents sounds
in the written language by pointing to
meaningful words and their corresponding
pictures in children's books. I agree that it
all seems "unfocused" because it happens
over time and is generally experienced in
informal daily contexts. This is the true
nature of the "mother-tongue" method that
both Kodály (1974) and Suzuki (1981) talk
about in their seminal works. The children
of some musicians may experience a simi-
lar unfolding where their growth in music
seems almost automatic because of gradual
daily exposure to musical sounds and the
symbols that their parents read to produce
those sounds. For these children, sound to
symbol to sound is a lovely and natural cycle
of learning. In fact, Suzuki advocated for
initially teaching the parent while the child
just casually observed. He stated that even-
tually the child would become motivated
and think "I want to play, too" (p. 14).
I would also agree that excellent musi-
cal training does focus on the properties of
sound, especially when that training clearly
presents sequenced learning experiences
(such as those in Kodály, Dalcroze, Suzuki,
and music learning-theory curriculums). I
further agree that excellent music instruc-
tion can and will simultaneously benefit
both the music and language learning of
these children in observable ways. If we
truly want to foster both language and mu-
sic literacy, we need both and understanding
of the actual features of sound (Bernstorf,
2008) within a conceptual framework that
informs our planning and direct instruction.
Conceptual Framework for Music Literacy Acquisition
So far, I have focused on the impor-
tance of preschool music as a precursor to
music literacy and a facilitator of language
literacy. Before we discuss use of a music
literacy framework, I would like to credit
the work of the National Reading Panel
in their seminal work Teaching Children
to Read (2000) and the work of Sebastian
Wren (2000) for his reading framework
found on the website www.sedl.org. SEDL
is a consulting resource that focuses on edu-
cational development. Wren's work in the
area of reading has been especially helpful in
my work. Wren's resource, as well as the text
The Music and Literacy Connection (Hansen,
Bernstorf, and Stuber, 2004), describe the
importance of balancing a student's learning
of the symbol system (decoding) and the
understanding of the meaning behind that
system (comprehension). As music educa-
tors, we want to foster balanced musicians,
not simply musical-sound reproducers.
Kodály understood this primary princi-
ple for fostering music literacy. He suggested
that teachers need to do the following:
• First, give children balanced and enjoyable
experiences with music (prepare).
• Follow with direct instruction on the sym-
bol system (present/make conscious).
• Then provide continual opportunities for
rehearsal (practice) to develop both skill
automaticity and multiple contexts for
concept generalization.
• Finally, provide frequent feedback (assess-
ment) to help the child refine his or her
skills and understandings.
This cycle of learning continues to be
proven highly effective. Research has dem-
onstrated that direct instruction with constant
feedback is one of the primary precursors to
learning, especially for young learners or for
those with special needs (Rosenshine, 2012).
In public education, national and state
standards provide specific destination points
for learners. Since 1994, the nine National
Standards for Music Education (Consor-
tium of Arts Education Associations) have
provided learning parameters. Their replace-
ment, the Core Arts Standards will be forth-
coming. Curriculum maps guide the scope
and sequence of the learning. For Kodály
teachers, that scope and sequence is based
on developmental and cultural specifics.
However, a conceptual framework provides
a somewhat broader structure that under-
girds the more overt aspects of the learning
that we see in the sequence. In this case,
the suggested framework for music literacy
acquisition describes a desirable balance of
decoding and comprehension experiences.
Figure 1 is a conceptual framework
for music literacy acquisition that Jennifer
Kordonowy and I designed to describe the
elements of music-literacy learning from the
child's initial awareness of music codes to
potentially advanced levels of understand-
ing (Bernstorf & Kordonowy, 2013). The
table continues to be a work in progress as
26 KODALY ENVOY
we work with parents and speech-pathology
students to assist them in understanding
the value of music experiences that we have
fostered within our preschool and Reading
Explorer's programs. The table in its cur-
rent state represents a learning hierarchy and
should be read from bottom to top. Every
child individually experiences the physical
sensations of sound (timbre, time, intensity,
and frequency). Through these experiences,
he or she begins to construct understandings
about those sounds. In our graphic, these
experiences surround the child's perceptions,
but are grouped to emphasize two primary
structures that support literacy: decoding and
comprehension. Understanding that supports
music comprehension has been paired with
terms related to reading acquisition related
to comprehension. In past writings, we have
referred to similar perceptual experiences as
"threads of the literacy fabric" (Hansen, Ber-
nstorf, and Stuber, 2004, p. 1). They include
(1) bacl^round knowledge of mtisic (cultural
exposures); (2) the structures of music (pho-
nology); (3) musical patterns (syntax); and
(4) music vocabulary (semantics). The right
pillars relate to skills in music that lead to
the decoding of music notation. Such skills
include (1) global sound symbol awareness;
(2) concepts about graphic notation that
include (2a) notation principles (how sound
segments represent musical patterns or con-
tours); and (2b) knowledge about individual
notational symbols (and how those symbols
translate to sounds with discrete character-
istics (timing, pitch, articulation). The next
Conceptual Framework lor Music Literacy Acüisition: © Elaine Bernstorf 2013
Music Literacy Music Comprehension
(Musicology)
Individual Experiences
Music Decoding* (Sight-Reading)
Re-production of "music conventions" such as global sound groupings (e.g., tempo, meter contours) and actual sound segments
e.g., scales, rhythmic or melodic motifs, measures, phrases, form)
3 i VI ÛJ
n" c?. 01 o
:3
UJ ° — § .
fD _ - Q. 3 tn era fD - < fD
QJ CT ~ ^ jq O =3 fD — O
i"-S
Re-production of music from notation (e.g., singing or playing note by note)
Q- zr QJ
ñ T3 fD QJ
fD 3
te r
g m
e O
me
fD
nc
- I T3
fD y^
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•a to
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Q. TT
ti CT
o' 3 O —tl
o 1/1
¡1 QJ
QJ
fD 3 fD l/i l/i
th m fD
Q . OP
QJ fD fD QJ
-I 1 = O"
tat
3- fD
fD
Concepts about graphic notation
t t t
*Note; iVlusic literacy frequently inciudes the decoding of musicai symbois (notation structures) and text simuitaneously. Text may be music reiated (tempo, dynamic and articulation markings, soifège, or form), meaningful text (song-text in the student's language), foreign ianguage text, or "nonsense" syiiabies.
layer of the hierarchy represents decoding and
comprehension activities that almost always
require direct instruction for development.
The multiple threads begin to intertwine into
activities that we might term music decoding
(sight-reading) and comprehension (musicol-
ogy), the combination of which we refer to as
music literacy.
As can be seen from the framework,
music literacy is not about any single pillar.
Some children come from an environment
enriched with musical experiences; other
children have minimal exposure to music.
Even students with rich musical experiences
may or may not have been exposed to print-
ed music. Individual experiences vary.
Good music education is not about just
imitating sounds or recognizing symbols
(naming notes) or even about transferring
those symbols to sound (sight-reading). Nor
is music education only about knowing the
masters, both composers and literature. It
is about directed and balanced growth over
time. To support children's growth, music ed-
ucators want them to experience music with
their caregivers and during play with their
peers. Such embedded experiences should be
in conjunction with well-designed direct in-
struction from master teachers. Research sup-
ports this direct approach (Rosenshine, 2012)
and demonstrates that early music instruction
can make a difference in phonological skills
(Degé, E, & Schwarzer, 2011).
When following the principles of Kodály
instruction, the earlier we begin the process,
the more likely that we can provide a truly
balanced program that complements literacy
development across the curriculum. Music is a
natural expression for children. Walk the aisles
of any grocery store, sit on a park bench at any
playground, and you will hear the sounds of
children singing to themselves. Spend time at
a bookstore or library and observe children —
they almost always start to sing at some point.
Watch a child at a concert: conducting, sing-
ing, or playing an instrument imitatively is
spontaneous. Children make music naturally.
New research continues to expand our
knowledge of the overlapping dynamic be-
tween language and music. There was a time
when every kindergarten teacher had a piano
in her room and children experienced live
and active music making throughout the day.
Given today's push to introduce literacy in
28
most preschool settings, it seems even more
crucial that we provide music in the preschool
as well. Research clearly demonstrates that
structures in music literacy acquisition mir-
ror those of language literacy. The best music
education clearly balances decoding skills with
knowledge to develop music meanings. We
call this comprehensive musicianship. Kodály
and the people of Hungary modeled this
philosophy during his lifetime. In fact, in his
treatise. Music in the Kindergarten, Kodály de-
clared, "By now the value of music in school
life is so well recognized that it is superfluous
to dwell at length upon it" (1974, p. 130).
Since the 1960s we have touted the ben-
efits of early-childhood education programs.
The ultimate goal of these experiences is to
help children become independent learners,
or at least learners who know where and how
to seek the learning they need and should
want as adults. The philosophy encouraged
by Kodály fosters these same goals. But, we
no longer can say that the importance of mu-
sic is "so well recognized" these days. The age
of Common Core is leading us on a common
path toward workforce development in the
global economy. Therefore, we must consider
another Kodály statement which could eas-
ily begin to ring true—and may provide the
most compelling justification for early music
and lifelong music involvement. He stated,
"Our age of mechanization leads along a road
ending with man himself as a machine; only
the spirit of singing can save us from this
fate" (Kodály, 1974, p. 206).
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Consortium of National Arts Education Associa- tions. (1994). National Standards for Arts Edu- cation. Reston, VA: M E N C .
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Suzuki, Shinichi. ([9%!). Ability developmentfiom age zero (Mary Louise Nagata, Trans.). Miatni, FL: Summy Birchard Music. (Originally pub- lished in 1969)
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University of Washington, (n.d.). Development of Sound Localization. Retrieved from http://faculty. washington.edu/lawerner/sphsc462/dev_loc.pdf
Elaine Berrutorf is professor of music edu- cation and administrator for workshops and Kodály programming at Wichita State Univer- sity as well as a certified speech pathologist in private practice. She ean be reached at elaine. bemstorf@wichita. edu.
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