1 page

9/29/2009

1

Development & AdjustmentDevelopment & Adjustment

“The older I get, the more I realize I can’t avoid being Korean. Every time I look into the mirror, I am Korean. When I look at family pictures, I feel that I stand out. I guess it shouldn’t bother me, but sometimes it does. Even though I may seem very American…I want to be distinctly Korean. I know I’m not in terms of having all the Korean traditions, but I don’t want people to see me and say, “Because she grew up in a Caucasian family, and because she is very Americanized, she’s white.” That’s not what I want anymore” (Janine Bishop, 1996, p.309).

 Domestic Transracial Adoption vs.  International Transracial Adoption  Brief Historical Background

T i l Ad pti R h Transracial Adoption Research  Psychological Outcome Studies  Racial & Ethnic Identity Studies  Cultural Socialization Outcome Studies  Cultural Socialization Process Studies

ffDefinition and HistoryDefinition and History

 2 million adopted children (2000 U.S. Census)  17% (271,454) are children different

th p t( )race than parent(s)

 Transracial adoption: racially different parents and children are legally conjoined as a family.

 Domestic transracial adoption (DTA) - foster care, private, stepchildren from interracial marriage

 International transracial adoption (ITA) International transracial adoption (ITA) - children adopted from other countries and considered racial/ethnic minorities in U.S.

Freedman’s Code

Orphan Trains

Placing Out

18661854-1929 19451868-1940s

WW II Orphans

Pearl S. BuckCharles Loring Brace

 …all freedmen, free negroes, and mulattoes, under the age of eighteen… who are orphans, or whose parent or parents have not the means or who refuse to provide for and support said minors; and thereupon it shall be the duty of said probate court…to apprentice said minors to some competent and suitable person on such terms as the court may direct having a particular care to the the court may direct, having a particular care to the interest of said minor: Provided, that the former owner of said minors shall have the preference when, in the opinion of the court, he or she shall be a suitable person for that purpose.

 …Provided, that said apprentice shall be bound by indenture, in case of males, until they are twenty-one years old, and in case of females until they are eighteen years old.

Korean Orphans

1st B-W Adoption

Indian Adoption

1948 1955 1958-67 1972/1978

NABSW/ ICWA

9/29/2009

2

Seoul Olympics

Communism and China

1975 1990s 2000s1988

Operation Baby Lift

Celebrity Adoptions

 Demographic changes  White, older, infertile, higher SES

adoptive parents  Technological advances

 Birth control abortion baby  Birth control, abortion, baby formula

 Military & religion intervention  Biracial children  Missionaries as social workers

 Attitudinal shift  Colorblindness, nature to nurture,

and the rise of the nuclear family

 Utilitarian  Freed slaves and orphan trains  Putting up and placing out

 Humanitarian

L A

T IO

N

 Finding homes for biracial and war orphans  Placement of Indian American children

 Parental/Familial Entitlement  Alternative method of family formation  Parent needs over child needs

A S

S IM

IL

17000 19000 21000 23000 25000

5000 7000 9000

11000 13000 15000 17000

'90 '91 '92 '93 '94 '95 '96 '97 '98 '99 '00 '01 '02 '03 '04 '05 '06

Office of Children’s Issues US State Department

International adoption from over 40 countries worldwide

6000

7000

8000

9000

Korea

China

Russia

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

'9 0

'9 2

'9 4

'9 6

'9 8

'0 0

'0 2

'0 4

'0 6

Romania

Guatemala

Ukraine

Kazakhstan

Vietnam

 Prior to 1995, Korea was top sending country

 ~25% of internationally adopted children (under 18)adopted children (under 18)  ~33% of all international

adoptees (inc. adults)

 110,000+ KADs in US (200,000+ worldwide)

 Constitute ~10% of Korean immigrants/year

 Since 1996, China has been the top sending country

 ~33% of annual international adoptionsp

 95%+ are adopted girls  Adopted boys tend to be

special needs  Constitute ~15% of

Chinese immigrants/year

 Adoptions began in the 1980s  Over 26,000 since 1981

 Guatemalan adoption leads other Latin leads other Latin American countries

 Unregulated practices, corruption, and baby stealing/selling concerns

 U.S. State Dept cautions against adoption from Guatemala

9/29/2009

3

 Adoption begins in 1992  Increases by 1,500% in next 10

years (324  4,939)  Drop from 2005 to 2006

 Est. 700,000 orphan and  Est. 700,000 orphan and abandoned children (Unicef, 2003)  Approx. 15,000 adopted

dom/intl  Orphanage care has steadily

improved due to government and international efforts

Overall…  Most are doing fine but some are not  Adoptees from Romania and Russia seem to

have more problems than other adopteeshave more problems than other adoptees  Most adoptees exhibit “developmental catch-

up”  But still may lag behind peers on some outcomes

 Adoption as a natural intervention

(Gunnar, van Dulmen, and MN IAP Team, 2006; Juffer & van IJzendoorn, 2005)

 Pre-adoption risk and adversity is viewed as main reason for tail phenomenon  Severe neglect and deprivation (Rutter et al.)

 Common risks  Poor prenatal care and health care  Poverty  Maternal separation  Institutionalization  Deprivation, neglect and abuse

 Proxy measure for risk  Age at adoption, health status at adoption,

institutional care

(Verhulst, Althaus, & Versluis(Verhulst, Althaus, & Versluis--den Bieman, 1992)den Bieman, 1992)

 Adopted from Asia and at young age considered “low risk"  Pre-natal care

l h Health care  Nutrition  Foster care  Adopted before 1 years  Few psychological

problems as children

60 70 80 90

100

Total Adoptions

Russia

0 10 20 30 40 50

Under 1 years old

1-4 years old 5-9 years old

China

Korea

Guatemala

 Are adoptees from Asia and who are adopted at a younger age less vulnerable to mental health problems?

 Most studies focus on pre-adoption risks in younger-aged children.

 What about the post-adoption life of adolescents and young adults?

 Post-adoption experiences have been largely ignored by adoption agencies, families, and researchers  Adoption as a natural intervention  White privilege, colorblindness & model minority

h myth  Adoption as straight-line assimilation  Need to examine actual transracial and

transnational experiences of adopted individuals and families

(Lee, 2003)

 Forced displacement and loss of birth culture and family

In order to…  Gain a family by assimilating into new Ga a a y by ass at g to e

culture/nationality  Post-adoption issues: Struggle to identify with

ethnic culture/peers, birth family questions and interest, search, and reunion

(Dorow, 2006)

 Privilege of being raised in White households and being perceived/treated as White

But…  Recognition that society perceives adoptees as ecog t o t at soc ety pe ce es adoptees as

a minority (or token)  Post-adoption issues: identity confusion and

development, awareness and effects of discrimination, changes in racial friendships

(Lee, 2003)

9/29/2009

4

 Transmission and internalization of cultural values, beliefs, customs, and behaviors from parents and others to the child

/d l h d Foster/develop ethnic and racial identity

 Teach/learn coping skills to deal with discrimination

 Encourage/engage in prosocial behavior and community participation

 Cultural assimilation:Cultural assimilation: engage in parenting behaviors that reject differences - ‘color- blind’ orientation

 EnculturationEnculturation concerted effort to teach child  Enculturation:Enculturation: concerted effort to teach child about birth culture and heritage

 Racial inculcation:Racial inculcation: coping skills to help deal effectively with racism/discrimination

 Child Choice:Child Choice: provide cultural opportunities in response to child’s proactive search

For Adoptive Parents  Healthy acknowledgement of differences

 Avoiding denial or over-insistence of differences  Exploration of own racial attitudes and culture-specific

parenting beliefs f l l l f Extrinsic nature of cultural socialization for adoptive

families  White parents are not minorities and, thus, do not

have first-hand knowledge and experiences  Lack of ethnic and adoption community resources

 Tendency to emphasize social-oriented cultural activities  Underemphasize discussion of coping with racism

For Adoptees  Negotiation of birthparent/culture loss and

attachment to adoptive parents  Ethnic and racial isolation and belonging  Ethnic identity development and correlates Ethnic identity development and correlates

 Hybridity of identity e.g., Korean adoptee vs. Korean Korean vs.

Korean American  Homeland visits and birthparent searches  Dating, marriage, and children