Role of Functions of Law Paper
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Business and the Constitution Learning Outcomes Checklist
After studying this chapter, students who have mastered the material will be able to:
Explain the federal system in the context of the U.S. Constitution.
Describe the purpose and structure of the Constitution.
List the major provisions of the first three articles of the Constitution and explain the underlying assumptions of coequal branches of government.
Identify the powers of Congress that impact individuals and businesses.
Recognize the role of judicial review in interpreting the Constitution.
Understand the various applications and limits of congressional power under the Commerce Clause.
Apply Constitutional restrictions on state regulation of commerce in the business environment.
Explain how the tax and spend powers impact business.
List the major protections in the Constitution’s Bill of Rights and explain how they apply in the business environment.
Understand limits imposed on government overreaching by virtue of the Due Process Clause and Equal Protection Clause.
Explain the right of privacy that has been recognized by the U.S. Supreme Court and Congress.
Afundamental knowledge of constitutional law is an important step in understanding the source and application of federal statutory law as well as the power and limits of government agencies enforcing regulations. Business managers and owners should also be aware of the impact of constitutional law and protections of individuals and business entities across a broad spectrum of sectors. In this chapter students will learn:
The structure of the U.S. Constitution and individual state constitutions, and their respective roles in the American legal system. The specific powers granted to the government in the Constitution. The protections afforded by the Constitution in the Bill of Rights and the Fourteenth Amendment.
Structure and Nature of the Constitution: Federal Powers
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The United States uses a federal system in which a national government coexists with the government of each state. An important concept underlying the federal system is that the federal government has only limited powers to regulate individuals and businesses. States are thought of as having more inherent powers to protect the general welfare of their citizenry with only general constitutional authorization.1 In contrast, the federal government’s power to regulate must be specifically granted by the U.S. Constitution. For example, the Constitution grants Congress the explicit power to collect taxes and to control the issuance of patents and copyrights.
1This inherent power of the state to protect its citizenry’s health, safety, and general welfare is also referred to as the state’s “police powers.”
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From a broad perspective, the Constitution may be thought of as having three general functions: (1) establishing a structure for the federal government (including qualifications for certain government offices) and rules for amending the Constitution; (2) granting specific powers for the different branches of government; and (3) providing procedural protections for U.S. citizens from wrongful government actions.
Structure of the Constitution
The U.S. Constitution is composed of a preamble, seven articles, and 27 amendments. The first three articles establish a threepart system of government with three coequal branches: the legislative branch, the executive branch, and the judicial branch. The underlying rationale for this structure is that each of the branches exercises its respective powers to ensure that one branch does not exceed its authority under the Constitution.
Specifically, the Constitution begins with a preamble stating the Constitution’s broad objectives (e.g., justice, liberty, tranquility, common defense). The articles then set out structure, powers, and procedures. From a business perspective, it is also important to note that Congress’s powers to directly and exclusively regulate bankruptcy, patents, and copyrights are set out in Article I. Table 2.1 is a brief synopsis of the provisions in each article.
Table 2.1 Overview of Articles in the U.S. Constitution
Article I Establishes the legislative branch (a Congress composed of the House of Representatives and the Senate); sets qualifications for members; grants congressional powers (lawmaking).
Article II Establishes the executive branch (president); sets qualifications for the presidency; grants executive powers (enforcement of laws).
Article III Establishes the judicial branch with a federal system of courts, including a Supreme Court; grants certain judicial powers.
Article IV Establishes the relationship between the states and the federal government; describes how to admit new states to the Union.
Article V Describes the process for amending the Constitution.
Article VI Establishes the Constitution and federal law as the supreme law of the United States over any conflicting state law; authorizes the national debt (Congress may borrow money); public officials must
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take an oath to support the Constitution. Article VII Lists the requirements for ratification of the Constitution.
In addition to the creation of federal courts, the Constitution also establishes boundaries of jurisdiction. Jurisdiction is the legal authority that a court must have before it can hear a case. Both the U.S. Constitution and individual state constitutions contain language that establishes jurisdiction for certain matters to be heard by certain courts. The concept of jurisdiction is discussed in detail in Chapter 3, “The American Judicial System, Jurisdiction, and Venue.”
The Federalist Papers, written in 1789 by Alexander Hamilton and John Jay
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as an advocacy publication for ratification of the Constitution, is still cited in modern cases when courts interpret the Constitution.
Public domain, title page of the first printing of the Federalist Papers, 1788
Amendments
The Constitution has been amended (added to or changed) on several occasions since its ratification. These amendments are an important part of the Constitution’s function as a protection of the citizenry from unlawful or repressive acts of the government. The first ten amendments, called the Bill of Rights, were added in 1791. The Bill of Rights preserves the rights of the individual U.S. citizens, and in some cases U.S.–based businesses, from unlawful acts of government officials, freedom of speech and religion, prohibition on random searches, and others. In all, there have been 27 amendments to the Constitution. The applicability of the Bill of Rights in the specific context of business is discussed in detail later in this chapter.
Overview of Federal Powers LO24
Powers granted to the three branches of government in the Constitution are known as enumerated powers and are typically limited in scope. This means that each act of federal legislation or regulation must come from within one of the very specific, enumerated powers. The primary authorization of Constitutional powers is given to Congress under Article I.2 Congress has enumerated powers in 18 different clauses. The powers that generally impact business owners and managers include (1) the power to regulate commerce (Commerce Clause); (2) taxing the citizenry and commercial entities and spending government funds (tax and spend provisions); (3) bankruptcy, patents, and copyrights; and (4) a more general implied authority to make all laws necessary for carrying out its enumerated powers (Necessary and Proper Clause).
2§ 8.
Separation of Powers
Key Point
Federal legislation or regulation must be authorized by a specific, enumerated power in the Constitution.
Enumerated powers are also granted to the executive and judicial branches. For example, the president is granted the power to (1) carry out laws made by Congress; (2) be the commander in chief of the armed forces; (3) enter into a treaty (subject to approval by the Senate) and to carry out foreign policy; and (4) appoint federal officers and judges (also subject to Senate approval). The judiciary is authorized to decide cases and controversies falling within federal jurisdiction. In addition, the three branches also have powers that are part of an overall scheme to provide a system to resolve conflicts among the branches and ensure that no one branch exceeds its constitutional authority. This system of checks and balances is called the separation of powers.
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Table 2.2 sets out some of the various powers each branch has that acts as a check on the other branches.
Table 2.2 Example of Constitutional Checks and Balances
Branch Power Power Checked Executive Veto Congress’s lawmaking authority Legislative Override veto with
supermajority President’s veto authority
Legislative Impeachment and removal President and federal judiciary’s general powers
Judicial Invalidate a law as unconstitutional
Congress’s authority to make laws; the president’s authority to enforce laws
Judicial Review
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One of the central concepts in federal Constitutional law is the notion that federal courts have the right to invalidate state or federal laws that are inconsistent with the U.S. Constitution in some way. The U.S. Supreme Court is the ultimate judge of federal constitutional law. This authority was established by the Court in the landmark case of Marbury v. Madison in 1803. In Marbury, the Court explicitly ruled that (1) the Constitution was superior to federal and state statutes, and (2) when there is a conflict between the Constitution and state or federal law, the Court has the authority to strike down the law as unconstitutional. The Court based these conclusions on the judiciary branch’s enumerated powers found in Article III, § 2 which includes authority of matters arising under the Constitution or “laws of the United States.”3 Marbury, although decided over two hundred years ago, is still considered valid precedent, and federal courts regularly cite the case as a source of authority for the power to invalidate a law that is in conflict with the Constitution. Over the better part of two centuries, the Court further defined its judicial review authority, including the power of federal courts to review state court decisions to the extent that the decisions involve federal law or federal constitutional issues.
3Because of its sweeping importance, Marbury has been subject to intense analysis, justification, and criticism. Some critics argue that the Supreme Court, in essence, gave the power of judicial review to themselves. Most of the criticism of the Marbury opinion is derived from the fact that the Constitution does not expressly authorize the courts to invalidate congressional statutes and that such a power is not contemplated in any preratification debates or in advocacy publications such as the Federalist Papers.
Applying the Constitution: Standards of Review
The U.S. Supreme Court has established three standards of review for applying Constitutional law. These standards appear in a broad range of constitutional law cases, and the Court has fashioned these standards for use by lower courts in applying the provisions of the Constitution as uniformly as possible. When reviewing a government action for constitutional soundness (such as passage or enforcement of a federal or state law), the Court classifies the action into one of three categories of scrutiny: (1) the rational basis category, (2) intermediatelevel scrutiny, or (3) strict scrutiny.
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Rational Basis
Government actions that are in this category are subject to the least amount of scrutiny. In order for the court to uphold the action, the government need only show that their action advanced a legitimate government objective (such as public welfare, health, or safety) and the action was minimally related to the government’s objective. Government actions that fall into this category include those that do not involve any fundamental constitutional rights. Fundamental rights are generally limited to voting, access to criminal appeals, and interstate travel. Therefore, almost every economic and taxrelated law is reviewed using this undemanding threshold and ultimately the law is found to be constitutional. For example, suppose that, in response to pressure by consumer advocacy groups to regulate Internet access, pricing, and service, Congress passes a law requiring all Internet service providers (ISPs) to be directly regulated by a new federal administrative agency. The law imposes a tax on the ISPs to fund the agency. MegaSearch is an ISP subject to the law and files suit contending the law is an unconstitutional exercise of congressional powers. Because the regulation is purely economic, a court will likely rule against MegaSearch and uphold the law as constitutional using the rational basis category so long as the government provides evidence that the law advanced some legitimate government objective (such as consumer protection).
IntermediateLevel Scrutiny
Some actions are categorized as subject to intermediatelevel scrutiny. Courts will uphold government actions as constitutional so long as the government can prove that their action advanced an important government objective (a higher level than “legitimate” used in the rational basis test) and that the action is substantially related (a higher level than “minimally”) to the government’s objective. A relatively small number of cases fall into this category. For example, courts have used this category in cases involving government action related to regulating time, place, and manner of a political demonstration that is protected under the First Amendment. For example, suppose in the MegaSearch case, above, that the management at MegaSearch organizes a protest against the law and applies for permits to stage demonstrations opposing the law in several cities across the country. One city, Silicone Village, rejects the permit application because MegaSearch’s proposed demonstration would block a highvolume traffic area and endanger both pedestrians and drivers. The village also points out that a public park located in the village would be a more appropriate venue. If MegaSearch sues the village for denying them their First Amendment right to protest, a court would likely find the village’s actions permissible under the intermediatelevel scrutiny standard because the government’s denial of the permit is substantially related to an important government objective (protection of drivers and pedestrians).
Strict Scrutiny
When the government action is related to a fundamental right or is based on a “suspect” classification (i.e., race, national origin, or alienage) courts apply a strict scrutiny standard when deciding whether to uphold the government action. Courts will only uphold the law if (1) the government’s objective is compelling, (2) the means chosen by the government to advance that objective is necessary to achieve that compelling end, and (3) no lessrestrictive alternatives existed. In the strict scrutiny category, the government has the burden of persuasion. As a practical matter, when courts classify government actions as belonging in the strict scrutiny category, they are signaling that the government action is likely to be ruled unconstitutional. For example, suppose that in the MegaSearch case above, that the government passes a law that imposes a higher level of tax on ISPs who catered to Latino users by assessing the tax based on the number of searches conducted using words and phrases in Spanish. Such a law would be a
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clear example of the government’s use of a suspect classification (national origin) and would clearly be struck down under a strict scrutiny analysis.
The Supremacy Clause and Preemption
Because our federal system of government contemplates the coexistence of federal law with the various laws of the states, there is sometimes a conflict between federal law and state law. Article VI of the U.S. Constitution provides that valid federal laws (those made pursuant to Congress’s constitutional authority and that are constitutionally sound) are always supreme to any conflicting state law. This is known as the Supremacy Clause and it invalidates any state law that is in direct conflict with federal law. The power granted by the supremacy clause to override a state law is called preemption. In order for preemption to occur, the federal law must be directly in conflict with the state law to the point where the two laws cannot coexist. For example, in Geier v. American Honda Motor Company,4 the U.S. Supreme Court held that a federal regulation giving auto manufacturers the choice between airbags or alternative methods of passenger safety restraints preempted a claim by an injured party against an auto manufacturer under a state common law doctrine based on failing to install airbags. The Court ruled that, because the injured party’s case depended upon a claim that auto manufacturers had a legal duty to install airbags and the violation of that duty resulted in the injury, the state common law could not coexist with federal law that specifically allowed auto manufacturers to opt not to install airbags in favor of another type of restraint system.
4529 U.S. 861 (2000).
In Case 2.1, a famous dispute involving the early tobacco product liability litigation, the U.S. Supreme Court applied the doctrine of preemption.
Commerce Powers LO26
Congress’s broadest power is derived from the Commerce Clause whereby Congress is given the power to “regulate Commerce among the several states.”5 Under the modern trend, federal courts have been largely deferential to legislative decisions under Congress’s commerce powers. Despite some limits placed by the U.S. Supreme Court in the relatively recent past, Congress still exercises very broad powers to pass laws where the activity being regulated affects interstate commerce in any way.
5Article I, § 8.
Application of Commerce Powers
Congress exercises its commerce powers in various forms. However, the direct and broad power to regulate all persons and products related to the flow of interstate commerce is the fundamental source of its authority.
Interstate versus Intrastate Commercial Activity
Congress has the express constitutional authority to regulate (1) channels of interstate commerce such as railways and highways, (2) the instrumentalities of interstate commerce such as vehicles
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used in shipping, and (3) the articles moving in interstate commerce. Even for commercial activity that is purely intrastate (takes place within one state’s borders), Congress has the power to regulate the activity so long as it has a substantial economic effect on interstate commerce. For example, suppose that Congress passes the Whistleblower Act, a statute that prohibits any business engaged in interstate commerce from firing their employees for reporting safety violations. Steel Co., a West Virginia company, begins to engage in a pattern of firing all employees who report safety violations. When a government agency files a civil lawsuit against Steel Co. to enforce the Whistleblower Act, Steel Co. defends that the act is unconstitutional because the activity of firing their employees is purely within the state of West Virginia and not related to interstate commerce. A court would likely find that if Steel Co. had any commercial activity at all (such as shipping, warehouses, equipment, advertising, or importing) that is outside of West Virginia, Congress has the authority to regulate Steel Co.’s workplace policies.6 In the dynamics of the modernday commercial world, a large amount of seemingly intrastate activity has some degree of economic effect on interstate commerce.
6Based on the landmark Supreme Court case of NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp., 301 U.S. 1 (1937). This was the first modern case where the Supreme Court began to broaden its interpretation of Congress’s commerce powers. The groundwork for this expansion was laid out in Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 1 (1824) in which the Court recognized a more wideranging view of congressional power to regulate commerce.
Case 2.1. Cipollone v. Liggett Group, Inc., et al., 505 U.S. 504 (1992)
Fact Summary
Cipollone brought suit against Liggett for violation of several New Jersey consumer protection statutes alleging that Liggett (and other cigarette manufacturers) were liable for his mother’s death because they engaged in a course of conduct including false advertising, fraudulently misrepresenting the hazards of smoking, and conspiracy to deprive the public of medical and scientific information about smoking. Liggett urged the court to dismiss the state law claims contending that the claims related to the manufacturer’s advertising and promotional activities were preempted by two federal laws: (1) the Federal Cigarette Labeling and Advertising Act of 1965, and (2) the Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act of 1969.
Synopsis of Decision and Opinion
The U.S. Supreme Court ruled against Cipollone, holding that his claims relying on state law were preempted by federal law. The Court cited both the text of the statute and the legislative history in concluding that Congress’s intent in enactment of the laws was to preempt state laws regulating the advertising and promotion of tobacco products. Because Congress chose specifically to regulate a certain type of advertising (tobacco), federal law is supreme to any state law that attempts to regulate that same category of advertising.
Words of the Court: Preemption
“Article VI of the Constitution provides that the laws of the United States shall be the supreme Law of the Land. Thus, [. . .] it has been settled that state law that conflicts with federal law is ‘without effect.’ [. . .] Accordingly, ‘the purpose of Congress is the ultimate touchstone’ of preemption analysis. Congress’s intent may be ‘explicitly stated in the statute’s language or implicitly contained in its structure and purpose.’ In the absence of an express congressional command, state law is preempted if that law actually conflicts
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with federal law, [. . .], or if federal law so thoroughly occupies a legislative field ‘as to make reasonable the inference that Congress left no room for the States to supplement it.’ [. . .] [Cipollone’s] claims are preempted to the extent that they rely on a statelaw ‘requirement or prohibition . . . with respect to . . . advertising or promotion.’“
Case Questions
1. Given the Supreme Court’s language and the result of this case, is Congress’s preemption power broad or narrow? Explain your answer.
2. Does the Supreme Court’s ruling bar all residents of New Jersey, or any other state, from bringing suit against a tobacco company for false advertising or promotion? Why or why not?
3. Why would Congress want to preempt state law regarding the advertising and promotion of tobacco products? Do you agree with their decision to do so? Why or why not?
The U.S. Supreme Court has even deferred to congressional regulation of a product that is cultivated for noncommercial purposes solely in one state as sufficiently related to interstate commerce. In Gonzalez v. Raich,7 the Court ruled that Congress had the power to criminalize the possession of marijuana even if it was noncommercially cultivated and consumed by medical prescription all in the same state. The case involved a challenge by two California residents to the enforcement by federal officials of the federal Controlled Substances Act after California passed a state law via voter ballot proposition to exempt anyone involved in the cultivating, prescribing, and consuming marijuana for medical purposes from prosecution. The plaintiffs were each arrested by federal officials for possession of marijuana that had been grown at home. Each had a prescription from a licensed physician. In refusing to invalidate the Controlled Substances Act, the Court noted that Congress could have rationally believed that the noncommercially grown marijuana would be drawn into the interstate market and, therefore, the banning of the substance was sufficiently related to interstate commercial activity.
7545 U.S. 1 (2005).
Legal Speak
Ballot proposition
A question put to the voters during a state election to decide (usually controversial) issues such as imposing a new income tax or whether the state should allow marijuana to be used for medicinal purposes. In some states, this is known as a ballot initiative or a referendum.
Civil Rights Legislation
A key use of the federal commerce power has been in the area of civil rights legislation. Indeed, the Supreme Court’s level of deference for use of congressional commerce powers reached its peak during and directly after the civil rights era. In the 1964 Civil Rights Act, Congress used its
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commerce power to ban discrimination in places of public accommodation such as restaurants and hotels. In two important civil rights cases decided by the U.S. Supreme Court, the Court ruled that the Civil Rights Act was a permissible application of Congress’s commerce powers. In Heart of Atlanta Motel v. U.S.,8 the Court made clear that a federal ban on racial discrimination was a constitutionally permitted use of congressional commerce powers because the hotel was open to interstate travelers. Additionally, the Court deferred to a congressional finding of fact that racial discrimination in accommodations discouraged travel by limiting a substantial portion of the black community’s ability to find suitable lodging. In a companion case,9 Katzenbach v. McClung,10 the Court held that a local restaurant that was located far from any interstate highway, and with no appreciable business from interstate travelers, was nevertheless subject to the reach of the federal statute because the restaurant purchased some food and paper supplies from outofstate vendors. Since these purchases were of items that had moved in commerce, Congress could properly exercise their power to regulate a restaurant whose business interests were primarily local.
8379 U.S. 241 (1964).
9Two cases that have similar issues where the Court publishes its opinion at the same time.
10379 U.S. 294 (1964).
President Johnson, seen here with Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., signed the Civil Rights Act in 1964.
© AP Photo
Noncommercial Activity
In 1995, the U.S. Supreme Court signaled that some limits on Congress’s commerce power still
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exist. In cases where the activity is purely noncommercial (such as when Congress passes a criminal statute that is seemingly unrelated to commerce), the Court has used increased levels of scrutiny to be sure that the activity that Congress seeks to regulate has a sufficient nexus (connection) to some legitimate economic interest. In U.S. v. Lopez,11 the Court invalidated a federal statute on the basis that it was beyond Congress’s commerce powers. In Lopez, the Court struck down the GunFree School Zones Act of 1990, which made it a federal crime to possess a gun within a certain distance from a school. The Court rejected the government’s argument that gun possession in schools affected economic productivity (by making it more difficult for students to obtain an education) and thus was within the purview of congressional commerce power. The Court held that such a broad interpretation of the commerce power would mean that congressional power was virtually unlimited, and that such an expansive authority was directly contrary to the express limits imposed by the Constitution. The court reasoned that the banning of firearms in local schools was a government police power and, therefore, more appropriately handled by the state government. Five years later, in U.S. v. Morrison, the Court invalidated another statute on the same grounds. In that case, the Court struck down the Violence Against Women Act, which gave victims of gendermotivated violence the right to sue their attacker for money damages in a federal court. In light of the Lopez decision, Congress made exhaustive findings of fact that detailed the cumulative economic affect of gendermotivated crimes. Nonetheless, the Court held that the congressional findings were too broad to justify use of the commerce power and that virtually any local crime could become a federal offense under a similar justification. As a general rule, the further that Congress strays from regulating commercial activity, the more likely the Court will be to give the law intense constitutional scrutiny.
11514 U.S. 549 (1995).
Key Point
Congress’s broadest powers are derived from the Commerce Clause. Courts are highly deferential to congressional action in areas that affect interstate commerce.
Constitutional Restrictions on State Regulation of Commerce
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webcheck www.mhhe.com/melvin
Visit this textbook’s Web site for additional information and case summaries related to constitutional limitations on a state’s imposing a tax on outofstate vendors (including Internet vendors).
The U.S. Supreme Court has ruled that the mere existence of congressional commerce powers restricts the states from discriminating against or unduly burdening interstate commerce. States often wish to regulate commerce that crosses into their state borders. States are free to regulate commerce so long as (1) it does not impose a discriminatory law (such as a tax) on outofstate businesses, and (2) the state law is a legitimate effort to regulate health, safety, and welfare. For example, suppose that in order to protect its own economic interests, the Idaho state legislature imposes an inspection requirement and fee on all nonIdaho grown potatoes sold within Idaho
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state borders. The state legislature justifies this process and fee on the basis that it is protecting its citizens from rotten potatoes. A court would likely strike down the law because it discriminates against outofstate producers, and its explanation could be seen as a pretext (not the actual reason) since the law presumes that instate potatoes are safe. Moreover, the inspection fee and the inspection process itself could be viewed as unreasonably burdening interstate commerce.
In Case 2.2, a federal appellate court considers whether a state law infringes on congressional rights to regulate interstate commerce.
Case 2.2. Cavel International, Inc. v. Madigan, 500 F.3d 551 (7th Cir. 2007)
Fact Summary
Cavel, an Illinois–based business, owned the one and only facility in the United States for slaughtering horses where the meat was shipped to Europe for human consumption. The state of Illinois passed a statute banning the practice of slaughtering horses if the primary reason for the slaughter was to produce horse meat for sale. Cavel sued to have the law invalidated as an unconstitutional act of the state government. Cavel contended that the state legislature had improperly encroached on Congress’s exclusive jurisdiction over interstate commerce because enforcement of the law meant (1) a loss of $20 million in revenue for Cavel, (2) dozens of jobs would be lost in the local economy, and (3) the act effectively banned the exporting of meat to Europe and affected interstate commerce.
Synopsis of Decision and Opinion
The Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals ruled against Cavel. The court held that the effect on foreign commerce was minimal and that the state had a legitimate interest in enacting the law. The court determined that the law was not discriminatory in nature because Cavel, a foreignowned firm, was not subject to selected discrimination because all businesses in the state were prohibited from slaughtering horses. The Court also held that the Illinois state legislature had a legitimate interest in prolonging the lives of certain animals and in doing so through this statute they were not substantially affecting interstate or foreign commerce. Although the court did express a reluctance to validate the statute because of the effect that it would have on Cavel and its shareholders, it upheld the statute as a permissible regulation of commerce by the state legislature because, on balance, the regulation was constitutionally sound.
Words of the Court: State Regulation of Commerce
“The clearest case of a state law that violates the commerce clause is a law that discriminates in favor of local firms. [. . .] [However,] [t]he absence of outright discrimination does not terminate inquiry into a possible violation of the commerce clause. [. . .] There are situations in which states, by ostensibly local regulations, distort the operation of interstate markets. Such cases present more difficult factual issues than cases of outright discrimination. Plaintiffs have sometimes prevailed, at least if the impact on commerce is evident. [. . .] [But,] [w]here the statute regulates evenhandedly to effectuate a legitimate local public interest, and its effects on interstate commerce are only incidental, it will be upheld unless the burden imposed on such commerce is clearly excessive in relation to the putative local benefits. [. . .] Quite apart from economic consequences, an interference by a state with foreign commerce can complicate the nation’s foreign relations, which are a monopoly of the federal government; [. . .]
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[However,] [t]he curtailment of foreign commerce by the amendment is slight and we are naturally reluctant to condemn a state law, supported if somewhat tenuously by a legitimate state interest, on grounds as slight as presented by Cavel.”
Case Questions
1. Do you agree with the Court’s decision or do you think that Cavel’s business affects interstate or foreign commerce? Why or why not? Explain your answer.
2. In the opinion, Justice Posner notes: “Cavel, [. . .] did not tell the district court and has not told us what percentage of the horse meat consumed by Europeans it supplies and thus whether its being closed down is likely to have an impact on the price of horse meat in Europe.” Had Cavel showed that it produced 20 percent of all horse meat consumed by Europeans, would the result have been different? Why or why not? What if it was 50 percent or 70 percent?
Tax and Spend Power12
12Article I, § 8. “The Congress shall have the Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises . . . to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States. . . .”
LO28
Congress has a farreaching power to tax the citizenry and to spend the federal government’s money in any way that promotes the common defense and general welfare. The power to tax is an independent source of federal authority. That is, Congress may tax activities or property that it might not be authorized to regulate directly under any of the enumerated regulatory powers. The power to spend is linked to the power to tax in that the money may be raised by taxation and then spent on the general welfare of the United States. The U.S. Supreme Court has been highly deferential to Congress in terms of what constitutes general welfare and under what circumstances Congress may exercise its authority to tax its citizenry and its decisionmaking power on how to allocate government money.
Necessary and Proper Clause
Congress may also place conditions on the use of federal money in order to achieve some public policy objective. Congress generally cites the Necessary and Proper Clause as authorization to set conditions on the spending. This ability to set conditions on the use of federal money has been a somewhat controversial method of congressional regulation because it falls outside the areas of traditional regulation. However, the U.S. Supreme Court has upheld federal spending conditions that are tied to individual states passing certain laws that carry out a congressionally set ambition. State legislatures have objected to this type of regulation, characterizing it as a backdoor method for imposing laws on states that are outside Congress’s enumerated powers.
In South Dakota v. Dole,13 the Court deferred to Congress’s right to attach certain spending conditions related to the legal drinking age (a state law issue)14 on federal funds distributed to the
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states for use in repairing and building highways. Unless a state passed a law to raise the legal drinking age to 21 by a certain date, they would lose a certain percentage of their allotted highway funding from the federal government. South Dakota and other states challenged the law as an unconstitutional intrusion by Congress into state affairs and an overreaching use of its spending power to regulate. The Court sided with Congress and ruled the drinkingage condition is constitutionally permissible under Congress’s spending authority so long as the condition itself is not a violation of individual constitutional rights. This case signaled an important victory for Congress and it now regularly uses spending conditions as a form of regulation for individuals and businesses.
13483 U.S. 203 (1987).
14At that time, 19 states permitted consumption of some or all alcoholic beverages before the age of 21.
SelfCheck
What is the constitutional source of authority for each of the following laws?
1. A federal statute that makes it more difficult for businesses to qualify for protection under bankruptcy laws.
2. An increase in the federal corporate income tax. 3. A federal statute that adds criminal penalties for patent infringement. 4. A federal statute creating an agency to regulate ground shipping
between states. 5. A federal statute that requires that 25 percent of federal government
construction contracts be awarded to companies that are women or minorityowned enterprises.
Answers to this SelfCheck are provided at the end of the chapter.
Concept Summary: Structure and Nature of the Constitution: Federal Powers
Under the federal system used by the United States, the federal government has only limited powers to regulate individuals and businesses. These powers are specifically enumerated in the Constitution and are limited in scope. The limited powers of the legislative branch, which are specifically enumerated in the Constitution, include (1) the power to regulate commerce; (2) the power to tax and spend; (3) the power to regulate bankruptcy, patents, and copyrights; and (4) a general implied authority to make all laws necessary for carrying out its enumerated powers. Similarly, the president is granted the power to (1) carry out laws made by Congress; (2) be the commander in chief of the armed forces; (3) enter into a treaty and carry out foreign policy; and (4) appoint federal officers and judges. Finally, the judiciary is authorized to decide cases and controversies falling within federal jurisdiction. Congress’s broadest power is derived from the Commerce Clause. Under the Commerce Clause, Congress has the authority to regulate (1) channels of interstate commerce such as railways and highways; (2) the instrumentalities of
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interstate commerce such as vehicles used in shipping; (3) the articles moving in interstate commerce; and (4) any activity that has substantial economic effect on interstate commerce, including activities that are not commercial in nature. The U.S. Constitution is composed of a preamble, seven articles, and 27 amendments, the first ten of which are called the Bill of Rights. The first three articles of the Constitution establish a threepart system of government with three coequal branches: the legislative branch, the executive branch, and the judicial branch. This structure is designed so that each of the branches exercises its respective powers to ensure that one branch does not exceed its authority under the Constitution (referred to as a separation of powers or checks and balances). Under the Supremacy Clause, federal laws preempt (override) any conflicting state laws. Congress has the power to tax the citizenry and to spend the federal government’s money in any way that promotes the common defense and general welfare. Under the Necessary and Proper Clause, Congress may also place conditions on the use of federal money in order to achieve some public policy objective.
Constitutional Protections LO29
In addition to the Constitution prescribing the structure of government and granting the government certain powers, it also provides protection for the citizenry from unlawful or repressive acts by the government. These protections are contained primarily in the Bill of Rights (the first ten amendments) and in other amendments that guarantee the right of due process. From a business perspective, however, it is important to note that corporations and other business entities do not always receive the same level of constitutional protections as individuals.
The Bill of Rights and Business
The Bill of Rights contains many of the rights common in the American vernacular. Among them are freedom of speech, the press, religion, and expression (First Amendment); freedom from governmentconducted searches without cause or warrant (Fourth Amendment); rights against selfincrimination and to a speedy jury trial by our peers (Fifth and Sixth Amendments); and freedom from cruel and unusual punishments (Eighth Amendment).
While each amendment carries it own significance in a historical and public policy context, the coverage of this textbook is primarily concerned with the Bill of Rights provisions that relate directly to business and management issues.
First Amendment
The First Amendment contains the important introductory phrase “Congress shall make no law” and then articulates several specific protections against government encroachment in the areas of religion, press, speech, assembly, and petition of grievances. The introductory phrase demonstrates that the framers intended the Constitution to function as a limit on government actions. Although certain First Amendment rights for individuals do not extend to business owners, courts have increasingly broadened protections for business owners in the area of free
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speech.
Limits on Free Speech
Although the U.S. Supreme Court has given broad protections to speech that involves political expression, the First Amendment is by no means absolute. Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes famously wrote that the First Amendment was not without limits by giving an example that the Constitution did not protect one that falsely yells “fire” in a crowded theatre. Courts have ruled that the government may place reasonable restrictions related to time and place of political expression in cases, for example, where public safety may be threatened.
Commercial Speech
The most common form of commercial speech (ways in which business entities communicate with the public) is advertising through print, television, radio, and Webbased sources. Traditionally, advertising had little or no First Amendment protection, but the Supreme Court has gradually increased the constitutional protections related to advertising. In Virginia State Board of Pharmacy v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council,15 the Supreme Court held that purely commercial speech (speech with no political implications whatsoever) was entitled to partial First Amendment protection so long as the speech was truthful and concerned a lawful activity. In the Virginia case, the Court struck down Virginia state laws that prohibited a pharmacist from advertising prices for prescription drugs. The Court rejected the state’s contention that it has a substantial interest in ensuring that cutrate prices that may be created by competition among pharmacies doesn’t result in substandard service. Given that the information banned by the statute was limiting the free flow of information to consumers, the Court held that such regulation violated the First Amendment.
15425 U.S. 748 (1976).
Four years after the Virginia case, the Court expanded the analytical framework for deciding whether certain regulations were constitutional in Central Hudson Gas v. Public Service Commission.16 The Central Hudson case created a framework for a fourpart test that subjects government restrictions on commercial speech to a form of intermediatelevel scrutiny.
16447 U.S. 557 (1980).
Part One. So long as the commercial speech concerns lawful activities and is not misleading, the speech qualifies for protection under the First Amendment. If the speech is entitled to protection, then the government’s regulation must pass the final three parts of the Central Hudson test in order for the restriction to be constitutionally sound. Part Two. A substantial government interest in regulating the speech must exist. Part Three. The government must demonstrate that the restriction directly advances the claimed government interest. Part Four. The government’s restriction must be not more extensive than necessary (not too broad) to achieve the government’s asserted interest.
Case 2.3. Pagan v. Fruchey and Village of Glendale, 492 F.3d 766 (6th Cir. 2007)
Fact Summary
The Village of Glendale, Ohio, passed an ordinance that prohibited parking a vehicle on
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a public road for the purposes of displaying it for sale. Pagan, a resident of Glendale, parked his car on the public street and posted a “For Sale” sign on the vehicle. A Glendale police officer warned Pagan to take the down the sign or face a citation for violating the ordinance. Pagan corresponded with several Glendale officials but was unable to satisfactorily resolve his complaints. Pagan then filed suit against the Village of Glendale and Fruchey, Glendale’s Chief of Police (collectively “Glendale”), claiming that the ordinance was an unconstitutional infringement of his commercial speech rights under the First Amendment. Glendale contended that its ordinance satisfied the requirements under Central Hudson because the government has a substantial regulatory interest in traffic and pedestrian safety. The trial court dismissed Pagan’s claim and he appealed.
Synopsis of Decision and Opinion
The Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit reversed the trial court’s decision and ruled in favor of Pagan. The court held that Glendale had not met the third part of the Central Hudson test because there was not a sufficient connection between Glendale’s asserted interest (traffic safety) and government regulation. Glendale’s asserted interest of traffic safety was not necessarily met by the ordinance. Given that Glendale did not offer any data, rather only the opinion of the police chief to support their contention, it failed to meet its burden in showing that the ordinance actually advances its claimed interest in traffic safety.
Words of the Court: Applying the Central Hudson Test
“[Glendale’s attempt to justify its ordinance] amounts to nothing more than a conclusory articulation of governmental interests. While it suffices for the second part of the Central Hudson test by identifying two substantial government interests, it fails to address the third prong at all: that is, how the particular restriction chosen by Glendale directly and materially advances those interests. Its reference to people in the roadway looking at cars displaying ‘For Sale’ signs is most accurately characterized as simple conjecture by the police chief about something that might occur. Certainly, it is not evidence that ‘For Sale’ signs on cars in streets pose any concrete harm to traffic or aesthetics or that the ordinance has any connection to the interests Glendale asserts.”
Case Questions
1. Could the ordinance itself be modified to meet the third part of the Central Hudson test?
2. What types of data do you suppose the court wanted from Glendale to support their claim that the ordinance advanced their traffic safety interest? Why didn’t the court give more weight to the police chief’s opinion?
In Case 2.3, a federal appellate court applies the Central Hudson framework to a municipal ordinance that prohibits displaying of a car for sale on a public road.
Advertising and Obscenity Regulation
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Sometimes commercial speech runs afoul of government’s attempt to ban or regulate materials it deems obscene. However, obscenity regulation of commercial speech is subject to the same scrutiny as any other government regulation of commercial speech. For example, a federal appellate court has ruled that a state agency’s decision to effectively prohibit a corporation’s use of a certain label on its beer products, which the agency deemed offensive, violated the business owner’s right under commercial speech protections. In that case, Bad Frog Brewery, Inc. v. N.Y. State Liquor Authority,17 the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit held that labels on the company’s beer products, which depicted a frog with his unwebbed “fingers” extended in a manner evocative of a wellknown human gesture of insult, were protected commercial speech under the First Amendment. The court ruled that when the New York State Liquor Authority denied Bad Frog’s application to use the labels in New York on the basis that the labels were offensive, the state agency failed to show that their ruling achieved their asserted interest of protecting children from vulgarity. Because the labels were not misleading and did not concern an unlawful activity, the labels were a protected form of commercial speech and any government regulation must conform with the requirements set out in the Central Hudson case. Ruling in favor of Bad Frog, the court remarked that a state must demonstrate that its commercial speech limitation is part of a substantial effort to advance a valid state interest, “not merely the removal of a few grains of offensive sand from the beach of vulgarity.”
17134 F.3d 87 (2nd Cir., 1998).
webcheck www.mhhe.com/melvin
Visit this textbook’s Web site to see the Bad Frog label.
Political Speech by Corporations
Another form of commercial speech, broadly speaking, is when corporations and other business entities fund political speech or engage in corporate advocacy of a particular candidate or political issue. May the government regulate such commercial speech under the same standards as the Central Hudson case? Generally, the answer depends of the specific form and content of the speech—but typically political speech by corporations is fully protected by the First Amendment.
In First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti,18 the Supreme Court created a new level of First Amendment protection for corporations engaged in politically oriented speech when it struck down a Massachusetts state statute that prohibited corporations from using corporate assets to fund expenditures related to “influencing or affecting the vote on any question submitted to the voters” (known as a ballot proposition).19 In Bellotti, the Court held that that while some constitutional rights are not afforded to corporations, freedom of corporate political speech is fully protected. As such, any attempt to regulate politically oriented speech by corporations is subject to strict scrutiny. The Court also held that a corporation’s freedom of speech is not limited to matters materially affecting its business. Rather, a business has a constitutionally protected right to communicate about any political matter that is consistent with the goal of the First Amendment: societal interest in the free flow of information and debate. For the first time, the Court recognized that speech that otherwise would be within the protection of the First Amendment does not lose protection simply because its source is a corporation.
18435 U.S. 765 (1978).
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19Also known in certain states as a referendum or ballot initiative.
Political Spending and Corporations
In a 2010 case that attracted significant media attention, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the government may not ban all political spending by corporations in candidate elections. In Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission,20 the Court held that the provisions of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (commonly referred to as the McCainFeingold Act), which prohibited corporations and labor unions from using general funds to sponsor “electioneering communications,” were unconstitutional. It is important to note that the ruling did not involve a challenge to limits imposed by the law on campaign contributions, or with the prohibition of corporate contributions to a candidate. These limits remain intact. Rather, the Supreme Court’s ruling applies only to independent expenditures on speech. Independent expenditures mean speech (such as advertisements) engaged in by an organization on its own behalf, and not with coordination with any candidate.
20558 U.S. 50 (2010).
Key Point
Commercial speech in the form of advertising has partial First Amendment protection (subject to intermediatelevel scrutiny) under Central Hudson. Corporate political speech has full First Amendment protection (subject to strict scrutiny) under Bellotti and Citizens United.
The case originated when Citizens United, a conservative nonprofit corporation, produced a 90 minute documentary called “Hillary: The Movie” which criticized thenSenator Hillary Clinton and questioned her fitness for office. The group planned to release it during the 2008 Democratic presidential primaries. Fearful that uncertainties in the law would result in enforcement action by the government upon release of the movie, Citizens United filed suit against the Federal Elections Commission (FEC) in federal court challenging the act. After they lost that case, Citizens United scrapped its plans to release the movie, but continued to appeal the trial court’s decision. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in favor of Citizens United, striking down the provisions of the law that banned Citizens United from releasing the movie. Justice Anthony Kennedy wrote the majority opinion:
When the government seeks to use its full power, including criminal law, to command where a person may get his or her information or what distrusted source he or she may not hear, it uses censorship to control thought. This is unlawful. The First Amendment confirms the freedom to think for ourselves.
Other Amendments In addition to the First Amendment, certain other protections afforded by the Constitution may be important to business owners and managers. The Fourth Amendment protects individual citizens’ rights to be secure in their “persons, houses, papers and effects.” The U.S. Supreme Court has systematically applied a reasonableness test to define the limits of when the government may search without a warrant based on probable cause that criminal activity is afoot.
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From a business perspective, it is important to understand that the law recognizes two basic types of searches. First, when the government wishes to obtain a warrant to search particular premises while investigating a criminal offense, they must demonstrate that they have sufficient information, called probable cause, that justifies the issuance of a search warrant by a court.21 Second, the government also investigates noncriminal administrative violations. The standard for the issuance of a warrant for a search in an administrative violation investigation is lower than for investigating a criminal offense. Administrative warrants may be used by government regulatory agencies (such as the Environmental Protection Agency) to gain access to worksites for compliance inspections. Administrative agencies and administrative warrants are discussed in detail in Chapter 17, “Administrative Law.”
21Criminal offenses and probable cause are discussed in detail in Chapter 22, “Criminal Law and Procedure in a Business Context.”
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Political speech by corporations, such as the nonprofit California Nurses Association’s advertising campaign opposing Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger, is protected under the First Amendment.
© AP Photo/California Nurses Association
The Fifth Amendment provides that no person “shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself.” Simply put, this amendment guarantees individuals the right to remain silent both during the investigation and during any subsequent judicial proceedings. Although it is clear that this amendment does not apply to corporate entities when the government is seeking certain business records, individual corporate officers and employees are entitled to Fifth Amendment protection when facing a criminal investigation by the police, or more commonly in a business context, administrative agencies investigating a possible criminal offense (e.g., the Internal Revenue Service investigating tax fraud). This right is a central and fundamental part of the Supreme Court’s famous decision in Miranda v. Arizona.22 The Miranda case set out specific procedures to be used by the government when interrogating possible suspects of criminal wrongdoings. The Miranda case is covered in detail in Chapter 22, “Criminal Law and Procedure in a Business Context.”
22384 U.S. 436 (1966).
Due Process Protections LO210
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In addition to protection afforded by the Bill of Rights, the law provides protections to individuals and businesses from government overreaching through constitutional guarantees contained in the Due Process Clause of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments. These clauses protect individuals from being deprived of “life, liberty, or property” without due process of law. Fundamentally, due process rights require the government to provide some type of hearing and procedure whenever the government has taken some action that deprives an individual or business of some liberty or property interest.
Fourteenth Amendment
Perhaps the most important role of the Fourteenth Amendment is that it makes the Bill of Rights applicable to the states. Note, for example, that the First Amendment begins with the explicit restriction that “Congress shall make no law . . .” Originally, the framers intended the Bill of Rights to be a protection against certain acts of the federal government, and therefore states were not bound by the Bill of Rights. However, in the postCivil War reconstruction period (mid1860s), the Fourteenth Amendment was passed, which effectively expanded the protections under the Bill of Rights to include restrictions and actions by state governments.
The Due Process Clause has two primary functions. First, it imposes certain procedural requirements on federal and state governments when they impair life, liberty, or property. The U.S. Supreme Court has held that procedural due process requires the government to give appropriate notice, a neutral hearing, and an opportunity to present evidence before any government action may be taken that would affect the life, liberty, or property of an individual. The Due Process Clause also limits the substantive power of the states to regulate certain areas related to individual liberty. These substantive due process rights require that laws passed by the government be published for public inspection and to be specific enough so that a reasonable person would understand how the law applies. Laws that are vague or overly broad are unconstitutional under the substantive due process doctrine.
In Case 2.4, the U.S. Supreme Court applied the Due Process Clause in the context of a state statute that regulated certain jury awards.
Equal Protection
The Equal Protection Clause is the part of the Fourteenth Amendment that prohibits the government from denying citizens’ equal protection of the laws.23 Fundamentally, the clause guarantees that the government will treat people who are similarly situated equally. Recall from our discussion earlier in this chapter that courts use a variety of levels of review when applying constitutional law. This is especially important in equal protection cases where courts apply one of the three categories of review that are classified by their level of scrutiny (strict, intermediatelevel, or rational basis).
23Although the direct text of the clause applies to state governments, the federal government is also bound by the same rules of equal protection via the Fifth Amendment.
When a government action (such as passage of a statute or enforcing a law or regulation) is based on a suspect classification, or if the action impairs a fundamental right, the strict scrutiny standard is applied. Courts have held that any government action based on race, national origin, and alienage are automatically suspect classifications. The Court has held that government actions related to the right to vote, to have access to the courts, and the right to migrate from state to state are subject to strict scrutiny standards as well.
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Case 2.4. State Farm Mutual v. Campbell, 538 U.S. 408 (2003)
Fact Summary
Campbell was involved in an accident where one party was killed and another was severely injured. State Farm was Campbell’s insurer and despite their own investigation’s conclusion that Campbell had acted negligently, they refused to settle a case brought by the injured parties for the $50,000 policy limit. Prior to trial, State Farm gave Campbell assurances that (1) he did not have liability in the case, and (2) that their mutual interests were closely aligned, therefore hiring his own counsel was an unnecessary expense. Given State Farm’s assurances, Campbell did not consult an attorney. Nonetheless, a jury found against both Campbell and State Farm and concluded that no other parties were at fault. They awarded the plaintiffs $185,849, far more than the amount offered during pretrial settlement discussions. After the verdict, State Farm refused to pay any amount beyond the $50,000 policy limit, and their general counsel went so far as to advise Campbell to sell his house in order to cover the excess award owed to the plaintiffs.
Campbell sued State Farm for bad faith, fraud, and intentional infliction of emotional distress. The jury found against State Farm and awarded Campbell $2.6 million in damages to compensate him for losses (called compensatory damages) and $145 million in punitive damages. Consistent with a state statute limiting certain damage awards, the trial court reduced the awards to $1 million in compensatory damages and $25 million in punitive damages. An appellate court reinstated the original $145 million punitive damage award on the basis that the state’s punitive damages statute allowed larger damage awards if the defendant acted in a particularly reprehensible manner. State Farm appealed the punitive damages award arguing that such a disproportionately large punitive damages award amounted to a violation of the Due Process Clause.
Synopsis of Decision and Opinion
The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in favor of State Farm and held that the damages awarded were excessive and, therefore, violated the Constitution’s Due Process Clause. The Court noted that there are constitutional limits to the amount of damages that are recoverable and when damages are excessive it constitutes an arbitrary deprivation of property. The Court laid out a threepart analysis for determining the constitutionality of a statute regulating punitive damages. The statute must include considerations of (1) the degree of reprehensibility of the defendant’s misconduct, (2) the disparity between the actual or potential harm suffered by the plaintiff and the punitive damages award, and (3) the difference between the punitive damages awarded by the jury and the civil penalties authorized or imposed in comparable cases. In this case, the Court concluded that the $145 million award was constitutionally impermissible because the statute did not incorporate these factors.
Words of the Court: Due Process and Punitive Damages
“While States possess discretion over the imposition of punitive damages, it is well established that there are procedural and substantive constitutional limitations on these awards. The Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment prohibits the imposition of grossly excessive or arbitrary punishments on a [party committing the wrong]. To the extent an award is grossly excessive, it furthers no legitimate purpose and constitutes
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an arbitrary deprivation of property. [. . .] Although these awards serve the same purposes as criminal penalties, defendants subjected to punitive damages in civil cases have not been accorded the protections applicable in a criminal proceeding. This increases our concerns over the imprecise manner in which punitive damages systems are administered. We have admonished that ‘punitive damages pose an acute danger of arbitrary deprivation of property. Jury instructions typically leave the jury with wide discretion in choosing amounts, and the presentation of evidence of a defendant’s net worth creates the potential that juries will use their verdicts to express biases against big businesses, particularly those without strong local presences.’”
Case Questions
1. Do you agree with the Court that the damages awarded in this case were arbitrary? Applying the factors outlined by the Court, describe why or why not.
2. Using these factors, how can one determine what constitutes an excessive award of damages that violates a defendant’s due process compared to one that does not violate the Due Process Clause? Is this distinction clear?
Legal Speak
Punitive damages
Money awarded in addition to actual damages of an injured party that is intended to punish the wrongdoer and deter unlawful conduct in the future.
Note also that semisuspect (also called quasisuspect) classifications trigger intermediatelevel scrutiny. Courts have used this standard of review when government actions were based on gender or illegitimacy. Recall from earlier in this chapter that economic or tax regulations are judged under the rational basis category.
Concept Summary: Constitutional Protections
The Bill of Rights contains protection for citizens from unlawful or repressive acts by the government. Corporations and other business entities do not always receive the same level of constitutional protections as individuals. Traditionally, advertising had little or no First Amendment protection, but the Supreme Court has gradually increased the constitutional protections related to advertising allowing purely commercial speech to have partial First Amendment protection so long as it is truthful. Commercial political speech has full First Amendment protection. The Due Process Clause of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments protect individuals from being deprived of “life, liberty, or property” without due process of law.
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The Fourteenth Amendment makes the Bill of Rights applicable to the states. The Due Process Clause serves two purposes. First, it imposes procedural requirements on federal and state governments. Second, it limits the substantive power of the states to regulate certain areas affecting individual liberties.
Privacy LO211
Although not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, privacy rights play a central role in constitutional law. The U.S. Supreme Court struggled with the notions of individual rights of privacy during the early 1900s, but did not formally recognize the right to privacy until 1965 in the landmark case of Griswold v. Connecticut.24 The case involved a challenge to a Connecticut statute that criminalized (1) the use of contraceptives, and (2) aiding or counseling others in their use. Griswold and others were convicted under the statute for counseling married couples in the use of contraceptives at a local Planned Parenthood office.25 The U.S. Supreme Court struck down the statute as unconstitutional. They held that the right of privacy was implied by language in the First, Third, Fourth, Fifth, and Ninth Amendments, which created a constitutionally protected zone of privacy. The right of privacy recognized in Griswold was extended to abortion rights in Roe v. Wade,26 one of the most famous U.S. Supreme Court decisions in American history. The Roe Court struck down a state statute, which banned all abortions under any circumstances, as unconstitutional. The Court recognized that a woman’s right to privacy is fundamental under the Fourteenth Amendment. Thus, the government has only a limited right to regulate, and could not completely outlaw, abortion procedures and providers. Although the existence of a constitutional right of privacy has generated intense and emotional debate, the U.S. Supreme Court has reaffirmed the central tenants of the privacy rights recognized in Griswold and Roe over several decades and it has become settled law.
24381 U.S. 479 (1965).
25Note that no users of contraceptives, married or single, were ever charged with violating the statute.
26410 U.S. 113 (1973).
Federal Statutes
In addition to privacy rights afforded by the Constitution, Congress has legislated specific privacy rights such as the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPPA),27 which regulates healthcare providers, plans, and plan administrators in gathering, storing, and disclosing medical information about individuals. The law requires specific policies and recordkeeping practices to be used in order to assure privacy of any medical information such as diagnosis, tests, medications, and so forth. Congress has also sought to assure certain privacy protections by mandating that government agencies allow appropriate public and media access to agency records and reports under the Freedom of Information Act.
2729 U.S.C. Section 1181.
One of the more controversial federal statutes that deal with modern privacy issues was the Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and
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Obstruct Terrorism Act (called the USA Patriot Act). The USA Patriot Act was passed immediately after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, and provides increased authority for government officials to surreptitiously access and/or monitor individual and corporate financial records, email, telephone conversations, and Internet activity when investigating possible terrorismrelated activity. Although the law does create an infrastructure that is designed to prevent government overreaching and protect individual privacy (e.g., the government must provide evidence that the investigation is related to terrorism and not being used for investigating other matters), critics have derided the law as lacking appropriate safeguards to prevent invasion of privacy.
Workplace Privacy
Most privacy rights afforded by the U.S. Constitution do not extend to the workplace. Nonetheless, privacy rights have become increasingly important to business owners and managers as Congress and state legislatures seek to clarify workplace privacy rights by statute in areas such as employee drug testing, searches of employee areas (such as lockers or desks) by employers, and electronic monitoring of email and Internet usage. Statutes that regulate the workplace are covered in detail in Chapter 11, “Employment Regulation and Labor Law.”
Key Terms Federal system p. 28
System in which a national government coexists with the government of each state.
Preamble p. 28
The introductory part of the Constitution that states its broad objectives.
Articles p. 28
The main provisions of the Constitution that set out the government’s structure, power, and procedures.
Amendments p. 28
Changes made to the Constitution since its ratification.
Legislative branch p. 28
Established under Article I of the Constitution and consists of the House of Representatives and the Senate.
Executive branch p. 28
Established under Article II of the Constitution and consists of the president and vice president.
Judicial branch p. 28
Established under Article III of the Constitution and consists of the Supreme Court and other federal courts.
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Jurisdiction p. 28
The legal authority that a court must have before it can hear a case.
Bill of Rights p. 29
The first ten amendments to the Constitution that preserve the rights of the people from unlawful acts of government officials, freedom of speech and religion, and so on.
Enumerated powers p. 29
Those powers that are explicitly granted to the three branches of government in the Constitution.
Commerce Clause p. 29
The constitutional clause giving Congress the power to regulate commerce.
Necessary and Proper Clause p. 29
The constitutional clause giving Congress the general implied authority to make laws necessary to carry out its other enumerated powers.
Separation of powers p. 30
The system of checks and balances created by the Constitution whereby the three branches have unique powers that allow them to resolve conflicts among themselves, thus ensuring no one branch exceeds its constitutional authority.
Rational basis p. 31
The lowest level of scrutiny applied by courts deciding constitutional issues through judicial review, upheld if the government shows that the law has a reasonable connection to achieving a legitimate and constitutional objective.
Intermediatelevel scrutiny p. 31
The middle level of scrutiny applied by courts deciding constitutional issues through judicial review, upheld if the government shows that a regulation involves an important governmental objective that is furthered by substantially related means.
Strict scrutiny p. 31
The most stringent standard of scrutiny applied by Courts deciding constitutional issues through judicial review when the government action is related to a fundamental right or is based on a suspect classification, upheld if the government shows a compelling need that justifies the law being enacted and no less restrictive alternatives existed.
Supremacy Clause p. 32
The constitutional clause that makes clear that federal law is always supreme to any state law that is in direct conflict.
Preemption p. 32
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The power to override state law that is granted by the Supremacy Clause.
Due process p. 38
Principle that the government must respect all of the legal rights that are owed to a person according to the law.
Fourth Amendment p. 42
Protects individual citizens’ rights to be secure in their “persons, houses, papers and effects.”
Fifth Amendment p. 42
Provides that no person “shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself,” guaranteeing individuals the right to remain silent both during the investigation and during any subsequent judicial proceedings.
Due Process Clause p. 43
The constitutional clause protecting individuals from being deprived of “life, liberty, or property” without due process of law.
Theory to Practice Quick Courier Services (“Quick”) is a company with 25 employees located in the hypothetical state of Longville. Quick provides services to businesses that require documents or packages to be delivered on a same day basis. While most of these deliveries are made by car or van, Quick also employs several bicycle couriers to accommodate customers in large cities.
1. After a rash of bicycle courier accidents in several cities, Congress passed a federal statute that banned bicycle couriers. The statute is intended to protect the safety of the public at large. Congress justifies the statute on the basis that couriers are inherently involved in commercial activity. What enumerated power is Congress using as the basis of its authority to pass this statute? If Quick challenges the constitutionality of the statute, what would be their probable legal theory?
2. Suppose that, instead of an outright ban on bicycle couriers, Congress passed a law that banned any companies that used bicycle couriers from receiving any money from federal grant programs or federal contracts. How does that impact your analysis relating to congressional authority?
3. Assume that Quick also does business in the adjoining state of Holmestown. Holmestown’s state legislature passes a state law that imposes a registration requirement on all couriers that are headquartered outside of Holmestown’s state borders. The registration requirement also includes an annual fee that is not required of instate couriers. Has Holmestown infringed on Congress’s constitutional authority? What is the standard used by courts to analyze such a law?
4. Assume further that the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), a government agency, issues a fine to Quick without giving its officers adequate notice to provide evidence that no violation occurred. How would the Due Process Clause protect Quick from OSHA’s actions?
5. If OSHA wishes to search Quick’s premises for evidence of an administrative violation, what amendment(s) would govern the process? If the purpose of the search was investigation of a
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criminal conspiracy involving Quick’s officers, how would that change your answer?
Manager’s Challenge Assume you are a manager at Quick (in the Theory to Practice example above) and you receive an email from your senior manager:
Quick is considering paying for fullpage advertisements in local newspapers that encouraged people to vote for certain Holmestown politicians based on their opposition to the outofstate courier registration law [in the Theory to Practice example above]. However, I recently read about the Holmestown legislature considering a law that bans such advertisements if funded by a corporation.
Before I contact our counsel, I would like a twoto threepage background memorandum addressing the question: May Holmestown ban the advertisement on the basis that it is funded by corporate money and not by individual voters or political committees? Why or why not? Is there any important case law to support your answer to this question?
A sample answer may be found on this textbook’s Web site at www.mhhe.com/melvin.
Case Summary 2.1 :: Buckman Company v. Plaintiff’s Legal Committee, 531 U.S. 341 (2001)
Preemption
Buckman Co. is a consulting company that assists companies in getting their products approved for medical use by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Tara, a resident of Pennsylvania, filed a lawsuit based on a Pennsylvania antifraud law against Buckman in state court for injuries she received from the use of AcroMed brand screws during her spinal surgery. The lawsuit contended that Buckman made fraudulent representations to the FDA in their attempt to have the AcroMed screws approved for use in spinal surgeries.
Buckman sought to have the suit dismissed on the grounds that the Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act and Medical Devices Act regulate the advertising and promotion of medical devices and thus preempted Tara’s lawsuit.
Case Questions
1. Can Tara file a lawsuit against Buckman that uses state law as its cause of action?
2. Why or why not?
Case Summary 2.2 :: State v. DeAngelo, 930 A.2d 1236 (N.J. Super. 2007)
Commercial Speech
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During a labor dispute, a local labor union engaged in a protest of what they claimed were unfair labor practices of a local business. As part of this protest, the union displayed a 10foot inflatable ratshaped balloon on a public sidewalk in front of a business involved in the dispute. A municipal ordinance banned all public displays of “balloon or inflated” signs except in cases of a grand opening. The union challenged the ordinance as an unconstitutional ban on commercial speech.
Case Questions
1. Is the ordinance constitutionally sound? 2. What level of scrutiny will a court apply to the ordinance?
Case Summary 2.3 :: U.S. v. Alderman, 565 F.3d 641 (9th Cir. 2009)
Commerce Clause
In 2002, Congress passed the Body Armor Act that made it illegal for anyone who has been convicted of a violent felony to possess body armor. Alderman was convicted of violating the statute and challenged the law’s constitutionality during appeal. Alderman contended that Congress had exceeded its authority because the law was not sufficiently related to interstate commerce.
Case Questions
1. Is the law constitutionally sound? 2. If Alderman purchased the body armor in the same state as it was manufactured,
how does that affect “interstate” commerce?
Case Summary 2.4 :: United States v. American Library Association, 539 U.S. 194 (2003)
Necessary and Proper Clause
In an effort to increase Internet access for the public, Congress passed a law creating the ERate program (providing for discounted Internet rates), and the Library Services and Technology Act (LSTA), which provides financial grants to libraries. At the same time, Congress also passed the Children’s Internet Protection Act (CIPA). CIPA conditions the receipt of federal funds under the Erate program and LSTA on libraries purchasing and installing expensive software that blocks obscene or pornographic material. A group of libraries and citizens filed suit claiming connecting LSTA grant funds to CIPA compliance is unconstitutional.
Case Questions
1. Is the plan constitutional?
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2. Is the First Amendment at issue? Explain your answer.
SelfCheck ANSWERS
Source of Constitutional Authority
1. Article 1 § 8: Congress’s power to regulate bankruptcy laws.
2. Article 1 § 8: Tax and spend powers
3.
Article 1 § 8: Careful! This answer appears to be Congress’s power to grant and regulate patents. But the fact that Congress is passing a criminal law would be outside the scope of the narrow patent power. Rather, this law is best thought of as Congress’s authority to legislate under the Necessary and Proper Clause because the law was directly ancillary to the enumerated power (patents).
4. Article 1 § 8: Congress’s power to regulate interstate commerce.
5. Tax and spending power.
The Legal Environment of Business. A Managerial Approach: Theory to Practice Chapter 2: Business and the Constitution ISBN: 9780073377698 Author: Sean P. Melvin Copyright © McGrawHill Company (2011)