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Asian Communication Studies: What and Where to Now Guo-Ming Chen

A paradigm of Asian communication is emerging due to the efforts of Asian

communication scholars over the years, thus, it is a critical moment for Asian

communication scholars to move a step forward through the process of self-examination.

To achieve this goal, this essay focuses on the discussion of the present and prospect of

Asian communication studies from three aspects. First, the essence of Asian commu-

nication is stipulated based on previous studies; second, the concepts of yin and yang are

employed to explicate the controversial or confrontational views that show the internal

and external diversity of Asian communication studies; and third, the union of the

polarity of yin and yang, or the Tao, of Asian communication studies is proposed.

Introduction

‘‘Ta shan zhi shi ke yi gong cuo’’ (Another’s good quality or suggestion whereby one

can remedy one’s own defects) (The Books of Odes ).

The efforts of scholars to promote Asian communication studies in the last three

decades have been encouraging, although continuous endeavors are still needed for

building a more solid Asiacentric communication paradigm. 1

While the domination

of the Eurocentric paradigm in communication studies in the last half century is a

problem, the blind acceptance of the universal applicability of the Eurocentric

paradigm by educators and scholars in other areas, including Asia, reflects a more

serious problem. It is a good sign that criticism of Westernization in communication

education and research in Asia has grown stronger in recent years, and more scholars

have attempted to propose a direction for the future of Asian communication studies

(e.g., Chen, 2002a; Chen & Miike, 2006; Chen & Starosta, 2003; Dissanayake, 1981,

2003, in press; Gunaratne, 1991, 2005; Horning, 1990; Ishii, 2004; Khiabany, 2003;

Lee, 2005; Leung, Kenny, & Lee, 2006; Miike, 2003a,b, 2004, 2006; Starosta &

Chaudhary, 1993; Wang & Shen, 2000; Yin, 2003).

Guo-Ming Chen (Ph.D., Kent State University, 1987) is Professor in the Department of Communication Studies

at the University of Rhode Island. Correspondence to: Department of Communication Studies, University of

Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881, USA. Email: [email protected]

ISSN 1535-8593 (online) # 2006 National Communication Association

DOI: 10.1080/15358590601014596

The Review of Communication

Vol. 6, No. 4, October 2006, pp. 295 �311

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Among them, Miike (2006) not only sharply criticized Western intellectual

imperialism and Asian scholars’ over-dependence on the Eurocentric paradigm,

but also propounded five agendas, based on the principle of Asiacentricity, for Asian

communication studies. These agendas are: (1) deriving theoretical insights from

Asian cultures; (2) expanding the geographical focus of study; (3) comparing and

contrasting Asian cultures; (4) pluralizing and historicizing theoretical lenses; and (5)

confronting metatheoretical and methodological questions.

In addition, after critically examining the Eurocentric bias of the classic Four

Theories of the Press (Siebert, Peterson, & Schramm, 1956), which are static,

normative, and linear, Gunaratne (2005) proposed a more humanocentric theoretical

framework, attempting to integrate the Eastern philosophies of Buddhism, Con-

fucianism, Daoism, and Hinduism. The dynamic and nonlinear nature of

Gunaratne’s humanocentric theory incorporates Eastern philosophical thinking on

‘‘the unity of the opposites, the intrinsically dynamic nature of the universe, and the

interrelation of all phenomena’’ (p. 160), and enables scholars ‘‘to analyze the system

of communication outlets and free expression at all three levels of the world system

using culture-inclusive criteria’’ (p. 164).

The contributions of Asian communication scholars have drawn a picture of an

emerging Asian communication paradigm; however, this is also a critical moment for

Asian communication scholars to stop, think, and then move a step forward through

the process of self-examination. It is the purpose of this paper to examine the present

and prospect of Asian communication studies from three aspects: (1) the essence of

Asian communication*in which the elements of an Asian communication paradigm based on previous studies are stipulated; (2) the yin and yang of Asian

communication studies*in which the dichotomized concepts regarding Asian communication studies are explicated, so that the controversial or confrontational

views that show the internal and external diversity of Asian communication studies

can be mirrored; and (3) the Tao of Asian communication studies*in which the union of the polarity of the yin and yang of Asian communication studies is

proposed.

The Essence of Asian Communication

‘‘In our search for an Asian perspective, we should be explicit as to what it is that we

want to explain by our particular communication theory’’ (Chu, 1988, p. 209).

With such a vast geography and a great variety of cultures and religions, it is

extremely risky to generalize the essence of so-called ‘‘Asian communication.’’

However, in addition to the internal variety of Asian communication, evident

similarities as well exist in it. The same situation happens when we refer to

Afrocentric and Eurocentric communication (Asante, 1980). This is what provides

the foundation for Asian scholars to pursue the Asiacentric communication

paradigm. Abundant research has been devoted to the essence of communication,

either in an individual culture in Asia or Asia as a whole. However, only through the

combination of research from both perspectives can a picture of the Asiacentric

296 G.-M. Chen

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communication paradigm be provided, through which can we discern the essence of

Asian communication.

Ontologically, Asian cultures dictate that the wholeness of the spokes is the

ultimate reality that drives the wheel of the universe, and that the universe is like a

running river without a beginning and an end. For example, Hinduism considers

differences as the norm rather than the exception of human life, but they serve to

move human interaction to a holistic goal, as illustrated in Gandhi’s rhetoric of

ecological systems, in which all components in the universe are harmoniously

interconnected and a change in any part will inevitably affects all other parts

(Chaudhary & Starosta, 1992). As indicated in the doctrine of maya in Buddhism, all

differences are subject to the principle of relativity, by which all phenomena are

delineated by human description. They are described relative to our different points

of view, and are the representation of illusion and impermanence. The manifold

world of facts and events dictated by maya is liberated through moksha (liberation)

to reach the state of Brahman, which has no opposite or duality in it (Watts, 1957).

The holistic, transitional, and interconnected view of Hinduism and Buddhism

resonates with the teachings of Confucianism, Shintoism, and Taoism. In Con-

fucianism and Taoism the universe is a great whole, in which no substance is

unchanged. It is in this transitional, cyclic, transformational, and endless process that

we see the subject and object, one and many, and humans and the universe are

mutually identified, interpenetrated, and unified. This is the way of Tao . In other

words, the Tao is One, where diversities exist in the unity and the particularity is

identified with universality (Chai & Chai, 1969; Cheng, 1987; Fang, 1981). Thus,

awareness of the interpenetration and identification between the two interactants is

the key to unlocking the mystery of human communication. Chen (2001)

summarized this ontological thinking into three assumptions applied to human

interaction: (1) human communication is a changing and transforming process; (2)

human communication is changing according to the endless but orderly cycle of the

universe; and (3) human communication is never absolutely completed or finished

(p. 57).

As for Shintoism, according to Hara (2003), through the process of kan’no , the

ultimate state of communication is to feel and recognize oneself as being part of and

with nature, so that all components will turn into ‘‘oneness.’’ In Japan, the matsuri

religious event of Shinto is usually practiced to dissolve the interactants’ commu-

nication style, to set them free from the bondage of social relationships, to be

purified, and to feel the sense of nonduality, unity, or one (Sugiyama, 1988). The

ontological thinking provides a foundation for delineating other paradigmatic

aspects*including axiological, teleological, epistemological, and methodological* of Asian communication.

Axiologically, Asian cultures emphasize the importance of harmony as the

lubricant smoothing the interconnected knots among people, and between humans

and nature and human and the supernatural. To Asians, only through harmony can

people ‘‘communicate with dignity and influence in a mutual and interdependent

network on the basis of cooperation,’’ and harmony is ‘‘the ultimate goal of Asian

Asian Communication Studies 297

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communication, and Asians use it as the guidance of regulating the transforming and

never-ending process of human communication’’ (Chen & Starosta, 2003, p. 6). This

harmonious and complementary cooperation is central to Hindu teachings, as well as

to people’s lives in East and Southeast Asia.

As Chen (1993) pointed out, for the Chinese the ethic of human communication is

to crystallize the duty of cooperation between interactants by a sincere display of

mutually whole-hearted concern, rather than to use verbal or behavioral strategies to

overcome one’s counterpart. Thus, Chinese communication aims to reach a

harmonious state of human relationships, and harmony is the cardinal concept

defining Chinese communication competence. Based on this, Chen (2001) developed

a harmony theory of Chinese communication, arguing that to achieve harmony

or competence in the process of interaction, individuals must be able to internalize

three intrinsic principles: jen (humanism), yi (righteousness), and li (rite); to

accommodate three extrinsic components: shih (temporal contingencies), wei

(special contingencies), and ji (the first imperceptible beginning of movement);

and to exercise three behavioral skills strategically: guanxi (interrelation), mientz

(face), and power.

Harmony as the core of Asian cultural life is upheld by a set of personal and

societal values. As indicated by Koh (2000), Asians place great emphasis on personal

values such as hard work, respect for learning, honesty, self-reliance, self-discipline,

and the fulfillment of obligations, and on societal values such as an orderly society,

respect for authority, consensus, and official accountability. This is demonstrated by

the Korean practice of uye-ri , which regulates Korean interpersonal relationships on

three levels: social reciprocity, interdependence, and social obligation (Yum, 1987).

Stowell (2003) found a similar result regarding Korean values on harmony, as also

applied to China and Japan.

In addition, the practice of kapwa in the Philippines and kreng jai in Thailand

reinforce the cardinal value of harmony in Asia. To Filipinos, kapwa (reciprocal

being) can only be secured through the continuous giving and taking between

interactants in the process of communication (Mendoza & Perkinson, 2003). To

Thais, through a reciprocal process of being kreng jai (extremely considerate), a

person’s face can be honored, created, and rebuilt in order to maintain a harmonious

relationship (Pornpitakpan, 2000). Thus, to be competent in Thai communication,

one has to possess the ability of kreng jai (Chaidaroon, 2003). Finally, while harmony

is the ultimate goal of human interaction for Confucianism, Hinduism, Shintoism,

and Taoism (Ishii, Cooke, & Klopf, 1999), there is no exception for the Islamic focus

on harmonious communication in Central and Southeast Asia. For example, Ayish

(2003), Hasnain (1988), and Hussain (1986) extracted a set of communication

principles and methods from the Qur’an used to help maintain and strengthen the

peace and harmony of interpersonal communication and social order.

Epistemologically, interconnectedness is the locus for Asians to find the meaning of

existence. In other words, all things only become meaningful and perceivable in

relation to others (Dissanayake, 1983a; Miike, 2002). Thus, genuine knowledge is

embedded in the interaction between the knower and the known; they interfuse with

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each other and are free from all contradictions and determinations. From this state of

nonduality or identification of opposites, we see that each entity may possess

different, diverse, or even opposite qualities, but through the interconnectedness of

interaction, the synthesis of opposites or the identity in differences is found.

However, nondualistic reality doesn’t infer a cause�effect relationship between the two interactants. As explained in the doctrine of dependent co-origination (yuan qi )

from Buddhism (Conze, 1967; Dissanayake, 1983b, 2003), the seeming cause�effect relationship is only an effect or illusion of functional dependence; its nature is

actually emptiness (xing kong ) (Chien, 1988). One is just an impermanent soul entity

that has dependent relationships and experiences with others; therefore, to be aware

of dependent co-origination and its identification with emptiness is the gate of

enlightenment (Wright, 1998).

To the Taoist, awareness of the realm of nonbeing, or the attainment of absolute

reality through interconnected relationships between subject and object, is based on

the great empathy, a consciousness of the existence of others, which leads one to reach

the Hindu thinkers’ metaphor of the summit of the high mountain of reality. It is this

unity of coherence by which one ascends to the state of harmonious interpenetration

or expanding and contracting between the interactants. In communication, the great

empathy acquires sensitivity and creativity as its two main elements to hold together

humans and all things. According to Chen and Starosta (2004),

As the two eyes of the great empathy, sensitivity is the contraction of diversity into

unity, and creativity is the expansion from unity to diversity. Sensitivity

supplements creativity by supporting a ground of potentiality, while creativity

provides a means of actualizing for great empathy to be revealed. (p. 13)

They are manifested in concern for one’s counterpart’s feelings, in the adoption of

different roles in different contexts, and in the display of reciprocity and active

listening, so that interactional rapport can be naturally established.

Chinese philosophy further expounds that intuitive knowledge is the basis of great

empathy, or the way to reveal the secrets of the nondualistic reality, which is

crystallized in the form of interconnectedness. Intuitive knowledge is a private

awareness of one’s innermost being; it is ‘‘pure self-consciousness through immediate,

direct, primitive penetration instead of by methods that are derivative, inferential, or

rational’’ and ‘‘manifested by the interfusion and interpenetration between the

universe and all things’’ (Chang, 1963, p. 41). While Confucianism considers intuitive

knowledge as a conscious process, and Taoism prefers to treat it as an unconscious

activity, both Buddhism and Hinduism agree that egolessness plays an important role

in the process, because only through egolessness can interpenetration of the

interactants happen and reach the ultimate goal of harmony.

Methodologically, Miike (2003a), after challenging Eurocentric methodological

assumptions, discussed three general issues regarding how knowledge should be

pursued in Asiacentric communication scholarship. First, Asian scholars should

adopt their own subjective data and evidence that is public to Asians, rather than

follow the Eurocentric hierarchical or objective view of data and evidence. Second,

Asian Communication Studies 299

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Asian scholars should rely on experiential knowledge based on the Asian worldview

for the evaluation of validity and utility of theory. Finally, Asian scholars should not

exclude invisible and unobservable matters when theorizing and researching Asian

communication. Miike’s general views on the methodological issues of Asian

communication studies disclose the nonlinear cyclic approach of Asian thinking,

which tends to favor a more intuitive, sensitive, and indirect way of communication

among Asians, as illustrated in Buddhism, Confucianism, Hinduism, Shintoism, and

Taoism (Chen & Starosta, 2003).

The Asian nonlinear pattern of thinking and problem solving denotes that many

paths can reach the same destination, and in reality no one path is different from the

other, because all the paths engage in mutually-defining and complementary

relationships. A common way to pursue intuitive knowledge for the attainment of

nondualistic reality in the process of Asian nonlinear cyclic thinking is the ‘‘Middle

Way,’’ ‘‘Middle Path’’ (zhong dao ), or ‘‘Mean’’ (zhong yong ) referred to by Buddhism,

Confucianism, and Taoism. The Middle Way is nonattachment to either being or

nonbeing, assertion or nonassertion. It is the method of ‘‘beyond opposites’’ that

transcends the dichotomy of this and that (Chang, 1963; Thompson, 2000). Thus, the

Middle Way represents the spirit of appropriateness, a state of equilibrium and

harmony that forms the foundation of the world and provides the universal path for

human conduct; it starts with one principle (i.e., unity, universality), then spreads

out to disclose the thousands of things (i.e., diversity, particularity), and finally

returns and gathers all the myriads under the one principle again (Chan, 1963). To

put it another way, this is the state of ‘‘no-mind, non-attachment, or non-

graspingness’’ that ‘‘makes one’s mind like a mirror which functions to blend the

internal and external of the message sender and receiver into unity or the state of

mutual understanding’’ (Chuang & Chen, 2003, p. 76). This is well demonstrated in

Zen’s art of archery, which aims to reach the state where ‘‘the technical and artistic,

the material and the spiritual, and the project and object, flow together without a

break’’ (Herrigel, 1971, p. 66).

Xiao (2003) indicated that the expression of the Middle Way can be formulated

into four patterns from the perspective of human conduct: (1) neither X nor Y; (2) X

but not X; (3) X with Y; and (4) X and Y. According to Xiao, the pattern of ‘‘neither X

nor Y’’ points right to the middle as an appropriate way to avoid the two extremes

(e.g., neither deflection nor partiality). ‘‘X but not X’’ represents an extreme virtue

modified or neutralized by another extreme to keep the appropriateness (e.g., strong

but not tyrannical). ‘‘X with Y’’ indicates a virtue must be supplemented by the other

virtue to reach the state of appropriateness (e.g., vigor combined with sincerity). ‘‘X

and Y’’ represents the two opposite sides of interaction that must be integrated to

constitute a complete whole (e.g., the statement ‘‘The successive movement of yin

and yang constitutes the Way,’’ in I Ching ; trans. Chan, 1963, p. 266). These patterns

reflect methodologically the dynamic, situational, and multi-faceted nature of the

Middle Way.

In the process of Asian communication, the variation of specific methods used to

reach the appropriateness of the Middle Way in the network of interconnected

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relationships for entering the state of nondualistic or absolute reality (i.e., Tao ) is

abundant. For example, Xiao (2002a) pointed out that negation, paradox, and

analogy/metaphor are the three complementary methods of communicating the Tao

in rhetorical form.

Negation is used to articulate the infinite with the finite and stretches the meaning

and implications of reality. Negation can be reinforced by employing the method of

paradox, which contains contrasting concepts to enhance the dialectical development

and transformation of meaning. Analogy/metaphor functions to make a positive

explication of reality and to mediate the conflict between two different views.

The methods of negation and paradox are well presented in the Sutra of Hui Neng :

‘‘Whenever a question is put to you, answer it in the negative, if it is an affirmative

one; and vice versa. . . . From the correlation or interdependence of the two opposites the doctrine of the ‘‘Mean’’ may be grasped’’ (trans. Wong, 1998, p. 113). In other

words, to use negation and paradox is to avoid being entangled in the two extremes

through the generation of an awareness that is neither linear nor logical, and it

represents a way of ‘‘peaceful and spontaneous appropriateness’’ (Grigg, 1999,

p. 271). The interactional method of wen da or mondo in koan employed by Zen

masters to teach enlightenment and enter the realm of nonbeing is a good

demonstration of negation and paradox (Suzuki, 1980; Wu, 1996).

As for analogy/metaphor, Suzuki (1960) contended that Buddhist philosophy

considers the whole world is a symbol, including how and what we designate

‘‘reality.’’ Thus, we should not be blindfolded by the symbol; instead, we want what is

symbolized. Confucianism and Taoism also use analogy/metaphor to explicate the

meaning of Tao or reality (Allan, 1997; Chen & Holt, 2002; Ma, 1999). For example,

according to Chen and Holt (2002), Lao Zi used water as a metaphor to unify the

image of Tao for the purpose of transforming the meaning of Tao from the

metaphysical level to social and behavioral levels of interaction. Through the water

metaphor, Tao is unified into three conceptual schemes: zi xu (attainment of

complete vacuity), yong rou (softness/weakness), and chu xia /bu zheng (subordina-

tion/noncompetition).

The above paradigmatic aspects, which form the essence of Asian communication,

enable us to understand better why such elements as mutuality, open-mindedness,

honesty, and respect are the principles of Asian ethical communication (Chen &

Starosta, 2005), and why Asian communication behaviors are dictated by such

characteristics as intuition, emphasis on silence, empathic emotional control, and

avoidance of aggression (Chuang & Chen, 2003). Moreover, these aspects also provide

a mirror that reflects studies of local Asian communication concepts, including amae

(message expanding and message accepting needs) (Miike, 2003c), bao (reciprocity)

(Chang & Holt, 1994), enryo-sasshi (restraint-guessing) (Ishii, 1984; Ishii & Bruneau,

1994), en /yuan (predestined relation) (Chang & Holt, 1991; Ishii, 1998; Kotajima,

1990), guanxi (interrelation) (Hwang, 1997�1998; Jacobs, 1979; Ma, 2004), kapwa (reciprocal being) (Mendoza & Perkinson, 2003), ke qi (politeness) (Feng, 2004; Gu,

1990), kreng jai (being extremely considerate) (Pornpitakpan, 2000), miantz (face)

(Hu, 1994; Hwang, 1987; Jia, 2001), nunch’i (eye measured) (Park, 1979; Robinson,

Asian Communication Studies 301

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2003), omoiyari (altruistic sensitivity) (Hara, 2006), pahiwatig (strategic ambiguity)

(Mendoza, 2004), pakiramdam (the capacity to feel for another) (Maggay, 1993), and

uye-ri (complementary and obligatory reciprocity) (Yum, 1987). Together, they pave

a metatheoretical ground for theorizing culture and communication from an

Asiacentric perspective.

The Yin and Yang of Asian Communication Studies

‘‘According to the Chinese concept of the world, all phenomenal existence is

conditioned by two polar contrasts, the contrasts of light and dark, the positive and

negative, or yang and yin’’ (Wilhelm, 1979, p. 135).

Chinese philosophy prescribes that everything has its opposite. It is the interaction

of the two opposite forces*i.e., yin and yang* that keeps the universe in motion or forever changing and brings continuity into human existence. As the two sides of a

coin, yin and yang are interdependent and complementary. Both not only consume

and support each other, but also transform into one another.

Applied to Asian communication studies, four existing pairs of opposite forces

attached to the paradigmatic aspects discussed above are worth discussing: holistic vs.

atomistic, harmonious vs. confrontational, interconnected vs. reductionistic, and

logical vs. intuitive.

As mentioned previously, ontologically Asians treat the universe as a great whole,

in which all components are like a river running endlessly in a cyclic and

transformational pattern. While studying Asian communication, scholars tend to

illuminate this characteristic by contrasting the Eurocentric atomistic view. Moreover,

by emphasizing the importance of the whole and the interdependence of its parts,

Asian scholars have a tendency to criticize or devalue the Western atomistic view,

which sees the universe as consisting of various separate elements. On the behavioral

level, this contrasting view inevitably leads to the dichotomy of Eastern collectivism

versus Western individualism (Hofstede, 2001). It is so unfortunate that most Asian

communication scholars take the dichotomy for granted in the process of comparing

Asian and Western cultures. The lack of a critical examination for fitness or

appropriateness before accepting the oversimplified and overgeneralized classification

of cultural values often begets unreliable results in research.

Harmony as the axiological belief for Asian communication is manifested in the

emphasis on situation-centered and emotion-constrained communication styles,

which in turn lead to the indirect expression of one’s feeling or opinion in

interaction. Thus Asians tend to avoid conflict (Chen, 2002c; Hsu, 1953; Ma, 1992).

In contrast, Westerners are considered to display meaning overtly through direct

communication, thus relying on a confrontational style for problem solving (Ting-

Toomey, 1988). The convenience of the harmony vs. confrontation distinction is not

without its pitfall when real interactions on both sides are observed. For instance, no

human society can be conflict-free, and a conflict can be resolved by adopting either a

harmonious style or a confrontational style in any society. Thus, harmony and

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confrontation should be treated as the two ends of a continuum; Asian cultures tend

to lean to the harmony side and Western cultures to the confrontation side.

In addition, Asian communication scholars are obliged to understand that

harmony as the Asian axiological belief is a dynamic and multi-faceted rather than

a static or one-dimensional practice in interaction, and has its limits. As delineated by

Chen (2004), there are two faces of Chinese communication. When they are involved

in a conflict with out-group members or when their face is lost after the failure of

courtesy, the Chinese can be emotional, direct, and confrontational*far more than one can imagine (Chen & Xiao, 1993; Xiao, 2002b).

Embedded in ontological thinking, the pushing and pulling between the two

epistemological orientations*interconnectedness vs. reductionism*appears in the landscape of Asian communication studies. Any society has a certain social structure,

and the social fabric is like a chess board. Over the centuries (and of course no end is

in sight), Asian societies have interpreted the meaning of life on the basis of

interconnectedness and reciprocity among all the pawns on the chess board, which

leads to a strong group sense or an epistemic community of nonduality between the

knower and the known. In contrast, in Western societies, instead of submerging into

the social fabric, each pawn can only be understood through the free will of the

individual. Thus, each entity may possess a dissimilar essence. In Asia these

differences are synthesized through a voluntary denouncement of individualism

and the upholding of social hierarchy, but in the West, the social fabric is woven by

the embrace of individualism and equality. In other words, it is assumed that

Westerners, adopting the reductionist view, have the tendency to explain or

understand the world by examining small individual components, while Asians

tend to approach individual elements from the whole.

Interestingly, from the teaching of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism, we find

that before the self becomes an interconnected part of the integrative whole of the

universe, like a river merging into the ocean, the self, treated as a co-creator with

heaven and earth by Confucianism, is expected to be ‘‘ceaselessly edified, constantly

liberated, and perpetually purified’’ (Chen, 2005, p. 7). The achievement of

enlightenment or nonself in Buddhism represents a state of the self ’s full awareness

of things, and the attainment of ‘‘real knowledge’’ in Taoism relies on the complete

liberation of the self through personal cultivation (Dissanayake, 1993; Liu, 1991; Mei,

1964; Suzuki, 1964). In other words, in Asia the self is emphasized, no less than in the

West, and treated as the foundation of sustaining and succeeding the group. The

achievement of the group as a whole must start from the cultivation of the self. What

distinguishes Asia from the West is that before the emphasis of the self was developed

into ‘‘individual-ism’’ in Asian cultures, the sense of ‘‘nonattachment’’ is fostered so

that the self can be integrated into the group as a whole.

The methodological application of logical objectivity and intuitive subjectivity is

another superficial dichotomy in the effort to demystify Western and Eastern

communication. On the surface level, one cannot deny that Westerners are oriented

to a logical and linear reasoning approach, while Easterners are oriented to an

intuitive and nonlinear approach to the process of problem solving. However, using

Asian Communication Studies 303

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objectivity/subjectivity as the criterion for the judgment of this reasoning difference is

unjustifiable.

Let us take Zen, for example. Zen is regarded as the marriage of Taoist insights and

Buddhist doctrine. It also adopted Confucian thoughts in the later stage of its

development in China (Ge, 1986; Wu, 1996). As mentioned by Chuang and Chen

(2003), Zen Buddhists’ emphasis on intuitive observation is founded on the ground

of mindfulness. The employment of koans to achieve enlightenment or a direct

perception of the nature of reality seems illogical in the eye of the beholder. However,

it is actually a very conscious and rational method Zen masters use in the process of

teaching. Through brevity and subtlety, and aiming to reach naturalness, the

generation of awareness of reality represents a way of ‘‘peaceful and spontaneous

appropriateness’’ (Grigg, 1994, p. 276), which creates an insight that cannot be

explained by the objectivity/subjectivity dichotomy.

Moreover, the specific methods*including negation, paradox, and analogy/ metaphor, representing a highly logical and rational process of practice*attached to the Middle Way for reaching the state of nondualistic reality discussed above

demonstrate the unfitness of using logical objectivity and intuitive subjectivity as a

tool for distinguishing Western thinking patterns from those of Asians. Thus, to

extend the struggle or conflict between the methodological camps, i.e., functional/

social scientific vs. critical/interpretive, in the Western scholarly community into

Asian communication studies is not warranted.

The point I try to make in this section is threefold. First, the opposite nature of yin

and yang does not infer a static relationship. The two forces are constantly in motion

and transforming into one another. This not only indicates that yin can become yang

when time and space are alternated, but that yin contains yang components here and

now, and vice versa. This dialectical and interpenetrating relationship between yin

and yang can cultivate openness and inclusiveness in scholarly activities. Thus, any

argument for a clear-cut separation of yin and yang , such as the inclination to

dichotomize things, is meaningless in knowledge production, although its simplifying

nature may serve some function in the learning process.

Second, therefore, when we study human communication in different cultures, it is

more appropriate to say, for instance, ‘‘Asians tend to behave . . . ’’ or ‘‘Westerners act as if . . . ’’ rather than arbitrarily claim that ‘‘Asians or Westerners are . . . . ’ This practice can create a space for flexibility, which allows the exercise of the true nature

of yin and yang , and understanding and tolerance of internal variations within each

culture.

Third, at the practical level, both yin and yang possess their own inherent strengths

and weaknesses. In other words, the sole yin won’t produce, and the sole yang won’t

grow either. Full development or the state of completion can only be achieved

through the correspondence of the two forces. Thus, the question is not whether

Asian communication practices can be used in the study of Western communication

behavior, or whether the Western paradigm can be applied to Asian communication

studies, but rather that ‘‘Ta shan zhi shi ke yi gong cuo’’ (Another’s good quality or

suggestion whereby one can remedy one’s own defects) through a critical evaluating

304 G.-M. Chen

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process in the process of application. As demonstrated in Chu’s (1990) account of the

application of the survey research method in developing countries in Asia, the

problem was not that the survey method itself that didn’t fit the cultural, social, and

historical background in those countries, but whether the researcher could under-

stand the different needs of the local culture and use them as guidance to revise or

readjust the structure and operation of the survey method. In this case, the yin is

successfully interfused or incorporated into the yang through the process of

transculturation, which may involve factors such as function, framing, content,

environment, time, receiver, and channel (Chan, 2001; Mundorf & Chen, 2006).

From this perspective, other dichotomies in Asian communication studies*e.g., universality vs. particularity of the theoretical application, and Asian scholars vs.

Western scholars in studying Asian communication*will naturally make themselves less meaningful.

The Tao of Asian Communication Studies

‘‘In short, it is the Tao, the higher unity of all things’’ (Chang, 1963, p. 50)

Awareness of the identification and interpenetration of yin and yang is the key that

unlocks the mystery of Tao . The Tao is not merely the concept of the unity of

dualities or the reconciliation of opposites, but also a unity in multiplicity, a

wholeness of parts. It represents a realm of grand interfusion (da tong ) that is free

from all determinations and contradictions. And this is the ultimate goal of

conducting Asian communication studies.

As the ultimate goal of Asian communication studies, the Tao or the state of grand

interfusion does not preclude the interaction of yin and yang in the phenomenal

world, such as the struggle between the dichotomies embedded in Eastern/Western

differences. Nevertheless, it demands an attitude in scholars of searching for

similarities, an attitude that can reconcile and integrate differences between oriental

and occidental scholars in the process of studying Asian communication in a spirit of

transcendence. As Chuang Tzu indicated, similarity and difference are merely an

arbitrary judgment of human beings. Seeing things from the difference, neighbors

become a thousand miles away from one another, but seeing things from the

similarity, all myriad is one (trans. Huang, 1983). Thus, it is critical for scholars of

Asian communication studies to foster their ability to know the nature and

relationship of difference and similarity and to cultivate their ability to negotiate

the differences to reach the state of Tao .

It must be cautioned that the advocate of reconciliation and integration of oriental

and occidental differences here does not imply the rejection of Asian indigenous

cultural traits or the full embrace of the Eurocentric paradigm. Instead, scholars are

encouraged to cultivate an open and inclusive mindset when emphasizing the local,

particular context, or the relevant Asian tradition, in the process of developing an

Asiacentric communication paradigm, especially at a time of Asian and other cultures

being marginalized or silenced by the Western dominance in cultural exchange,

economic development, and academic dialogue (Shi, 2006). In other words, the

Asian Communication Studies 305

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transcendence of differences into the state of Tao must be based on the pursuit of a

multicultural co-existence, in which an ethnocentric monopoly on truths should

cease to exist, and humanness can thrive amidst a congeries of cultures (Chesebro,

1996; Starosta, in press). Only through this multicultural co-equality can scholars go

beyond the dichotomized struggle in scholarship and gradually move into the state of

Tao for human communication.

Conclusion

In this essay, I stipulated the essence of Asian communication from different

paradigmatic aspects. I argued that the two opposite but complementary forces of yin

and yang dictate the existence of the phenomenal world, including scholarly

activities, and advocated the need to transcend the yin and yang of Asian

communication studies in order to reach the state of grand interfusion or Tao .

It is obvious that the hegemonic history written by Western scholars and the trend

of universalizing representations based on Western culture will continue to haunt

scholars in this globalizing society. How to face this challenge and raise their voice

ingrained in the indigenous culture will be a task Asian communication scholars

must undertake to prevent themselves from being marginalized further. Nevertheless,

the pitfall in this knowledge seeking and making process from the Asian cultural

perspective may lie in the ‘‘injustice in return for injustice’’ vicious cycle, or the

‘‘cultural incompatibility’’ black hole, which deters possible idea exchange or

intellectual dialogue between the East and the West in a positive way.

Hence, in this period of opposition caused by the dominance of Eurocentric

communication paradigms, Asian communication scholars should be capable of

finding a way out by adapting to the Asian cultural orientation. That is, the

oppressive situation is the stage for change; for the prospect of Asian communication

studies, scholars should plant the seeds of a new situation, a transformation from

opposition to fellowship.

Note

[1] Several publications related to Asian communication are worth mentioning: Kincaid (1987),

Dissanayake (1988), Chen (2002b), Kim (2002), Chen and Miike (2003), Gunaratne (2005),

and Leung et al. (2006). More detailed references to individual contributions to the study of

Asian communication can be found in Miike and Chen (2006).

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