GEOGRAPHY CLASS

People, Places, Environments STUDY GUIDE Third Exam

Ethnicity, Development, Agriculture, Industry Page 1

1. Ethnicity From Greek “ethnos” (“national”)

Identity, but no single factor always determines ethnicity

(may be based on race, language, religion, etc.)

Race vs. Ethnicity

Race: Biological ancestor, common ancestor

Ethnicity: cultural traditions, common origin

Designations (“Hispanic” vs. Latino, etc.)

Race and racism; prejudice

Hate crimes (“bias motivated crimes”)

Thousands in the US every year

#1 Race; #2 religion; sexual orientation, etc.

About a thousand US hate groups today (CA #1!)

US Ethnicities: Distributions

Regional Distributions (major concentrations)

African-Americans: Southeast, major cities

Latinos: Southwest, Florida, major cities

Asians in West, Hawaii, Alaska, cities

Native Americans: Southwest, Plains, Alaska

Urban clusters

Major cities usually highly diverse - BUT

Ethnicities highly concentrated in some cities

African-Americans:Major cities (Detroit, etc.);

Older manufacturing areas

Latinos: Major cities (New York, LA, etc.);

Southwest, Florida

Asians: Major cities (Honolulu, etc.);

West, Hawaii

Native Americans: Major cities (Oklahoma

City, etc.); Alaska, Oklahoma, Plains, West

Ethnic neighborhoods

Made by affinity, chain migration - OR

Made by blockbusting & redlining (illegal!)

African-American Experience

1. Forced migration (17th-19th centuries)

Triangle trade (Africa-America), slavery

2. Southern rural to urban North (19th – mid-20th)

Sharecropping; some seek jobs in N. cities

“channeled” migration (chain migration)

3. Inner City to Suburbs (late 20th century)

4. N cities to S cities (late 20th-21st centuries). Why?

End of segregation, expanding jobs in South

Creation of ghettos:

Blockbusting:

Frighten white owners into selling;

Sell property to people escaping ghetto

Redlining:

Non-whites can only buy/rent in some areas

“separate but equal” (segregation laws)

“white flight” (suburbs when segregation ends)

South Africa & Race

History of South Africa

Dutch colony; taken by British 17th century

1948 “apartheid” (separation by race)

Four “official races”:

White 13%, Black 76%, Asian 3%, “Coloured” 9%

“Homelands” for Blacks (by tribe)

Apartheid ends 1991

“Truth & Reconciliation Commission”

Legacy: continuing problems of crime, etc.

Ethnicity & Nationalism

“National” from Latin “nasci,” “to be born”

“Nationality”: group of people attached to a country.

“Nationalism”: loyalty to a nationality

Nations, Nation-States and Nationalism

Nations: people who share identity, origin, homeland

State: independent political territory (France, US etc)

Nation-States: States made of a single nation

Multi-national States: States made of 2+ nations

(ex. Russia; Canada; Belgium, etc.)

Centripetal forces: flags, songs, symbols

Centrifugal forces: nationalism vs. patriotism

Self-determination & nationalism

Creating nationalities

18th and 19th centuries, European empires tried to

destabilize each other by encouraging nationalism

20th century, colonies become independent

South Asia (Indonesia, Vietnam, etc.)

Africa (Nigeria, Mozambique, etc.)

Near East (until WWI, Turkish ruled)

Competing nationalities

Lebanon – 17 nationalities!

Government organized on ethnic lines –

collapse in 1975 – slow recovery today?

Israel

Creation of State of Israel

Creation of Palestinian nation

“Palestinian” = 1) People living in West

Bank, etc.; 2) Israelis who are Muslim; 3)

People who left Israel after the 1948-

1949 war; 4) People who left the West

Bank/Gaza after the 1967 war; 5)

descendants of 1948 & 1967 refugees

Ethnic warfare in Sri Lanka

Hindu Tamils vs. Buddhist Sinhalese

26 year civil war – ended 2009

Africa & imposed boundaries

Ethiopia & Eritrea; Nigeria (100+ groups!);

Somalia (clans); Sudan (South Sudan, Darfur)

Revival of nationalism in Europe (Scotland etc.)

Forced migration and “ethnic cleansing”

Ethnic cleansing: forced removal of ethnicity

(e.g. Post WW II relocation of ethnic Germans)

Yugoslavia examples (Serbs, Croats, etc.)

Balkanization: states collapse in ethnic conflicts

Genocide: extermination of an ethnic group

(Nazi Germany, Rwanda, etc.)

2. Development Development = material well-being (health, wealth, etc.)

Continuum of development (classify from high to low)

Developed = MDC = “North” ≠ “Modern”

Less Developed = LDC = “South” ≠ “Backward”

Measuring development

Older method – Gross National Income (GNI)

Today – UN’s Human Development Index (HDI)

1 economic+2 social+1 demographic variables

Econ: Gross Nation Income (per capita/PPP)

Social 1: Mean years schooling

Social 2: Expected years schooling

Dem: Life expectancy at birth

High HDI values: US, Europe, Japan, etc.

Low HDI values: Sub-Saharan Africa, etc.

Other development measures?

Multidimensional poverty index

Gender inequality index

Civic & Community well-being index

Alternative – Bhutan’s National Happiness Index?

Overall, upward trend last 40 years (a few exceptions)

Paths to development: Two Development Schemes

1. Self-sufficiency

diversify, invest everywhere in country

focus on fairness and poverty reduction

People, Places, Environments STUDY GUIDE Third Exam

Ethnicity, Development, Agriculture, Industry Page 2

limit imports (“import substitutions”)

quotas, tariffs (to restrict imports)

problems: inefficiency, bureaucracy

2. International trade

concentrate on “unique” resources

use profits to develop other sectors

W.W. Rostow's model

1. traditional (pre-development);

2. pre-conditions; 3. takeoff ;

4. drive to maturity ; 5. mass consumption;

and maybe 6. “post-industrial?”

Successes: 4 “Asian Dragons”; oil-rich Middle East

Problems: uneven distribution, stagnant markets,

dependency on MDCs for sales, trade

World Trade Organization (WTO) & “free trade”

Financing development

Loans (some countries now in extreme debt)

Sources: World Bank; International Monetary Fund;

individual countries; private banks, etc.

“Highly Indebted Poor Countries” (HIPCs)

“Jubilee 2000” (debt forgiveness group)

Many endorsements – some action since 2004

“Structural adjustment” via World Bank, etc.

Loans not forgiven; Privatization, austerity

Transnational corporations (investment, factories, etc.)

Some transnationals huge – and all focused on profit

Problems of creating infrastructure, keeping the

corporations happy – “race to the bottom”

Microcredit Banks (e.g. Grameen Bank, etc.)

Fair Trade (labeling programs)

Problem of foreign direct investment

(most international investment goes between MDCs)

3. Agriculture A “primary” economic activity

“Deliberate modification of the Earth’s surface through

cultivation of plants and rearing of animals”

Cultivate means “care for”; cultivated plants are crops

Domesticate: Animals or plants bred/modified for human use

Signs of domestication: big seeds, modified behavior, etc.

Pre-agricultural world: hunter-gatherers

Small groups, gathering more important, getting food

takes 10-25% of time, nomadic; just ~250,000

people worldwide live only by hunting/gathering

Origins of agriculture (lots of disagreement among scientists)

Carl Sauer’s model

Not hunger, not nomadic people

Not river valleys or grasslands

High environment & plant diversity areas

Emphasis on vegetative agriculture (“roots”)

Where? SE Asia (Thailand, etc.)

Standard model

Grain (seed) based (also lentils, dates, etc.)

Where? SW Asia (Turkey, Syria, etc.)

Crop and animal hearths

Latin America; Sub-Saharan Africa; Southwest Asia;

East Asia; Southeast Asia

Others possible? (NI Vavilov & Jack Harlan?)

Diet

Most people today get most calories from grains

Minimum requirement: ≈ 1,800 calories/day

MDCs: many average 3,000

LDCs: some average much less than 1,800

Some Sub-Saharan 1/3+ undernourished

Nutritional deficiencies (iodine, iron, etc.)

Primary protein source varies

MDCs: 25% or more of protein from meat

LDCs: varies, but 50% or more grains, other

Subsistence vs. Commercial Agricultural regions

Differences:

Different purpose (eat vs. sell)

Farm size (small vs. large) [USUALLY]

% farmers (high vs. low)

Machinery (little or none vs. intense use)

Economic integration with industry (none vs. lots)

Types of Subsistence Agriculture

Shifting cultivation

“slash & burn” agriculture

adaptation to bad tropical soils

cut down trees, burn, plant in ashes

short use (poor soil); long fallow period

not bad, but too many = deforestation

less than 5% of world practice slash & burn

Pastoral nomadism

animal herding (adaptation to dry areas)

large areas (usually)

precise migration patterns (usually)

transhumance (seasonal, shift elevation)

Intensive subsistence, wet rice

"paddy" rice – very small farms

intensive hand labor, extreme focus on rice

no crop rotation: “double cropping”

Intensive subsistence, not wet rice

grain primary, but other crops (animals, too)

intensive hand labor

crop rotation (2 field, 3 field, 4 field)

alternating planting & fallow periods

typical Middle Ages; Andes etc. today

Types of commercial agriculture

Mixed crop & livestock

“the old fashioned farm”

integration of crops & animals

most land used for grain

crops often fed to animals

most income from animal products

crop rotation (see above)

Dairy farming

extremely valuable, very perishable product

traditional “milkshed” location (near markets)

fluid milk vs. butter, cheese

cheese, butter less perishable

fluid milk has small “milkshed”

cheese has large “milkshed”

changes in transportation = wider market area

Grain farming (wheat, corn, rice, etc.)

Wheat (#1 crop in world trade)

spring vs. winter wheats

US largest wheat producer today

Major rice producers also major consumers

Other grains (oats, rye, etc.)

Major use of mechanized agriculture

Livestock ranching

Mostly done where too dry for other ag.

Similar to pastoral nomadism (but commercial)

US ranching changes, 17th – 21st century

Long distance cattle drives ended

Today “feed lots” (“livestock fattening”)

Ranching elsewhere (Brazil, etc.)

Truck farming (commercial gardening)

“Market Gardening” – specialized crops, fruits

Small farms, perishable crops (sweet corn, etc.)

Usually near cities (but not always – CA, FL)

Mediterranean agriculture

People, Places, Environments STUDY GUIDE Third Exam

Ethnicity, Development, Agriculture, Industry Page 3

Mediterranean climate (wet winter-dry summer)

Tree/vine crops (olives, citrus, grapes etc.)

Some grain, a little livestock, too

Plantations (NOT a form of subsistence agriculture!)

Tropics & subtropics (usually)

Less developed countries (usually)

Intense hand labor – often foreign ownership

Specialize in 1-2 crops (coffee, bananas, etc.)

Production in LDCs, but consumption in MDC

Fishing & Aquaculture

Fish 6% of protein worldwide (25% in Asia)

“Fishing” = wild caught, not “cultivated”

“Fish farming” growing rapidly (~½ wild total)

Efficiency, env. problems (pollution, etc.)

Agriculture & environment

Agriculture constrained by environment (usually)

If environment poor – can be modified

(irrigation, terracing, etc.) – expensive!

Agriculture can damage environment

slash & burn, overgrazing,

desertification, salinization, waterlogging

Agriculture and population growth

Expanding land for ag.; increase productivity

(“Green Revolution”); New crops; Increasing

exports; diet modification

Problems:

Little good ag. land available, left unused

Green Revolution expensive (fertilizer etc.)

New crops difficult, often expensive

Surpluses not available for export in many areas

Hard to convince people to change diet

Ex. Vegetarianism efficient, sustainable

Commercial agriculture & market forces

Productivity challenges

Overproduction (too efficient! Too much stuff!)

Off-farm migration (loss of rural pop./workers)

Loss of crop diversity

Loss of useful genetic material

Dangers of monoculture (disease)

Government subsidies

Several kinds (cash, loans, insurance, etc.)

To prevent farm loss, boom-bust cycles

Distortion of markets? Hurt LDCs?

Sustainability

Long-term

Includes integrated pest management,

organic farming, no-till etc.

Not easy – lots of planning (if profitable)

Goal: enhance environment

Von Thünen model

Land use and crops chosen affected by

market, land cost, transportation costs

Gradient from city >> rural

4. Industry “Secondary” economic activities (“add value”/transform)

Origins

cottage industry (small scale, ancient origins)

industrial revolution: UK c. 1750 CE – why?

new technology, new agriculture, new culture!

diffusion through industries (steel, textiles, etc.)

diffusion through Europe (UK > France, etc.)

diffusion to the US, East Asia, and beyond

Modern distribution

Three major areas: North America; Europe; East Asia

Emerging industrial areas

Mexico (maquiladoras)

BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India, China)

Central/Eastern Europe (post-Communist)

Other areas (South America, Africa, etc.)

Changes in US industry

Shift from “core” to South, West

Why? Pop. changes; transport changes;

labor issues (and “right to work” union issues)

Industrial Location

Situation (focus on “inputs,” or on “markets”)

If inputs heavy/bulky – locate near sources of

inputs (“bulk-reducing” industries)

If outputs heavy/bulky – locate near markets

(“bulk-gaining” industries)

Also locating near markets:

Single-market manufacturing

Perishables

Transportation factors

Transport modes

Ship (slow, cheap, long distance)

Rail (slow to fast, cheap, long distance)

Truck (fast, expensive, medium/long dist.)

Air (fast, expensive, medium/long dist.)

Pipeline (liquids only, but very cheap)

“Break-of-bulk” points

Shift mode (ship to truck, truck to rail, etc)

Always costs money – try to reduce!

Containerization (shipping containers)

Transformed shipping last 60 yrs

Reduce time/costs of mode changes

“Just-in-Time” Delivery

Delivers parts/materials just when needed

Advantage: No inventory/storage costs

Disadvantage: Disruptions stop everything

Site factors (focus on fixed/physical characteristics)

Land, power, capital (investment)

Labor (skilled or unskilled) (e.g. maquiladora)

“Footloose” industries – can locate anywhere!

Labor-intensive industries

Always try to minimize labor costs

Some industries need unskilled

Some industries need skilled

Outsourcing

“New International Division of Labor”

“Fordist”: mass production

“Post-Fordist”: flexible production

Modern industrial problems

Stagnant demand, market saturation, “decline of

shoddy,” increased global capacity

For MDCs: trading blocs? Transnationals?

For LDCs: distance from markets, inadequate

infrastructure, “race to the bottom,”

peripheral economies, lack of investment.

SAMPLE TEST QUESTIONS T F 1. As we discussed in class, it is believed that the primary reason people developed

agriculture in the first place was hunger.

T F 2. A special tax imposed on goods coming into a country to “protect” domestic

industries is called a “tariff.”

3. What is the largest “multinational” state in the world today is

a. France. b. The United States. c. Russia. d. Australia.

4. Every mode of transportation has problems and benefits – some are slow but cheap,

others fast but expensive. What did we say was the fastest transportation mode?

a. pipeline. b. ship (water transport). c. truck. d. air.

5. Groups that set standards and label products as being produced under high labor

and/or environmental standards (so workers receive adequate protection and wages) are

called