GG only - Denial/Deception (3)

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NDUSTRIAl. CAMOUFLAGE

A N U A Lmm

Brooklyn, N, Y,

PUBLISH! ORPORATtON • NEW YORK

San Francisco, California

2008

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INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE MANUAL Prepared for the Industrial Camouflage Program

at Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, New York

KONRAD F. WIHMANN, A.I.A. !n collaboration with the faculty

AU Rights Reserved

REINHOLD PUBLISHING CORPORATION 330 WEST FORTY-SECOND STREET. NEW YORK. U. S. A.

CLEVELAND printed in u.s.a. SCHOOL OF ART

LIBRAEY

n^^

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE * '^ ART SCHOOL camouflage laboratory PRATT INSTITUTE dept. of architecture

DEDICATION

This Manual is dedicated to Colonel Homer Saint-Gaudens,

soldier, gentleman, author, art critic, and friend. A

leading figure in the development of camouflage in the

first World War, who never allowed his interest to flag

during the many years of peace, he is again a camouflage

leader in the present world conflict. But for his sym-

pathetic understanding and cooperative encouragement

these findings could never have materialized into this

publication.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE "^ ART SCHOOL camouflage laboratory PRATT INSTITUTE dept. of architecture

INTRODUCTION

This Industrial Camouflage Manual represents memy of the

experiments and experiences that have developed in the

classrooms and camouflage laboratory at Pratt Institute

since the inception of the program in September, 1940,

The material was originally intended for student use but

soon embraced problems in the entire field of Industrial

Camouflage

Because of the enthusiastic and widespread interest that

early developed from many sources, especially other edu-

cational institutions, it was decided to gather the more

significant findings into a publication that could be

shared by all. It should be borne in mind that this

Manual is not a book in the definitive sense of the word

but rather a report of the activities to date of inter-

ested personnel at Pratt Institute to contribute to the

all-too-meager study of this fast developing new area of

war effort.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

SCOPE OF INDUSTRIAL CMOCTFLACaE

Production Defense

Production Program Protection of Industry Protection of Life and Property Public Cooperation

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE

of Izisting Buildings (Passive Camouflage) of New Structures (Active Camouflage)

Temporary Permanent

Reduction of Visibility

Change of Pattern and Color

XLImination of Reflection

Rebuilding

-Oistortlon of Tonn

as Part of Plan for Addition In Kartime

Proper Site

Clearing

ProtectlTe Structures

Layouts

Coamunications

Improving Communication

Dispersion of Facilities

Regional Planning

Additional Supply

Removal of Tallores

Supply Development of Sen Materials

Dummy Bxiildings

Additional Technical Devices

City Planning

Oecentralization

Simplicity

Hepalrabillty

Landscaping

Reduced Vulnerability

Blending with Surrounding Landscape

Domestic Materials

Continuation of Production

Health and Beauty Security

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

PART I - NBW ASPECTS, NEW REQUEHEMNTS, NEW PROGRAMS

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

VISIBILITY" OF LANEMARKS

Seen from greater height (as this picture, which was taken at an altitude of more than 12,000 ft,) reflections are more ob- vious than shadows.

Highways, city streets, and water surfaces are seen, even through hazy atmosphere. Therefore, the covering of reflec- tive surfaces, which may be used as landmarks, be- comes imperative.

Seen from somewhat lower (this picture was taken at an alti- tude of 10,000 ft.), the pattern has more detail. Shadows begin to count. White buildings are very visible if they have long lines; other colors are not very distinct. The pattern is more one of light and shadow, than of colors. Minor differences in elevation are hardly noticeable unless stereo-pictures are taken.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

PROMINEaiCE OP LINES AND SEIADOWS

Shadon is most conspicuous on vertical views, indicating the height of buildings and outlin- ing their architecture. The high tower in the center of this photograph casts its shadow al- most across the whole block. Flat roofs are more or less dark, pitched roofs have sharp re- flections. Coloration is not very important, nor would any pattern, painted on a roof con- ceal the building as long as the shadow I'emains. The ornamental layout of walks around the State House is, very obvious.

This picture demonstrates the con- spicuousness of diagonal lines with- in the immense pattern of city blocks. The flier takes such lines for his o- rientation. Main arteries, which cut across the vast rectangular pattern, like Fairmount Park in Philadelphia, provide an excellent guide for the airplane.

Super-highways, slashed through the landscape in straight lines are the natural lines to follow with the pleuie. Target areas, lined up along these highways are easily recognized, the distance for bomb release is easily measured. Straight lines in the landscape help the aviator*

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

CONSPICfUCUSNESS OF ROUHD FOHMS

A circular form within any figuration of round or straight forma attracts imme- diate attention. Cir- cular lines or circu- lar shadows have an inherent conspicuous- ness even if relative- ly small.

This explains the conspicuousness of the eye, both of men and of an- imals. Gloss and roundness make the eye striking and the most characteristic feature of any face. Nature has invented many ways to protect, conceal, and du- plicate this precious instrument.

Gas holders and other round struc- tures, like a stadium, a traffic circle, or the cupola of a church, are very obvious in an aerial view. Such forms are used by fliers as landmarks for orientation.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

CONSPICUOUSNESS OF STRAICST LINES AND REGULAR FORMS

The eye is very sensitive in spotting regular forms among many irregular ones. At the first glance, we see the two regular squares. Similarly, looking down at the houses and streets of a city, we pick out first the regular shapes.

Straight lines or any combination of straight lines, such as parallel or angular lines, stand out obviously within an irregular pattern.

A perfect example of everything that makes a good target:

Straight lines, circular forms, sim- ple geometrical shapes, avoidance of trees, white buildings of definite form, contrasting with dark surroun- dings, and finally a straight, four- lane highway as a dead-end approach; very suitable for getting the target into the finder at a long distance.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

DATA ON BOMBARDMENT

t/j :J

Bomb- sight in

Sloperation and on target

2.5 miles 2.0 miles 1.5 miles

35 seconds

The critical time for operating bomb sight for precision bombing is 35 seconds before bomb release line. The bom- bardier must spot the target well before (5 or 6 miles). For a target under 250 ft. in length 1 sec. is decisive.

x~ ^ ^'^=1^ 35-second zone jiK

NJHH

Figures are averages for gra- pnic representation:

Average target recog....6 Angle of average target recognition Minimum target recog...42- Angle of minimum target recognition Time for bomb-sight operation 35 Time between av, and min, tar. recog 25 Distance of bomb re- lease z\ Angle of bomb release....

.35°

mi.

.45°

sec.

mi. .60°

Altitudes for bombing

Low 2000-5000 ft Medium low. . .5000-9000 ft Medium. . . . 9000-13500 ft High 13500-18000 ft Maximum. . . above 18000 ft Recent tactics in daylight bombing. . . 18000-25000 ft

Speed of Airplane Average speed Flight in 1 Second

150-250 M.P.H. 3-4 M.P.Min.

250 ft.

^ Bomb bay hatches open

Bomb sight engaged

If the target is well concealed, landmarks on route of flight may be used for aiming, provided their distance from target is known, and landmarks are within critical bomb-release zone. Landmarks at greater distance (10 mi) are helpful in checking course and preparing for action.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

ANGLE OF RECOGiaTION

The dark areas are not seen from the airplane

The angle for average target recognition is 30° to 44°; for rainimuin target recognition, 40° to 52°. Lower flight and higher speed correspond to smaller angles. Expected alti- tude of bombing, and probable angle of recognition determine projection or extension of super- structures, of nets, hoods, roofs, or protective planting.

TANtdS DISPERSED BETWEEN TREES /12.EC06NITION IS

Freight yards, railroad sidings, large tank farms are easily spotted from any angle. But dispersed sidings, spreading fan-like between trees, and dispersed tanks in open lay-out use the sight protection through trees to good adveuitage. The black areas are in the sight- shadow of recognition. Cam- ouflage, if necessary at all, would be much easier.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

EFFECT OF EXPLOSIONS: EKSl AMD LOW HJUDINGS

The force exerted by expand- ing gases and air pressure is in proportion to the strength of the resisting surfaces.

An explosion confined by strong masonry is tremendous- ly increased in violence be- cause it is so confined.

The violence of explosions is therefore relatively much greater in narrow courts or narrow streets as conpared with wider streets of the same height.

The size of the arrows indi- cates the force exerted by air-pressure.

One-story buildings offer less resistance to air pres- sure than multi-story build- ings; therefore they are less vulnerable: air-pressure can escape more easily.

Consequently, lower buildings are preferable.

.KW.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

£JE!BCT OF EXPLOSIONS: COMIENTRAXED AND QFEN MZDUTS

^ ^fJ

h A large square building or a congest- ed group of buildings offers a good target, easy to aim at and profitable to bomb. The plane drops a salvo of bombs, resulting in many hits.

Long and narrow buildings offer a comparatively poor target for a saivo of bombs. But they are relatively vulnerable, if very long, for a stick of bombs, because the long extension makes it easy to envisage and dive at.

The safest lay-out for "salvos" as well as "sticks" is therefore the &r~ rsmgement of long, but not too long buildings, spaced with intervals, and so placed that the buildings are not in- one line.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

CRITERIA OF EFFICIENCT OP ZHDCrSTRIAL PROTECTION

What we aim to achieve:

He want the target to be

1- difficult to find

2-. difficult to hit

3- unprofitable to bomb

reduction of visibility -

concealment - confusion -

decentralization - layout -

planning - natural protec- tion.

decentralization - dis- persion of industries and buildings -

After a hit has occurred we want to

1- localize damage

2- avoid interruption of work

3- make repairs easy

subdivision of buildings and supply lines -

new constructions -

fire-fighting precautions

protection of vital machi- nery and men -

safe stock of reserves - use of domestic resources •

simplicity of construction intersections -

repair facilities -

domestic materials -

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

ANALYSIS OF A FACTOEY

All suggestions and designs for aerial bombardment protection should be- gin with a thorough investigation of merits and demerits of the plant, its location and its internal organization. The probable altitude of attack and possible lines of approach are important factors. Very often toning doTin reflections and obviously visible structures like chimneys and white pavements may be sufficient to remove the distinctness of a desirable target, with additional precautions to reduce the vulnerabi- lity of the plant.

O Factory built on open ter- O rain in marked contrast to landscape, and therefore easily detected.

opens it to attack from low altitudes; a vital factor in determining any proposed camouflage scheme

Geometric pattern of high- Q ways and paved roads in distinct contrast to dark roofs.

Light buildings conspicu- Q ous. Parapets, vents, the chimney, show strong re- flection. Profitable tar- get for precision bombing.

Layout of factory is good and surveyable, with ac- cess to all buildings from all sides.

Big glass areas would de- crease effect of internal explosion, but breakage of glass would be consider- able .

V Residential areas are re- w Buildings detached and not O Area devoid of trees which moved from plant. Country high. Few narrow courts. would help confuse pattern is rural, with no obvious Explosion would not be too and conceal landmarks. confined. parking.

decentralized

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

GENERAL APPROACH FOR ANALYZING INDUSTRIAL AREAS

Observations are necessary with regard to: Dangerous locality: Dangerous visibility:

O conspicuous landmarks Q unplanned neighborhood Q Q road bottlenecks Q Q obsolete structures Q Q unorganized supply Q Q lack of fire protection H

Reflection glass areas bright and metal roofs tanks, chimneys, smoke pavements, sidings, water shadows, high structures straight &, angular lines

Dangerous vulnerability: great spread tinder one roof congestion & narrow courts inadequate construction inaccessibility over- si zed glass surfaces exposed utilities

To reduce vulnerability

I subdivision dispersion of buildings reinforcing structures streamlined communication fire and blast bulkheads duplicating utilities

Suggestions for Camouflage and Protection should be made: To improve the locality: To reduce visibility.

O collective defense planning Q painting, toning down © neighborhood rehabilitation Q using screens, nets, boards © opening by-roads & highways Q protective hoods and roofs O improved building codes Q darkening or covering roads

supply inter-communications B distortion of shadows @ more regional organization landscaping program

Camouflage suggestions should include: 1- A survey of the topographical situation, covering landmarks, possible lines of approach, loncamouflagable features which hamper the expected ef- fect 2- Necessary recommendations for large-scale arrangements.

Plans for general protection should consider: 1- The situation if camouflage fails or is impossible, or if material or labor is not available 2- Recording necessary interior changes, protective measures for shelter, and problems of management.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

DANGESHOUS VlSIBILITr

A- Observations - This picture of of conspicuousness: The long shadows, long, flat roof, and exhausts, skylights, tanks, ci vertical lines of the silo are ing to factory, parking fields and by reflectivity of car-top in shape, and contrast of roof

an industrial area demonstrates typical features rows of parallel windows with reflections and

- especially vulnerable - sawtooth roofs. Vents, rcular tank embankments are very obvious. The visible at great distance. Straight roads lead-

, and the railroad siding are conspicuous in size s. "Water surface, very near building, is regular and pavement gives obvious angular lines.

B- Suggestions to reduce Visibility: n Reflecting glass areas, especially skylights, should be reduced by boarding up or coating with oleo-resinous adhesive paints.

Q Roofs should be darkened with dark roofing paper, bituminous emulsions, cold- water protein paints, or emulsified resins. Tanks, vents, and metal roofs should be coated with lusterless enamels, oil paints, bituminous emulsions or adhesives. Camouflage superstructure of nets is more advisable than pattern-painting.

fcl Valuable tanks containing inflammable substeinces should be hooded - fading out in screening - against bullets and splinter-hits.

H Parking fields should be darkened irregularly by fibrated bituminous emulsion^ oleo-resinous traffic paint, or topping asphalt. Roads should be patterned with asphalt, tar emulsions, or watergas tar, combining graniilation and color treat- ment. The cheapest method of covering basin would be with nets.

Q High tanks and chimneys should be screened to obliterate shadow. Screening should be thin over flat roofs, but thick over reflecting elevations or long sha- dows. Silo should at least be painted dark.

H Trees should be planted on wide-open areas, and neglected or bare spots to re- duce the geometric pattern and blend landscape and industrial area. The railroad siding should be removed, and cars placed under shadow protection of trees.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

EVALCTATION OF DESTRUCTION

For those who question the advisability of protective mea-

sures, or for those who want to estimate the scope of pos-

sible damage, it is suggested that this sheet be filled out,

estimating the destruction through an imaginary hit anywhere

within or outside the plant. This enumeration considers only

the effects of demolition bombs, not of incendiary bombs and

of spreading, uncontrollable fire. It is assumed that per-

sonnel has been evacuated with ample warning.

I- TOTAL DESTRUCTION Total destruction, sometimes through several stories with penetration and rupture of foundations.

probable diameter 50 feet

II- PARTIAL DESTRUCTION serious damage and dislocation, with impact of blast and debris. probable diameter 100 feet or more

III- BLAST EFFECTS Minor defects, but disrupting normal manufacturing. Broken windows, dis- lodged roofs, broken mains, disrup- ted wiring.

probable diameter 200 feet or more

IV- REPERCUSSIONS Defects through air pressure and suction, or flying debris on other buildings or mobile equipment; inun- dation, supply storage, damage to half-finished products.

possible diameter 400 feet

EVALUATION

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

Testing

AERIAL SAEETT FOR FACTORIES

FIRST STEPS m PREPARATION FOR EMERGENCY Chockin

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT, OF ARCHITECTURE

GEHESAL COieiDERATIQNS FOR FACTOET SHE I

A long, low, dark building is relatively less Tulnerable than a congested building which has all manufacturing facilities un- der one square roof. It is, however, to the disadvantage of this factory that it is easily located because the dark roof is in such sharp contrast to the white street and the regular squares of the station plaza.

The sketch illustrates the conspicuousness of parallel,

sharply outlined dark and white stripes within a land-

scape which is checked with various spots of dark and light fields. It is easy

for the pilot, following the

railroad, to detect these parallel lines and to aim at

th«n.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

GEMBAL COIdDEHATIOIS ICR FACT0E7 STIS II

Sub-diTision of a manufacturing plant into seTeral separate, not-too- large buildings, bas tbe folloning advantages:

1- The chance of internal explosions, which could destroy the ent factory is reduced. Explosions and damage are more localized. 2- Access to buildings from all sides is better. I " j;*Srt:'»"'' 3- Fire doesn't spread as quickly and is easily res- tricted to one unit. 4- Camouflage and blending with the natural pattern of the surroundings is easier. 5- Additions in the fona of separate buildings look more natural and do not make the target bigger. 6- The grouping of build- ings very often reveals better architectural va- luea.

ire

The erection of this fac- tory, somewhat removed from the railroad and in the form of separate buildings, would have had the advan- tage that the buildings blend inconspicuously into the natural pattern of the landscape.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

PKOELEMS OF LONG BUILDINGS I

Conspicuousness of Site

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

Protective concealment is effec- tive only as a total job, compri- sing not only the factory proper, but also driveways, roads, rail- roads, other buildings adjacent to the factory and even landmarks at some distance.

This factory, long, low and dark, has certainly the merit of incon- spicuousness. It shows a well- organized grouping, accessibility from all sides, which is an ad- vantage in case of fire, and for the flow of materials and workers.

However the conspicuousness of streets along the factory, the layout of the new housing devel- opments, the rows of white houses in contrast to the old village, make a bull's-eye target, with a dark center in a bright field. It is easy to locate such a target from the sky.

In contrast to the revealing view above is this plant designed for inconspicuousness as an advanced type of design, where buildings, roads, and all the other facilities of a factory are definitely conceived as an integral part of the landscape. The plant is only an insignificant part within the bigger pattern of the landscape. We have to think in terms of appropriate scale if we want to apply the lessons of pattern adaptation in nature to industrial plants.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

PROBLEMS or LONG HJILDINGS II

Contrast and hanaony with landscape contours

Example of a factory, hidden in woods, but of long extension. The obvious contours of woods do not correspond with the lines of the factory.

The factory is so placed between woods that no line which might be used as a guide to envisage the target, leads to the building. Parallel lines, especially of accompanying streets are a- voided. Highway and railroad are at a proper distance.

Special consideration is to be given to road and railway connec- tions. The camouflage of an open system of roads is difficult. It is advisable to make roads as in- conspicuous as possible, follow- ing the edge of the woods, and no wider than necessary. Parking fields ^ are placed under the trees.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

SAFES. DESIGN VITH EETACHED BUILDINGS

Detached buildings, placed incon- spicuously in woods, at the adge

of woods, or in clearings, in har-

mony with natural contours, give

a high degree of safety even with- out protective camouflage.

This reduction of visibility, which makes a poor target, is only achieved, however, if all the access roads, parking fields, railroads, sidings loading platforms, and all the unavoidable open spaces around buildings maintain perfect "camou- flage discipline". The straight main railroad runs through the wood as if no factory existed.

Still better than having a main railroad cut straight through the woods, would be to have the main tracks at a greater distance, and a secondary line, bent into con- tours, leading to the factory. White, dead-end streets, leading conspicuously to a building, or into a wide parking area, repre- sent a dangerous hazard, as do big clearings in the woods for tracks and sidings.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

PROBLEMS OP DECENTRALIZATION

Plant buildings are part of the landscape

City planners have advocated, for a long time, decen- tralization for the sake of safety, health, and beauty. Their aims receive unexpected support from air - protec- tive design.

Decentralization brings new prob- lems for transpor- tation and supply of utilities. As a whole, the fac- tory needs more space and longer lines of communi- cation. This brings additional building costs, but the advantages are advantages not only under aerial bombardment . Hy- giene and a more pleasant architec- tural aspect of industrial areas are also advanta- geous.

Irregularly organized groups of buildings are more diffi- cult to find from the sky thein regular ones. Placed be- tween woods and trees, in harmony with the general lines of the landscape, they are very difficvilt to locate from an airplane. Camouflage is easy. The straight lines of park- ing fields can be covered by trees.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

PROBLEMS OF DECENTRALIZATIOIT

Scheme of a decentralized factory

Factories were built, until now, on the princi- ple of bringing all the buildings as close toge- ther as possible, avoiding traffic within the factory. Immediate access to railroad lines, switchyards, and waterways was considered abso- lutely necessary for the sake of economy. The decentralized factory has to admit somewhat higher manufacturing costs, especially for transportation within and to the plant, for greater safety. Strategic reasons will have to decide which factor should be prevalent.

Schfflne of a factory in air-protective design: 1- Decentralization of buildings, of air shelter, exits, and parking

fields. 2- Decentralization of water towers, power stations, storage tanks. 3- Two separate railway stations. 4- Reserve plant buildings equipped with machinery ready for use. 5- Fire towers with training rooms for firemen and air-raid wardens.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

HJOELESaS OF EECENTRALIZATION

Decentralization of Utilities

From a report of American observers in London: Putting water mains side by side is a very bad practice. Segregate switches; do not put them all in one place. Do not depend on one station only; disperse the facil- ities. There are not suf- ficient valves on the gas mains. Sewers are very vulnerable. Our watch-word must be "interconnection and standardiza- tion".

Theoretical scheme of decentralized plant with supply lines indicating: 1- that power stations, water towers, gasoline tanks have to be built far away from factory buildings; and 2- that every building has to have two separate connections with two separate gas and water mains or electric-supply lines. Proper fire equipment is essential.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

NEff TYTBS OF FUNCTIONALISM

TSE RAMBLING QESIOT

Residential architecture tends from con- ventional and stereotyped forms to freedom and flexibility of rambling design. This trend eTldences a growing consciousness of nature. Factory architecture has new ideals, also:

the old mill building, several stories high, a design of dreary industrialization hostile to nature, is obsolete. New de- signs of flat-roofed buildings follow the contours of the landscape in elastic adap- tability to make the building part of the landscape. This design has natural incon- spicuousness to a high degree.

Protective coloration or pattern similarity expresses the homogeneity in nature. Applied to concealment of man-made structures, this does not mean - as often er- roneously stated - the use of disruptive painting on the roof (in order to "confuse"), but only the blen- ding of entire buildings into the structural scheme of the landscape, rendering the building part of it in contour, size of pattern, material, orientation. This gives an inspiration for future development.

30 K>V.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

KEff QOmHSBRkTiaNS FOR FACTOET KX'I'KNSIOIB

Example of Irregular growth.

The centripetal scheme builds first all along the street, later filling up the courts with rear houses and crowded wings.

Dangerous congestion is the result if a factory grows on a plot which is too anall for expansion, and is confined by existing roads, railroads, or buildings. Narrow courts increase the effect of bomb explosions, and are difficult to reach; succor, fire-fighting, and repairs are hampered. Damage of one section affects all the adjacent buildings.

£xample of planning &, foresight.

First addition

Second addition

Third addition

.K>V.

Centrifugal planning begins in the middle of the block and extends wings radially, always learing open courts.

Consideration of further expansion should be a part of the first plan. The open lay-out has the advantage of better ac- cessibility from the street; this makes fire-fighting and succor easier. "Workmen can be more easily dispersed. Camouflage is easier. Effects of explosions are re- duced. Damage of one wing is not so ser- ious and is more easily localized.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

HAOTRAL CONCEATMKNT

Use of a wooded, hilly, and multiform landscape for dispersed lay-out of industrial plants. Various types of concealment are possible when buildings use or imitate clearings in the forest, merge with the contours of the wood, simulate the parallel lines of a field, or are stepped down on a hillside. A variety of different camou- flage schemes, appropriate to different landscape formations, makes recognition of a particular target much more difficult.

1- Low hangars, fitted into the rural pattern, with administration buildings and workshops under trees.

2- One-story building, with dark roof, filling the edge of a wood. 3- Factory buildings with sawtooth and clerestory windows parallel

to field lines, using trees for side protection. 4- Low buildings, filling a clearing, imitating cultivated land or

camouflaged like a wood. 5- Water tower, pump house, smoke exhaust, storage buildings along

a hillside. 6- River with crossing beams, prepared for covering of water re-

flections. 32

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

miXJSTRIAL PLANT IN A WOODED AEEA

Large, new, industrial plants have been built in p^^'^'*'*""h. Europe in wooded and remote rural areas, not as a compact mass of buildings, but decentralized in nu- merous smaller plants and factories, with the trees of the forest forming a vault over the streets con- necting the different buildings. A dozen or more ,**':^ separate buildings, each a quarter of a mile or more from the next, give an uncertain target. To bomb a forest several miles in circxamference is an uneconomic task.

Industrial plants which are built in woods have a

relatively great security from air attacks. Con-

nection of these buildings with roads and practi-

cal facilities of transportation is a difficult

problem. Wide streets would cut too obvious a

mark in the foliage, so one-way streets are the

rule. These roads follow the natural curves and

contours of the landscape. Buildings are placed

in irregular clearings, and so designed that

their shadows blend with other, natural shadows-

Each building has a capacity of 300 to 500 work-

men. 33

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

CMOOTXAGE DISCIELIllE AS A DESIGN PROBLEM

Given as a student problem, this design for an airplane factory uses the pecu- liarities of the existing wooded ter- rain to place the dispersed buildings

a safe distance from hide roads, parking sidings, etc. under

inconspicuously at each other, and to fields, railroad trees.

Highways and the main railroad pass the site at some distance, only roads of secondary importance lead to the plant. Special thought is given to movement and parking of cars.

1- Material storage 2- Foundry 3- Workshop 4- Experimental Labs, 5- Instrument Assembly

6- Engine Assembly 7- Tail Assembly 8- Wing Assembly 9- Fuselage Assembly

10- Final Assembly

11- Shipping 12- Reserve Shops 13- Railroad Station RS- Railroad Sidings P- Parking Fields

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT, OF ARCHITECTURE

CONCEAIHEINT OF TRANSPORTATION

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INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

FDTDHE TYPES OF PLANT LAYCXJT

Representation, in a vertical view, of new types of plant layout, designed for natural inconspicuousness. One group of buildings (center) is so arranged with detached structures that over-long roof-lines are avoided, although the buildings are lined up along a railroad. The other group, still less visible, is fitted to the contours of the hill and very free in individual design. Ar- rangements of this kind can blend with the landscape perfectly, much better than on a stylized model.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

ANALYSIS AHD SYMTEESIS '

A Work-program in Stages

Developed by Konrad F. Wittmarm Architect A. I. A.

Analysis of Merits and Demerits:

1- The picture shows relative merits of one-story buildings compared with multi-story buildings. The roofs blend relatively well with surrounding landscape.

2- Factory is too centralized, i.e. great damage will be incurred by direct hit. 3- Access to plant from three sides is good, but roads and parking areas are too con-

spicuous. Whole area around factory is devoid of trees. A" Location near river helps to locate the plant from the air, but additional water

supply from the river is an advantage for fire-fighting. 5- Power station and water tower are at some distance from plant, which is good, but

they are bright Eind tall and therefore easily detected. 6- Extension is possible without overcrowding the area. Office building is separate

althovigh not far enough distant from plant. 7- Even and straight lines and shadows are very conspicuous.

Sequence of necessary improvements:

i- Immediate improvements to reduce visibility and reflections. a. Darken white driveways and walks and parking areas. b. Decentralize parking cars to avoid long, conspicuous rows of cars.

e. Darken the white vents and other pipes on roof emd the shining water tank,

d. Avoid regularity in mowing lawn 2- Immediate improvements to reduce vtilnerability.

a. Subdivision of plant and plant installations to localize damage. b. Extended installations of supply lines to secure supply after bombco'dment

c. Extension of water supply for fire fighting. d. Additional power station or connection with power station of other factory.

3- Protection of workmen and machinery under aerial bombardment. a. Decentralized shelter buildings for workmen, valuable machinery, blueprints.

b. Emergency exits — Duplicates of vital tools and blueprints in safe places. 4- Camouflage of plant to blend with surrounding landscape.

a. Irregular slabs on roof, dazzle painting and use of nets. b. Special roof over railroad siding and parked cars. "

c. Avoid smoke from vents or smoke stacks with artificial draft. 5- Provision for future improvement to secure better natural protection and easier

a. Planting of trees in irregular groups around factories. /camouflage.

b. Eliminate smoke stacks and give better prqtection to water tower. 6- Planning for future additions and for the relationship of plant to adjacent

residential sections and other plants.

1-6 Subdivision WITHIN Pl_A^4T

^^ DANGER POINTS It'VER, .K"*/.

Existing utilities have to be checked and eventually dou- bled to assure un- interrupted supply if some of the main lines are damaged.

Parking fields will have to be removed and parking decen- tralized as long as protective landsca- ping is impossible or ineffective.

Before anything else can be done, a general check-up has to be made from an aeroplane and by means of aerial photogra- phy, to detect the objectionable points which might be used by the flier as a guide or as a mark for his bombardment. Ground observation is not sufficient to reveal weak points, and aerial observation should be made under varying light conditions. To reduce visibility at long distances, all reflections (of roofs, windows, tanks, etc.) should be eliminated. A general check-up of all plant buildings and installations including machinery and utilities must be made to investi- gate how every structure and every detail would be affected by aerial attack or force of explosions. Large buildings should be divided into several units, as subdivision within the buildings, with separate switches and supply lines for each unit operating individually,

Air - raid shelters should be decentral- ized also, nith exits on opposite corners, preferably leading to parking fields to guareuitee quick dis- persion of workmen in different directions.

Camouflage of roofs by adopting the tex- ture of adjacent ter- rain, and without use of trees as long as there are no trees in the surrounding area. Nets spanned to cover shadow and to break up long lines of win- dows.

This subdivision applies to workmen as well as installations. Shelters for workmen should be in sufficient numbers, prefer- ably separate for each separate unit - not so big as to make supervision difficult, not so small as to cause overcrowding. Sxits from shelter to parking fields or onto streets is val- uable. Accessibility of all factory buildings has to be checked; connecting links between roads or railroads considered, and conspicuous tracks or railroad sidings ronoved to a safer place, away from the factory proper. A scheme for camouflage under present roundings and according to season has These propositions have to consider: 1- ment with the best available materials, and 2- Long-range planning of camouflage to make better concealment in the future possible.

conditions of sur- to be marked out. Immediate conceal-

! PARKINS -KVv/.

Railroad sidings re- moved from plant and so placed that tracks are inconspicuous and not parallel to lines of plant.

The landscaping with trees should be in hannony with surroun- ding lemdscape, fa- voring fast-growing and tall trees.

Planning for lasting improvements has to consider not only the factory itself, but its relation to the surroundings to nearby streets, railroads, and bridges, to other factor- ies, and to general features of the landscape. Gradual re- moval of dangerous points, elimination of bottlenecks, replacement of unfit buildings, safer arrangement of supply lines, underground placement of tanks characterize this stage of improvements. An extensive tree-planting program can help to restore the original features of the landscape and to make future camouflage easier. The practical and, at the same time, less obvious arrange- mefit of parking fields is a very important, and, until now, mostly neglected task for landscape architects. The tree- planting program is ineffective unless projected on a wide scale, as part of a program for the entire industrial area.

CLEVELAND SCHOOL OP ART

LIBRABY

SUCCESSIVE STEPS OF FACTORY IMPROVEMENT AND PREPARATION FOR AERIAL SAFETY

BUILDINGS ROADS AND

COMMUNICATIONS UTILITIES

I T

1. Preparatory Planning and Experimental Research

Checking safe- ty of construc- tions under stress of explosions.

Checking exits and staircases.

Study of repair facilities.

Removal of shacks. Clearing of gar- rets. Fire-proof- ing of roofs.

Provisions to re- duce smoke.

Installation of fire - fighting equipment.

Checking visibil- ity of roads.

Organization and dispersion of park- ing fields.

Planting program

Connections with highways. Safety of bridges or tun- nels.

Accessibility of all structures.

Planning roads

T Planning under- ground connections between buildings.

T I II. Actual Building in Emergency

Protoctive struc- tures over windows and exits. Reduc- tion of glass area.

Reinforcing ex- isting construc- tions.

Remodeling buildings to im- prova safety.

Removal of chir ney stacks.

Eliminatioi' of bot- tlenecks >f roads and railroads.

Removal of rail- road sidings. Re- moval of conspic- uous streets.

Elimination of parking areas.

Checking depth and ground cover- age of gas and water mains amd cables.

Study of distri- bution of valves and accessibility of mains.

Plan for exten- sion of supply lines and use of natural water re-

Checking vulnera- bility of water towers.

Protection of mains. Installa- tion of switches.

Reserve lighting and signal system.

Additional supply buildings. Subdi- visions and inter- connections .

Pump works.

WORKMEN AND EQUIPMENT

study of vulnera- bility of valu- able machinery.

Study of repair facilities and do- mestic materials.

Principal plam- ning for air shel- ters.

Training in first aid, fire fighting bomb fighting.

CAMOUFLAGE

Reserve machinery. Reserve tools. Reserve buildings.

Duplicating blue-prints files

Bui Idin;

ter and facili- ties for quick dispersion ofwork-

Elimination of dan- gerous consestion.

Protective roofs and shelter for machinery.

Aeriai ouserva- tioni ar.d photo-

Checking visi- bility eind danger- ous reflections.

Design, prepara- tion and storage of camouflage ma- terials.

Practical experi- ments with camou- flage material.

Testing black- out materials.

Painting for pro- tective colora- tion.

Actual camouflage

and blackout in- stallations.

Dimming or

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VI a eaofj a n

The ideal scheme for an air- worthy factory avoids buildings that are too large and where all manvifacturing processes are hud- dled under one roof. Subdivi- sion into several smaller units dispersed over a large area, or connected, has the advantage of reduced vulnerability, improved accessibility, and easier repair- ability. This "open layout" is possible without impairing the assembly line.

Future additions should follow these new principles of design and avoid the present practice of bringing more and more work- shops under one roof. This sketch represents dangerous practice in design of factory extensions.

Safe practice of designing new additions produces an open lay- out with large distances from bxillding to building, and sepa- rate supply Installations. A. state of maximum ground cover- age should be established for each factory to avoid dangerous congestion. . VC»/

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

PART II - IM)USTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE PRINCIPLES, METHODS, AND MATERIALS

Successful camouflage is never the re- sult of tricks or mystification, study of nature, repeated observation, and an ability to "build" three-dimension- al effects are necessary premises for good camouflage work. The art of the painter is two-dimensional. He may, by clever contrasts, deceive the close observer into believing he sees a re- lief. This illusion does not hold true for 5,000 ft., however. Real shad- ow is, at great distance, much more effective than any painted shadow. Camouflage has been declared an art, like that of the painter but reversing his principles. This is false; we can not suppress form with paint, nor fight real shadow with jjainted light. Every observation of nature reveals a composition of light, self-shadow, and cast shadow. An artificial reproduc- tion of nature must compose similar elements - parts which catch light and others which absorb shadow.

The painted tank and the garnished net illustrate the two methods of approach.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

PRINCIPLES OF INDUSTRIAL GMOUFLMZ Distortion of Forms

Geometrical shapes and straight shadows are easily spotted from the air.

Disruptive design or "dazzle- painting" confuses the percep- tion of form, if the effect of the pattern dominates, e.g. if the pattern has strong con- trasts. This will give only limited deception, however; dazzle painting is ineffective if seen from a great height. The straight shadow remains.

Pavement of dark and white ma- terial in irregular pattern can to a certain degree distort the regular shadow.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

PRINCIPLES OF INDUSTRIAL CAMODFLAGES Distortion of Shadows

Projecting roofs shadow vertical walls, and cover adjoining white pavement, railroad tracks, load- ing cars, etc., to prevent visi- bility from the sky. Surrounding landscape, trees and shrubs, can be brought nearer to distort the shadow.

Roofs with curved shapes distort the rigid gecsnetry of light and shadow.

Projecting slabs cein be tempo-

rarily added in wartime to give

distortion of shadow. Such de-

vices have to be changed, from

time to time.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

PRUKJIPIES OF moaSTRIAL GmOUFLACS T&iture of Roofs

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Roofs which are planted with grass, or even with small

shrubs can match their sur- roundings almost entirely, un- der all weather and light con- ditions.

Surrounding with trees gives better concealment and natural irregularity of light and sha- dow. Trees play an important part in the design of natural camouflage

Vertical, irregular slabs, or horizontal slabs, elevated se- veral feet, cast irregular shadows to distort the mono- tony of large roofs. Gravel, cinders, and stones of light- weight, porous concrete give rough texture.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

PRINCIELES OF rUTOSTRIAL CMDUFLMZ Elimination of Shadow

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Grading of the terrain at an angle of 10 degrees gives complete ellmlna-""ti$ .,,

gives compj-eTie eximina- **'''''"'•'**''''•''''

«"«";ir*,7.',;;'/i-;'.„,^tlon of shadows. The ob- ,,— "'r" ject Is hardly noticeable

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^11'' from the sky, especially if the texture of the roof matches the surroun- dings.

Terraced levels arotmd the building shorten the shadow and distort its

rigid geometry.

Expanded nets confuse the outlines of light and shadow, and dissolve the geometrical shapes into an. irregular pattern of dark and light spots.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

STDBT AND ANALYSIS OF ROOFS

The bombardier sees his target as a lay- out of roofs, rather than as an architec- tural ground-plan, A birds-eye plan of the roofs, considering all possible shadows and reflections will therefore be an inte- gral part of future factory design.

Generally, pitched roofs have more re- flections than flat roofs and show a more definite pattern. Un- painted metal roofs show most brilliant reflections; it takes a long time for the smooth surface to corrode. Very dark roofing material or roof - coatings are Just as conspicuous as very light ones. Half-tone grays are most likely to blend with surroundings.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

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INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

"WiiTiiarw'lirfT't-^ Of

Sov-tootli roofs are esa«:iti&l for many types of factories. Thej bare beea bnilt mtil no* ia dif- fereot w^wHtmm bat all foUoa tlie aOBB iriaeipla. Itaeae mofs ze- fleet tiie ana's zays at great distaaee aad fom aa easy gnide for thm

ts fall ia dlffiealt.

lUs ia a aea tjpa of aaa-tootb roof wbi^L a*oida,tkioq^ tta ia- eliaad poaitioa of tk« glaaa, tka raflaetioa of tta aat'a xmjm, H-

frojoetioaa protect the via- o breakage of glaaa froa

fUli^ atell out ia

These projsetlacs esii %« de- slgoed in serpentine shapes to distort the streignt sea-

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:..i.zs ::stort tha tarlatie fosa oT tkm turn.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

SUGG^TIOHS FOR INDUSTRIAL CiiManFLAGE DBSICaT Savrtootli Roofs

hdki /dhnu Camouflage of sa«-tooth roof of older type, with horizon- tal slabs placed several feet above the roof, and at different angles to the roof.

Saw-tooth roof of newer type with protected, non-reflec- ting windows. Slabs are placed to simulate small homes. By use of this method, the reduction of light is at a minimum.

Aerial view of camouflaged saw-tooth roof. Application of slabs of dif- ferent sizes, shapes, and textures, to give the appea- rance of small homes with flat and pitched roofs, trees, and back yards.

Solid constructions are, as a rule, brought down to ex- isting supports or bearing walls. Sectional scaffold- ing may be used to cover wi- der spans. The construction should be movable in order to facilitate adjustments during the course of the year.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

StJGKaiSTIONS FOR INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE BESIW Camouflage of Skylights

The regularity of rows of slcylights with reflec- tions and marked shadows renders skylighted roofs very conspicuous.

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Superstructures of irregularly-shaped boards on four or more poles cover the reflections and create irregular shadows, without obscuring the light too much. The roof is "textured" or covered with grass.

A long skylight might be treated similarly. The superstructure is supported by sectional scaffolds of trussed end-frames; it may be built in sections and sloped at various angles.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

SUGGESTIONS FOR INEUSTRIAL CAMOOHAGE DBSIGW High Roof Constructions

--4 Roofs of high, girder construction are con- spicuous not only by mere height which sur- passes that of adjacent buildings, but also by the heavy shadows of sidewalls.

This conspicuousness may be eliminated by gradually stepping down from the ridge to a normal height, sloping the roofs at an angle of approximately 10°. The edges of these roofs can have irregular shapes, or boards can be used temporarily in order to further confuse the remaining, relatively unimpor- tant shadow-lines. High, reflecting windows are tnus replaced by several relatively low windows, set bacic into the shadow of the eaves. These win- dows do not give any dangerous reflection, and they are easily blacked out.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

SHADOW STDDIES UNDER THE SON MACHDE

These three pictures give tne shadows for the latitude of New York on the 15th of February, 1942: at 9 a.m. (above) , IE noon (right), and 3 p.m. (below)

Camouflage models are studied under the sun-machine to check the efficiency of the camouflage design. The suggested scheme may be good for the high-standing sun at noon, but wrong for early morn- ing or late afternoon hours, when sha- dows are considerably longer.

The sun-machine should be so constructed as to permit calibration for every day of the year, and every longitude and la- titude of the globe.

Vertical or oblique pictures can then be taken for any suggested angle of re- cognition.

Part of the model shows camouflaged buil- dings, stylized for demonstration.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

SDN*S DIURNAL PATH - THE SHADOW SECTOR Vertical aerial survey pictures show a shadow pattern which re-

veals the relief of the object. This shadow pattern changes from hour to hour and from day to day. If the day and hour of the exposure and the latitude of the place is known, it is possible to compute the height of the structure.

Reciprocally, it is important to eliminate shadows in order to render a building less con- spicuous. The camouflage con- struction should be extended far enough to cover the whole

shadowed area. The area which

is covered by shadow during a certain period is called the

shadow sector. Note the dif- ference in the sectors of June and December. The shadow of a chimney in Iceland is entirely different from the shadow of a similar chimney in Burma or Ha- waii.

Therefore a camouflage con- struction designed for shadow elimination in June is wrong in December. Sometimes camouflage protection is necessary only for a definite, limited time (where action is expected); sometimes as a year-round pro- tection. To save cost and ma- terial, the camouflage area should be closely adapted to time and shadow.

Altitude for Washington, D. C. Date Sun's Declination

Mar. 21-Sept. 21 June 21 December 21

0^' +23°26' -23°26'

Altitude ( noon )

74°26

27034

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INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

SHAJDOW'S DIURNAL PATH - ORIENTATION OF HJUDINGS

VWEST EAST

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Avoidance of conspicuous sha- dows and reduction of the sha- dow area are chief require- ments of air-protective plan- ning. Buildings are surround- ed by trees or placed at the edge of a wood so that their shadow, in an aerial view falls under trees. Permanent buildings need all-year consi- derations.

The orientation of buildings is important. Long buildings in East-West orientation have a minimum shadow area, while those in North-South direc- tion have a maxim\am shadow area. East-West orientation reduces the long morning end afternoon shadows.

This chart demonstrates the comparative shadow areas, from 6 a.m. to 6 p*m*

A combination of several fac- tors (orientation, design of roofs, relief of terrain, con- toural features on grovind, shadow pattern of plants) may be most effective.

The area which is reached by shadow is almost three times as large in June as it is in December. Morning and late afternoon hours are most cri- tical for artificial installa- tions because the low sun brings out fine details which are less conspicuous under a high sxin at noon. The illustration gives the an- gular distance of sun's rising and setting from the East-Tfest axis for Washington D. C. (la- titude 38°56' North).

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

OBJECT, SQBJECT, AND MEDIOM

The task of camouflage is to deceive the bombardier. Confusion,

concealment, deception, and diversion are the means to fulfil this

task. If complete subterfuge in evading recognition cannot be ac-

complished, disturbance of accuracy of observation is the next

goal.

The acuity of observation is determined by many factors which can be classified in three groups:

1- Qualities of the observing instrument a- Visual observation b- Photographic observation

2- Qualities of the object of observation 3- Qualities of the medium between object and subject.

Speed -of approach, disturbance through defensive action are other

factors to influence accuracy. Experience in reading and inter-

preting observations augment the visual power.

Various factors are listed below. Each requires careful study and

experinentat ion.

PHOTOGRAPHIC OBSERVATION

Qualities of the Object: Size and relief • pattern • qualities of surface tex-

ture • coloration • brightness • intensity of illximination • con-

trasts of light and shadow • absence of light (blackout) • artificial

illumination (flares) • texture pattern in different seasons • color

scheme in different seasons • nature of surrounding objects • movement

of objects • smoke. Qualities of the Mediim: Horizontal distance • vertical distance • angle of

recognition • atmospheric conditions related to time of observation (in-

tensity of light - color of light) • obstacles to observation (overcast

sky, haze, fog, clouds, rain) • disturbing factors (reflection, glare) •

natural and artificial illumination. Qualities of the Subject - Visual observation: Acuity of the eye • resolving

power of the eye • aligning power of the eye • adaptation of the retina

• accommodation • color perception • rod vision • cone vision • op- tical illusions • power of attention.

Qualities of the Subject - Photographic observation: Optical refinement of lens •

focal length of camera • resolving power of film • color sensibility of

film • infra-red sensibility of film • depth perception of stereos •

resolving power of filters.

lib

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

VISOAL PROHLEaaS

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

Study of visual phenomena is im- perative for effective camouflage. The following offers a few cursory observations: It is generally assumed that the eye resolves tuo lines or dots which are separated by one minute of arc - i.e. if they are seen at a distance 3440 times their long- est linear dimension. The two black lines on white, separated 1/16" appear as one line at a dis- tance of about 17 feet. The two black dots, 1" in over-all dimen- sion, can not be separated at a distance of 290 feet. This demonstrates the resolving power of the eye, when there is a large contrast between object and background.

Presence of a gray value, or co- lor value, brings visual acuity into play - the ability of the eye to distinguish fine diffe- rences in brightness. Visual acuity varies widely in different individuals, and is de- pendent upon adaptation, glare, nature of surroundings, etc. A- cuity increases with illiunination. It is easy to distinguish even an extremely fine object of the con- trast to the background is very sharp (like a fine wire against the sky) but if the background becomes gray, or contrast is di- minished, the discrimination be- comes increasingly difficult (see black lines against gray, or gray lines against black).

A wire mesh daubed vsith white, gray, and black spots is placed in front of a gray, a black, and a white cube. Details disappear and pattern is uncertain where the differences in value of fore- ground and backgroiind are small, but white stands out very sharply. This knowledge is valuable in judging the effectiveness of dis- ruptive or concealment patterns.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

EERCSPTION OF PATIERl^

Sxamine the two patterns at some distance

to test the acuity of the eye with regard

to small brightness differences. If

brightness of color differences is snail

the pattern blends to one flat surface.

Reduction of intensity through distance

and haze increases the effect of a mono-

tone or a monochrome. A big roof painted with a pattern lacking, contrast still ap-

pears as a big, flat roof.

Contrast has to be pronouncsd and vibrant

to produce a natural quality.

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

This figure illustrates how, with increasing di Stan c e

gray values . gradual ly weaken and haze ulti- mately over- comes color brightness.

m 10,000 feet >:•:•:•:•:•:'

The intensity of color decreases with the increasing distance from the eye. This is a visual phenomenon. The color ssen at a distance is weakened in chroma and becomes grayer, atmosphere and haze gen- erally soften colors. Changes in illumi- nation result in great variations in range and density of color transformation.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

THE MIRACULOUS INFRA-RED SYS

Panchromatic films are so sensitized as to show fairly accurately the same value gradations which me see with the naked eye. Different fil- ters, or differently sensitized films, bring out contrasts which we do not see with our eye. Infra-red film is sensitive to infra-red rays, invisible to our eye. Chlorophyll in deciduous trees or grass reflects such rays. They af- fect the film, and photograph white. Fir trees or dark evergreens photograph dark. Sensitivity for various colors is different. In comparing a landscape photographed with panchromatic (left) and with infra-red film (right), the latter shows greater richness in de- tail and value separation. Note the branches of trees in the infra- red - the telegraph pole, contrasts in the house, and greater penetra- tion of distance. The successful use of these features, both for con- cealment and for detection of concealment still needs much experimen- tation. Paints are offered commercially which claim to produce the same effect as chlorophyll in plants. Other paints photograph lighter too, without being labeled "infra-red". The exclusive adaptation of the camouflage scheme to infra-red photography would overstress its importance. Visual observation and panchromatic sensibility are e- qually important. It is still the human eye which must spot a target before a bomb is released.

A detailed report on findings of the Pratt Institute Camouflage oratory on the problem of infra-red will follow at a later date.

lab-

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

TEXTOEE AND PATTERN IN NATURE

^Pl>i>^ Woodland and mea- dow.

River valley and swamp on shore.

Marshland and road under con- struction.

Nature is lavishly rich in variety of pattern emd texture, chan-

ging with the seasons and perpetually transformed in color, value,

and reflections. Study of these forms and experiments to match

them artificially are necessary excercises for the camoxifleur.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

TEXTURE AND PATTEEl^ IN MTOES - STUDT OF TRE2S

The structure and shape of a tree are familiar to everybody. Pre- sentation of trees in bird's-eye perspective is the new and excit- ing problem of the camoufleur. Its realization needs careful study and observation.

The structure as seen from above is very much a structure of light and shadow, a multiform and rugged structure, bristling with fine lights and reflections, but real only through the contrast of shadows.

It is worthwhile to study trees from underneath to learn about the delicate filigree of texture which produces:

the equally delicate pattern of shadow. Note that the shadow of a tree is not a solid blot.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

STUDY OF A MEADCM - THE ARTIFICIAL MEADCW

TREE PANEU

Grass may be green, brown, yellow, and red. But the coloration is not so important, if seen from a great height. The differences in tone and in- tensity which we observe in an aerial view are differences in structure rather than in color. The structure of a meadow is rich in light and shadow - a structure in two or three layers. There is primarily the ground, brown or gray, or covered with dry leaves; then grass, the first level - rich in texture and variety. Flowers and herbs form a second level, casting a sha- dow on the first. Still higher are shrubs and bushes, casting shadows on the grass and on the flowers. The whole "texture" is from four to six feet deep.

The camouflage superstructure is similarly built as a combination of texture and sha- dow - the highest panel casting a shadow to the next, this, a shadow to the third, and so on. Seen from above, this gives a depth of values, which neither paint nor a flat-top can accomplish.

ei2A5S PANEL

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

COLORATION AND COLOR TRANSFORMATION

Ganouflage net is \ \\ •;,•;. sprayed with paint. \ \\_ '.\ v,

Vividly-dyed fabrics

are spread on roof. tVhatever the original color of the texture material, it will fade in time, get dirty and dusty, and will finally appear gray. Restoring the colors will be necessary. In addition It is imperative to synchronize camouflage colors with those of the adjacent landscape for each season of the year.

Color transformation can be made in two mays: l-Spraying the nets (or texture) from above, and 2-Di splaying vividly pain- ted boards or fabrics on the roof, below the camouflage con- struction. This color shines through the openings of the net and f?ives additional coloration. The pattern should be varied and spotty - not too uniform - with some boldness of detail.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

CAMOOTIACa; OF MONITOR ROOFS

/ / ' '' • » t I I t I

I I ' Itill ! I •

H4HT AND RAIN fAU. THftOUeH ,' THE NCT / 6NOW IS BAStlY;' ,* REMOVED / /

Modem, one-story factories use monitor roofs because moni- tor roofs provide excellent light of equal intensity. These roofs have the s«une disadvantages, however, as saw-tooth

roofs, if they are not designed for a splinter-proof and a non-reflecting construction, as indicated below.

SUPPOUT& R,E&T ON '>»/OOD Pl>>DS SET >N MASTIC

Camouflage of such roofs, by means of nets with texture ma- terial, attached on rods and wires six to seven feet (arm's length) above the roof. A second level may be arranged to give more variation to the texture pattern. Vents, chimneys, exhausters, masonry structures on the roof may get addition- al levels of nets to produce overlapping shadows like the shadows of trees. Nets slope down from the roof to the ter- rain, covering the shadow of the elevation.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

SHADOW TALDES OF THiX'tyKK

«i»->?^' •^,

Panel with different textures, painted all white. Note the different shadow values of the various textures in contrast to the luminosity of a smooth surface. The shadow value de- pends on the size and density of the shadow-giving particles in relation to the depth of the texture.

'V^^

The same arrangement of tex- tures - smooth, fine-grain, coarse-grain, bushy - but now painted different shades of gray, to effect approximately the same visual value on all textures. The four examples above demonstrate recipro- cally the light absorbing quality of the texture.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

VARIOUS SUGCEESnOKS FOE TEXTURE I

The pattern used must be a pat- tern of texture (rather than of paint) where variety of shadow- giving structure, proportion, and arrangement of light spots and shadow spots are important in the tonal value,

ffoodshavings and excelsior are widely used - light and inex- pensive, easily handled and a- vailable everywhere. They can by dyed before placement or sprayed afterwards, and readily absorb paint, stains, cement, shellac, and all kinds of emul- sions. They can be glued on roofs, twisted in nets, wrapped around vertical structures, and impregnated against fire.

Dwarf shrubs, branches of pine, southern moss, and many kinds of hardy bushes retain their color long after they are dry. They give a very natural-look- ing texture for all kinds of grassland imitations. The com- mon heather, calluna vulgaris, is widely used in Europe for this purpose.

Brushwood, and odds and ends of twigs or branches can be easily sprayed with paint or creosote stains, which dry flat. They are not easily blown off the roof, and can be kept in place by a few wires and a wide-mesh net.

Artificial stones of porous concrete, or of concrete mixed with straw, wood-fibre, sawdust or excelsior, give a rough, coarse, gray, and sponge-like textiire, very resistant to wea- ther or fire, easily arranged in rows like furrows of a field and easily stained with all kinds of emulsions.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE,

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT, OF ARCHITECTURE

VARIOUS SUGGESTIONS FOR TEaiUEE II

Slabs of fire-resisting wood fibre boards (Thermax boards) in irregular cuttings pro- duce a fringed outline. These boards are strong enough to make projecting slabs possi- ble without too much support. The fringed edge produces a fringed shadow, which can be matched to other shadows on the adjacent ground.

Strips of wood of different natural colors (or painted in different colors) and of dif- ferent thickness are placed in irregular cross-hatchings over the object. Self shadow and the cast shadow can be organized to produce an ir- regular pattern similar to other patterns on the ground.

KW.

These are suggestions for makeshift and quick installa- tions which have the advsm- tage of good stability under weather conditions.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

TTne TTRTTjranp edo

Polygonia c-altoum

We can learn from nature many interesting tricks of

form imitation, disruptive pattern, and color adapta-

tion. But in using these lessons for protective con-

cealment, we have to be aware that the scale of in-

dustrial installations, and the expected effect at a

great distance makes bolder measures necessary.

Butterflies and moths are per- fect examples of protective coloring, and merge with the backgroiind by adaptation of shape and behaviour. The zig- zag contour of the wings is aided by dark and light marks to match the pattern of their usual surroundings.

This principle may be used in larger scale to efface a sharp outline. Irregularly spaced boards or slabs cut with irre- gular outline produce a frin- ged edge and a fringed shadow.

K>V.

Steel gratings or wire nets, partly filled in and partly open, produce a marginal pat- tern of dark and light tones, thus blotting out the straight edge.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

TEZTDEE AND LIGET

Landscape painters who tried sin- cerely to exploit the diversity of forms in nature found even a very small section rich in contrasts of texture, color, and ligM. Low o- blique light brings out fine de- tail which is lost under vertical illumination. A small grass plot has all the gradations from full- est light to deep shadow.

The deficiency of most camouflage installations is that they look flat and dull. A wrong interpre- tation of detail obliteration at a great distance results often in neglect of pattern detail. This neglect may be overlooked on small constructions, but too bold a pat- tern on big installations would be detrimental. Note the different values in a vertical view, which appear comparatively unimportant to giround observation.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

SHADOW A3 PART OF THE PATTEEN

These three photographs demon- strate the importance of shadow as part of the pattern for a "realistic" imitation of natural textures.

Figvire 1 is a pattern such as is used on expanded nets over flat roofs, representing rough uncul- tivated grassland, photographed as one flat panel on a white background only. The camouflage net on page 64 would give ap- proximately this effect if only the net is photographed. A road of smooth gray surface crosses the field.

Figure 2 shows exactly the same pattern with the shadow which this pattern casts on an under- lying panel. The effect is now a rich pattern of depth and vol- vme, very naturalistic, composed of light spots on the upper panel and light and shadowed spots on the differently-colored lower panel.

Figure 3 introduces a third pa- nel - the "tree panel". Spread- ing but definite in shape, these tree patterns cast a shadow upon the "grass panel", creating a rich variety of lights, half- shadows, and full shadows, Tery near to the three-dimensional effect of natural texture.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

GARNISHING TEffi NET

Garnished nets are used for mili- tary as well as industrial in- stallations. Experiments with flat-tops provide indispensable experience in color and pattern imitation. Screening of large roofs is a multiple application of the single net, but built for longer duration and greater steadiness. Fishnet, easily fold- ed and portable, is principally used for mobile situations. These nets need much adjustment in changing weather, because they shrink when they get wet and ex- pand as they dry out. Therefore, more stable nets are used for large installations: chickenwire, galvanized wire net, welded rein- forcing nets, expanded metal, stucco binder mesh, and even steel grating. The photograph shows fish nets garnished with garlands - strips of cloth or os- nabiirg woven in and knotted m varying densities, with the ends hanging to increase the effect of depth.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

SUEFACE MODELING WITH NETS

A net which is filled in thick- ly appears flat, uniform and solid at some distance - an ef- fect which is not sufficiently- broken up by using various co- lors for the garlands. The net lacks depth. A medium-filled net has the vibrant appearance of natural texture - tiny spots of light and the depth of real shadow. Various intensities of garnishing make it possible to form definite patterns. The "flat-top", because it is relatively small, is as a rule, flat and parallel to the ground. Larger nets need relief and figuration in order to create a variety of light and shadow. The net can have ridges and hollows, but relief and gar- nishing must express the same effect. Below: Example of a slit paper, expanded, loosely arranged. This has valuable qualities to give fine texture, but is prac- tical only for small, temporary installations.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

VflRE. CHICKEN WIRE. AND GARLANDS

1- Chicken wire 2" 20 gauge standard size per sq..ft.

Weight Price 22.2 gr. 0,048 lbs. 0.29??

2- Black annealed Iron wire U.S. Std. gauge ft. per lb.

2 5.44

4 7.386 6 10.17

8 14.29 10 20.57

12 33.69 16 95.98

lbs. per ft. 0.183 0.135 0.096 0.070 0.049 0.030 0.0142

Price per 100 lbs. Price per ft, 4.50 4.40 4.30 4.30 5.35 5.45 7.05

0.82 9 0.6 0.415 0.3 0.26 0.16 0.073

3- Osnaburg fabric garlands - cost per linear foot mdth Material Painting

3" .0030 .0022

.0025 .00185

.0020 .001502'«

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

ARTITICIAL TREES I

Artificial trees are built not only to hide installations under- neath, but to change the pattern of the landscape all around the factory. Instead of eliminating shadows, they are built to create them.

Artificial trees are built with several nets expanded at diffe-

rent levels. These nets are gar- nished with texture material, and so filled in that one level casts a definite shadow on the level next below it. The artificial tree should have - like the natu- ral tree - a clear outline and a clear shadow. All wires or ropes are painted a flat, dark color.

Poles of any kind may be used, provided they are painted dark. Three or four poles are used to produce tall and spreading trees, forming a supporting frame for the highest net, which is gar- nished like a flat-top. This garnishing should not be too flat or too dense, but should show a loose pattern of spreading bran- ches, casting shadows to the se- cond net and to the ground.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

ARTIFICIAL TREES II

Pine trees can be built as a sys- tem of several drape-nets. In- stead of using wires, the substruc- ture of the artificial tree can be built with a shaft and spokes, opening and closing like an um- brella.

It would be laborious and expen- sive in time and materials to build a wood of individual trees. It is advisable, therefore, to install flat-top nets in order to cover a wider area. It is essential, how- ever, to have at least two levels of nets. The higher nets, which represent the upper part of 'the fo- liage, should not Nbe too much filled, but distinct enough to cast definite shadows. It is important that the pattern of the upper net avoid repetition, and that "shadow parts" in adjoining nets are pro- perly correlated.

Two or three levels of textured nets are essential to produce a structure of light and shadow, cast-shadow and self- shadow, which, seen from above, gives the impression of a tree. At the highest level, a drape-net might well be used instead of a flat-top. It better represents the round fo- liage of a tree.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

SFECIFICATIOMS FOR ARTIFICIAL TREES

A- Tree, 20

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

EAST-CffiOWING AND TALL TREES I

ACER N33UND0 Box Elder or

Ash-leaved Uaple

ACER SACCHARUU Bard or

Sugar lifople

AILANTHUS GLAKDULOSA

Tree of Heaven

POPDLUS BALSAUIFERA

Balsam Foplar

POHJLUS NIGRA ITALICA

Lombardy Poplar

LIRIODENDRON TDLIPIFERA Tulip Tree

HLMUS AMERICANA White Elm

The choice of plant material plays an important role in the camouflage plan, especially in a planting program for effective camouflage in the future. Rapidity of growth, massive or slen- der form, branch-spread, duration of foliage, density of branches, early blossoming, or late fall losing of leaves are things which have to be taken into consideration.

Relative Rapidity of Growth of Familiar Trees. From a report by W. F. Fox, Su- perintendent of State Forests: Three-inch saplings, in favorable situ- ation, will attain in twenty years, the "following dimensions:

21" Silver Maple, Box Elder 19** American Kl" 18" Tulip Tree, Sycamore 17" .Linden Basswood 16". . . .Catalpa, Red Maple, Ailanthus 15". Cucumber Tree 14" Chestnut, Yellow Locust 13" Hard Maple, Horse Chestnut

Honey Locust, Red oak, Pin Oak 12" Wiite Ash

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

FAST-GBOWING AND TALL TREES II

POPOLUS D£LTOID£A. Cottonwood

TILIA AMESICANA. Linden or Bassvood

SALIX BETDLA. PAPYHIFERA. ACER BABYLONICA White or PLATANOIDES

Weeping WilloiK Paper Birch Norway Maple

New designs for industrial areas should include a landscaping program with

trees for shadow absorption and screen- ing against oblique observation. The tree softens the rigidity of the indus-

trial pattern and protects minor in- stallations under spreading foliage. These two sheets of trees can only in- dicate the importance of the problem, each case needing careful adaptation as to site, soil, and climate.

Fast-growing trees suitable for camou-

flage purposes are, among others:

Name Height Spread Shape Box Elder. . . 50-70. , 40. . Spreading Biard Uaple. . . .120. . 50 Oval Silver Maple. . .120. .50 Oval

SALIX AT.RA. Ihite Willow

ACER RDBRUM Red Uaple

Allanthus 60. .30. Balsam Poplar. 75-100. ,40. Cottonwood. . .60-150. White Birch. . . 100. Weeping Willow. 30-40. Tulip Tree. . . .200. White Willow. .60-80. Lanbardy Poplar. .90. Linden Basswood. 120. Norway Meple. . .100. American Elm. . .120.

.40.

40. 30.

80.

50. 15.

45. 60.

Spreading Spreading Spreading Spreading .Drooping . .Oblong Spreading Pyramidal . . RoTind

. • Round 80. Vase-shaped

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

P.ABT HI - DBM0NSTRATI0II3 ON WSEI^ AND mrAMPT.'Kfl FOR CAMOQTLAIjS: FKACTIGE

Paint alone would not be sufficient to hide such a building which from each side shows sharp contrasts and marked shadows. An attempt toward camou- flaging this building should aim to destroy revealing outlines.

THE CDHVED EDGE

New buildings can use the curved silhouette as an interesting fea- ture in industrial building design. Curving the roof may be espe- cially successful where rolling terrain and trees show similar roundness. Due to the absence of texture there is however, a con- siderable difference in tone between the flat roof and the ground*

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

TSXTUSS MATERIAL ON ROOF

The roof is serpentine- shaped and is planted with grass or has an artificial texture of excelsior, wood-shavings, rubbish, etc. Spreading trees surround the buildings and the curved shadows of the buildings blend with the round sha- dows of the trees.

Shrubs on the roof, quick-growing weeds, or a few higher heaps of artificial texture give an even better confusion of shadows. The round shadows are like shadows of rocks or rugged terrain formations. Cars might still expose the target if not parked under trees or in shadowy places.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

CDHVED ROOF WITB AETiriCIAL TREES

Projecting roofs cover against not only vertical observation (which is photogra- phic observation) but also effectively a- gainst recognition at lower angles. They shadow the elevations, reduce their visi- bility, and cut dangerous reflections of windows, even if they are not, as de- signed here, curved or fringed. The pro- jection of roof slabs has to be within reasonable limits of constructive stabi- lity, considering the overturning moment of wind pressure, and possible vibrations at anchor points.

The texture of the roof should match clo- sely the texture of the terrain, which sometimes includes reflections and bright spots. The universal use of dark and flat color is therefore not advisable. The roof might appear as a dull spot and therefore attract attention. Paint should not be glossy, but it would be quite as wrong to use only absolutely flat paint.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

OHLiqOE AND VERTICAL VIEWS FROM KLGS. ALTITDDE

Several photographs of the same model with changed light. The intention is not to suppress the shadow entirely but to render the shadow meaningless and to blend it with other natu- ral or artificial shadows of the terrain.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

VERTIOAL VIEOT WITH SHADOV; EFBECT OF AETITICIAL THEES

Vertical view of the same building with shadows of ar- tificial trees falling over the roof. The shadow of such trees looks solid on scale models, but it can be feathered out on actual installations. Dark wires of these trees cannot be noticed against a dark terrain.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

^"\ y t I PRELIMINAHr SKETCH FOR CAMOUFLAGING A HORIZONTAL TANK I

^K«uAsy< or vJkwous um

HANKS OUT AND mooucsKt-

RE«UiARSHA-

The tank is built in an em- banked pit, which is nor- mally without coTsr. The cover of this pit consists of random cuttings of small boards or saplings. Care must always be taken

to form a pattern of light and shadow somewhat similar to that of the adjacent terrain.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

SHADOW DISTOHTION WITH ROOF OF IRREGDLAR BQAHD3

Camouflage of a horizontal temk with a roof of irregular boards which are so placed as to avoid a straight ridge or straight sha- dows. Shadows merge with shadows of trees. Several tanks should not be lined up in a straight row.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

SHADOW DISTORTION TO BLEND WITH OTHER SHADOWS ON THE GROUND

Vertical view of model on page 86

The design takes into consideration that such constructions should be erected at short notice and with available boards

as a carpenter construction. Painted dark, the jagged shape might stand for a group of trees.

The small picture (right) shows the model taken from a great distance.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

PRELBmiAKY SKETCH FOR CMOUFLAGE OF A HORIZOOTAL TANK II

I—rn—I—

^^UiJi'^ *^aA. ^'^^ -WJm. j^l. J^,7

7 lo'-fa'

y//////////////.

steel grating in easily- transportable sizes, partly open and partly filled in with plaster or bituminous emulsions, forming a diago- nal pattern and a crooked ridge. Quick-growing weeds can be used to produce na- tural texture.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

Steel grating or expanded metal in standard sizes can be used to cover hori- zontal tanks, tank pits, pipelines, drains, railways, exits, etc., as a sturdy and passable construction, easily applied and removed» Solid boards are, in many cases, too smooth and give a too definite shadow. An effective texture of light and shadow is created by daubing the gratings part- ly with cement, plaster, or mastic compound.

PROTECTIVE HOODS FOR HORIZONTAL TANKS

Low walls bear the gra- tings, and at the same time separate the tanks.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

PRINCIPLES FOR CAMODFLACE OF SPHEROID TANKS

These tanks are mostly of bright metal and, by their spherical form, reflect the light strongly.

A practical and pemanent method of concealing such tanks vould be to build a square roof over them, i- mitating a house, with a protecting wall to avoid inundation and spreading fire. This is advisable however, only in a sur- rounding of similar struc- tures.

If embanJonents and varied terrain can be created, a light "roof" of irregular

shape is advisable. This roof can be constructed of light trusses, and light- weight boards, in order to produce irregular shadow- lines, which will blend with the shadows of the terrain.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

TERRAIN IMITATION OYER SPHEROID TANKS

The principal idea for the sugges- ted camouflage construction - in the fonn of a two-tiered hood on light trusses - is to replace the conspicuously round shadow by se- veral long shadow - lines which blend with other shadows on the ground. This intention is facili- tated if the surrounding terrain is of rugged, irregular structure. An embankment is raised around the tank to cut the light, but it is not built as a concentric mound.

The photograph below shows the mo- del on the next page before it was painted.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

SDEERSTESJOTDEE IN TSIfO TIERS OVER SPHEROID TANK

Vertical view of the superstructure covering the spheroid tank. This hood, built in two tiers, to diminish the height, is irregu- larly shaped to conform with local terrain, thus casting similar shadows. It is adri sable to place such tanks in a natural or ce- ment pit and to reduce white paTements to a minimum. Natural ve- getation should be allowed to grow as close as possible to the tank to facilitate blending of shadows.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

PRDJCIELES OF AIR-PROTECTIVE DESIGN OF ffHOBACZ TANKS Partitions and Hoods

The simplest method of pre- venting the spread of fire from one row of tanks to ano- ther and to localize to one row the blast caused by a bomb striking in the vicinity of one tank, is to use con- crete partition walls. This is especially advisable in existing rows of tanks.

Snbankments prevent inunda- tion and spreading of fire. The contents of the tank can be conserved if the tank or the pipelines are damaged. These embankments need not necessarily be round. They might better be square or ir- regular in shape to distort straight shadows.

.KW.

Provisions should be made to place hoods in wartime over tanks as camouflage to elimi- nate or distort shadows and

to protect the tanks against splinters and light bullets.

These hoods make use of the shadow reduction of a low grade or they would be so constructed that confusing shadows are produced.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

PRINCIPLES OF AIR-PH0TEX3TIVE I1ESIC2T OP STORACa! TANB3 Smbankments

Etabankments are useful to conserve the contents of the tank if the tank or the pipe lines are damaged.

These embankments are of irregular shape to avoid the prominence of concentric circles. An irregu- lar formation of lines and slopes is produced by means of nets which are spanned from the top of the tank to the edge of embankment. These nets should not be regularly round like circus tents.

Special holders make it possible to put entire trees temporarily on top of the tank, thus mak- ing concealment in wooded areas still more com- plete.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

EVOLUTION OF DESIGN FOR PROTECTION OF STORACaB! TANKS

Easy to find B^p Easy to aim at iilnns! Profitable to bomb - with the

following disastrous effects: 1- One explosion destroys the

whole group 2- Fire expands at a highly

accelerated rate 3- Fire fighting is difficult

if not almost hopeless 4- Severe danger to adjacent

buildings 5- No localization of damage 6- Loss of contents 7- Inundation 8- Complete destruction

Difficult to find Difficult to aim at Unprofitable to bomb - with the

following advantages: 1- Fire is confined and con-

trolled 2- Fire fighting is facilita-

ted 3- Contents are preserved 4- Camouflage is inexpensive 5- Damage is localized 6- Loss is only partial 7- Minimum destruction

Separation

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

SUGGESTIONS FOR INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE DESIGN PROTECTION OF TANKS

Protection of Tanks should be

I- Reduction of Visibility to evade Banbardment A- Dark paint instead of aluminum

and white paint Dark paint, honever, causes greater evaporation losses. According to a Report of In- vestigations on Reduction of Evaporation Losses from the U. S. Bureau of Mines, these losses are 150 to 180^ higher if dark paint is used as against white paint or aluminiim foil.

B- Dark infra-red paint which pho- tographs light, like foliage, and is heat-reflecting.

C- Confusion: Distortion of the shape and shadow of the tank, espe- cially to eliminate the es- sential roundness. Listed in the order of their protective value: 1- With disruptive painting

(dazzle-painting) 2- With texture pattern 3- With an addition of slabs

on roof, projecting over the edge.

4- With false or real trees.

D- Concealment: 5- With super-structures on

scaffolding, to cover the ro\md contour,

6- With nets over the roof. 7- With nets from the top of

the roof to the ground.

E- Deception: Building a roof, a house, or a jacket around the tank, reducing at the same time, evaporation losses.

developed in two Directions:

' 1

II- Measures against Inundation and Spreading Fire after a^ Hit (A thru S are arrangements to meet normal danger of fire in peacetime, without considering aerial observa- tion. ) A- partitions between rows of tanks

mostly built as tapered concrete walls, about the same height as the tanks.

B- Greater distances from tank to tank and low walls all around to prevent invmdation.

C- Still greater distance between tanks and surroionding embankment providing, at the same time, for a protecting roof.

D- Tanks placed separately in a circular pit, with the same ef- fect as an embankment. (The cir- cular pit of white concrete is, however, very conspicuous to the aerial observer.

)

£- jynbankment equipped tcanatlc sprinkler.

with an au-

(F thru I are suggestions for danger areas from the standpoint of aerial attack) F- anbankment of an irregular con-

tour to blend with the natural terrain.

G- Tanks distributed over a larger area, to avoid lining them up in rows.

H- Tanks built on rolling terrain,

emd trees planted to cause con- fusing shadows.

I- Tanks built underground.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

SUCXSESTIONS FOR IKDUSTRIAL CAMOOFLACa DESI(2I: DISPERSION OF TANKS

Dangerous congestion of tanks. Thames Haven, England

^ »-^ »^ % Twsn

Dangerous regu- larity of rows, roads, and pave- ments. Haifa, Palestine

Irregular setting of tanks, avoiding rows or regular shapes of embank- ments, makes a poor target. This design facilitates camouflage and blends well with rolling terrain. Snbankment prevents spreading fire and conserves contents of the tank after damage to tank or pipelines.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

VARIOUS TYPES OF COlTOEAmSNT OF STORAGE TANKS

Different types of camouflage are used for concealment of cylindrical storage tanks. Tank 1, with light texture pattern on top, shows a conspicuous

shadow

Tank 2, with painted pattern shows the shadow distorted by super- structures.

Tank 3 shows shadow and roundness eliminated by nets sloping down from the top.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

SIGHT-PROTECTION WITH TREES Oblique Tiew of Model on page 98

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

CAMOUFLAGE OF STORAGEE TANKS SHADOW CONFUSION WITH GARNISHED NET

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Support the net with high poles in irregular set- ting and with ad- ditional props on top of the tank.

An average storage tank, 40 feet high and 100 feet in diameter, is a conspicuous target. Much more effective than painting the tank is to spread a thinly garnished net over the roof and to ex- pand this net over the edge of the tank to cover or distort the shadow.

100

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

CMOnFLAGE OF A ONE-STORY FACTORY The camouflage of a factory with mon-

itor roof has two objectives: 1- To distort or confuse the long

straight lines of monitor windows, 2- To eliminate the shadow of the el-

evation, and to cover reflecting pavements around the building.

K.W.

Nets are expanded over the roof and from the roof down to the pavement. These nets are garnished thinly over non-reflecting and flat parts of the roof, but thickly where reflective surfaces or moving vehicles are underneath.

101

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY- DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

VARIOUS TXEES OF C01TCEAI2£SlTr FOR CAMODFLAGING AN INDUSTRIAL AREA

The model demonstrates different requirements and types of camouflage used simultaneously to conceal a big factory and adjacent industrial structures:

The roof is covered with a garnished net, or series of nets, built partly on one level and partly on two levels. Additional nets, imita- ting trees, cover superstructures on the roof (exhausts and vents). These nets project over the edge of the roof enough to protect against recognition from low angles; if possible, they are sloped down to cover adjacent pavements.

The silo building has a similar arrangement of nets, but expanded in several levels to overcome the considerable height of the structure.

The adjacent railroad siding is covered with a solid, curved roof and, partly, with horizontal nets.

The spray pond is covered with boards on prepared beams. Very light fibre-board is used to facilitate quick installation and removal.

Railroad siding near this pond shows the advantages of an open lay- out' with tracks sufficiently separated and concealed by trees.

The parking field (upper left) is designed in curves to provide a fixed location for every car and to use existing trees for cover.

The model shows advantages of trees to an industrial area; it is ea- sier to design a camouflage pattern if the terrain invites imitation,

102

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

C07ERING REFLECTIONS AND ELEVATIONS

A comer of the one-story factory with monitor roof before and after camouflage. The flat surface of the roof is easily treated, but the reflecting nindons and the shining exhaust need special conside- ration. The net is placed high enough so that a man standing on the roof can reach it easily. All reflecting metal surfaces should be painted dark, as indicated on one side of the exhaust.

The net is sloped down to cover the parked cars.

103

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

COVERING WATER SURFACES

An open water surface near a factory, especially a surface of reg- ular shape like a spray pond, a rectangular swimming pool or a re- servoir provides a great help for orientation. Water reflects not only sun rays and moonlight, but even the lustre of starlight. It is equally defined on cloudy nights. Cork, soot, or black sawdust are suggested for camouflage, but it is difficult, if not impos- sible, to control floating substances. Water currents, wind, and rain disperse or amass floating particles. Re-use of polluted wa- ter is very often impossible. It is therefore better to cover the water with nets or mats of reed on expanded wires, or with movable boards on stationary or floating beams. Woodfibre boards (like Thermax boards) are more advisable than wooden boards because of their lighter weight, their natural tendency for patina, and the absence of gloss when wet. The photograph shows shadow confusion with nets sloping down from the roof and the obliterating effect of the fringed edge - an ef- fect which is designed against observation at a great distance.

104

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

'PKX'l^ ltfW PATTERN OVER MONITOR ROOF PARKINa AREA UNDER TREES

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This close-up shows that the texture Is "painted" with shadows and not with paint. Careful study of the sur- rounding terrain is necessary to define this texture pattern which may be a pattern of rough grass, shrubs, barren earth, or stones and rocks. The flow of the pattern has to correspond to the main figuration of the landscape, preferably not parallel to the parallel lines of the roof. This net is built in two levels to avoid the monotony of a flat expanded surface.

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105

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

IRHEGfULARITY" OF PATTERN AND SHADOW COHESION

Section through one-story factory, showing monitor roof, arrange- ment of nets, and oblique view of camouflaged silo.

No attempt is made to place the poles in regular rows, or to have rectangular nets neatly arranged. On the contrary, the supporting wires criss-cross the roof in an irregular fashion and the nets are not all of the same size. They vary in shape, mesh, and garnishing, to produce greater variety in ;,exture. Part of the net (the center) is purposely omitted. The silo building is surrounded by nets, but not with the purpose of eliminating the shadow completely. The shadow is reduced and the remaining shadow deformed.

106

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

CmOUFLASJE OF A GRAIN ELEVATOR

Camouflage of an elevator or silo uses a system of nets in varying levels, expanded between cables from the top to the ground. These nets are not flat but more or less sloping downward, to reduce the considerable height of the silo. They produce a confusing, smudgy shadow of the structure, or, if advisable, a definite shadow which imitates high trees. Parts of the net could hang down vertically.

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

CAMOCTFLAGE OF A GEAIN ELEVATOR SHADOW REDUCTION IN THREE LEVELS

An oblique view of a partly camouflaged model of grain ele- vators. The textured nets are expanded in three levels, the nets sloping down or hang- ing to cover the ele- vation. The building itself is painted dark gray, but not black, with elimina- tion of white reflec- tions. Part of the model purp063ly un- camouflaged.

The railroad siding in the foreground has two roofs at different le- vels , with rough planks covered with texture.

108

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

CAMOOFLACS OF A CHAIN ELEVATOR A MUDDLED AND UNCERTAIN TARGET

The vertical view explains how the straight and conspicuous shadow is dissolved into a meaningless pattern of smaller shadow-spots. Choice of texture material depends upon whether or not it should blend with the groimd or stand out with definite contour as a group of trees.

109

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT, OF ARCHITECTURE

SHADOW CONFUSION WITH BOARDS CMODTLAGE OF A WATER TOWER

VJATERTOWER BEFORE CAHOUFUAOE

Protection of watertowers is very

often quite as important as supply

of munitions. The round form is

very conspicuous. If watertowers stand in woods or between trees (as

do mauiy watertowers on Long Island)

it is comparatively easy to fake a

group of tall trees. Isolated wa-

tertowers can be equipped with pro-

jecting slabs at various heights to

divide (or optically reduce) the

height, create confusing shadows,

and change the vertical fom into a broad, horizontal form.

Water towers of steel construction can use cantilever angles and rods screwed to the structure, with wire mesh or expanded metal slabs, fil- led in or sprayed with mastic com- pound .

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

TEXTDEE AND ARTIFICIAL TREES DISTORT THE CONSPICUOUS ROUNmSSS

A few boards or panels are placed on top of the watertower to distort the circular shape. In order to make these superstructures light they are constructed in wood with some fiber- boards, e.g. thermax boards. For the projecting slabs we can use the same material, supported by simple car- penter constructions. These slabs are placed at different levels. The shadow effect resembles the shadow of a tree.

Artificial trees made of the same boards help to broaden the shadow.

Ill

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

The purpose of the in-

stallation is to confuse the bombardier. It is admitted that stereosco- pic pairs might make the location apparent in an aerial photograph.

Before adding any vertical load to the chimney and increasing the stress in the brickwork, it is necessary to investigate the actual and al- lowable working stress in the brickwork.

112

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

CMOUFIAOE OF A CHIMNEY - THE UMBRELLA. METHOD I

The umbrella method cuts the height of the chimney into smaller sections, partly co- vering the vertical line against recogni- tion at an angle of 30° to 45°.

Two or more umbrellas can be placed on a chimney by circling it with two cables for each umbrella, the cables being fas- tened with cable clips and supplemented by an outstanding structure of the patent scaffold type, guyed diagonally if necessary. The umbrellas may extend 10' to 25', irregular in shape, and covered with textured, impregnated chicken- wire. The texture must not be so dense as to cause tension under wind pressure. Tests of the weight of garlanded chicken-wire, wet, or wet and frozen, seem to indicate that it would be safe to design for about 1 lb. per sq. ft.

113

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

CMOUFLAGE OF A CHIMNEY - THE UMBE?RT,TA METHOD II

H^fr iit^ym

Improved application of the umbrella method, with nets, very thinly garnished, hanging from the umbrellas. Vertical wires hold these chicken-wire nets in place. This arrange- ment reduces reflections on the vertical shaft better. Ar- tificial trees on the ground introduce more confusing sha- dows to blend with the distorted shadow of the chimney,

114

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

CMODHAGE OF A CHIMNEY - WITH CABLES AND NETS

At several points in the height of the chimney, en- circling cables can be in- stalled and guy cables run out to "dead men" set in concrete footings. The nets would be garnished chicken-wire with interme- diate support if necessary of heavy-gauge soft iron wire.

The wind pressure on the nets must be added to the normal over- turning moment of the wind on the chimney. This normal pressure on the chimney is commonly figured at 20 lbs. per sq. ft. It may be necessary to equalize the pull of the cables so that only a vertical load is transmitted to the chimney.

115

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

PARKING AREAS - A NEW ISESIW PROBLEM

The design of parking fields has been, until now, only a problem of two-dimensional design. Parking in straight lines on wide-open fields was considered the only practical way, using the available space to the limit, with only as much allow- ance as absolutely necessary for driving and backing. Big car-parks with long lines of parked cars easily expose the industrial local- ity.

safer design in arranging parking fields uses decentralization and dispersion into several smaller fields as a most necessary measure to reduce conspicuousness. The next step is dispersion within the smaller field itself, providiiag more open spaces.

116

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

DESICaJ SaGGESnON FOE PARKING FIELD I

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Design Suggestion #1

The aerial view shows trees to be the hest and cheapest means of concealment considering the pro- bable angle of recognition. Trees on parking fields, however, should be so placed as to avoid

long, even rows. This is accom-

plished by a special arrangement of the separating strips of grass. The assignment of park- ing space should be planned with the consideration that all cars with common destinations are parked together.

117

Design Suggestion §Z

The problem is to distribute trees in such a way that the group looks like a natural wood or grove. This design solves the problem with curved routes and a very free arrangement of trees. k similar layout will be necessary if cars are parked in an existing wood.

THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

tmhoutbrAlster

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

CMCUFLAim OF THS ALSTSR BASIN IN HAUBOBG

The Xlster Basin in Hamburg, in the heart of the city, is one of its famous sights, center of business and social life. The Lombard Bridge, a very important traffic artery, divides the Alster Basin into a smaller, almost square part called the "In- ner Alster" and a much larger part, the "Outer Alster".

The regular square of the Inner Alster made orientation in night raids easy. Therefore the whole area, about 2,000 to 2,200 ft., has been covered itith boards and nets with textured material, representing several ci- ty blocks. A fake bridge has been built at a proper distance, with imitation railroad tracks and dummy cars.

Hundreds of poles have been driven into the soft ground of the basin to erect these fake constructions. It took four months to build these camouflage structures - from January, 1941 to April, 1941. Drawn from English aerial Photographs and eye-witness reports.

AkE BRID«e

CAMOUFUePD Alster r^sjn

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119

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

cumanFLACE of the eail- BDAD STAfnON IN HAMBURG

The main railroad station in Hamburg has a vaiilted roof of enonnous dimensions. Bigger than any adjacent struc- ture, and constructed entirely of steel and glass, it stands out dominantly with broad reflection*

The great south window, 300 feet wide, is covered and painted to represent a row of houses. Two fake streets cross the roof with ramps of boards, over-bridging the station plazas, to create continuous white lines*

Sketch of the camouflaged railroad station from the south - east, indicating the crossing street-ramps as revealed by English aerial photos and eye- witness reports.

120

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

HAMBURG CAMOCTPLAGE IN AERIAL PHOTOGRAEBS

The port of Hamburg has, in addi- tion to the river Elbe, much open water, docks, and port facilities but none, within the boundaries of the town, so characteristic as the Alster Basin. Its length, orientation, and definite shape, help the bombardier in aiming at the business center of the city.

The two English aerial photo- graphs are taken at different months, which accounts for dif- ferences in the shadow pattern, especially visible on the roof of the railroad station. The "after" photograph was taken early in spring 1941 when trees were still without foliage.

Note that the pattern of the faked city blocks is generally too bold and lacks detail, show- ing flat roofs instead of the detailed pattern of pitched roofs in this, the very oldest part of Hamburg. The false bridge, 1,000,000 sq. ft. in size, is dull and flat in ap- pearance, too definitely con- toured, and with not enough texture. The depth effect of shadow is lacking.

121

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL camouflage laboratory PRATT INSTITUTE dept. of architecture

riVE PAGES WITH A TYPICAL REPORT FOR CAMOUFLAGING A FACTOHY

Principal design for the camouflage scheme; general consideration for the pattern of the installation, with comparison of shadow effect before and after.

Condensed report in regard to visibility and vulnerability, with suggestions for the landscaping program, the camouflage program and for plant organization and management in times of emergency.

Construction outline for the camouflage su- perstructure.

Estimate of cost.

For the purpose of simplicity an average factory installation has been assumed. It does not include the problem of blackout. The location represented would be south of New York City, but not in an area subject to high winds. In northern climates, subject to heavy snow and alter- nate thawing and freezing, the allowance of one lb. per sq.ft. for live and dead load of garlanded wire might have to be increased to a pos- sible maximum of 20 lbs. per sq.. ft. This would increase the necessary strength of the rest of the structure. Light assxaned loads can be used only in areas of light frost and where provision is made to remove man- ually any ice formation. The cost would naturally vary depending upon whethi-r the job was done by aimy personnel, regular plant staff, or local vmion labor. Ventil- ation changes, the necessary substitution of non-priority material, and many other special problems would also affect the cost. The estimate given herein is meant to indicate only the approximate order of magni- tude of the expense.

122

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

TYPICAL REPORT FOR Cm(XJFLAGWG A FACTORT

Vertical view of a factory, 72,000 sq. ft. in size, in rural country.

The site, along the highway, was leveled and cleared of trees. White

pavements make the location very obvious in an aerial view.

The camouflage scheme reproduces the rural pattern, covering the factory, but leaving the highway exposed. Various groups of trees in adjacent plots invite the introduction of a meadow-and-tree pattern, built up in layers of over-lap- ping flat-tops. Opaqueness of the screening and shape of the nets vary.

123

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE iT-rr

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY PRATT llNSTITUTE dept. of architecture

TXPICAL REPORT FOR CAMOUFLAGING A FACTORT

I- Dangerous visibility and dangerous reflections: White spots lacking vegetation are very marked around factory, especially near railroad tracks, indicating heavy driving. Driveway, pavement, and turn-around near factory are too white. Parapet and limestone trim on office build- ing, also triangular walls of sawtooth roof are obvious. Reflections come from sawtooth roof, water tower, and parked cars.

II- Dangerous vulnerability: Construction of factory is sound and mo- dem. Damage through debris is not expected. Roof is not built to re- sist impact of bomb; explosion would occur inside plant, damaging all windows and disrupting transmissions. Water tower is exposed and water reserve insufficient without second source of supply.

III- Merits: Factory is simple in layout, without inaccessible courts. Factory is low, consisting only of one-story or low two-story buildings. Terrain is not flat, but has irregular grading with trees fairly near and on both sides of highway. Level of factory site is lower than adja- cent terrain.

IV- Suggestions: White lines on the ground, curbs, water tower, fences, railings, white walls, small shacks should be painted dark as immediate precaution. Landmarks at some distance should be checked from airplane. Driveways and pavements not covered by camouflage construction should be darkened with dark coatings, renewed from time to time.

V- Program to reduce vulnerability: Additional supply of water should be provided, fire hydrants placed outside plant, to facilitate fire fighting. Water tower switch boards and valves should be provided with protective shelter, utilities should be subdivided or duplicated. Two protected observation posts should be installed at opposite sides of roof. Provisions should be made for individual protection of machinery and tools.

VI- Program for landscaping: Regularity of rows of trees should be bro- ken. All white spots on ground or tracks covered with turf. Trees should be planted to protect parking fields. Pavements should be re- duced to the minimum and shrubs or trees planted, conforming to adjacent landscape pattern.

VII- Program for camouflage: Covering the factory with nets is sug- gested as the cheapest method, quickest to install, without using too much metal. Reinforcing supporting members is not necessary as load is small. Camouflage has to include the railroad tracks and should be faded out under existing trees.

124

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

TYPICAL REPORT FOR CAMODTLAGING A FACTORY

CONSTRUCTION OOTLINE Prepared by William J. McGuinness

A«S* C« E*

General Plan of Structure

The general arrangement of screening consists of flat surfaces of garlEinded chicken-wire on three different levels, two of them above the factory, and one at a level below the factory roof and extending out on all sides. The main factory cover is intended to simulate the sur- rounding terrain. The upper layer, representing trees and some imitation of shrubs, covers up about one third of the factory. The lowest le- vel conforms to the surrounding terrain.

Flat Surfaces

Chicken-wire, 20 gauge and 2" mesh is tied with 2^" garlands, properly painted and woven into the wire. The chicken-wire is kept flat by the use of 4-gauge wire, soft iron, forming panels about 10' X 30* over the factory in both layers. The spacing of supports is irregular to prevent detection by uniformity. In areas outside of the factory where the wire is supported on poles 30 and 50' high, the wire level is about 10' to 15* -below the tops of poles. A suspension ar- rangement of wire is suggested, forming panels 20' X 60', which, in turn, would be divided into smaller psinels supported by taut 4-gauge wire.

Vertical Supports

Each vertical support, if placed one over each coliunn, in the typical 20' by 30' bays of the factory would bring in a load of 600 lbs. The column already takes a load of 123,000 lbs., so the added load would be less than 1% and per- fectly safe. This is based upon an assumed sq. ft. load of 1 lb. for the garlanded chickenwire. The supports for the lower layer over the fac- tory roof are 4' x 6's, for the two-layer part 4' X 10 's, bolted through to the structural frame of the sawtooth truss. These have been figured for bending moment. The bolts should provide a great measure of steadiness to the in- stallation. They may, however, have to be cross-braced with wire. No trouble is antici- pated from wind pressure. It will be necessary to flash carefully where the bolts pass through the roof. The foot of supports may have to pass through the roof, and will have to be flashed, although it may be possible to rest them direct- ly on a wood pad set in mastic and wedges provi- ded below to bring the post to bearing.

125

rHE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

TYPICAL REPORT FOR CMOOFLAGING A FACTOEY

Accesalblllty

The reason for having the layer at least 5 feet above the roof is that incendiaries landing on the roof can be spotted and dealt with; also it

makes possible greater access in the erection of the garlanded wire. A third advantage is that colored cloth can be rolled out xmder the gar- lands in case it becomes necessary to change or modify the color presented to aerial observation.

Low Level Outside of Factory Limits

The lower level of wire above the factory must be extended out on all sides for a distance of 20' for obscurement. Also it is necessary to create a new level around the factory, extending out 20' to 80' to aid in breaking up shadow from the upper one, as well as to cover loading and parking. Free movement must be possible in this area, and so it is proposed to support this le- vel on poles of the type used for telegraph or clothes lines. Such poles are obtainable in lengths of 55* and 35' which are the two sizes needed. It is common to sink them in the ground 5'. Frequently it is not necessary to guy them but it is recommended that wire be strung down to a concrete footing in each case. Note that the 50' posts support layers of camouflage at heights of 20' and about 40' above the ground, and the 30' posts support a layer at 20' above the ground. They will therefore project through the wire screening and must be garnished above, to simulate trees. The extra height, however, peimits a suspension arrangement which makes it possible to space them in bays of 20' to 60', but irregularly.

Cost

The cost estimate accompanying this report is based very largely upon actual quotations and upon firm bids for some of the work. Current prices are used. With rapidly changing con- struction costs and the great variation in bids on this unusual work, it is likely that the es- timate will indicate only the approximate cost.

126

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INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE

INDUSTRIAL CAMOUFLAGE THE ART SCHOOL PRATT INSTITUTE

CAMOUFLAGE LABORATORY DEPT. OF ARCHITECTURE

IN CONCUJSION

A desire to share our experiences in this

fascinating and important field of study

has motivated our action. Sihould circum-

stances justify, we plan to present suc-

ceeding volumes, the next of which is al-

ready well under way.

-OQO-

Thanks are due to the McLaughlin Air Service, I'adison Avenue, New York, for permission to use the aerial photographs on pages 7, 8, y, 10, 17, 34, 37, 48, 61, 70, y5, and 116. The drawing on page 18 is reproduced by courtesy of FORTUNE magazine; this drawing was prepared by K.F. Wittmann for an article on camouflage, March, iy42. The diagrams on pages 27, 28, and 29 were first published in an article by K.F, Wittmann on "Bird's-eye planning" in the September, 1940, ARCKITiiGTUHAL RECORD. The aerial photographs of Hamburg are reproduced by courtesy of Press Association, Inc.

128

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