MANAGEMENT COMMUNICATIONS WITH TECHNOLOGY TOOLS

7.4 Conflict and Management Communication

Learning Objective # 4: What forms of conflict exist in organizations, and what roles do communication channels play in those conflicts?

Interpretations of the term "conflict" have taken several directions in the past few decades. One early perspective suggested that conflict constitutes a negative force. Words such as "violent," "destructive," and "angry" portray this point of view. As time passed, conflict began to be conceptualized as a continuum from mild disagreement to major confrontations, but still with a negative connotation. More recently, concepts of conflict have evolved from considering it as something to be avoided or eliminated to viewing conflict as an inevitable, but manageable, process. Some see conflict as a driving force that leads to innovation and much-needed change (Fink, 1968; De Dreu & Van de Vliert, 1997).

For our purposes, conflict will be defined as a circumstance in which one party negatively affects or seeks to negatively affect another party in both observable and perceived ways (Thomas, 1992; Wall & Callister, 1995). Some forms of conflict take place even when it would be difficult to point it out as an observable event. In others, the manifest strife will be readily apparent.

Conflict can be compared to another concept, competition, which is a situation in which all parties in an event or situation attempt to do their best, and the winner emerges as the person or group with the highest level of performance. A sales contest between individuals or teams is a competition; a confrontation between two members of a sales force in which one accuses the other of "stealing a sale" becomes a conflict situation.

Conflict has been conceptualized as taking two forms. Functional conflict serves the organization's interests in some way. An example of functional conflict would be one in which improvement in performance or greater cooperation among individuals or groups takes place. Other terms used to describe functional conflict include constructive, cooperative, and substantive conflict (McGrath, 1984).

Dysfunctional conflicts include the destructive activities that hinder group or organizational performance (Amason, 1996). Poor organizational communication can create dysfunctional conflicts. Quality communication systems assist in developing and resolving functional conflicts, and aid in avoiding many conflicts.

Levels of Conflict

Many forms of conflict exist. Members of the business community should be aware that four levels of conflict occur in the workplace. Resolving conflict cannot occur until the level has been properly identified. The four levels of conflict are:

between individuals

between groups or departments

between companies

with the government

Communication processes often accompany the various forms of conflict. Table 7.9 lists the communication venues that can become part of both functional and dysfunctional conflicts.

Table 7.9: Communication channels and conflict

Interpersonal Group Between Companies With the Government

Face-to-face verbal Meetings Advertising Meetings with officials

Memos and letters Informal channels Media releases Media releases

Telephone Social media Court documents Court documents

Email and text Email and memos Social media Social media

Social media Meetings with supervisors

Conflicts Between Individuals

Conflicts between individuals, or interpersonal conflicts, take place between employees both on- and off-site. Personality conflicts often result from workplace incivility and risky communication. Examples of incivility and risky communication are: sexually inappropriate comments, racial or ethnic slurs, ridicule of older or younger workers, derision based on sexual orientation, and insensitive comments about physical or mental disabilities (Blau & Anderson, 2005).

Workplace bullying is repeated, health-harming mistreatment of one or more persons. Bullying involves one or more perpetrators and takes the form of verbal abuse, offensive conduct, and work interference (Workplace Bullying Institute, 2011). Workplace bullying can create another forum for conflict. Reyner & Hoel (1997) identify five types of workplace bullying, including the items in Table 7.10.

Bullying can happen at the same organizational rank (employee to employee) or involve hostility by a supervisor toward an employee. The tactics in Table 7.10 lead to various types of conflicts, some of which go unresolved, as the individual is too intimidated to react. Others lead to withdrawal behaviors, including increased absenteeism and the search for a different job.

Table 7.10: Types of workplace bullying
Threats to professional status	Belittling opinion
	Public professional humiliation
	Accusation regarding lack of effort
Threats to personal standing	Name-calling
	Insults
	Intimidation
	Devaluation with regard to age
Isolation	Preventing access to opportunities
	Physical or social isolation
	Withholding of information
Overwork	Undue pressure
	Impossible deadlines
	Unnecessary disruptions
Destabilization	Failure to give credit when due
	Meaningless tasks
	Removal of responsibility
	Repeated reminders of blunders
	Setting up to fail

Conflicts between individuals play out in many ways, as do the bullying tactics in Table 7.10. Face-to-face confrontations are the most visible and require the most direct, quick action. Other interpersonal conflicts take place in the form of email exchanges, comments made in meetings, questions and arguments following presentations, text messages, and sometimes hostile memos and letters. Telephone skirmishes are also common in commerce. More recently, postings on Facebook, in Twitter accounts, and through other social media indicate the presence of conflict. Remember that anything you post electronically, such as an email or text, is typically considered the property of the company. As with any message you put in writing, it can provide evidence of your misbehavior, inappropriate use of language, and other transgressions.

Groups and Departments

Intragroup conflict refers to incidents between members of one group. Disagreements about goals, methods of operation, and who will be the leader create intragroup conflicts. The end result can be poor decisions and ineffective group functioning, when conflicts are not properly managed and resolved (Bazerman & Neale, 1992). Intragroup conflict takes the forms of confrontations during meetings, between group members in other locations (face-to-face) and also by phone and email, and through social media. Many times, informal communication or gossip becomes part of the conflict process.

Intergroup conflict transpires between various groups or departments. Besides conflicts between departments within companies, other factions can emerge around any common point between employees (e.g., ethnicity, gender, position of power, etc.) and this can become the basis for various battles. Intergroup conflicts emerge when disagreements about goals, differences of opinion about which group should be assigned a project or task, or budget allocations become the focus of attention. Intergroup conflicts may be brought to the attention of management through memos and emails, and by asking for personal contacts with managers at high levels to present grievances regarding the conduct of the other group or department.

Conflicts Between Companies

Numerous conflicts emerge between companies over proprietary matters. Often, conflicts involve advertising claims or other business tactics deemed unfair or designed to compete in unfair, illegal, or unethical ways. In those circumstances, company leaders engage in private negotiations, issue public statements and releases, and request the intervention of entities such as the Better Business Bureau and Federal Trade Commission.

As an example of conflicts between organizations, the toy company Mattel employed an individual named Carter Bryant for many years. Bryant left the company and became part of MGA Entertainment, where he designed and developed the popular Bratz line of dolls to compete with Mattel's Barbie brand. Mattel's executives claimed that Bryant came up with the idea for the Bratz line while still employed at Mattel. After intense confrontations, the matter went to court. Mattel won a $100 million judgment against MGA Entertainment; however, no punitive damages were assessed. Both sides claimed victory as a result (WCCO, 2010).

A wide range of additional conflicts are possible beyond disputes over products. Companies may dispute rights to other properties, employment of rival workers, theft of trade secrets, and clash over suppliers and retail outlets. The issues and communication tactics vary by the type of engagement involved.

Conflicts With the Government

Conflicts between companies and with the government mayinvolve the use of formal mediation.

Many companies engage in various types of conflict with governmental officials and agencies. Disagreements over regulations, taxes due, and meeting various regulatory requirements can spur clashes with individuals from the government. These include encounters with local, state, and national officials, depending on the size and scope of the company and the issue involved. Also, some company managers in international firms cope with governmental officials from other countries.

Domestically, conflicts arise with representatives of the EnvironmentalProtection Agency, Occupational Safety and Health Administration, InternalRevenue Service, Food and Drug Administration, and Federal TradeCommission. Communication venues with these individuals include formalwritten reports, in-person meetings, telephone conversations, emailcorrespondence, courtrooms, and formal mediation situations. An increasingnumber of companies take disputes with governmental organizations to thepublic through public relations releases and social media campaigns.

Each of these four types of conflict requires an intervention. In the case of an intrapersonal conflict, a counselor or adviser may assist.Intragroup and intergroup conflicts may be resolved in a variety of ways, most notably by the intervention of managers. Conflictsbetween companies and with the government often result in reliance on attorneys to assist in reaching an acceptable solution. Managerschoose the most appropriate method for dealing with each problem as it arises.

Stages of Conflict

In 1967, Louis Pondy developed an often-used model of conflict. A modified version appears as Figure 7.1. Pondy's model notes the presence of the conflict cycle, in which individuals or groups engage in a series of conflicts,  even when they are only spectators. Thiscauses them to become increasingly sensitized to  the events, which in turn makes subsequent conflict more likely. After a series of conflicts  has been resolved, the company enters a more tranquil period. During that time, individuals and groups may become morepatient with each other, and the net result will be reduced  numbers of potential and open conflicts. Managerial skill and intervention can break the cycle of increasing conflict.

Figure 7.1: An adaptation of Pondy's conflict model

This adapted version of Pondy's model shows the conflict cycle, which starts with latent conflict or all thepotential sources of the conflict. The cycle continues with felt and perceived conflicts. Then comes open conflict,which is the confrontation resulting from escalation of the issue. After open conflict, resolution must take place.The aftermath of the conflict then cycles back to latent conflict again.

Adapted from: L. R. Pondy (1967). Organizational Conflict: Concepts and Models. Administrative Science Quarterly, 12(September), 296–320.

As shown in Figure 7.1, latent conflict represents all the potential sources of conflict at the individual or group level. These potentialsources may or may not erupt into open confrontations. Some problems may exist for years without ever becoming manifest. Others maytake a "fast track" and quickly develop into altercations. Table 7.11 lists the potential sources of conflict within an organization. A lack ofcommunication or poor communication can worsen latent conflicts. Misinterpreted messages often heighten personality issues and otherdisagreements. Posts on social media can also exacerbate any latent sources of conflict.

Felt conflict occurs when people know something is wrong but cannot pinpoint the source. It is not unusual to have the experience ofwalking into a room and feeling immediately that something is wrong without knowing the actual problem. That point is the felt conflictstage.

Perceived conflict means that those near a conflict know the issues and the people involved, yet do not feel discomfort from it. In essence,the conflict is "someone else's problem." Often perceived conflicts appear in other departments or parts of the organization.

When two individuals or parties become engaged in a conflict, perceptions play major roles. Inaccurate perceptions of the other side'sposition or of the issue at hand lead to inaccurate mutual perceptions in which resolution becomes increasingly difficult (Hynes, 2011). Inessence, as felt and perceived conflicts intensify, perceptions become distorted. The tendency shifts toward interpreting people andevents as either with one side or against that side. Thinking reverts to more stereotypical and biased forms that favor a person'sviewpoint. This sets the stage for more-open conflict.

Open conflicts appear as showdowns, confrontations, and other outward signs. Often an open conflict results from ongoing escalation ofthe issue. As this takes place, communication between the parties decreases, issues become blurred by generalizations and blanketstatements, such as "You always . . ." or "You never . . ." Parties to the conflict lock into positions and tend to magnify differences andminimize similarities between the two sides.

Manifest conflict behaviors include yelling, loud arguments, and violence toward others at the individual level and work slowdowns,strikes, and deliberate rules violations at the group level. Evidence of conflict in meetings or presentational formats can be revealedthrough the questions audience or team members pose. Controlling questions take the form of mini-lectures in which one side of anargument or disagreement seeks to dominate the other. Hostile questions aggressively point out the conflict at hand (Munter, 2012). Otherforms of manifest conflict are found in memos, emails, and phone exchanges between the parties. At that point, conflict resolution musttake place. A manager or arbiter will need to step in.

Conflict resolution includes an understanding of the concerns of the parties. Both concerns about personal outcomes and concerns aboutthe other side's outcomes affect the nature of the conflict. Figure 7.2 lists the potential responses.

Figure 7.2: Responses to concerns

Both concerns about personal outcomes and the other side's outcomes affect the nature of the conflict andsubsequent responses.

When one side has little concern about the other's outcomes, two responses are contending and inaction. Contending or competingoccurs when one side fully pursues its outcomes with no regard for the outcomes of the other side. Other terms associated withcontending are dominating and forcing (Rahim, 1985). Forcing expresses a high concern for production with low concern for people(Hall, 1986). With this approach, one sees stronger tactics, such as threats, intimidation, and unilateral action.

Inaction or avoiding is withdrawal or remaining passive during the conflict.The passive party has little regard for its own outcome and is not concernedabout the other's outcome. Some authors equate inaction or avoiding with alow concern for people and a low concern for production in the workplace(Blake & Mouton, 1970). In response, one side retreats from the conflict.

A third response involves circumstances in which concerns for the other'soutcomes are high. Two possible actions are yielding and problem-solving.Yielding or accommodating involves seeking to help the other side achieveits outcomes with little care about one's own outcomes. Yielding can also betermed obliging or smoothing (Rahim, 1985). It occurs when one party hasa high concern for people and low concern for production (Thomas &Kilman, 1974).

Problem-solving or collaborating occurs when high concern for the other'soutcomes accompanies high concern for one's own outcomes, and when theparties share high concerns for both people and production (Blake &Mouton, 1970). The goal becomes a win-win solution. Problem-solving has also been labeled as an integrating approach.

When moderate levels of concern emerge for both personal outcomes and the other side's outcomes, and concerns for people andproduction are also moderate, the most common approach involves compromising. A compromise becomes more likely when consensuscannot be reached, the goals of the two parties are not strongly connected, and the two sides hold equal levels of power.

Managers normally have the responsibility of discovering the relative positions of the two sides to a conflict. In order to resolve theconflict, managers try to identify the level of give-and-take that will be possible by assessing the strength of commitment each side has toits position. More effective negotiations or resolutions then become possible. Then, the venue and method for conflict resolution can bechosen. Individual meetings and group settings can accommodate conflict resolution.

For Review

What are the five main responses possible in a conflict resolution, based on levels of concern for others?

The Steps of Conflict Resolution

A manifest conflict often requires a cooling-off period before any attempt at resolution can start. When emotions are high, reasonabledialog will be unlikely. When an arbiter or manager surmises that both sides have sufficiently calmed down, conflict resolution cancommence. The steps of the conflict resolution process are:

1. Identify the parties involved.

2. Identify the issues.

3. Identify the positions of the parties.

4. Find the bargaining zone.

5. Make a decision.

Managers identify the parties by investigating whether a conflict involves individuals or groups. Identifying the issues takes time. Often aconflict becomes manifest through an unrelated issue. When two employees become involved in a shoving match over a space in theparking lot, the real conflict may be that one person was passed over for a promotion that was given to the person who "stole" hisparking space.

When identifying the positions of the parties, a two-person or two-group conflict should have a fairly straightforward analysis. Manytimes, however, a problem or concern exhibits many facets, and the net result will be that several people or coalitions have some sort ofvested interest. In that circumstance, the moderator tries to determine the agendas of each party.

The bargaining zone may be kept confidential, presented openly, or can be deciphered by a third party. In a conflict resolution, thebargaining zone represents the settlement range in a negotiation, or the boundaries of acceptable solutions for both sides. It consists ofthe area in which give-and-take can be carried out. At times, no such range may be found; one side will win and the other will lose. Table7.12 suggests key negotiation techniques when seeking to resolve a disagreement.

Table 7.12: Negotiation techniques during conflict resolution

Focus on ideas and information rather than personalities

Find areas of agreement

Deal with important rather than trivial issues

Discuss potential tradeoffs

Identify objective criteria when assessing solutions

Find ways to move on following a resolution

Source: Andrews, D. C., & Andrews, W. D. (2004). Management communication: A guide. Boston, MA:Houghton Mifflin Company, 150–152.

Making the final decision determines the outcome of the conflict. A win-win solution allows all sides to make gains in the conflictresolution. Win-win solutions can occur only when four conditions have been met (Zand, 1972):

1. The parties believe cooperation will be better than conflict.

2. The parties trust each other.

3. Status differences between the parties have been minimized.

4. Mutually acceptable solutions can be found.

A win-lose solution means one side gains the advantage over the other. A lose-lose, or compromise, means both parties gain on someissues but lose on others (Rackham, 1976).

When the result of a conflict resolution has been well handled, benefits may appear. Table 7.13 lists some of the positive outcomesassociated with dealing directly with conflict. These occur at the interpersonal, intergroup, and intragroup levels.

Table 7.13: Benefits of dealing directly with conflict

Individual

Stronger relationships with co-workers

Increased self-respect for taking action

Personal growth and development in understanding how you responded

Organizational

Increased efficiency and effectiveness following effective resolution

Spurs creativity

Allows for synergy and teamwork among employees

Source: O'Rourke, J. S. IV (2010). Management communication: A case-analysis approach (4th ed.).Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Conflict Outcomes

The goal of any conflict resolution should be to reach a functional settlement. Three desired outcomes of conflict resolution are (1)agreement, (2) stronger relationships, and (3) organizational learning. Agreement has been achieved when both sides believe asettlement was fair or equitable. Stronger relationships emerge when both parties try to build trust and goodwill for the future.Organizational learning takes place when an individual or group achieves greater self-awareness and/or better understands how to findcreative solutions to problems. While desirable, these goals will be difficult to achieve. Many times, the negative aftereffects of conflict, aslisted in Table 7.14, become the result.

Table 7.14: Potential negative aftereffects of conflicts

Anger, revenge, continuing attempts to make the other side look bad

Noncompliance with orders and decisions

Reduced effort/passive resistance

Empire building, withholding information, territory defense

Increasingly legalistic approach to tasks and assignments

Withdrawal behaviors such as daydreaming or meeting in groups to visit

New lobbying efforts

Sarcasm in front of the mediator

Increased sensitivity to statements and comments

Effective management of conflict includes two primary activities. The first involves managers actively analyzing potential sources ofconflict at all times. Then reducing, modifying, or removing the source can be accomplished. Second, managers should seek to becomeadept conflict arbiters. Remember that impartiality, a sense of humor, and a calm disposition are major assets in conflict resolution.