Case Scenario: Big Time Toymaker - Business Law Assignment
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Overview and Formation of Contracts Learning Outcomes Checklist
After studying this chapter, students who have mastered the material will be able to:
Distinguish between contracts based on categories and apply the correct source of law to specific contracts.
Explain the concept of mutual assent by defining the legal requirement of agreement.
Identify and explain the other requirements for the formation of a valid contract.
List the events that terminate the power of acceptance and distinguish between termination through action of the parties versus operation of law.
Apply the mailbox rule to resolve a question of when acceptance is effective.
Articulate the legal requirement of consideration and identify which contracts do not require consideration.
Give examples of circumstances where the legal requirements of capacity or legality are at issue.
Explain the concept of enforceability and geniune assent.
Categorize what contracts must be in writing to be enforceable and explain the minimum required terms that satisfy the law.
The law of contracts is one of the most common and important areas of the law that business owners and managers deal with on a dayto day basis. Everyone working in a business environment will, in one form or another, deal with contracts throughout their career. Employment contracts, leases, and agreements of sale for assets or land or merchandise are just a few examples of contracts commonly used in business transactions. The simple act of purchasing office supplies from a local merchant is a form of agreement governed by contract law.
Formation and legal enforcement of agreements have been recognized since ancient times. As early as 1780 BC, contracts were being enforced by the Babylonians by virtue of the authority of the Code of Hammurabi. During much of the rule of the Roman Empire, the Justinian Code included the rule pacta sunt servanda (agreements shall be kept). Many legal scholars, notably Dean Roscoe Pound, have written extensively on the importance of society recognizing legally enforceable promises and providing remedies for those who suffered losses. Consider the consequences of failing to provide for legal enforceability of a promise and its impact on the very fabric of civilized societies.
Since business owners and managers are often involved in daytoday oversight of various agreements and transactions, understanding contract law reduces risk by limiting liability through the recognition of potential legal issues, crafting an appropriate response, and implementing a system to ensure compliance. Contract law is also essential to structuring business transactions in strategic ways to achieve business objectives without excessive risk.
In this chapter, students will learn:
Definitions and categories of various contracts. The legal requirements for forming an enforceable contract. Writing requirements that apply to certain contracts. Use of contracts to reduce legal risk.
Definition and Categories of Contracts LO61
One generally accepted definition of a contract is a promise or a set of promises enforceable by law.1 Put another way, a contract is simply an agreement that a court of law will recognize and enforce. Contract law also defines certain circumstances that excuse one or both parties from performing their obligation or enforcing the agreement’s promise.
1For exact wording of the definition, see Restatement (Second) of Contracts § 2.
Categories of Contracts
Because the subject of contracts is so vast, it is useful to categorize the different types of contracts in order to understand various forms of promises and agreements. This is not to say that these categories are mutually exclusive. In fact, all contracts will fit into more than one category.
Written versus Oral Contracts
While the word contract is often used to describe a written document, many contracts are not in writing and yet are enforceable. Any agreement, oral or written, may result in a binding contract so long as it meets certain requirements. Some contracts, however, are required to be in writing in order to be enforceable. These contracts are defined by the statute of frauds, which is covered later in this chapter.
Bilateral Contracts versus Unilateral Contracts
A bilateral contract involves two promises and two performances. Most contracts are bilateral contracts. To take a simple example, suppose Ginny says to Harry: “I offer to pay you $5,000 for your delivery van.” Harry responds, “I accept.” On the following day, Ginny shows up with a check for $5,000. Harry signs over title to the delivery van to Ginny. Ginny’s promise was to pay $5,000 for the delivery van. Harry’s promise was to sell the delivery van for $5,000. Ginny performance was to pay Harry via check for $5,000. Harry’s performance was to turn over title of the delivery van to Ginny.
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A unilateral contract involves one promise, followed by one performance, which then triggers a second performance from the offeror (the party making the offer). Perhaps the best example of a unilateral contract is when the offer is in the form of a reward. For example, if Jonah places several reward posters in his neighborhood and offers to pay $500 to anyone who finds his missing dog, this is an example of a unilateral offer. Jonah has made one promise, but there has been no second promise made by any of the neighbors. Therefore, the only way that a neighbor may accept the offer made by Jonah is to perform by finding the dog and delivering him to Jonah as specified in the promise (via the reward posters). Once a neighbor has performed, Jonah is now obligated to perform his promise (to pay a $500 reward). Of course, if no one performs, Jonah may not sue his neighbors for recovery because no return promise was ever made.
Express Contracts versus Implied Contracts versus QuasiContracts
An express contract is created when the parties have expressly agreed on the promises and performances. An implied contract is one in which the agreement is reached by the parties’ actions rather than their words. The classic example of an implied contract is when a party seeks care from a physician. The patient does not typically negotiate terms of the transaction (e.g., the patient will not ask for a 15 percent frequent visitor discount), yet a contract is formed and enforceable by the doctor who is owed a reasonable fee for services rendered even though the patient has not expressly agreed to payment terms. This contract was formed as an implied contract in fact. In some cases where no express or implied contract exists, a party may still be able to recover losses based on a quasicontract. The law permits quasicontracts to be enforceable where one party suffers losses as a result of another party’s unjust enrichment. This theory of contract is based on an implied by law recovery whereby one party does not actually request a certain service, but still benefits from the services rendered. Suppose that in the physician–patient example above, that the physician has instead stopped at an automobile accident and renders the unconscious patient emergency care. Although there is no express contract or implied contract (because the patient never agreed to or requested physician services), the physician may still recover a reasonable fee for her services to the patient under a quasicontract theory because the patient received a benefit.2 Recovery under a quasicontract theory is also possible when an express contract is unenforceable for some legal reason, but one of parties has gained a benefit. For example, Contractor is hired to install a new floor in ManufactureCo.’s warehouse. Contractor rips out the old floor, pours the concrete, and waits overnight for the concrete to dry. Before Contractor can install the new floor, a fire destroys the warehouse. Although the contract is now unenforceable due to impossibility (discussed in the next chapter), Contractor may still recover for services of demolition to the old floor since this work directly benefited ManufactureCo.
2Based on Cotnam v. Wisdom, 83 Ark. 601 (1907).
Valid versus Void Contracts
When a contract has the necessary elements, it is said to be a valid contract. Void contracts are those agreements that have not been formed in conformance with the law from the outset of the agreement and, thus, cannot be enforced by either party. For example, a contract for the sale of an illegal narcotic is void as prohibited by statute and against public policy despite the fact that two parties may have agreed to the sale.
Figure 6.1 Is a Contract Valid, Void, Voidable, or Unenforceable?
Voidable versus Unenforceable Contracts
Even when two parties have formed a valid contract, sometimes the agreement may still not be fully enforceable. A voidable contract is one in which one party may at its option either disaffirm the contract or enforce it. For example, suppose that Ally, a minor,3 purchases a used car from a local car dealer.
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Because the law allows minors (and guardians) the right to cancel the contract up until the time that the minor turns 18, Ally may choose to disaffirm the transaction and return the car, or to enforce it by keeping the car until she turns 18. When a party chooses to legally disaffirm a contract that was voidable, this is known as avoiding the contract. An unenforceable contract, on the other hand, is one that meets the elements required by law for an otherwise binding agreement, but is subject to a legal defense such as the statutory requirement that certain contracts be in writing in order to be enforceable.
3In the context of contract law, almost all states define a minor as one who not yet reached their 18th birthday.
Sources of Law In general, contracts for services (e.g., legal, accounting, or engineering) or real estate (such as an agreement of sale for an office building or a lease for a commercial retail space) are governed by state common law. Contracts for goods or products (defined as something that is moveable at the time of identification in the contract) are governed by state statutory law based on the Uniform Commercial Code (UCC).4 The UCC also covers transactions related to leasing of equipment. Note that the UCC provisions for sales and leases are covered extensively in Chapter 8 “Contracts for the Sale of Goods.”
4Recall from Chapter 1 that the UCC is a “model” statute drafted by a group called the National Conference of Commissioners of Uniform State Laws (NCCUSL). Each state legislature makes its own decisions about whether to adopt the UCC in total, partially, or not at all. Louisiana is the only state to have rejected the UCC in its entirety.
Some contracts involve terms for both goods and services. These are known as hybrid contracts. In a hybrid contract, the source of law is established by determining the predominant thrust of the contract subject matter. If the contract is predominantly for services, and the goods are incidental, then the contract is governed by the common law. If, on the other hand, goods are the main feature of the contract, and the services come incidentally, then the contract is governed by statutory law. For example, Huxley is a manager charged with the task of hiring a portrait artist to paint the portrait of the founder of the company to be displayed in the lobby. Huxley hires Pablo, and Pablo paints the portrait. This is a hybrid contract because it involves services (of the artist) and goods (Huxley gets the canvas, paint, etc.) at the conclusion of the services. However, in this case the goods are incidental to the services; thus, it is primarily a contract for services and governed by the common law. In determining the source of law governing a hybrid contract, courts will examine (1) allocation of price in the contract (value of goods versus value of services), and (2) uniqueness of the services (did it require special talent, such as the portrait artist above?). The more unique the service, the more likely the contract is covered by the common law.
SelfCheck
Which source of law governs this contract?
1. A contract for the sale of an office building from Abel to NewCo. 2. A contract providing for installation of networking cable in an office facility where the materials are $5,000 and the labor is
$20,000. 3. A consulting contract between a management consulting firm and a software development company. 4. The sale of several completed sculptures from an artist to a retail art dealer for a total of $10,000. 5. A contract between the owner of a building and a painting company to paint the building’s lobby over a holiday weekend
for $5,000. The owner agrees to supply all of the paint.
Legal Implications in Cyberspace
The Uniform Electronic Transactions Act (UETA) is best thought of as a procedural model law that applies to transactions as long as the parties to a contract agree to use electronic commerce for that transaction. This means that the UETA does not create substantive rights or protections (such as providing consumers with a right to sue), but rather gives legal recognition to certain electronic media. Whether the parties agreed to conduct a transaction by electronic means is determined from the context and surrounding circumstances, including the parties’ conduct. The UETA essentially elevates electronic signatures and records to the same legal status as are accorded to traditional signatures and paper records, memoranda, notices, and so forth. The law covers both ecommerce sale of goods transactions and the use of electronic communication alongside paper contracts.
The UETA gives formal legal recognition of electronic records, signatures, and contracts by providing that (1) a record or signature may not be denied legal effect or enforceability solely because it is in electronic form; (2) a contract may not be denied legal effect or enforceability solely because an electronic record was used in its information; (3) if a law requires a record to be in writing, an electronic record satisfies the law; and (4) if a law requires a signature, an electronic signature satisfies the law. Currently, 47 states have adopted the UETA in some form.
Overview of a Contract Transaction Before learning the individual components required to form a contract and the rules that govern the parties, it is helpful to consider a typical contract transaction from a macro perspective. First, a contract is formed when two or more parties agree to a particular set of terms. One party typically agrees to provide services, real estate, or goods in exchange for something of value (usually money). An agreement is recognized as legally binding so long as it meets certain formation requirements. Second, after the formation requirements are met, the contract is governed by laws that set out requirements for enforceability of the agreement. Finally, assuming that the contract was properly formed and is legally enforceable, the law sets out rules and consequences related to how the parties fulfill their obligations to one another. This is known as performance (or nonperformance) of the agreement.
For example, suppose that Ahab agrees to provide ship repair services to White Whale Industries. Using email exchanges, the parties negotiate a monthly fee and specify that Ahab is to repair and maintain White Whale’s fleet of ships as necessary for two years. At this point, a contract is likely to have been formed assuming that all of the required elements for mutual agreement are met. However, suppose that one month into the agreement Ahab notifies White Whale that he has a better opportunity in another city and cannot perform the services in the agreement. After White Whale objects, Ahab claims the contract is not enforceable because the law requires this contract to be in writing. White Whale counters that the email exchanges were sufficient to meet the legal requirements. The resolution of this issue depends on the enforceability of this contract. Alternatively, assume that parties had a written contract, but that White Whale began having financial difficulty one year into the contract. They notify Ahab that they will be reducing his monthly fee by 30 percent. Can Ahab sue White Whale immediately? Does White Whale have any defense? What can Ahab expect to recover to compensate for losses? These are issues of performance. Formation and enforceability are covered in this chapter. Performance is covered in Chapter 7 “Contract Performance: Conditions, Breach, and Remedies.” Table 6.1 provides an overview of a contract transaction.
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Table 6.1 Overview of a Contract Transaction
Formation Enforceability Performance Parties reached mutual agreement on terms. All formation elements are met.
Contract meets legal requirements to enforce terms.
Governs parties performing (or not performing) the terms of the agreement and provides compensation if one party fails to perform.
Understanding contract law helps business owners limit their company’s liability and manage risk.
© Thinkstock/Getty Images/DAL
© Photodisc/Getty Images/DAL
Contract Formation: Mutual Assent LO62, 63
The broad underlying requirement to form an enforceable contract is the notion of mutual assent. Mutual assent means that in order for a contract to be valid, the parties must reach an agreement using a combination of offer and acceptance. The offeror must make a valid offer to the offeree, who in turn must accept the offer in order for the parties to be bound by the agreement’s terms. However, this mutual assent requirement does not mean that both parties actually intended in their minds (subjective standard) to enter into an agreement. Rather, the law requires only that the parties’ acts or words lead the other party to reasonably believe (objective standard) that an agreement has been reached.
Legal Speak
Assent
A conscious approval or confirmation of facts. In contract law, assent is the knowing, voluntary, and mutual approval of the terms of a contract by each party.
In addition to agreement, there are three other requirements for the formation of a valid contract. First, the agreement must be supported by consideration. Second, the parties entering into the agreement must have capacity. Third, the subject matter and performance of the contract must have legality and be consistent with public policy.
Moreover, in order for the contract to be enforceable, the agreement must also be the product of genuine assent and, in some cases, certain terms must be in writing as required by the statute of frauds.
Agreement Part 1: Offer
An offer is a promise or commitment to do (or refrain from doing) a specified activity such as selling a good at a certain price or offering to provide services
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at a given rate. An offer also is the expression of a willingness to enter into a contract by the offeror promising an offeree that she will perform certain obligations in exchange for the offeree’s counterpromise to perform. To take a simple example, suppose that Lewis offers to sell Williams a rare book for $1,000. In this case, Lewis is the offeror and is promising to perform through a transfer of ownership rights to the book so long as Williams, as the offeree, counterpromises to perform by paying $1,000.
Key Point
The elements of a contract are (1) agreement (offer and acceptance) that indicates mutual assent, (2) consideration, (3) capacity, and (4) legality/public policy. To enforce a contract, it must be a product of genuine assent and in writing (in certain cases).
In order for an offer to have legal effect, the offeror must have an objective intent to contract when making the offer. Generally, the offeror must have a serious intention to become bound by the offer and the terms of the offer must be reasonably certain. Courts look to the language of the offer and actions of the offeror to determine how a reasonable person would interpret that language. Does the language indicate a serious intent to form a contract? Or perhaps the language indicates intent to negotiate rather than agree. Or is the language so innocuous that a reasonable person would conclude that there was no intent at all (for example, an offer made in jest)? Note that it does not matter what the offeror actually intended. Rather, the objective test is what a reasonable person would ordinarily believe the language and conduct (collectively referred to as manifestations of intent) to mean in those circumstances. Otherwise, the offer is considered simply an offer to discuss or negotiate the terms of an agreement. For example, an email from the owner of a computer retail store to a computer hardware wholesaler may contain the following language: “I am interested in purchasing ten new personal computers. Please contact me about the price and delivery terms regarding the computers.” This message does not express an immediate objective intention to contract. Rather, a reasonable person would look at this language as an invitation to negotiate.
Under modern case law, the importance of the parties’ intention, or lack of intention, to form a contract depends largely upon the context of the agreement. When an agreement is in the context of a business transaction, there is a strong presumption that the parties intended the agreement to be legally enforceable.
Key Point
The objective test for intent to form a contract is: Given the language and circumstances of the offer, would a reasonable person in the position of the offeree conclude that the offer was an objective manifestation of serious intent to contract?
In Landmark Case 6.1, one of the most famous in American contract law, a state supreme court considers the circumstances of a transaction and language of the parties in determining whether an offer involved a serious intent to contract.
Advertisements as an Offer
Most advertisements appearing in the mass media, in store windows, or in display cases are not offers. Rather, the law recognizes mass advertisements as an invitation for the consumer to make an offer to the seller to purchase the goods at a specified price. Frequently, these advertisements do not constitute an offer because they do not contain a specific commitment to sell. For example, Big Time Appliances runs an advertisement in a local paper which misprinted the ad as “46inch plasma screen TV for $10” instead of $1,000. Ernest shows up at Big Time Appliance with a $10 bill and excitedly hands over the bill to a cashier saying “I accept your offer to sell me this television for $10.” Big Time Appliance is not obligated to perform (i.e., sell the television for $10).5 The law recognizes Ernest’s actions not as an acceptance of Big Time’s offer, but rather an offer by Ernest to buy the television— which Big Time may accept or reject.
5Restatement (Second) of Contracts § 26, Comment b. Also note that this example is a contracts analysis. In the case of advertising, certain state consumer laws may apply to protect buyers against merchants acting in bad faith using advertising as a “bait and switch” method discussed in Chapter 21, “Consumer Protection Laws.”
Landmark Case 6.1: Lucy v. Zehmer, 84 S.E.2d 516 (Va. 1954)
Fact Summary
Lucy was a farmer who knew Zehmer for a period of 15–20 years. At one point during their relationship, Lucy offered to buy Zehmer’s farm for $20,000, but Zehmer rejected the offer outright. Seven years later, Lucy met Zehmer at a restaurant and had a conversation over a period of hours while the two drank whiskey together. During this conversation, Lucy again offered to purchase Zehmer’s farm. According to the testimony at trial, the following exchange of words took place:
Lucy: “I bet you wouldn’t take $50,000 for that farm.” Zehmer: “You haven’t got $50,000 cash.” Lucy: “I can get it.” Zehmer: “But you haven’t got $50,000 cash to pay me tonight.”
Eventually, Lucy persuaded Zehmer to put in writing that he would sell Lucy the farm for $50,000. Zehmer handwrote the following on the back of the pad, “I agree to sell the Ferguson Place [Zehmer’s farm property] to W.O. Lucy for $50,000 cash.” The parties then modified this writing several times and discussed terms over a period of 30–40 minutes. At the end of the evening, each party had signed the modified document that agreed to a sale of Zehmer’s farm to Lucy for $50,000. The next day, Lucy believed that the contract was valid and proceeded to act accordingly by seeking financing for the purchase and checking title. However, Zehmer notified Lucy that he would not transfer title since no contract was formed. Rather, Zehmer had understood the whole transaction as a joke. At trial Zehmer testified that he “was high as a Georgia pine,” while modifying and discussing the contract and that he was just “needling” Lucy because he believed Lucy could never come up with the money. Zehmer claimed that before he left the restaurant that night, he told Lucy that it was all a big joke, that the negotiations were just the “liquor talking.” Zehmer claimed that he had not actually intended to sell the property, thus the contract lacked serious intent and was void.
Synopsis of Decision and Opinion
The court ruled that Zehmer was bound by the contract even if he had no actual (subjective) intent to sell the farm and may have been joking. The court used the objective standard in determining that a reasonable person would have construed Zehmer’s actions and words as a serious intent to contract. The court held that evidence from the trial indicated that Zehmer took the transaction seriously, and that
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Lucy was not unreasonable in believing that a contract was formed under the circumstances. The court made clear that actual mental intent is not required for formation of a contract.
Words of the Court: Manifestation of Intent to Contract
“The appearance of a contract; the fact that it was under discussion for forty minutes or more before it was signed; Lucy’s objection to the first draft; [. . .] the discussion of what was to be included in the sale [. . .] are facts which furnish persuasive evidence that the execution of the contract was a serious business transaction rather than a casual, jesting matter as the defendant now contends.
An agreement or mutual assent is of course essential to a valid contract but the law imputes to a person an intention corresponding to the reasonable meaning of his words and acts. If his words and acts, judged by a reasonable standard, manifest an intention to agree, it is immaterial what may be the real but unexpressed state of his mind.”
Case Questions
1. What factors does the court focus on when deciding whether Lucy’s understanding of the contract formation was reasonable?
2. What facts could you change in this case that would result in the court determining that no contract existed?
The primary exception to this rule is when the advertisement is specific enough to constitute a unilateral contract. Advertisements that offer to sell a particular number of certain products at a certain price may constitute an offer. In the previous example, if the advertisement offered 46inch plasma televisions for $10 to the first 50 buyers on Friday, then the advertisement would be specific enough to constitute a valid offer requiring Big Time Appliance to sell as promised. Or, if the advertisement invites the other party to accept in a particular manner, courts will treat these types of advertisements as a valid offer for a unilateral contract. For example, AntiFlu Inc. sells an herbal inhaler device they claim will work effectively to prevent the flu as well as any flu shot vaccine. They advertise “We will pay $1,000 to anyone who uses the AntiFlu herbal inhaler for two consecutive weeks and still contracts the flu.” Pauline uses the device for two weeks (thereby accepting AntiFlu’s offer), and contracts the flu one day later. AntiFlu would be obligated to perform their promise by paying the $1,000 sum because AntiFlu’s advertisement invited any party to accept their offer in a particular manner (by using the device).6
6Based on the landmark case Carlill v. Carbolic Smoke Ball Co., 1 Q.B. 256 (1893).
In Case 6.1, an appellate court considers a claim that a famous company created an offer through a television advertisement.
Agreement Part 2: Acceptance
A valid offer creates the power of acceptance for the offeree. An acceptance is the offeree’s expression of agreement to the terms of the offer. An offeree typically communicates the acceptance in writing or orally, but in some cases may also accept via some action or conduct (such as in a unilateral contract). So long as the offer is still in force (has not yet been terminated) the offeree may accept the terms of the offer thereby forming an agreement. The party that the offeror intended to create a power of acceptance is the only party that may accept. In order for agreement to exist though, the offer has to be properly accepted by the offeree.7 Note that the offeror is considered the “master” of the offer and, therefore, has the power to terminate, modify its terms, or prescribe the method of acceptance of the offer up and until the offer has been accepted by the offeree. Once the offer has been terminated, the offeree has lost the power to accept and form an agreement.
7Restatements (Second) of Contracts (§§ 29, 50, 54).
Events of Termination of the Power of Acceptance: Action of the Parties versus Operation of Law
LO64
An offer may be terminated by action of the parties in one of three ways: (1) revocation, where the offeror revokes (withdraws) the offer; (2) rejection, where the offeree rejects the offer; and (3) counteroffer, where the offeree rejects the original offer and proposes a new offer with different terms. Offers may also be terminated by operation of law.
Revocation
When the offeror decides to revoke (withdraw) the offer by expressly communicating the revocation to the offeree prior to acceptance, the offer is terminated by revocation. Revocation is consummated through an express repudiation of the offer (e.g., “I revoke my offer of May 1 to paint your office building for $1,000”) or by some inconsistent act that would give reasonable notice from the offeror to the offeree that the offer no longer existed. For example, on Monday, Owner offers WidgetCo. the nonexclusive opportunity to purchase a parcel of land for $100,000 with a deadline of Friday to respond. On Wednesday, WidgetCo. learns that Owner has entered into a contract with ServiceCo. for the land. On Thursday, WidgetCo. calls Owner with an acceptance. No contract exists between Owner and WidgetCo. because Owner’s inconsistent acts were sufficient to give WidgetCo. notice of the transaction.8
8Based on Restatement (Second) of Contracts § 42, Illustration 1.
One important issue with revocation is the timing of the revocation. Most states follow the rule that revocation is only effective upon receipt by offeree or the offeree’s agent.9
9Note that a few states, notably California, do not follow the “receipt” rule, opting instead to make revocation effective upon dispatch of the revocation notice.
Case 6.1. Leonard v. Pepsico., Inc., 210 F.3d 88 (2d Cir. 2000) [affirming lower court decision and reasoning in 88 F. Supp. 2d 116 (S.D.N.Y. 1999)]
Fact Summary
Pepsi ran an advertisement on national television promoting its Pepsi Points program whereby consumers could obtain points by purchasing Pepsi products and then redeem the points for certain apparel and other items. An alternate way to accumulate points was to
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purchase them for a certain dollar figure. The Pepsi advertisement opened with the morning routine of a high school student. The commercial was based on a Top Gun movie theme and depicted the student wearing apparel such as a leather bomber jacket, a Pepsi T shirt, and aviator sunglasses. For each item, the advertisement would flash the corresponding number of Pepsi points required to obtain the item. For example, when showing the actor with the aviator sunglasses, the advertisement featured the subtitle “Shades 175 Pepsi Points.” The advertisement then showed a view of the cover of a Pepsi Stuff Catalog with a narration of “Introducing the new Pepsi Stuff Catalog” and the subtitle “See details on specially marked packages.” Finally, the advertisement shows the student arriving at his high school in a Harrier Fighter Jet to the amazement of his friends and teachers. The student hops out of the jet and says, “Sure beats the bus.” At this point, the subtitle flashes “Harrier Jet 7,000,000 Pepsi points.”
Leonard filled out the Pepsi Stuff order form (located in the catalog produced by Pepsi), but since there was no mention of the Harrier Jet, Leonard simply wrote in the item on the order form and sent the order to Pepsi with a check for $700,000, the amount necessary to purchase the requisite points as stated in the advertisement. Pepsi refused to transfer title on the basis that no contract existed. The trial court ruled in favor of Pepsi. Leonard appealed, among other reasons, on the basis that the Pepsi advertisement was specific enough to constitute a valid offer of a unilateral contract through their advertisement.
Synopsis of Decision and Opinion
The court ruled against Leonard. While acknowledging that certain advertisements could be an offer if the promise is clear, definite, and explicit, such was not the case here. The advertisement was not sufficiently definite because it reserves the details of the offer to a separate writing (the catalog).*
*The court also rejected Leonard’s other primary argument that the advertisement constituted an objective intent by Pepsi to sell a $23 million Harrier Jet for $700,000. The court ruled “In light of the obvious absurdity of the commercial, the court rejects plaintiff’s argument that the commercial was not clearly in jest.”
Words of the Court: Requirements for Advertisements as a Unilateral Offer
“In the present case, the Harrier Jet commercial did not direct that anyone who appeared at Pepsi headquarters with 7,000,000 Pepsi Points on the Fourth of July would receive the Harrier Jet. Instead, the commercial urged consumers to accumulate Pepsi Points and refer to the catalog to determine how they could receive their Pepsi Points. The commercial sought a reciprocal promise, expressed through the acceptance of, and in compliance with, the terms of the Order Form. [. . .] [T]he catalog contains no mention of the Harrier Jet.”
Case Questions
1. What facts would support Leonard’s primary argument as to why this commercial was a unilateral offer to contract? 2. If the wording on the catalog order form had allowed a consumer to write in the item (rather than check a box next to the
item), would that change the outcome of this case?
To see video of the actual Pepsi advertisement, go to this textbook’s Web site at www.mhhe.com/melvin.
For example, on Monday, Adams sends, via sameday courier, a letter of revocation to Bell’s office. Bell’s administrative assistant receives the revocation on that same day, but Bell is traveling in Japan and never actually sees the letter. On Wednesday, from his hotel room in Tokyo, Bell calls Adams and accepts Adams’s initial offer. No contract exists because the revocation would be deemed effective upon receipt by Bell’s administrative assistant. At that point, despite that Bell had no actual knowledge of the revocation by Adams, the offer is revoked and Bell may no longer accept the offer.
Note that some offers are irrevocable: (1) offers in the form of an option contract; (2) offers where the offeree partly performed or detrimentally relied on the offer; and (3) socalled firm offers by a merchant under the UCC (firm offers under the UCC are discussed in Chapter 8 “Contracts for the Sale of Goods”).
Option Contracts
One way to make an offer irrevocable is for the offeror to grant the offeree an option to enter a contract. Typically, the offeror agrees to hold an offer open (not enter into a contract with another party) for a certain period of time in exchange for something of value (known as consideration, discussed later). For example, Coleridge is interested in a parcel of real estate owned by Shelley for his company’s warehouse. Coleridge is traveling for a week, but doesn’t wish to lose the property to another party even though he hasn’t firmly decided to lease the real estate. Coleridge pays Shelley $1,000 to keep the offer open for two weeks to lease the parcel. Shelley is now obliged to keep the offer open and not to entertain offers by third parties. However, if, at the end of the two weeks Coleridge hasn’t leased the property, Shelley keeps the $1,000 and is now permitted to lease or sell the property to another party.
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Option contracts are sometimes used to provide flexibility in commercial real estate transactions.
© Creatas Images/PictureQuest/DAL
Partial Performance and Detrimental Reliance
There are certain offers whereby the offeree may, prior to actual formation of the contract, take some action that relies on the offer; for example, if the offeree begins to perform based on a unilateral offer. Recall that a unilateral offer is one in which the offer makes clear that acceptance can occur only through performance, and not through a promise. This is known as partial performance and can render an offer temporarily irrevocable. For example, Burns offers Realtor a commission of 10 percent of the sales price if Realtor can find a buyer for the Burns Building for $500,000. Realtor spends funds to research and obtain potential buyer contact information and locates Walters, who is willing to accept the $500,000 offer to sell from Burns. Before any transaction takes place, Burns revokes his offer to Realtor and refuses to sell the property to Walters. Burns’s revocation is not effective. Burns’s promise to pay for a particular performance (a unilateral contract) was rendered irrevocable once Realtor performed by finding a buyer for the building.10 Also, an offer may be rendered irrevocable if the offeree makes preparations prior to acceptance based on a reasonable reliance on the offer. This is known as detrimental reliance. For example, SubCo. is a subcontractor for GeneralCo. GeneralCo. relies on SubCo.’s bid in preparing to make an offer to renovate a commercial office complex. After GeneralCo. is awarded the renovation contract, SubCo. notifies them that its bid was too low due to the poor business forecasting of one of SubCo.’s partners. Because they are no longer interested in the job, SubCo. attempts to revoke their offer/bid. In this case, SubCo. is still required to perform even at a loss. GeneralCo. reasonably relied on SubCo.’s bid and would suffer a significant detriment based on this reliance. SubCo.’s offer became irrevocable once GeneralCo. exercised reasonable reliance on the offer.11
10Based on Restatement (Second) of Contracts, § 45, Illustration 5.
11Based on Restatement (Second) of Contracts, § 87(2), Illustration 6 [Drennan v. Star Paving, 51 Cal. 2d 409 (1958)].
Rejection and Counteroffer
An offer is also terminated once the offeree has either rejected the offer outright or makes a counteroffer by rejecting the original offer and making a new offer. Under the common law,12 the offeree’s response operates as an acceptance only if it is the precise mirror image of the offer. If the response conflicts with the original offer even slightly, the original offer is terminated and the new offer is substituted. This principle is called the mirror image rule. Once the offeree has rejected or made a counteroffer, her power of acceptance is terminated. For example, apply the mirror image rule to the following conversation:
12Note that the UCC rules are different regarding counteroffers. The UCC rules for counteroffers are discussed in Chapter 8 “Contracts for the Sale of Goods.”
Franz: “I will pay you $1,000 to paint the interior of our office building.”
Josef: “I’ve seen your office; it is going to cost you more than that.”
Franz: “How much more?” Josef: “I’ll do it for $2,000.” Franz: “Ah, yes. Well, let’s split it down the middle. I’ll pay you
$1,500.” Josef: “OK. I agree to do it for $1,500, but you must also
supply the paint, brushes, ladder, tarps, cleaner, and other equipment I need.”
Does a contract exist between Josef and Franz? Carefully examine the language of the parties. Josef made an outright rejection of Franz’s first offer to
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paint the office for $1,000. Then Josef made an offer to paint the office for $2,000. Franz then rejected the offer via counteroffer and now has made a new offer for Josef to accept or reject his offer to pay $1,500 for the services. Although Josef starts out his response with “OK,” he adds additional terms (Franz must supply the paint, etc.) and, therefore, Josef has rejected the offer because his acceptance was not the mirror image of Franz’s offer. Thus, despite the “OK” language, the law treats Josef’s response as a counteroffer (and therefore a rejection). Franz’s offer is now terminated, and no contract exists at this point. Of course, Franz is now free to accept or reject Josef’s counteroffer.
Key Point
The mirror image rule, which applies to common law contracts (not UCC contracts), requires that any acceptance by the offeree must be the mirror image of the original offer. Any deviation from the original offer results in a rejection and counteroffer.
Operation of Law
An offer may also be terminated by certain happenings or events covered by operation of law. Generally, these include (1) lapse of time, (2) death or incapacity of the offeror or offeree, and (3) destruction of the subject matter of the contract before acceptance.
Lapse of Time
Following the “offeror is the master of his offer” rule, the offeror will frequently attach some time limit on the offeree’s power of acceptance. Once the time limit has expired, the offer is considered to have terminated via lapse of time. If, however, the offeror has not set a time limit, the offer will still expire after a reasonable time. Courts determine the “reasonable time period” for an acceptance by analyzing the circumstances when the offer and attempted acceptance are made. When the offer involves a speculative transaction where the subject matter is subject to sharp fluctuations in value, a reasonable time period will be considerably shorter. For example, Milton sends Dryden an email: “I offer to sell you my private stock in Local Oil Company for $500 per share.” Dryden waits one week, and the price of oil skyrockets in the week making stock in Local Oil rise to $700 per share. He responds to Milton’s e mail: “I accept your offer of last week.” In this case, Dryden would likely not be obligated to perform because the subject matter of the offer was so speculative that it dictated a short time period for expiration. On the other hand, if Milton wishes to sell Dryden a used lawn mower for $100, the weeklong time period may still be a reasonable time in which to accept the offer.
Death, Incapacity, or Destruction
In the event that the offeror or the offeree either dies or becomes incapacitated before acceptance, the offer automatically terminates. Similarly, if the subject matter of the contract is destroyed before acceptance, the offer is considered terminated by operation of law.
When Acceptance Is Effective: The Mailbox Rule
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The mailbox rule governs common law contracts and provides a rule for when a contract is considered to be deemed accepted by the offeree, thus depriving the offeror of the right to revoke the offer. In essence, the mailbox rule provides that the acceptance of an offer is generally effective upon dispatch using a commercially reasonable manner (e.g., when the offeree places the acceptance in the mailbox, overnight mail, or faxes) and not when the acceptance is received by the offeror. The time of acceptance depends on whether the offeror specified a method of acceptance or not. Figure 6.2 sets out a flowchart to help understand the rules that govern when acceptance is effective.
Figure 6.2 When Is Acceptance Effective?
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SelfCheck: Mailbox Rule
For each transaction, does a contract exist? If yes, why, and what is the date of the contract. If no, why not?
Q: PROBLEM #1
Day 1: Connelly sent a fax to Raleigh’s office: “We offer to provide you with widgetcovering services for $1,000 per month for six months starting January 1.”
Day 2: Raleigh sends a letter via U.S. mail to Connelly: “I accept your offer of Day 1.”
Day 3: Connelly telephones Raleigh and tells him: “I revoke my widgetcovering offer of Day 1.” Upon hearing this, Raleigh states “too late, I already put my acceptance in the mailbox!”
Day 4: Connelly receives Raleigh’s letter of acceptance on Thursday.
PROBLEM #2
Day 1: BookCo.’s manager emails an offer to sell a rare firstedition of For Whom the Bell Tolls signed by Hemingway for $50,000 to Rare Book Retailer (RBR).
Day 2: RBR receives the offer, prints out the email, writes “ACCEPTED, 1 Hemingway Book for $50,000. RBR Manager” and faxes BookCo. the acceptance.
Day 3 (9:00 a.m.): BookCo.’s receptionist receives RBR’s fax.
Day 3 (12:00 p.m.): BookCo.’s manager calls RBR to revoke her offer.
Day 3 (1:30 p.m.): The RBR acceptance fax is delivered to BookCo.’s manager.
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Concept Summary: Agreement
The formation of a contract requires mutual assent whereby the parties reach an agreement. An agreement results from the offeror making a valid offer (had objective intent to contract) and the offeree accepting the terms of the offer and agreeing to be bound by its terms. Advertisements are generally not considered an offer. Rather, they are an invitation for the consumer to make an offer to a seller of goods or services. In order for an offer to be valid, the parties must reach agreement on all of the essential terms of the agreement. An offer that is too vague or indefinite cannot be the basis for an agreement. Most offers may be terminated either by the actions of the parties or by operation of law. However, certain offers are considered irrevocable. The time acceptance becomes effective is governed by the mailbox rule.
Insufficient Agreement
In some cases the parties may actually have satisfied the elements of offer and acceptance, but the agreement still lacks mutual assent and the agreement is insufficient to constitute a properly formed contract. Some common circumstances where parties lack mutual assent are in cases when the agreement’s terms are too indefinite, or one or both parties are mistaken about an important term.
Indefinite Terms
For an offer to be valid, the parties must reach mutual assent on all of the essential terms of the agreement. Even though two parties who are negotiating with each other may have an objective intent to contract, there is no valid contract if the terms are too vague to be performed. Typically, these terms must either be expressly agreed upon or capable of being reasonably inferred. These essential terms are: (1) parties to the contract, (2) subject matter of the contract, (3) time for performance or delivery, (4) price or other consideration to be exchanged.
Note, however, that courts have become increasingly tolerant of uncertainty in terms before allowing a contract to be voided for indefiniteness. The Restatement test requires a court to examine the terms of the agreement to determine whether “they provide a basis for determining the existence of a breach and for giving an appropriate remedy.”13 Thus, even though an agreement does not contain all of the required terms, courts have held that missing terms may be supplied by the court when the term may be implied as “reasonable” or by the course of past dealing. So long as the agreement is definite enough to allow the court to determine whether one party failed to fulfill the obligations of the agreement, and to award some kind of reasonable damages to the wronged party, the contract is not void for indefiniteness.
13Restatement (Second) of Contracts, § 33(2).
Agreements to Agree
In certain circumstances in the business environment, the parties enter into an agreement with an essential term unfilled, intending to agree upon the term in the future. Although historically courts were reluctant to enforce such agreements, the modern trend is to allow such agreements to be enforced with the court supplying the missing term according to industry standards and market values. So long as the court determines that the parties themselves intended to make a binding contract, the agreement is enforceable and a court may supply the missing term. For example, suppose that Ernest offers to purchase an office building from Whitehead for $100,000 in 30 days. At the time of the agreement, Ernest was unsure of the method that he would use to pay the purchase price, so the parties leave that term unfilled. On the day of the purchase, Ernest pays Whitehead $10 in cash and signs a promissory note for $99,990. Whitehead refuses to complete the transaction and demands a check or cash for the full $100,000. In this case, a court would likely hold that (1) the agreement to agree on the payment terms was enforceable because it is clear the parties intended to enter into a contractual relationship, and (2) the court can supply the missing term with a degree of reasonableness based on pattern of past practices and/or industry standards (e.g., requiring that Ernest obtain a mortgage or pay in cash for the property).
Landmark Case 6.2: Raffles v. Wichelhaus, 159 Eng. Rep. 375 (1864)
Fact Summary
Wichelhaus contracted to purchase a shipment of expensive cotton from Raffles. The contract required the goods to arrive in England aboard the Peerless, a freighter ship from Bombay. Wichelhaus had intended for the contract to require the goods to be shipped on the Peerless from Bombay in October. Raffles believed that the cotton was to be shipped on a different freighter (also called Peerless) that left from Bombay in December. When the goods arrived in December, Wichelhaus refused to accept them contending that he had already purchased the cotton from the Peerless ship that arrived in October. Raffles sued to recover the damages suffered due to Wichelhaus’s refusal to accept delivery of the cotton aboard the December Peerless ship.
Synopsis of Decision and Opinion
The court ruled in favor of Wichelhaus on the basis that each party believed the ship Peerless to mean two different ships. The court determined that the misunderstanding resulted in a lack of mutual assent because the parties attached materially different meanings to an essential term of the contract. Therefore, the parties are discharged from any obligations.
Words of the Court: Mistake by Ambiguity
“There is nothing on the face of the contract to show that any particular ship called the Peerless was meant; but the moment it appears that two ships called Peerless were about to sail from Bombay there is a latent ambiguity . . . showing that the defendant meant one Peerless, and the plaintiff another. That being so, there was no consensus . . . and therefore no binding contract.”
Case Questions
1. If there were some evidence that one party was unreasonable in their understanding of what Peerless meant, would that affect the mistake analysis?
2. What made this mistake one that qualifies as an essential term that required “consensus”?
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Mistake
Over the course of a business life cycle, it is inevitable that a manager involved in a contract will make a mistake (or contract with a mistaken party). The law recognizes certain mistakes and provides a remedy intended to make the parties whole again. One famous legal commentator wrote that “mistake is one of the most difficult [doctrines] in the law, because so many men make so many mistakes, of so many different kinds, with so many varying effects.”14
14Corbin on Contracts, Section 103.
Generally, a mistake is defined in contract law as a belief that is not in accord with the facts.15 It is important to note that not all erroneous beliefs are classified as a mistake. A mistake refers to an erroneous belief about an existing fact, not an erroneous belief as to what will happen in the future. Erroneous beliefs about the future are covered by doctrines of impossibility and impracticability, which are discussed in the next chapter. Mistakes are classified as either mutual (both parties) or unilateral (one party).
15Restatement (Second) of Contracts, § 151.
A mutual mistake may be the basis for canceling a contract (also called avoiding the contract) when both parties hold an erroneous belief. In order for the adversely affected party to cancel the contract, the mistake must concern a basic assumption on which the contract was made. Landmark Case 6.1, known as the Peerless ship case, is a historically famous analysis of the mutual mistake doctrine. It is still cited by modern courts as framework for deciding whether the parties attached materially different meanings to the terms of a contract.
Other examples of mutual mistakes include mistakes as to the existence of the subject matter (parties agree to the sale of goods, but the goods were already destroyed by fire at the time of the contract) and quality of the subject matter (parties agreed to sale of a rare first edition book that turns out to be a second edition and not nearly as valuable). Courts will not generally consider market conditions (such as the fair market value of a piece of real estate) or financial ability (such as relying on one party’s representation that she can receive adequate credit to purchase the real estate) as a mistake that allows a contract to be avoided.
A unilateral mistake is when only one party had an erroneous belief about a basic assumption in the terms of the agreement. Courts are much less willing to allow a mistaken party to cancel a contract for a unilateral mistake than in the case of a mutual mistake. In fact, the general rule is that a unilateral mistake is not a valid reason to avoid a contract. However, if the nonmistaken party had reason to know of the mistake or his actions caused the mistake, a court will allow the mistaken party to avoid the contract. For example, General Contractor solicits bids from Cement Inc. in order to calculate a bid for a new construction project. Cement Inc. sends a letter offer with a clerical error that promises to provide $20,000 worth of cement for $2,000. General Contractor sends an email accepting the $2,000 bid. A court would likely allow Cement Inc. to cancel the cement contract based on unilateral mistake.16 Note that courts are much less willing to allow a party to cancel a contract if the unilateral mistake is essentially an error in business judgment rather than a clerical error.
16Based on Restatement (Second) of Contracts, § 154, Illustration 6.
Consideration
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Not all promises are legally enforceable. A promise to pay a cash gift for graduation is not an enforceable promise. For a binding contract to exist there must be not only agreement (i.e., offer and acceptance) but the agreement must be supported by consideration. The function of consideration is to distinguish between those promises that are binding on the promisor and those that are not. For most contracts, a court will not enforce a promise unless the promisee has been given consideration for the promise. If either party to a contract has not given consideration, the agreement is unenforceable, unless it falls under one of the exceptions (discussed later). Generally, a promise is supported by consideration if (1) the promisee suffers a legal detriment by giving up something of value or some legal right, and (2) the promisor makes his promise as part of a bargained for exchange.
Legal Detriment
Proper consideration requires that the parties suffer some type of detriment that the law recognizes as adequate. This is satisfied if the party promises to perform something that the party is not legally obligated to do (such as promising to sell your car for $5,000) or refrain from doing something that party had a right to do (such as waiving your rights to pursue a lawsuit when you have been injured). In one famous decision from 1891, an appellate court in New York held that one party’s promise to abstain from the thenlegal practices of drinking, smoking, and gambling until age 21, in exchange for a promise by his uncle to pay him $5,000,17 was sufficient legal detriment for both parties and thus was an enforceable contract.18 The nephew had given up a legal right that was sufficient to satisfy the legal detriment required.
17Using the Consumer Price Index rate to calculate the time value of money, this sum would be approximately $104,000 in today’s dollars.
18Hammer v. Sidway, 124 N.Y. 538 (1891).
Preexisting Duty Rule
If a party does or promises to do what she is already legally obligated to do, the law generally does not recognize this as a legal detriment and, thus, the contract is unenforceable. The classic example is that a police officer cannot collect the reward for arresting a fugitive because the officer had a preexisting duty to find and arrest fugitives. More often, however, the preexisting duty rule applies in circumstances where one party claims they wish to modify an existing contract because of unforeseen difficulties in performing their obligations. For example, Helsel contracts with Mullen to renovate Helsel’s office building. During the renovation, Mullen discovers the costs of renovation will be more than he anticipated. Mullen threatens to walk off the job unless Helsel agrees to pay an amount higher than stated in the contract. Because Helsel’s choices would be limited to either agreeing or hiring a new contractor and then suing Mullen, he consents to the price increase. Most courts would not enforce Helsel’s promise to pay the additional amount because Mullen already had a preexisting contractual duty to perform for the original price.
There is a modern trend in most courts that has fashioned a number of exceptions to the preexisting duty rule.19 For example, if a party who promises to do what she is already bound to do assumes additional duties, her undertaking of these duties is considered sufficient legal detriment.20 Also, courts may allow an exception in a case where certain circumstances were not reasonably anticipated by either party when the original contract was formed. For example, Waste Disposal Company (WDC) contracts with ManufactureCo. to collect garbage from ManufacturerCo.’s warehouse for one year. Six months into the agreement, WDC requests an additional $5,000 per month to provide this service because the ManfactureCo. warehouse is now unexpectedly producing some hazardous material waste that must be removed by specifically designed equipment. The parties then execute a modification to the contract agreeing to the increase. One month later, ManufactureCo. changes managers and the new manager refuses to pay the additional sum, citing
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the preexisting duty rule. In this case, most courts would enforce the modification as an exception to the preexisting duty rule.21
19In fact, some states (such as New York) have repudiated the preexisting duty rule altogether and allow a goodfaith modification made in writing to be enforceable.
20Restatement (Second) of Contracts, § 73.
21Based on Angel v. Murray, 332 A.2d 630 (R.I. 1974).
Bargained for Exchange
Even if a legal detriment is suffered by one party, that alone does not satisfy the consideration requirement. The bargain for exchange aspect of consideration is primarily to distinguish contracts from gifts. Since gift promises are not enforceable and contract promises are, it is important to understand the precise difference. A performance or return promise is “bargained for” only if it was exchanged for another promise.
Past Consideration
Another type of contract that is not considered to meet the bargained for exchange requirement is when a promise is made in return for a detriment previously made by the promisee. This is known as past consideration and it is not sufficient to meet the consideration requirement. Let’s suppose that Winston enters into an agreement with Neville to provide Winston’s company with sameday courier services for a period of six months. Neville is so happy about the contract that he calls Winston and says: “Thanks for your business. I’ll deliver a bottle of rare Napoleon brandy to your office today.” Winston replies: “I accept your generous offer.” The brandy never arrives and Winston sues claiming that the fee paid for the sameday courier contract is sufficient consideration to cover the brandy contract. Although the brandy contract has both offer and acceptance it is unenforceable because it lacks consideration. Winston’s contention that the courier contract consideration was sufficient is false because it is past consideration for another contract. Thus, the brandy is a gift offer and not enforceable as a contract.
Amount and Type of Consideration
Although the consideration does not need to be of equal value, gift promises and moral obligations are usually not considered valid. Ordinarily, courts will not look to the amount or type of consideration, or the relative bargaining power of the parties (except in the rare case when the contract is so burdensome on one party as to indicate unconscionability, discussed later) in deciding the validity of consideration. So long as some bargained for exchange is contemplated, the contract will be deemed enforceable.
Contracts may be based on nominal consideration (i.e., consideration that is stated in a written contract even though it is not actually exchanged). Most courts have held that the consideration requirement is still met even if the nominal amount is never actually paid so long as the amount is truly nominal (such as $1.00). In Bennett v. American Electric Power Services Corp.,22 a state appellate court ruled against an employee who had signed an employment agreement that assigned all of his rights for any invention made in the scope of employment to his employer “in consideration of the sum of One Dollar” even though the actual dollar was never paid. The court reasoned that the offer of employment to the employee in the contract was a sufficient bargained for exchange.23
222001 WL 1136150 (Ohio Ct. App. 2001).
23In its opinion, the court wrote “[a]lthough ancient, the best authorities on the issue hold that nonpayment of such nominal consideration will not constitute breach, at least in instances where the actual value of the subject of the contract does not, in fact, correspond to the nominal consideration.”
Promissory Estoppel
If one party justifiably relies on the promise of another, under certain circumstances, the relying party may recover costs of the reliance from the promisor even though the original promise agreement lacked consideration. Under the theory of promissory estoppel, a relying party may recover damages if (1) the promisee actually relied on the promise (the promise must have induced the act); (2) the promisee’s reliance was reasonably foreseeable to the promisor (what an objectively reasonable person would have foreseen under the same circumstances); and (3) principles of equity and justice (did each party act in good faith and fair dealing) are served by providing compensation to the reliant party.
One particularly important domain of promissory estoppel for managers is in dealing with promises of employment. Most commonly, this arises in a situation where an employer has made a promise of employment to an atwill24 employee candidate, and then revokes the promise before the employee’s start date (or soon thereafter). Typically, the employee would have left her previous position and potentially incurred moving expenses. In those cases, courts have held that the revocation of the employment atwill promise before any consideration was exchanged triggers the doctrine of promissory estoppel whereby the innocent party is entitled to damages. In promissory estoppel cases, courts frequently award damages equal to the outofpocket costs plus what the employee lost in quitting her job and declining employment elsewhere.25 For example, suppose that Donatello is given a written offer of employment to go to work for Renaissance Architect Firm (RAF) for an annual salary of $50,000 to begin in 30 days. Donatello gives his current employer notice of his resignation, then moves his home 100 miles in order to be closer to RAF’s headquarters. The day before Donatello shows up for work, RAF informs him that due to financial difficulties they can no longer honor their offer of employment. When Donatello attempts to regain his old employment, he is told that his position was filled and there is no chance of rehiring him. Donatello cannot prevail on a breach of contract claim because no consideration was actually ever exchanged and, therefore, the promise is not supported by consideration and not enforceable as a contract. However, a court would likely award Donatello damages based on promissory estoppel. RAF may be liable for damages related to Donatello’s actions in reliance of RAF’s promise, such as the moving expenses and compensation in connection with Donatello’s resignation from his previous employer.26
24Atwill employees are those that may be fired with or without cause because the employee is not covered by a contract or any other promises of continued employment. Employeesatwill are discussed in detail in Chapter 10 “Agency and Employment Relationships.”
25Note that generally courts do not measure damages by looking at what the employee would have earned from the defendant in a certain time period.
26Based on Grouse v. Group Health Plan, Inc., 306 N.W.d 114 (Minn. 1981).
Capacity
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In addition to meeting the requirements for agreement and consideration, courts will only enforce contracts where each party had the legal capacity to enter into a contract. Certain classes of persons have only limited power to contract: minors and those with mental incapacity. In these cases, parties may seek to avoid (cancel) the contract immediately or they may enforce the contract with the option of avoiding it at any time up until the time they regain capacity. Once the party has regained capacity, the contract becomes binding on both parties.
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Minors
Until a person reaches her majority age, any contract that she may enter into is voidable at the minor’s option. Minors (referred to as infants in legal terminology) are defined by most states as those who are younger than 18. For example, Junior is 17 and enters into to an agreement to purchase a pickup truck from Roscoe’s Dealership. Junior later changes his mind and decides not to go through with the transaction. Roscoe may not enforce the agreement against Junior. However, Junior may still enforce the contract against Roscoe if he so desires.27
27In cases where the minor misrepresents her age, courts differ in their treatment of the transactions. In some cases, courts place a greater burden of restitution for any misrepresentations. In other cases, courts have allowed either party to avoid the contract. A minority of states allow the nonminor party to be sued for the tort of misrepresentation.
A minor may avoid a contract even before she reaches the age of majority.28 It is important to remember that a contract made by a minor is not automatically void. Rather, the minor either avoids the contract or may enforce the contract. While a minor may avoid a contract up until the age of majority, the minor may also ratify the contract upon reaching the age of 18. Note that a minor is assumed to have ratified the contract upon reaching the age of 18 if she fails to disaffirm (avoid) the contract in a reasonable time period.29 In the case where the minor has disaffirmed and avoided the contract, the other party may be entitled to an economic adjustment if the minor received some economic benefit from the contract. Generally, this means that the minor will have to return any goods or make restitution for any damages that affected the value of the good or service. In the example above, suppose that Junior goes through with the truck purchase, and avoids the contract on his 18th birthday. Roscoe is entitled to claim the truck back and may be entitled to compensation for the loss of the truck’s market value from the previous year.
28Michigan is the only state with an exception to this rule.
29There is no definitive test for determining what is a “reasonable time” because the time period may be case specific depending on individual industry standards and practices.
Virtually all jurisdictions recognize an exception to the minor capacity rule for necessities such as food, clothing, and shelter. Thus, a 16yearold customer at a restaurant may not disaffirm a contract to purchase french fries when presented with the bill.
Mental Incompetents
Like minors, mental incompetents are treated as having limited capacity to contract. This category covers not just obvious cases (such as mental retardation or dementia) but also temporary incompetence such as parties who are highly intoxicated.
In general, a person lacks capacity because of mental illness or defect if either (1) she is unable to understand the nature and consequences of the contract, or (2) she is unable to act in a reasonable manner in relation to the transaction and the other party has reason to know of her condition.30 For example, Oliver has Alzheimer’s disease and enters into a contract with Wendell to sell 100 widgets for $1 per widget (the widget’s fair market value). Oliver may avoid the contract even though the contract terms were fair and Wendell had no notice of Oliver’s condition. This is true because Oliver has met the “unable to understand” criteria. On the other hand, suppose that Oliver and Wendell were at a bar drinking heavily. Wendell writes on a cocktail napkin: Because you bought me so many pints of beer, I will sell you 100 widgets for only five cents per widget. The next day Wendell sobers up and realizes what he did. Wendell may avoid the contract because he was so intoxicated he was unable to act in a reasonable manner and because Oliver had reason to know of Wendell’s condition.
30Restatement (Second) of Contracts, § 15(2).
In most states contracts made by an incompetent are voidable, not void. If the incompetent party regains her mental capacity, or has a guardian appointed, she may ratify the contract. Note that the other party does not have the power to avoid the contract. However, many states classify a contract as void per se (not valid from the outset) if one party has been legally declared to be incompetent prior to entering into the contract.
Legality
In order for a contract to be enforceable, both the subject matter and performance of the contract must be legal. Some contracts are specifically barred by statute (e.g., a contract related to illegal gambling such as betting on sports events31 or a contract for the sale of goods that is banned by a trade embargo), while other contracts are illegal because the terms violate some public policy objective (such as an overly broad restriction on employment possibilities known as a restrictive covenant). As a general rule, illegal contracts are void automatically and neither party may enforce it against the other. This is true even when only one party’s performance is illegal. For example, if Holmes promises to paint Cardozo’s home in exchange for Cardozo’s promise to smuggle 500 Cuban cigars into the United States in violation of federal law, then neither Holmes nor Cardozo may enforce the contract.
31Many states do allow “small games of chance” such as churchsponsored Bingo or an office football pool.
Concept Summary: Contract Formation
Agreement Mutual Assent Consideration Capacity Legality The offer must represent a serious, objective intent to contract; proper acceptance of the offer must occur prior to termination by the parties or operation of law.
The terms must be sufficiently definite, and there must be no mistake (belief by one or both parties not in accord with the facts).
There must be the possibility of legal detriment to the promisee and a bargained for exchange on the part of the promisor.
If one of the parties is a minor, the contract is voidable by the minor or the minor’s guardian. If one of the parties is mentally incapacitated, and the other party had reason to know of the incapacity, the contact may be avoided.
The subject matter of the contract and transaction must be legal.
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Solutions for Managers: Enforcing Contracts with Covenants not to Compete
PROBLEM How do you protect the company’s interests from employees who depart the company in order to directly compete with their exemployer?
One type of special contract that managers are increasingly encountering at a variety of levels in the corporate sector are contracts where one party agrees not to compete with another party for a specified period of time. Known as covenants not to compete (also called a restrictive covenant), courts have historically subjected these contracts to close judicial scrutiny. This is not to say that covenants not to compete are unenforceable; rather, courts use a “reasonableness” approach in determining the extent to which the covenant is enforceable. Even if a court finds that the terms of the covenant were unreasonable, most courts will opt to enforce the covenant to the extent required to protect the legitimate interests of the business. For example, Jordan signs a noncompete agreement with Robert, her employer, whereby Jordan agrees not to contact any of Robert’s clients anywhere in the United States for two years after she has left Robert’s company. After Jordan quits and starts her own firm, Robert finds out Jordan has been contacting Robert’s clients. Robert sues to enforce the covenant. If a court finds the covenant to be too broad, the covenant may be pared back by the court to, say, one year and a more limited geographic region. This is an alternative to striking down the covenant completely.*
*Based on Restatements (Second) of Contracts, § 184(2), Comment b, Illustration 2.
SOLUTION Be sure that your company’s restrictive covenant agreements are narrowly tailored keeping the following requirements and standards in mind:
Source Covenants not to compete most often arise out of either (1) the sale of a business whereby the buyer is purchasing business assets, goodwill, and promises by the seller’s principals not to compete with the buyer; or (2) as part of an employment contract.
Sale of a Business In the context of a sale of a business, courts are willing to enforce such covenants, but are often focused on the geographic area involved. If the covenant restriction is substantially broader than that where the buyer and seller are currently doing business, courts are unwilling to enforce such an overly broad restriction.
Employment Agreements Covenants that are part of an employment contract (or an employment relationship) are subjected to a higher degree of scrutiny. Courts will generally permit the employment covenant to stand so long as it is designed to cover a recognized legitimate interest of the employer. Courts recognize an employer’s interest in guarding trade secrets from being disclosed or used by an exemployee.† Employers also have a legitimate interest in ensuring that former employees do not act in a way that could damage relationships with their existing customers. Therefore, courts have permitted contracts that prevent exemployees from soliciting (or even contacting) customers of the exemployer for a certain period of time. However, these types of covenants must be reasonable in duration, subject matter scope, and geographic scope. Although these standards vary from industry to industry, some general guidance regarding reasonableness are helpful.
†Generally, a trade secret is a process, data, or system that gives a company a competitive edge over another (e.g., customer lists, formulas, etc.). Trade secrets are covered in depth in Chapter 24, “Intellectual Property.”
Duration. The higher the position of the employee, the longer the employer can restrict the employee. A sales staffer who quit after only one year would likely not be bound any more than one or two years. The CEO of a corporation may be bound in the range of five years or more. In any case, the duration must be no greater than is required for the protection of the employer while still considering the potential for undue hardship on the employee.
Scope of Subject Matter. The restriction must be directly tied to the employee’s work responsibilities. For example, if Foley works 10 years as an insurance agent for Garvey’s Insurance Agency, the restrictive covenant may only cover a competing interest of insurance sales. Thus, if Foley quits Garvey Insurance, starts a career as a golf instructor and contacts customers he met while employed by Garvey, a court would not enforce a covenant to prevent this contact because any such restriction is too broad in terms of the scope of the subject matter.
Geographic Scope. Employers must limit the geographic area in which the employer conducts business and the geographic region must not impose an undue hardship on the employee. While some companies may legitimately claim that they do business in all 50 states, courts are still reluctant to allow a restriction to be effective countrywide because that would require exemployees to move abroad in order to comply with the covenant. On the other hand, a small manufacturing company in Philadelphia may wish to restrict its exengineering employees from competing within a radius of several miles of the city. This would likely be seen as a protection of legitimate business interests without an undue burden to the employee.
Enforceability LO68
Once it is determined that the parties have properly formed a contract, the analysis turns to enforceability. A contract is of little use if it is not enforceable in a court of law, and business owners and managers can reduce risk and unnecessarily exposing their company to liability by ensuring that contracts are not only properly formed, but legally enforceable. Even if the elements of a contract are met, the contract must still be (1) the product of genuine assent, and (2) in writing under certain circumstances.
Legal Speak
Goodwill
Intangible assets that represent value to the business such as its reputation for quality and/or service.
Genuineness of Assent
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Recall from the discussion in the previous section of this chapter that an agreement must reflect mutual assent (sufficiently definite terms, lack of mistake, etc.) in order to legally form a contract. In order for a contract to be enforceable, the contract must also be the result of genuine assent. This means that in order for a contract to be valid and enforceable, the law requires the parties to have given genuine consent on the terms of the contract. A lack of genuine assent occurs in cases of (1) misrepresentation and fraudulent misrepresentation, (2) duress, (3) undue influence, and (4) unconscionability.
Key Point
Contracts that include restrictive covenants must protect a legitimate business interest of an employer and be reasonable in terms of scope and duration.
Misrepresentation
When one party to an agreement makes a promise or representation about a material fact that is not true, the other party may avoid the contract on the basis of misrepresentation. This is true even if the misrepresenting party doesn’t actually know that the promise or representation was false. Consequentially, the defense is sometimes called innocent misrepresentation, which distinguishes it from fraudulent misrepresentation (discussed later). In order for one party to avoid the contract on the basis of misrepresentation, she must prove (1) the misrepresented fact was material (i.e., it concerns a basic assumption in the agreement or the false representation somehow changed the value of the contract); (2) that she justifiably relied on the misstatement when forming an agreement (such as determining the price to be paid for a commercial office building); and (3) the misrepresentation was one of fact and not just someone’s opinion or mere puffing (e.g., “this building’s roof is only 5 years old” is a verifiable fact versus “the roof is in great shape,” which is puffing).
Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish between fact and opinion. In one famous case, a dance student sued her dancing school on the basis of misrepresentations by her instructor who had frequently assured her that she had “excellent potential” for dance so long as she kept purchasing pricey lessons from the dancing school. Eventually, the student sought another teacher who informed her that she had minimal dance aptitude and could barely detect a musical beat. The dance school argued that the advice was merely opinion and, therefore, could not be the basis for a misrepresentation claim. Nonetheless, the court ruled in favor of the student and reasoned that because the dancing school had “superior knowledge” on the subject that it had a duty to act in good faith in their contract transactions.32
32Vokes v. Arthur Murray, Inc., 212 So. 2d 906 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 1968).
Fraudulent Misrepresentation
When one party has engaged in conduct that meets the standards for misrepresentation, but that party has actual knowledge that the representation is not true, this is known as fraudulent misrepresentation (sometimes referred to simply as fraud). That is, misrepresentation plus knowledge (also known as guilty knowledge33) equals fraudulent misrepresentation. The primary difference between misrepresentation and fraudulent misrepresentation, from a manager’s perspective, is the relief available to the innocent party. In both cases, the innocent party may avoid the contract and be released from any obligations. In cases of misrepresentation, the innocent party has only limited relief in terms of money damages because recovery in many states is limited to any actual outofpocket damages. In cases of fraudulent misrepresentation, most states classify the contract as void and the innocent party is generally entitled to recover money damages for any losses incurred, plus more for speculative damages such as loss of future profits.
33The legal term for this type of guilty knowledge is scienter.
Key Point
The elements of misrepresentation (materiality, justifiable reliance, and fact) plus the element of actual knowledge of the misrepresented fact is considered fraudulent misrepresentation, and the innocent party may be entitled to additional recovery.
To better understand the difference between innocent misrepresentation and fraudulent misrepresentation, suppose Marshall negotiated to purchase Nino’s office building. During the negotiations, Marshall asked Nino if the building had any radon34 in the underground storage basements. Nino replied that he has owned the building for 10 years and there was no radon. Marshall then agreed to buy the property for $100,000, but before the closing date he finds out that radon is present in the basements and it will cost $15,000 for a radon evacuation system to be installed. In this case, the radon was a material fact (changes the value of the contract by $15,000), Marshall relied on that fact in calculating the price, and Nino’s representation was of a fact that turned out to be false. Marshall may, therefore, avoid the contract based on innocent misrepresentation.
34Radon is an invisible, naturally occurring gas that the EPA has determined to be a risk factor for cancer.
However, suppose that after Marshall cancels the contract, Nino finds another party to buy the building (New Buyer). When New Buyer asks Nino about the radon, Nino gets nervous about the sale falling through, so he lies saying that “as far as I know” there is no radon. New Buyer may avoid the contract on the basis of fraudulent misrepresentation because Nino’s statements fit the requirements for misrepresentation, but in this case he had knowledge that his statements were false. Thus, the new buyer would also be entitled to additional money damages from Nino for any losses that New Buyer suffered as a result of the fraudulent misrepresentation.
In Case 6.2, a court analyzes a fraudulent misrepresentation claim in the context of promises made as part of a franchise contract.
Concealment of Material Fact
Although many fraudulent misrepresentations stem from affirmative promises (such as the age of a roof), sometimes a fraudulent misrepresentation occurs when one party conceals a material fact. While parties do not have a general duty to disclose all information to each other, courts have allowed the use of misrepresentation in cases where a party has asserted a halftruth that led to an overall misrepresentation, where one party takes affirmative action to conceal truth from the other, and when one party fails to correct a past statement that the other party subsequently discovers is untrue.
Case 6.2. HarleyDavidson Motor Co. v. PowerSports, Inc., 319 F.3d 973 (7th Cir. 2003)
Fact Summary
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PowerSports applied for a franchise license from HarleyDavidson (“Harley”) to sell Harley products in Seminole County, Florida. During Harley’s interview of PowerSports, officers of PowerSports made certain representations and promises about PowerSports’ business practices and procedures. This was an important part of the negotiations because Harley had strict standards of quality and customer service with which all of its dealers had to comply. Based on these representations, Harley granted the franchise license and PowerSports became an authorized dealer. Just days after they signed the franchise agreement, Harley became aware that PowerSports had taken significant steps toward plans to take their company public (sell company stock on the public market). This was inconsistent with Harley’s requirements and conditions for owning a franchise. Harley alleged that the representations made by PowerSports were false and sued PowerSports for fraudulent misrepresentation, demanding a rescission of the contract plus additional damages.
Synopsis of Decision and Opinion
The Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals held in favor of Harley, citing PowerSports’ statements and representations made during the preliminary phase of the agreement. The evidence showed that Harley would only grant the license to a business venture that met certain criteria. Chief among them was that the franchise would only be awarded to a privately owned company that had no intention of becoming a company with stock that was traded publicly. In order to induce Harley to approve the franchise, PowerSports either concealed or misrepresented their desire to become a publicly held company immediately after acquiring the franchise license. The misrepresentations were (1) knowing, (2) concerned material facts, and (3) were justifiably relied on by Harley in approving the franchise agreement. Thus, PowerSport potentially engaged in fraudulent misrepresentation and rescission plus damages are appropriate.
Words of the Court: Rescission in Cases of Fraudulent Misrepresentation
“Under contract law, when seeking rescission all that is required is that a party’s manifestation of assent is induced by fraudulent misrepresentation. HarleyDavidson explained its expectations for how dealers should run HarleyDavidson dealerships and repeatedly asked for information concerning PowerSports’ plans for [their dealership] and for going public. From these facts, it could be inferred that PowerSports knew that its representations that it would operate a communityoriented, exclusive HarleyDavidson dealership, owned by a company that was not going public, would induce HarleyDavidson to approve the transfer and thus were fraudulent misrepresentations.”
Case Questions
1. Why were PowerSports misrepresentations “material”? 2. Suppose PowerSports went public two years after the awarding of the franchise agreement. Could Harley still sue for
recession? How about 10 years?
Duress
If one party to a contract uses any form of unfair coercion to induce another party to enter into or modify a contract, the coerced party may avoid the contract on the basis of duress. Generally, the law recognizes three categories of duress: (1) violence or threats of a violent act;35 (2) economic threats such as wrongful termination or threats to breach a contract; and (3) threats of extortion or other threats where the other party has no meaningful choice. One important point to consider is that if one party threatens another with a certain act, it is irrelevant that he would have the legal right to perform that act. This becomes a central principle in a case where some economic duress is at issue. For example, Bloom works for Joyce as an employee atwill (that is, either party may terminate the employment with or without cause).36 Joyce threatens Bloom that he will be fired unless he agrees to sell his stock to Joyce for $5 per share. Bloom has no choice, so he sells the stock. A court will allow Bloom to avoid the contract based on this threat even though Joyce had a legitimate right to fire Bloom with or without just cause.
35Note that duress is one of the few areas of contract law based on the subjective belief of one of the parties in the agreement. That is, regardless of the form and content of the threats, if the coerced party shows that he was, for example, unusually timid or in a unusually vulnerable state of mind, he may use the duress defense even if an ordinarily reasonable person would not have been intimidated by such threats. See generally, J. D. Calamari, J. M. Perillo, and H. H. Bender, Cases and Problems on Contracts, 4th ed. (St. Paul, MN: West/Thomson, 2004), p. 309.
36Employment at will is discussed in detail in Chapter 10, “Agency and Employment Relationships.”
Undue Influence
The defense of undue influence gives legal relief to a party that was induced to enter into a contract through the improper pressure of a trusted relationship. Undue influence allows the influenced party to avoid a contract where the court determines that the terms of the contract are unfair and the parties had some type of relationship that involved a fiduciary duty or some duty to care for the influenced party. For example, Edna is a caregiver for June, a wealthy widow who is confined to a wheelchair. Edna informs June that she can longer be her caregiver unless June signs a contract to assign to Edna $50,000 worth of Microsoft stock. June cannot imagine the thought of being alone or finding another caregiver, so she goes ahead with the contract. In this case, a court would likely allow June to avoid the contract based on the undue influence that Edna had asserted over her.
Unconscionability
When an agreement is reached between two parties that have met the required elements and are not subject to the defenses discussed previously, the contract may still potentially be avoided on the grounds that one party suffered a grossly unfair burden that shocks the objective conscience. Recall from our discussion of consideration that courts will generally not be inclined to weigh the amount and type of consideration to determine whether the exchange is objectively fair. While this doctrine remains true, the defense of unconscionability gives the court the tools to refuse to enforce a contract where the consideration is grossly unequal. For example, in Waters v. Min Ltd.,37 an appellate court allowed one party to avoid a contract in which she signed over an annuity insurance contract with an immediate value in excess of $150,000 in exchange for a check for $50,000. The fully annuitized value of the contract would have been over $530,000. The court ruled that although there was a written contract that met the elements required under the law, the disparity of value in the exchange along with other circumstances such as drug dependency and lack of legal advice was “too hard of a bargain for a court [to enforce].” While courts apply this defense very narrowly, it remains a viable defense when one party was induced to enter the contract through oppressive terms where no bargaining is possible. Thus, highpressure sales tactics that mislead illiterate consumers may be one case in which a court would likely allow a party to avoid the contract.38 Courts have also been suspicious of standardized preprinted contracts, known as adhesion contracts, because there is an assumption that the nondrafter has not genuinely bargained for the terms of the agreement. For example, in Henningsen v. Bloomfield Motors, Inc.,39 an appellate court held that a disclaimer of a warranty that was buried in small print in a preprinted agreement to purchase a used car was void because the drafter had “gross inequity of bargaining position” and that an ordinary person would not be able to fully comprehend what legal rights he was giving up. Therefore, the court held that enforcement of the disclaimer was against public policy. In some cases, courts have held that
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arbitration clauses contained in contracts are unconscionable.40 The enforceability of arbitration clauses in contracts is discussed in detail in Chapter 4, “Resolving Disputes: Litigation and Alternative Dispute Resolution Options.”
37587 N.E.2d 231 (Mass. 1992).
38In the landmark case of Frostifresh Corp. v. Reynoso, 274 N.Y.S.2d 757 (1966), the court held that a contract where one party sold a freezer to another party who spoke very little English was unconscionable because of unethical sales practices, an oppressive credit installment agreement, and little benefit to the buyer.
39161 A.2d 69 (N.J. 1960).
40Brower v. Gateway 2000, Inc., 246 A.D.2d 246 (N.Y. App. Div. 1998).
Statute of Frauds
LO69
The statute of frauds is the law governing which contracts must be in writing in order to be enforceable. As its title suggests, the statute’s purpose is to prevent fraud by requiring that certain contracts have written evidence of their existence and terms in order to be enforceable. This is not to say, however, that the statute requires all contracts to be in writing. Nor does it require that the contract writing be in a prescribed format. Courts have even held that an agreement on a brown piece of wrapping paper written in crayon between an art buyer and an artist was acceptable as an enforceable writing because it contained a signature, quantity, and was supported by circumstances that indicated a contract with the artist for the sale of paintings.41 The one element that is uniformly required is a signature of the party against whom enforcement of the contract is sought.
41Rosenfeld v. Basquit, 78 F.3d 184 (2d Cir. 1996).
For common law contracts, in general, the statute of frauds applies to (1) contracts that involve the sale of an interest of land; (2) contracts that cannot (that is, not able, by its terms) to be performed in under one year; (3) contracts to pay the debt of another (such as a loan surety); and (4) contracts made in consideration of marriage (such as a prenuptial agreement).42
42Note that some states have added additional types of contracts to the traditional statute of fraudulent misrepresentations categories. For example, almost all states require insurance policies and contracts to be in writing.
Under the Uniform Commercial Code, the statute of frauds applies to any contract for the sale of goods for $500 or more, and any lease transaction for goods amounting to $1,000 or more.
SelfCheck: Statute of Frauds
Which of the following contracts would need to be in writing to be enforceable?
1. A contract whereby the president of NewCo. gives a personal guarantee (i.e., uses personal assets as collateral) for a $150,000 revolving line of credit loan to NewCo. from First National Bank.
2. An agreement of sale for a piece of real estate for a corporation to build a new warehouse for $500,000. 3. A contract for consulting services for $10,000 over the next 90 days. 4. A twoyear advertising contract between a retail store and a local newspaper.
Email and the Statute of Frauds
One question that continues to work its way through various state courts is to what extent that email transmissions can be used to satisfy the statute of frauds. In Case 6.2, a New York Appellate court uses an “intent to authenticate” standard to determine whether an email satisfies the statute of frauds.
Case 6.3. Stevens v. Publicis, S.A., 2008 N.Y. Slip Op. 02880 (N.Y. App. Div. 2008)
Fact Summary
In a transaction to sell Stevens’s public relations firm to Publicis, the parties entered into two agreements. The first was a stock purchase agreement transferring all of Stevens’s stock to Publicis for a certain price. The second was an employment agreement whereby Stevens would be employed by Publicis as the CEO of a newly formed subsidiary entity, PublicisDialog Public Relations (PDPR), created by virtue of the stock acquisition. The employment agreement required that any modification to the agreement had to be in writing signed by both parties. The agreement defined Stevens’s duties as the “customary duties of a Chief Executive Officer.” When PDPR failed to reach certain financial targets, Publicis removed Stevens as CEO. Subsequently, an executive from Publicis and Stevens had an email exchange regarding a new role for Stevens at PDPR whereby Stevens would now be cultivating new clients. The email exchanges contained unambiguous terms of acceptance by Stevens to the modification to his terms of employment. Additionally, each email transmission bore the typed name of the sender at the foot of the message. Eventually, Stevens and Publicis had a breach of contract dispute and Stevens claimed that the modification was not effective because it failed to meet the requirements of the statute of frauds because the emails did not constitute a “writing” and did not contain any signatures.
Synopsis of Decision and Opinion
The appellate court held in favor of Publicis and ruled that the series of emails amounted to signed writings that could be used to modify the employment agreement and met the statute of frauds requirement. The court focused on the fact that the emails contained the name at the end of each message that signaled the author’s intent to validate its contents.
Words of the Court: Satisfying the Statute of Frauds
“The emails from Stevens constitute ‘signed writings’ within the meaning of the statute of frauds, since Stevens name at the end of his e mail signified his intent to authenticate the contents. Similarly, Bloom’s (the Publicis executive) name at the end of his email constituted ‘signed writing’ and satisfied the requirement of the employment agreement that any modification be signed by all the parties.”
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Case Questions
1. If the parties did not wish to allow email to serve as an appropriate method to modify the contract, what wording could have been used in Stevens’s employment agreement?
2. Could the principle that the court articulates apply in a negotiation via email for the sale of goods? That is, if two parties are negotiating a price via email and there is language of agreement by the parties, does that alone satisfy the statute of frauds even if no actual written contract with the parties’ signatures exists?
Interpretation Rules for Written Contracts
In adjudicating disputes concerning the contents of a contract, courts use interpretation rules to guide their analysis. Before signing a written agreement, the parties typically engage in preliminary negotiations that involve discussions and perhaps documents during the negotiation, such as letters or memos, which are intended to help the parties come to an agreement. The parole evidence rule provides that any writing intended by the parties to be the final expression of their agreement may not be contradicted by any oral or written agreements made prior to the writing. Note the parole evidence rule does not bar admission of the preliminary documents when they are being used to determine the meaning that the parties intended concerning a particular term in the contract.
Sometimes contracts contain ambiguous terms. In such cases, these terms are construed by the court against the interest of the side that drafted the agreement. Courts may also supply a reasonable term in a situation where the contract is silent and has omitted terms.
Key Terms Agreement p. 126
Any meeting of the minds resulting in mutual assent to do or refrain from doing something.
Bilateral contract p. 126
A contract involving two promises and two performances.
Unilateral contract p. 126
A contract involving one promise, followed by one performance, which then triggers a second performance from the offeror.
Express contract p. 126
A contract created when the parties have specifically agreed on the promises and performances.
Implied contract p. 126
A contract in which the agreement is reached by the parties’ actions rather than their words.
Quasicontract p. 126
A classification that permits a contract to be enforceable in cases where no express or implied contract exists, where one party suffers losses as a result of another party’s unjust enrichment.
Valid contract p. 127
A contract that has the necessary elements and, thus, can be enforceable.
Void contract p. 127
A contract where the agreements have not been formed in conformance with the law from the outset of the agreement and, thus, cannot be enforced by either party.
Voidable contract p. 128
A contract where one party may, at its option, either disaffirm the contract or enforce it.
Unenforceable contract p. 128
A contract that meets the elements required by law for an otherwise binding agreement, but is subject to a legal defense.
State common law p. 128
The governing body of law of contracts for services or real estate.
State statutory law p. 128
The governing body of law of contracts for goods or products based on the Uniform Commercial Code.
Hybrid contracts p. 128
Contracts that involve terms for both goods and services, where the source of law is established by determining the predominant thrust of the subject matter.
Mutual assent p. 130
The broad underlying requirement to form an enforceable contract necessitating that the parties must reach an agreement using a combination of
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offer and acceptance and that the assent must be genuine.
Offer p. 130
A promise or commitment to do (or refrain from doing) a specified activity. In contract law, the expression of a willingness to enter into a contract by the offeror promising an offeree that she will perform certain obligations in exchange for the offeree’s counterpromise to perform.
Acceptance p. 130
The offeree’s expression of agreement to the terms of the offer. The power of acceptance is created by a valid offer.
Consideration p. 130
Requirement for an enforceable contract in addition to agreement in which there is a benefit that must be bargained for between the parties. Generally, a promise is supported by consideration if the promisee suffers a legal detriment by giving up something of value or some legal right and the promisor makes her promise as part of a bargained for exchange.
Capacity p. 130
Requirement for a valid contract necessitating that both parties have the power to contract. Certain classes of persons have only limited powers to contract, including minors and those with mental incapacity.
Legality p. 130
Requirement for an enforceable contract necessitating that both the subject matter and performance of the contract must be legal.
Public policy p. 130
Requirement for an enforceable contract necessitating that the terms are consistent with public policy objectives.
Genuine assent p. 130
Requirement for a contract to be enforceable necessitating the knowing, voluntary and mutual approval of the terms of a contract by each party.
Statute of frauds p. 130
The law governing which contracts must be in writing in order to be enforceable.
Objective intent p. 131
Requirement for an offer to have legal effect necessitating that generally, the offeror must have a serious intention to become bound by the offer and the terms of the offer must be reasonably certain.
Revocation p. 133
An action terminating an offer whereby the offeror decides to withdraw the offer by expressly communicating the revocation to the offeree prior to acceptance.
Rejection p. 133
An action terminating an offer whereby the offeree rejects the offer outright prior to acceptance.
Counteroffer p. 133
An action terminating an offer whereby the offeree rejects the original offer and proposes a new offer with different terms.
Operation of law p. 133
Another way in which an offer may be terminated by certain happenings or events. Generally, these include lapse of time, death or incapacity of the offeror or offeree, and destruction of the subject matter of the contract prior to acceptance.
Irrevocable offers p. 135
Classification of offers that cannot be withdrawn by the offeror. These include offers in the form of an option contract, offers where the offeree partly performed or detrimentally relied on the offer, and firm offers by a merchant under the Uniform Commercial Code.
Detrimental reliance p. 135
When the offeree makes preparations prior to acceptance based on a reasonable reliance on the offer.
Mirror image rule p. 136
Principle stating that the offeree’s response operates as an acceptance only if it is the precise mirror image of the offer.
Lapse of time p. 136
Term used to describe an event covered under operation of law in which a contract may be terminated once either the offeror’s expressed time limit has expired or reasonable time has passed.
Mailbox rule p. 137
Governs common law contracts and provides a rule for when a contract is considered to be deemed accepted by the offeree, thus depriving the offeror of the right to revoke the offer. Generally, the mailbox rule provides that the acceptance of an offer is effective upon dispatch and not when the acceptance is received by the offeree.
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Mistake p. 140
In contract law, an erroneous belief that is not in accord with the existing facts.
Mutual mistake p. 140
When both parties hold an erroneous belief concerning a basic assumption on which a contract was made.
Unilateral mistake p. 141
When only one party had an erroneous belief about a basic assumption in the terms of an agreement.
Preexisting duty p. 141
A duty that one is already legally obligated to do and, thus, generally not recognized as a legal detriment.
Bargained for exchange p. 142
Aspect of consideration differentiating contracts from gifts by holding that a performance or return promise is bargained for only if it was exchanged for another promise.
Past consideration p. 142
Type of contract that is not considered to meet the bargained for exchange requirement when the promise is made in return for a detriment previously made by the promisee.
Nominal consideration p. 143
Consideration that is stated in a written contract even though it is not actually exchanged.
Promissory estoppel p. 143
Theory allowing for the recovery of damages by the relying party if the promisee actually relied on the promise and the promisee’s reliance was reasonably foreseeable to the promisor.
Minors p. 144
Category of individuals who have limited capacity to contract, covering those younger than the majority age of 18. Until a person reaches her majority age, any contract that she may enter into is voidable at the minor’s option.
Mental incapacity p. 144
Category of individuals who have limited capacity to contract, covering those who are unable to understand the nature and consequences of the contract, or are unable to act in a reasonable manner in relation to the transaction and the other party has reason to know of her condition.
Covenants not to compete p. 146
Type of contract where one party agrees not to compete with another party for a specified period of time.
Enforceability p. 147
A term used to determine whether a properly formed contract can be imposed by examining whether it is a product of genuine assent and is in writing (under certain circumstances).
Misrepresentation p. 147
When one party to an agreement makes a promise or representation about a material fact that is not true.
Fraudulent misrepresentation p. 148
When one party has engaged in conduct that meets the standards for misrepresentation, but that party has actual knowledge that the representation is not true.
Duress p. 149
Basis for avoiding a contract when one party uses any form of unfair coercion to induce another party to enter into or modify a contract.
Undue influence p. 150
A defense that gives legal relief to a party that was induced to enter into a contract through the improper pressure of a trusted relationship.
Unconscionability p. 150
A defense that may allow a party to potentially avoid a contract on the grounds that they suffered a grossly unfair burden that shocks the objective conscience.
Parole evidence rule p. 152
Provides that any writing intended by the parties to be the final expression of their agreement may not be contradicted by any oral or written agreements made prior to the writing.
Ambiguous terms p. 152
Contract terms that are vague and indefinite. In contract law, these terms are construed by the court against the interest of the side that drafted the agreement.
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Omitted terms p. 152
Contract terms that are left out or absent. In contract law, courts may supply a reasonable term in a situation where the contract is silent.
Theory to Practice Big Time Toymaker (BTT) develops, manufactures, and distributes board games and other toys to the United States, Mexico, and Canada. Chou is the inventor of a new strategy game he named Strat. BTT was interested in distributing Strat and entered into an agreement with Chou whereby BTT paid him $25,000 in exchange for exclusive negotiation rights for a 90day period. The exclusive negotiation agreement stipulated that no distribution contract existed unless it was in writing. Just three days before the expiration of the 90day period, the parties reached an oral distribution agreement at a meeting. Chou offered to draft the contract that would memorialize their agreement. Before Chou drafted the agreement, a BTT manager sent Chou an email with the subject line “Strat Deal” that repeated the key terms of the distribution agreement including price, time frames, and obligations of both parties. Although the email never used the word contract, it stated that all of the terms had been agreed upon. Chou believed that this email was meant to replace the earlier notion that he should draft a contract, and one month passed. BTT then sent Chou a fax requesting that he send a draft for a distribution agreement contract. Despite the fact that Chou did so immediately after receiving the BTT fax, several more months passed without response from BTT. BTT had a change in management and informed Chou they were not interested in distributing Strat.
1. At what point, if ever, did the parties have a contract? 2. What facts may weigh in favor of or against Chou in terms of the parties’ objective intent to contract? 3. Does the fact that the parties were communicating by email have any impact on your analysis in Questions 1 and 2 (above)? 4. What role does the statute of frauds play in this contract? 5. Could BTT avoid this contract under the doctrine of mistake? Explain. Would either party have any other defenses that would allow the contract to be
avoided? 6. Assuming, arguendo, that this email does constitute an agreement, what consideration supports this agreement?
Manager’s Challenge Managers are frequently on the front lines when ambiguous preliminary agreements are involved and must have a relatively sophisticated knowledge of what constitutes a contract and what rules govern those contracts. In Theory to Practice, above, the BTT manager has done a very poor job protecting BTT from potential liability due to the ambiguity in the emails and his actions. Draft an email that a BTT manager could send to Chou after their first meeting that outlines some preliminary working terms. However, your objective is to draft the email in a way that no reasonable person would believe it to be an offer; rather, the email should be thought of as a preliminary attempt to settle terms after a negotiation meeting. For instance, would the subject line be the same as the one the BTT manager used (“Strat Deal”)? Also, focus on language in your email that clearly outlines what the parties must do next in order to enter into a formal agreement and time frames. A sample answer may be found on this textbook’s Web site at www.mhhe.com/melvin.
Case Summary 6.1 :: Arizona Cartridge Remanufacturers Association v. Lexmark, 421 F.3d 981 (9th Cir. 2005)
Mutual Assent/Acceptance
Lexmark is a manufacturer and distributor of ink cartridges for computer printers. They introduced a rebate plan called Return Program Cartridges whereby a consumer could receive a “prebate” (i.e., a discount upon purchase) on ink cartridges. This price product discount was given in exchange for an agreement by the consumer not to tamper with the cartridge. The consumer simply agrees to return the empty cartridge to Lexmark. The agreement is printed on the ink cartridge box and, Lexmark claims, by opening the box, the consumer has agreed to the terms of the Return Program Cartridge program. A consumer group challenged Lexmark’s program contending, among other things, that Lexmark could not enforce an agreement on the box because the consumer had never formally accepted the terms of Lexmark’s offer.
Case Question
1. Can one party be deemed to accept an offer simply by opening a product box even if there is no evidence that the party actually read the terms?
Case Summary 6.2 :: Biomedical Systems Corp. v. GE Marquette Medical Systems, Inc., 287 F.3d 707 (8th Cir. 2002)
Legality
GE Marquette Medical Systems (“GE”) contracted with Biomedical Systems Corp. to manufacture a new medical instrument based on technology owned by Biomedical. The contract required GE to obtain clearance from the Food and Drug Administration (the federal regulatory agency that covers such medical devices) within 90 days in order to move ahead on the project. After this contract was signed, GE determined that obtaining this clearance was not a prudent path to reach their ultimate objective of having the product approved for selling to the public. Rather than seek the clearance required by the Biomedical contract, GE decided to pursue a different strategy with the FDA that took several years to complete. When Biomedical sued GE for breach of contract, GE defended on the basis that the clearance provision in the contract was a violation of FDA procedure and, thus, the term was illegal and the contract was void.
Case Questions
1. Can a party make a unilateral judgment as to illegality on a term of the contract when there is no affirmative finding from a regulatory authority?
2. If GE had gone ahead with the clearance process and the FDA had told them it was not the proper procedure, would the contract be void for illegality?
Case Summary 6.3 :: Reed’s Photo Mart, Inc. v. Monarch, 475 S.W.2d 356 (Tex. Civ. App. 1971)
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Mistake
Reed owned a small photography store and purchased his price label products from Monarch. Over a period of years, Reed ordered no more than 4,000 labels at a time from Monarch. While preparing a new order form for labels, Reed was interrupted by a customer and wrote “4MM” on the order form instead of “4M.” In the industry, 4M means 4,000 labels, while 4MM means four million labels. Reed sent the mistaken order to Monarch. Despite the course of past dealings and the fact that the maximum order that Monarch had ever received from a single customer was one million labels, they proceeded to produce and deliver four million labels to Reed. Reed refused delivery and defended on the basis of mistake.
Case Questions
1. Who prevails and why? 2. Is this a unilateral or mutual mistake? What’s the difference?
Case Summary 6.4 :: MediaNews Group v. McCarthey, 494 F.3d 1254 (10th Cir. 2007)
Statute of Frauds
McCarthey sold controlling stock interests of his newspaper publishing company to TCI in 1997. During that sale transaction (which involved a detailed contract covering all aspects of the sale), McCarthey allegedly articulated a “sideagreement” with TCI that provided McCarthey with the right to repurchase the stock from TCI on the fiveyear anniversary of the sale (in 2002). The sideagreement was never memorialized. Before the fiveyear anniversary, TCI sold its interest in the newspaper to MediaNews. When McCarthey sued for breach of the oral agreement, TCI asserted that the statute of frauds barred his claim.
Case Questions
1. Is the oral agreement enforceable? Why or why not? 2. Could the parole evidence rule apply here?
SelfCheck ANSWERS
Source of Law
Which source of law governs this contract?
1. Common law (real estate).
2. Hybrid contract governed by common law based on (1) price allocation weighted to services and (2) uniqueness ofservices.
3. Common law (services).
4. Statutory law (sale of goods).
5. Common law (services) because no goods were sold (owner supplied the paint).
Mailbox Rule
For each transaction, does a contract exist? If yes, why, and what is the date of the contract. If no, why not?
A1:
PROBLEM #1
No contract. Connelly still had the power to revoke the offer on Day 3 because Raleigh used a slower method (U.S. mail) to accept than Connelly used to make the offer (fax). Therefore, Raleigh’s acceptance could only take effect upon receipt of the acceptance by Connelly. Because Connelly did not receive the acceptance until Day 4 his revocation of Day 3 is effective and no contract exists.
PROBLEM #2
Contract exists on Day 2 upon dispatch (mailbox rule) because RBR used a reasonable method to accept (using fax to accept an email offer is reasonable because they are similar in that they are relatively instantaneous when sending). When the offeror actually received the acceptance is irrelevant.
Statute of Frauds
Which of the following contracts would need to be in writing to be enforceable?
1. Writing required. Promise to pay the debt of another.
2. Writing required. Real estate/land.
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3. Careful! No writing required. Despite the high fee, the services can be performed in less than one year and, thus, thecontract is not subject to statute of frauds requirements.
4. Writing required. A twoyear contract for services that cannot be performed in less than one year.
The Legal Environment of Business. A Managerial Approach: Theory to Practice Chapter 6: Overview and Formation of Contracts ISBN: 9780073377698 Author: Sean P. Melvin Copyright © McGrawHill Company (2011)