case analysis

( Chapter Eight (

Implementation Techniques/Interventions

Chapter Objectives

Introductory Case: Southwest Airlines is Flying High in Disastrous Times

Strategy Implementation: Interventions

Change and Change Agents

Intervention Techniques: The Process

Intervention Techniques: A General Model

Individual (Intra-personal) Interventions

Interpersonal and Small Group Interventions

Team/Group/Subsystem Interventions

Intergroup/Subsystems Interface Interventions

Organizational/Systems Wide Interventions

Transorganizational/Environmental Interventions

Use the Appropriate Intervention to Produce the Desired Changes

Summary

Key Terms and Concepts

Web sites

Discussion Questions

Exercises

Experiential Exercise

Appendix: Description of Other Intervention Techniques

Endnotes

Chapter Objectives

1. For students to understand the purpose of organizational interventions and the action research model as a mode of implementing strategy.

2. To introduce students to the numerous intervention techniques that organizations can employ to educate employees and facilitate change (strategy implementation).

3. For students to participate in an intervention exercise.

4. To have students develop intervention strategies through case method and field research.

Introductory Case: Southwest Airlines is Flying High in Disastrous Times

“2001 marks Southwest Airlines’ 30th Anniversary. For 30 years now, we have had one mission: low fares. In that respect, this year was no different. But as we all know, 2001 was a year like no other, in both our Company’s and our country’s history. …. The National Tragedy struck our collective hearts, minds, and lives in [the] third quarter. In [the] fourth quarter, our nation and our Company began the difficult process of healing together. Nothing will keep us from moving ahead. Freedom, and the Freedom to Fly, will most certainly endure.

Southwest was well poised, financially, to withstand the potentially devastating hammer blow of September 11. Why? Because for several decades our leadership philosophy has been: we manage in good times so that our Company, and our People, can be job secure and prosper through bad times. This philosophy served our People and our Company well during the holocaustic economic catastrophe that afflicted the airline industry from 1990 – 94, when the industry, as a totality, lost a cumulative $13 billion and furloughed approximately 120,000 of its employees, while, during that same 1990 – 94 period, Southwest remained 100 percent job secure and produced profits and Profit sharing for our Employees and Shareholders. Once again, after September 11, our philosophy of managing in good times so as to do well in bad times proved a marvelous prophylactic for our Employees and our Shareholders. ….

On September 11, our Company had the financial wherewithal to withstand and overcome the dire economic emergency with which it, and our nation, were threatened. But what about our Southwest People, as a whole? How would they respond in an atmosphere of incredulity, fear, sadness, uncertainty, and grave economic jeopardy for themselves and their Company?

Here is how they responded: ‘Are you guys ready? Okay. LET’S ROLL.’ While still grieving over the events and losses of September 11, our People returned to work with tears in their eyes but resolve in their hearts. They speedily reassembled our airline, after it had been shut down, and got it flowing smoothly again. In a national and Company emergency, they put aside petty complaints and miniscule concerns and both learned, and endured, the multitude of complicated new security measures and procedures mandated by our federal government. And despite the stress and strain of the post September 11 airline industry environment, they smiled, and cared, for their internal and external Customers, while providing superb Customer Service in their usual spirited, joyful, open, warm-hearted, and humanitarian way.”

While airlines like United were experiencing monumental loses from the September 11th tragedy, Southwest experienced only a 1.7% loss in operating revenue and a decrease in their net profit margin of slightly over 2%. How did this firm manage to still make over half a billion dollars in 2001, with a 9.2% profit margin and a EPS of $.63 while other airlines were scrambling to avoid bankruptcy?

According to Robert Hartley, Southwest’s ingredients for success started with their focus on cost containment. For example, in 1991 Southwest’s operating costs per passenger seat mile were 15% lower than American West, 32% lower than United, and 39% lower than US Air. Cost cutting measures were also obtained through streamlining their operations and customer services. For example, Southwest on the ground turnaround time for a plane is four to six times as fast as the industry average. This is achieved through unassigned seating (first come, first seat selection) and quick boarding/deplaning procedures. Furthermore, Southwest’s no frills approach (no food, just snacks and drinks), reusable seat tickets, and lack of affiliation with centralized reservation systems (like travelocity.com and priceline.com) have supported their low-cost operation.

Secondly, Hartley indicated that although Southwest is a unionized shop, Southwest has developed a very strong working relationship with the union that has allowed for very flexible working hours and working conditions. More importantly, the firm is committed to their employees and making Southwest a fun place to work and to engender a high morale. Employees are encouraged to joke with each other and the customers. One of the authors is a committed Southwest customer because of Southwest’s lack of employee downsizing during hard times and the fact that Southwest employees seem to enjoy dealing with passengers.

Last, Hartley believed that Southwest has avoided “the temptation to expand vigorously.” This conservative approach to growth has put Southwest in a very strong financial position. They had over a billion dollars in cash on hand on September 11, 2001, had a debt-to-equity ratio of less than 50%, added over a billion dollars to cash assets that year, and at the end of the 2001 fiscal year were sitting on 2.2 billion of cash and cash equivalent assets.

Yet there is more, far more, to Southwest Airlines than just good business practices; there’s Herb Kelleher, the co-founder and Chair of Southwest. When Kelleher and his partner, San Antonio businessman Rollin King, launched the nation's first low-cost airline in 1971, they had no money for advertising. So they sought attention by becoming known as a fun, outrageous company. Southwest's first flight attendants wore orange hot pants and go-go boots and Kelleher, by then CEO, painted airplanes to look like Shamu, the killer whale at Sea World. Kelleher, now 71, is the charismatic, zany force who created the culture, the business model and the financial discipline that has set Southwest apart during its 31-year history.

What’s Herb’s secret? Most sales organizations are not built for the kind of antics that go on at a place like Southwest Airlines, where former CEO Herb Kelleher gave employees permission to act as silly as they want, as long as customers continue to be satisfied with their service. Herb’s own marketing stunts and tireless cheerleading have earned him living-legend status at Southwest. Kelleher has one of the best highlight reels of any top executive, from sketching out his idea for a new airlines route network on a cocktail napkin in 1966, to staging an arm-wrestling match with another company's CEO for the rights to an ad slogan.

An example of such humor was when Kelleher, was asked after 9/11 to serve on a security task force for the FAA. Upon returning from one meeting, he told the Southwest executives that dump searches were being planned, meaning that the content of some passengers' bags would be dumped out for a complete search. Kelleher, mischievous as ever, looked over to Donna Conover, Executive Vice President - Customer Service, and said, "Don't worry, Donna, I bought new underwear." She replied: "Oh, really? I wasn't quite sure you wore underwear."

"Leaders like this typically can use the emotion of the moment to talk to employees and touch them-but it's always strategic thinking, because the emotions are tied to the corporate direction. Executives can build these skills, but they are traits that you need to develop through coaching. You have to realize where your strengths and confidence lie, and also not forget that there are many people and things behind [Kelleher] that made him successful."

Yet Herb stepped down as CEO in the early summer of 2001 and was replaced by James F. Parker. Parker has been described as “an unassuming San Antonio native with undergrad and law degrees from the University of Texas at Austin” and publicly stated that Kelleher is irreplaceable. “And there lies the challenge for Southwest. As it grows and its leadership changes, sustaining its trademark culture may become more difficult. The big question now that Herb is moving into the background, is whether that culture can continue into the future.”

Strategy Implementation: Interventions

In Chapter 7 we described strategy implementation as the execution of a strategic plan that produces a better fit between the firm, its internal processes, and its external environment. We further concluded that fit could be achieved by the firm’s leadership learning about the organization’s situation, preparing the firm for change by sharing this information and educating employees and key stakeholders, empowering employees and key stakeholders, and using the strategic plan to intervene in the firm’s current operation and change its direction (if needed). It is the firm’s intervention in its own operation and its marketplace that fully implements its strategic plan (see Figure 8.1, below) by moving the firm from its current situation (its relative internal and external fit) to the new position proposed in its strategic plan.

Figure 8.1

The Strategic Planning Process

Step 6 – Implementation: Organizational Tactics

Intervention techniques address the age old issue of “how do we get there from here?” by providing managers specific tools for developing employee competencies and skills, as well as assisting employees to learn how to learn, and changing the firm’s processes, systems, and structures. Intervention techniques are the change mechanisms, the technology of change management and organizational learning, and must be employed carefully, precisely, and with diligence.

Interventions techniques are not only appropriate for implementing strategic plans (creating both revolutionary and evolutionary change) but also can be utilized as continuous improvement and continuous learning instruments. As discussed in Chapter 1 Appendix under the topic of organization development, firms must be prepared for change prior to strategic planning by creating a system and a culture of personal and organizational improvement and growth. This can only be accomplished through the development of human resource maintenance systems and life-long learners; training and development programs that reinforce prior learning and afford employees the opportunity to develop not only a career path but a knowledge path to support career paths.

More importantly, withdrawal or discontinuation of intervention techniques (as part of an organization development or strategic plan) has very negative consequences for the firm in that employees revert back to less productive behavior. Miners et al. found that employees who were exposed to aggressive and widespread intervention techniques increased their productivity and performance. Once this support was withdrawn (although in the cases they studied, non-purposively), employee performance reverted back to lower levels. These findings are strongly correlated to basic learning theory and operant conditioning; new learning will become extinct (decrease over time) if not supported through some schedule of reinforcement.

Going back to the Southwest Airlines case then, the question asked at the end of the case, whether the culture of the firm will continue without Herb Kelleher, is a very apropos question. What conscious actions will top management be taking to ensure that the fun and zany culture that Herb started will continue without his immediate presence? How will Southwest continue to nurture this culture? What intervention techniques will they employ to reinforce this strong culture and make sure that Herb remains an icon and a hero?

An article in the Houston Chronicle has hinted at a possible shift in culture and strategy and reaction from employees. “Southwest Airlines flight attendants delivered a Valentine's Day volley at the carrier's main airport Friday with a protest saying management has lost its loving feeling in asking them to work longer hours. ‘We are out here today because our company has suggested that our flight attendants should be working a longer duty day, with shorter rest periods and no breaks,’ said Thom McDaniel, president of the Transport Workers Union Local 556, which represents 7,500 attendants at the airline.” These actions by Southwest seem to run counter to Herb Kelleher’s idea of having fun and put the firm at odds with their employees and their union. Was top management cognizant of the impact of their actions? How did they prepare their workers for this change? Does this bode well for Southwest Airlines?

Effective Intervention Depends on a Good Diagnosis. There are usually several different ways of approaching the analysis and possible action interventions. Some criteria for intervention selection involve: determining the 'root' cause, ascertaining a time frame for problem solving, financial resources, identifying client support, change agent skill, and energy level or the amount of commitment and enthusiasm for a change effort. Interventions can be chosen from two dimensions-the unit of focus (from individual to total organization) and the location of the intervention (internal systems or external environment). Generally, an intervention at the individual level is more time and resource consuming than an intervention in larger aspects of the total system.

Review: Levels of Strategy Implementation and Organization Intervention. As discussed in Chapter 7, strategy implementation occurs at three general levels of analysis within the organization; micro, macro and environmental. Furthermore, we noted in Appendix B that levels of organizational analysis can be broken down into smaller units of analysis which include intra-personal, interpersonal, intra-group, inter-group, subsystems, subsystems interfaces, business/ organization unit, inter-organizational, market niche, industry, industry clusters, and national. Consequently we will be introducing intervention techniques by their level of implementation/ analysis. This will make it easier for students to select the right intervention technique for the right level of analysis.

Risks Associated with Organization Interventions. Meglino XE "Meglino, Bruce M." and Mobley XE "Mobley, William H." advised that since organizations and employees differ greatly, organization development interventions involve three risks: risk in diagnosis, risk in prescription, and risk in treatment. The risk in diagnosis refers to the development of possible erroneous conclusions (specifically problem definitions) based upon an analysis of the firm, whether employing SWOT or other organizational investigation techniques. Business research is an inexact science given time and resource constraints, availability of data, limits of design strategies, and the need to interpret data hence the possibility of drawing flawed deductions certainly exists.

Prescription, selecting an intervention based upon the diagnosis, may also go awry in that even if the analysis of the organization is correct an inappropriate intervention technique may be employed. Going back to the Southwest Airline case, for example, if Southwest concludes that the firm needs to reinforce its playful culture, restructuring the organization’s hierarchy may not necessary have the same impact as leadership training (specifically of James Parker, new CEO) and/or cultural reinforcement. Firms need to employ the right remedy for the right illness. Lastly, there is a risk in the actual treatment, the execution of the intervention. Improper handling of change techniques, especially failure of the external consultant to have the client assume responsibility for the intervention’s process and outcome, leads to poorer results.

For risk to be minimized, according to Meglino XE "Meglino, Bruce M." and Mobley XE "Mobley, William H." , the selection of an organization development intervention should be a 5-part process: consideration of different intervention approaches, examination of the impact on a specific unit of the organization, encouragement of inputs from various levels, cooperation between management and the unit levels during implementation, and feedback so that problems can be corrected

Change and Change Agents. Assuming that we can pinpoint the level of analysis (or levels of analyses) for which the organization needs to intervene and make changes and minimize the inherent risks in change management, the question becomes very practical in nature “Who determines what intervention techniques to use and who actually executes the intervention techniques? If intervention techniques are a method for inducing change, then arguably anyone who champions change could be classified as a change agent. Recent literature in the field describes varying types of agents of change including professors, professional researchers, managers, women executives, journalists, management consultants, pay, chief information officers, and ‘the office.’

However, this could not be farther from the truth if one examines this issue in the context of the last question. The ‘who’ part of the question begets three independent but related questions:

1. Who has the power and authority to make decisions regarding the use of intervention techniques?

2. Who has the expertise to determine which techniques should be used to induce what types (s) of change(s)?

3. Who has the expertise and/or experience to perform an organizational intervention?

The answer to the first question seems rather self-evident. Top management has the power and authority (through their agency relationship with the Board) to make a decision about the use of intervention techniques. Driving, guiding and supporting change is the most important job of the CEO or top manager of any organization. Yet rarely does top management have the knowledge, background and skills necessary to determine which techniques to employ and/or the know-how to carry out an intervention and so they must turn to an organizational development or change management specialist. Buchanan XE "Buchanan, Dave" , Claydon XE "Claydon, Tim" , and Doyle XE "Doyle, J.R." noted that there was a widespread lack of change management expertise in top management, with external consultants used to fill this skills gap. They also indicated that most organizations do not understand the role of the change agent with many managers believing that the critical skills for these agents include well-developed negotiating, persuading and influencing skills; skills that are actually antithetical to the neutrality required in the position.

The traditional notion of a change agent is that of the singular, top management mandated change agent - usually an internal or external consultant or project manager employed as a professional or expert in managing change. These consultants are generalists in their organizational perspective and specialists in the process of organizational diagnosis and intervention. They have been trained in the use of the action research model (the underlying research model for the field of organizational development), and are expert in using change techniques and technologies.

They foster change by acting as integrators between the top management and targeted populations and between functional areas. An effective change agent is perceived as a disinterested or neutral party to the change process and has little to no power position in terms of those impacted by the change; they occupy marginal roles to the targeted groups. Credibility is another factor. Change agents must be deemed as expert in their fields and have a positive history with the organization. The best change agents are flexible, customizing their approaches to meet changing business conditions. They are persistent and keep their eyes on their mission and objectives.

Competencies of a Change Agent. Eubanks XE "Eubanks, James L." , Marshall, and O’Driscoll surveyed OD practitioners and clients to determine what were the key skills of change agents. They found that (in order of importance) implementing the intervention techniques, using data, managing group processes, contracting, interpersonal skills, and client relations were the six competencies most cited. These skills were then categorized as people skills (group process and interpersonal), data skills, and delivery skills (contracting, implementing, and client relations) and involved the associated behaviors of gaining management support, collaboration, personal preparation, adapting to change, establishing rapport, facilitating group process, demonstrating professionalism, using clients’ language, resolve client issues, establishing contracts, collecting data, and follow-up. An earlier study by Carey XE "Carey, Alan" and Varney XE "Varney, Glen H." yielded similar results. They found that members of the OD Division of the American Society for Training and Development felt that change agents needed to possess interpersonal skills, be perceptive, deal with resistance, use small group intervention skills, do team building, facilitate meetings, train employees, be succinct, specific, and clear, plan, do goal-setting, and be able to see different perspectives.

External Change Agents. Many organizations realize that very few of their in-house personnel have the expertise and the credibility to effectively serve as change agents. External change agents, OD consultants, serve a very useful purpose in that they provide a world view, serve as sounding boards and counselors, provide conceptual stimulation, new ideas and images, tend to be charismatic, and usually energize the change process.

Organizations that use external change agents have the task of educating the change agent as to the organizational processes, functions, and interdependencies (single loop learning) -- it is through this education that the external change agent starts the diagnostic process. The fear is that the external consultant will get drawn into organizational politics and in the long run lose objectivity.

Yet external change agents have their limitations. Robert Metzger XE "Metzger, Robert O." observed that most established consulting firms failed to focus upon the right issues when requested to perform strategic interventions, or, if they did, they did not have the change agents required to provide the leadership and technical expertise to help client organization. Many consultants have a limited scope of change techniques, or worse are selling one particular change management product (i.e. TQM, ISO 9000) and may not be able to provide the firm with the support needed to properly conduct an intervention. Jerome Franklin cautioned that the firm needed to select change agents very carefully and look for those agents who had excellent assessment prescriptive skills, not those pre-trained in organization development (OD) or a specific OD technique.

Second, in a change effort, both the external change agent and the client system bring along their own values, goals, needs, skills, and abilities. Ethical dilemmas frequently occur when these factors conflict with one another. This may result in role conflict and role ambiguity between the change agent and the client system which may lead to misrepresentation and collusion, misuse of information, manipulation and coercion, value and goal conflicts, and technical ineptitude.

Third, and perhaps the most important, because the external change agent is not part of the firm, he or she may be perceived as an outsider; a hired gun by top management who at best is well-meaning but owned by management and at worst part of a malevolent plot to take advantage of lower level employees. Regardless of interpretation, by being outside the system (which is needed for objectivity and expertise) the external change agent must immediately win the trust of the workforce in order to minimize resistance to change and properly execute their planned interventions.

Internal Change Agents. Usually coming from personnel offices, training departments, or management service departments (although they may be an assistant or an assistant to a major officer of the organization), internal change agents bring with them a wealth of knowledge about the organization and the biases attached to being members of the organization. An internal consultant's role is to enable change. He or she is a continual learner, teacher of concepts and skills, and problem-solving coach. As enablers of change, internal consultants assist the change process and know when to hand off the ball. In the role of learner, an internal consultant is sensitive to people's needs and values. He or she understands that a learning organization requires a cadre of learning individuals. Internal consultants should view their expectations and relationships as opportunities for insight.

Internal consultants bring a tactical eye to the organization in that they garner information about organizational coalitions and serve as an intelligence gathering mechanism for top management. Secondly, internals can cultivate new ideas and new attitudes by disseminating the proper information to the correct parties. They also serve as trainers by developing and running management training and development programs.

Many organization members, unfortunately, usually see internal consultants as tainted commodities. Internal change agents may be the most honest and sincere people, yet they all have organizational bosses they report to. Those involved with the intervention usually assume that the change agent's boss will eventually learn all and will keep these change agents at arm's length.

The Team Approach. Several authors in the field have noted that the most successful method for inducing change has been to develop a change agent team consisting of both internal and external change agents. This combination allows for the objectivity and expertise required for the development of employee trust in terms of data analysis and confidentiality as well as lays the groundwork for institutionalizing the change process by having in-house personnel learn intervention techniques. Furthermore, the internal change agents provide not only a linkage to the organization for the external agents, they also serve as the first teachers of those agents in terms of the processes and culture of the organization.

Second, as firms are embracing the concept of a continuous learning organization, there is a movement away from using sage consultants and top-down approaches to organizational interventions and a movement towards the development of change novices (upper and middle level managers) into change experts. An increasing number of organizations are experiencing high velocity discontinuous change and to facilitate their adaptation and transformation, many firms are introducing more empowering structures and cultures. This has led them to disperse change agency to a more diverse group of individuals with implications for the way change agents are managed in the future.

This shift to decentralized change management systems, where the learner truly becomes the change agent, will require more systematic support for change management, with respect to better definition and understanding of the role(s) and of the processes through which internal change agents are selected, developed and rewarded. This will include the need for increasing sensitivity to the political issues in change, which become more intense with the complexity and scope of change, but where views on the conduct of the change agent in this domain are divided.

Intervention Techniques: The Process. Before we can delve into the differing intervention techniques available to a firm, we must first discuss the process in which any intervention technique is applied.

Phase One (Pre-intervention) - Convergence of Interest and Intervention Team Building. This phase requires the gathering of interested individuals by top-level management who are convinced that there is a need to both gather information about the organization and take action based upon these findings (this person assumes the role of internal change agent); a proactive team approach. According to Beer XE "Beer, Michael" and Eisenstat, the pre-intervention phase should develop a partnership among all relevant stakeholders. It is only through mutual influence that the delicate adjustments in roles and responsibilities needed to enact a new strategy can take place between key stakeholders. In effect, members of the organization must "self-design" their organization through their own interventions.

It is important to understand, however, that the individuals who are assembled may have very different interests and agendas, and they all recognize the need to work together in order to meet their separate objectives. Top management hence must foster an environment that supports the development needs of their intervention management team by committing to change interventions, identifying areas of change and associated interventions, coach the team through the intervention, and sustain the changes induced by the intervention.

Whether this group should be formalized or not is an interesting question and open to differences in corporate culture and customs. Regardless of the formalization of the team, the formation of the team needs to account for existing structural and social processes that have been historically empowered with the planning function. For example, if the planning team includes members from all of the major operating Divisions of the firm then it would be appropriate to offer each Division representation on the intervention team.

In creating an intervention team, it seems reasonable that this group be fashioned as openly and as voluntary as possible. Membership of this group should be purely based upon the individual's willingness to contribute to the change process. This should not be just another committee that an individual goes to because he or she is assigned by their unit, but a meeting where the individual perceives that their own self-interest and the interests of the firm can be served. Openness will help assure equal access and involvement of any interested parties.

Phase Two - Establishing a Charter. This phase usually entails locating a consultant with expertise in the field (an external change agent) to assist the group with the intervention as well as the formalizing the intervention team. Team members should include volunteers from the original group as well as volunteers who have the authority to initiate interventions and/or the obligation to respond to it. Once membership is established, the team defines team goals that are related to the intervention effort and that are feasible and justifiable. The last step in the process is formalizing the contract with the consultant based upon the established goals of the team.

Phase Three – Formalizing. The intervention team secures legitimization and sponsorship for its efforts from influential individuals and groups as well as meets resistance to their efforts. These groups and individuals include: those whose approval endorse, formally and politically, the group's actions, those who control the resources necessary to move the project forward, those who remain neutral to the program, and those who actively oppose the program. The primary purpose of this phase is achieved by broadening the circle of people involved in the intervention effort to both internal and external stakeholders while more clearly defining the charter of the effort in the context of received feedback. The team is seeking permission from the organization to proceed while acknowledging the rights of all of its stakeholders to have a voice in the process.

Phase Four – Intervention Identification and Selection. This phase needs to be systematic in nature and must include the concerns of the widest possible group of stakeholders. It must also be directed toward significant problems highlighted in the strategic plan with a rationale developed for utilizing specific interventions (what change will this intervention facilitate? what problem(s) will it resolve?). The team, with the assistance of the consultant, creates a list of the problems and develops a general plan of action. This plan describes the intervention process, how the change(s) will occur, the actual intervention techniques that will be utilized to bring about the desired results, and the evaluation methodology to determine whether those results were achieved.

Part of this plan should include a description of the action hypotheses, the how and why the intervention should work. Given problem A, we intend to use intervention technique C, in order to bring about result F. The need to spell out the logic behind the plan is critical to the success of the implementation of the intervention effort -- employees will not follow a plan that they cannot understand and do not think will work.

Phase Five – Reporting. Sharing, not telling or selling, is the next phase of the intervention and is undoubtedly the most decisive. It is at this point that the team comes back to organization to seek their final input before the implementation is put into action. The team must be prepared to describe the logic behind the interventions, deal with obstructionists in a polite but firm manner, and modify the interventions to accommodate viable suggestions and requests. Again, the team must go out of its way to include all of the stakeholders in this process to avoid the perception of underhandedness or exclusion.

Phases Six and Seven – Acting and Evaluating. The final two phases, the action step and evaluation, involves executing the various interventions. This should provide immediate feedback to the intervention team and the firm on the success of the interventions as well as the changes required to implement the strategic plan . Team members should distribute progress reports and hold open meetings to get reaction from both the participants in the intervention and the impacted stakeholder groups. Once the intervention has been completed, the team should conduct a final evaluation of the process in an open forum with firm. The team should then create a final report to be distributed throughout the firm and include balanced commentary from the open meeting.

The final evaluation should address the question of whether the firm achieved its goals in terms of solving its identified problems and any additional actions required to meet any unmet goals. Furthermore, since the intervention process is a fairly arduous one, the institution should also decide whether the previous effort created real value for the firm and whether or not a continued effort would be warranted or desired.

Intervention Techniques: A General Model

Not every intervention technique can deal with every organizational problem consequently it is incumbent upon us to try to provide the reader a guideline in determining when to apply which intervention technique. We have decided to categorize intervention techniques by level of analysis, more specifically, the target group in which the intervention is aimed to impact and change. Levels of analysis - individual, group, intergroup, organizational - are frequently used as diagnostic and intervention frameworks by organization development (OD) practitioners. Typically, levels of analysis catalog organizational dynamics and interventions, which an OD practitioner might use to understand organizational processes and construct interventions. This is consistent with research in the field as well. See Table 8.1 below.

Table 8.1

Organization Interventions by Level of Analysis

Level of Analysis	Intervention Techniques
Transorganizational/Environmental	Stakeholder Analysis, Cooptation, Cooperation, Bridging, and Buffering.
Organizational/Systems Wide	Empowerment, Organizational Mirror, Confrontation Meeting, Stream Analysis, Survey Feedback, Appreciative Inquiry, MBO, TQM, Visioning, Reengineering, and Parallel Learning Structures.
Intergroup/Subsystems Interface	Intergroup Team-Building, Partnering, Organizational Mirror, Lateral Relations, and Cross-Functional Work Teams.
Team/Group/Subsystem	Team Building, Role Analysis Technique, Responsibility Charting, Force-Field Analysis, Quality Circles, Self-Managed Work Teams, Cultural Analysis, Leadership Systems 4, Grid Training, and Restructuring.
Small Group (Dyad/Triad/Interpersonal)	Transactional Analysis, Process Consultation, Third Party Peacemaking, Role Negotiation Technique, Gestalt OD.
Individual (Intra-Personal)	Sensitivity Training, Life and Career Planning, Coaching and Counseling, Education and Skill Training, Work Redesign, Cognitive Mapping, and Behavior Modeling.

Please note that we have not listed these intervention techniques in any particular order within each level of analysis since we do not believe that there are better or worse techniques within each level. Instead, each technique has been developed to address certain specific needs for change and/or improvement within the organization and can be subcategorized by the type of change expected: attitudinal, social, behavioral, technical, and structural. We will now describe one or two of these techniques for each level of analysis. Some of the techniques not described in this section are described in the appendix to this chapter.

Individual (Intra-personal) Interventions. Interventions at the individual level deal with overcoming resistance to change (attitudinal), personal development (educational), developing team players (social), and increasing job performance (behavioral and technical).

Sensitivity Training. One of the oldest techniques for attitudinal change and overcoming resistance is sensitivity training (also known as encounter groups or T-groups). Sensitivity training began in the 1940s and 1950s with experimental studies of groups carried out by psychologist Kurt Lewin XE "Lewin, Kurt" at the National Training Laboratories in Maine. Although the groups (called training or T-groups) were originally intended only to provide research data, their members requested a more active role in the project. The researchers agreed, and T-group experiments also became learning experiences for their subjects. The techniques employed by Lewin and his colleagues, collectively known as sensitivity training, were widely adopted for use in a variety of settings. Initially, they were used to train individuals in business, industry, the military, the ministry, education, and other professions. In the 1960s and 1970s, sensitivity training was adopted by the human potential movement, which introduced the "encounter group." Although encounter groups apply the basic T-group techniques, they emphasize personal growth, stressing such factors as self-expression and intense emotional experience.

Considered a management fad of the 1960’s, this technique has made a rebirth in the 1990’s in the areas of diversity training and international relations. This technique focuses upon the desire to develop the skill of sensitivity in participants in the belief that greater sensitivity to oneself and others would lead to greater understanding and acceptance of individual differences and changing times.

More specifically, the goals of this technique include:

A. increased understanding, insight and self-awareness about the way participants see themselves and others and others perceive them.

B. increased understand and sensitivity to others’ thoughts and feelings through the reading of verbal and nonverbal communication.

C. better understand of interpersonal and intra-group interactions.

D. increased diagnostic skills about personal, interpersonal and group interactions.

E. transferring this learning into action so that participants can apply this new learning on-the-job and increase their effectiveness.

Yet how is this to be accomplished? First, the underlying premise is that self-insight and awareness of others must be derived from an experiential learning approach in a group setting. One cannot get in touch with one’s own feelings through a lecture or seeing a film; one must be placed in a setting where feelings may be expressed to others, as well as expressed by others to oneself. In this setting group members are used as objective mirrors to provide each participant feedback on their behavior and attitudes.

In order to facilitate an individual’s ability to get in touch with one’s emotion and create a safe, risk-free environment, the training is usually conducted outside of the business and amongst strangers. This creates a learning laboratory of sorts since participants are separated from their organizations and coworkers in a controlled environment. Variations of group composition include peer groups (workers from the same industry), cousin labs (workers from the same company), and family labs (workers in the same work group); these are considered viable alternatives by some change agents since the ability to transfer learning from these T-groups back to the firm is somewhat correlated to openness and climate of the firm.

Encounter groups generally consist of between 12 and 20 people and a facilitator who meet in an intensive weekend session or in a number of sessions over a period of weeks or months. The group members work on reducing defensiveness and achieving a maximum of openness and honesty. Initially, participants tend to resist expressing their feelings fully, but eventually become more open in discussing both their lives outside the group and the interactions within the group itself. Gradually, a climate of trust develops among the group members, and they increasingly abandon the defenses and facades habitually used in dealing with other people.

The trainer or group leader is the key to learning process in that the trainer’s role is to serve as a resource for the group and is to facilitate self-reflection and interaction amongst the members. The process of learning is driven by the passive mode of the facilitator, that is, the facilitator becomes just another member of the group and has no special status or control of the sessions. The trainer’s job is assisting members of the group to reflect on individual and group processes and not to lead the session.

The first session of the T-group is started by the trainer who, after briefly introducing him or herself and the role of the trainer, lapses into silence. Individuals in the group are challenged through the trainer’s absence as leader to develop an agenda for the group as well as to fill the leadership void. This may cause some real confusion for task-oriented individuals who will find the lack of purpose and leadership upsetting. In many cases, these individuals will try to take over the leadership of the group which may be resisted by the other group members (but not the trainer) and lead to confrontation and arguments.

As the individuals continue to struggle with the purpose of the group and members’ roles, the trainer will comment and ask questions concerning participants’ feelings and behaviors, and the affect that participant behaviors have on others. Some participants will ‘get it’ so to speak; understand that the purpose of the intervention is self-discovery through others’ feedback while others may withdraw from the process since they see little value in self-examination. The trainer must at all times underscore the supportive, open, and compassionate nature of the intervention and ensure the mental safety of participants.

The effectiveness of T-groups and other forms of sensitivity training have been debated in the literature at length. Openness techniques, such as T-groups, which involve people talking candidly about themselves as they relate and interact with others, has experienced limited success due to the technique gaining a reputation for producing negative results by psychologically hurting individuals or damaging work relationships. Although the increased self-awareness resulting from sensitivity training is presumed to change a person's behavior in daily life, studies of encounter-group participants have raised doubts as to whether their training experiences actually effect long-lasting behavioral changes.

Even when group participants have had a good experience, the participants sometimes had difficulty applying what they have learned to their work, possibly because the intensive group culture and conventional work culture tended toward opposite poles with regard to openness. In addition, the usefulness of encounter groups is limited to psychologically healthy individuals, as the intense and honest nature of the group discussions may prove harmful to persons with emotional disorders. Despite this failure, there is much participants can learn about how openness can, and cannot, operate in organizations.

Cognitive Mapping. Cognition describes the mental models, or belief systems, that people use to interpret, frame, simplify, and make sense of otherwise complex problems. Many writers refer to these mental models variously, as cognitive maps, scripts, schema, and frames of reference. They are built from past experiences and comprise internally represented concepts and relationships among concepts that an individual can then use to interpret new events.

Cognitive mapping is a set of techniques for studying and recording people's perceptions about their environment. These perceptions are recorded graphically in the form of a mental map that shows concepts and relationships between concepts. Cognitive mapping, as an intervention technique, has both strategic and developmental value. From a strategic standpoint, cognitive maps allow planners and administrators to determine from their stakeholders which variables and causal beliefs about those variables are critical to the implementation of the repositioning of the firm and what are the perceived barriers to change. Once the variables and casual relationships are determined, maps are created, and planners can test out their logic and ascertain the viability of their plans. Cognitive mapping has consequently been proposed as a means for managing the creative side of strategic thinking and problem-solving process. Through cognitive mapping, the planners’ explanatory and predictive beliefs about a problem and its solutions are graphically modeled so that members of a planning group are better able to understand one another's positions and underlying assumptions. Therefore, members can draw upon their own and others' personal wisdom in creatively developing the firm’s strategy.

From a developmental perspective, mapping allows employees of the firm to share their worldview of both the internal and external environment. Furthermore, these maps set the foundation for discussions about the institution and provide a forum for understanding and agreement as to how the world appears to be from varying stakeholders' perspectives. One can gain tremendous value through this sharing process. Individuals receive acknowledgement for their perceptions, acceptance of the fact that different people see the institution differently, and more importantly, can visually see the commonality amongst differing groups and individuals.

Among researchers interested in organizations and management, some of those who use cognitive mapping share a common objective - to improve organizational action. Some intervene directly at the level of the organization while others prefer to achieve this indirectly, by working at the individual level. Those who work at the individual level rely on the emancipating properties of a cognitive map, which facilitates reflection. The cognitive map and its construction are characterized by the notions of natural logic, schematization, representation, knowledge, and schema.

Cognitive maps contain two basic elements, concepts and causal beliefs. Concepts are variables that define some aspect or characteristic of the system under analysis while causal beliefs describe the relationships that link concepts within maps. When a cognitive map is drawn, concept variables are usually represented by points and the causal relationships by arrows connecting the cause variable to the effect variable. Causal relationships may be assigned a direction and value. Values indicate the strength of the relationship and are sometimes used to quantify the maps. Plus signs are used to indicate a positive association between variables (an increase/decrease in x causes an increase/decrease in y) and a minus sign a negative association (an increase/ decrease in x causes a decrease/increase in y). A completed map provides a graphical representation of the structure of the system as perceived by an employee that includes the variables within the domain as well as the relationships between them that influence system processes and outcomes. See Figure 8.2 for an example of cognitive mapping in strategy formulation.

Figure 8.2

Cognitive Mapping of the Perceived Success of Southwest Airlines

Notice that in Figure 8.2 the authors believe that the variable ‘low cost strategy’ gives rise to quick plane turnaround, a no frills approach, and slow expansion which leads to lower operating costs and therein high liquidity and a competitive advantage. Further the authors believe that Herb Kelleher’s leadership style produces a fun loving culture which leads to excellent union/employees relations hence friendly service, and finally a competitive advantage. We believe that the firm’s high liquidity is caused by the firm’s slow expansion plans, its low cost operation, and its profitability. This liquidity allows Southwest to have full employment during harsh economic times which also leads to excellent union/employee relations.

Note that cognitive maps are an individual’s perception of a situation and, since the map is based upon subjective observation, there is no right way to construct the map. Secondly, part of the exercise in using cognitive maps would not only have the individual explore his or her own perceptions of a situation but also to compare and contrast the cognitive map with others. Thinking about the similarities and differences would lead to self-discovery as well as knowledge of others.

Once the firm has developed an agreed upon composite map, the firm can then answer the question posited earlier about what happens when Herb Kelleher is no longer running Southwest Airlines. Using the authors’ cognitive map as an example, without Herb to support the friendly environment perhaps Southwest no longer becomes a fun place to work and employees and the union become less cooperative. Yet what seemed to drive the distress of employees was not that Southwest seemed to become more strict in terms of accepted behaviors but that Southwest was imposing longer working hours and less break time. This suggests that Herb Kelleher’s leadership went beyond just shaping culture but had a direct effect on the working conditions of employees (a variable not in the model) which affects employee relations. If this were a strategy session, we would then adjust the cognitive map to include these variables and relationships. This exercise could be repeated in numerous ways as an employee intervention – imagine asking a disgruntled employee of the Chrysler Division to map the DaimlerChrysler merger and then compare his or her map to perhaps the map of a Daimler manager involved in the merger.

Paul XE "Paul, Marcia" (1994) provided an excellent example of a form of cognitive mapping. At an executive training session, Tinkertoy building blocks were used to teach about leadership and decision making in groups. The executives were asked to work in groups to create a model that represented what their organizations looked like. Although hesitant at first, at least some of the executives left with the realization that participation and reflection are initial components of learning and that model building is an effective way to train people in participation. The exercise with Tinkertoy blocks used the idea that a learner can build a symbol to reflect his perspective on an environment. Mapping through the use of the Tinkertoy exercise can be helpful in organizations undergoing change. Having employees at all levels do some cognitive mapping can be a first step in gaining everyone's commitment to participate in a change effort.

Cognitive sculpting is a new technique for helping managers to talk through and develop their view of difficult and complex issues, which are given expression by arranging a collection of objects, some of them symbolically rich, in an arrangement or sculpture. At the same time, the managers describe and develop the meanings being given to, and the relationships between, the objects in question. The technique is in the tradition of elicitation techniques, such as cognitive mapping, in that it encourages a person or a group to dialogue with a physical representation of their ideas. Meanings are not merely described but sometimes actively constructed or negotiated. Theoretically, the technique draws on recent work in cognitive psychology and linguistics on metaphors. It has been argued that, even better than 2-dimensional techniques, cognitive sculpting offers the requisite variety to capture and communicate the richness and metaphoric complexity of managers' views of their world.

Interpersonal and Small Group Interventions. Although many of the techniques described for individual interventions involve group learning and group processes (i.e. T-groups and behavior modeling) and may be used for increasing individuals’ skills in interpersonal and group communications (T-groups), their focus is on individual learning and improvement. The following intervention techniques attempt to change the attitudinal, social, behavioral, and technical aspects of employee interactions at the dyad-triad level of analysis.

Transactional Analysis (TA). TA is an especially helpful tool for a supervisor’s tool bag in that it provides an explanation of the roles we assume in our interpersonal communications and relationships, and identifies the types of relationships that work and those that do not. The field of transactional analysis has been around for about 50 years. Its aim is to show how people interact based on the roles and perceptions they have regarding themselves and others. The parent-child-adult model (PCA) is an excellent way of viewing personal interactions. It views the roles people assume in communicating with each other, and as the model demonstrates, it suggests that some of the transactions that occur when people assume one of the roles are more functional than others. There are three main roles here, the role of the parent, the role of the adult, and the role of the child. The figure also suggests certain relationships and their effectiveness.

Role of the Parent. The parent is a strong role in TA. It comes from the role all of us have experienced as children growing up. Our parents (or those who raised us) employed a system of formal and informal controls that allowed them to direct our actions, thinking patterns, cognitive development, and attitudes. These were care-giving people who nurtured us, protected us, corrected us, and sometimes punished us. The parent can show emotion, both anger, as well as joy and pride. Paternalism is a term often used to describe a good parent. In the workplace, the parental role is alive and well. Since management is responsible for the organization, controls resources, and is responsible for the activities of subordinates, it is understandable that they might rely on their own parental experience as a model for how to get things done. Paternalism is accepted and sometimes even expected.

Role of the Child. The child is also a very powerful role. As a child, everyone has had the experience of not knowing what to do, depending on others, being nurtured, learning, being corrected, and being punished. Another one of the most important things that children do is play. As people mature into adulthood, these lessons learned and these tendencies, or predispositions, to act in certain ways continues as a strong influence.

In the workplace, it is easy to allude to the role of the child as the one many subordinates are in – either by choice or by circumstance. Often, the traditions of the organization speak to first-line employees as children – management makes all the plans, management makes all the decisions, management controls all the resources, and management has all the power. In this type of a setting (very similar once again to that which we find in colleges and universities), employees survive when they accept the child role and initiate little initiative or confrontational behaviors. The other circumstance is the choice to be a child – refusing to take the initiative, needing to be led, afraid of responsibility, often very emotional, and just doing the job.

The Role of the Adult. The role of the adult is extremely important in organizations, but the weakest of the three described in TA. The most striking qualities of the behaviors of the adult are that they are objective, honest, and fair. The adult tries to recognize what is true and to act accordingly. On the downside, the adult tries to act without allowing emotions influence decisions or actions.

Inter-role Activities. The roles in and of themselves are interesting to note. However, one needs to view these from a superior-subordinate, interactive perspective, or role set. That is, both superiors and their subordinates enact these roles simultaneously and thereby create a paired set of roles. Some of these paired sets are very functional (these are relationships that can work), some are very dysfunctional (people in these relationships experience a great amount of friction between them), while some can be either functional or dysfunctional depending upon the circumstances. These role sets are represented in Figure 8.3.

Complimentary Transactions. As the model suggests, there are three functional relationships or role sets: 1) one person behaving as a child in the presence of someone who behaves as a parent; 2) one person behaving as a parent in a relationship where the other person behaves as a child; and 3) one person behaves as an adult in a relationship where the other person also behaves as an adult. The parent-child behaviors are understandable and come directly from the

Figure 8.3

The Transactional Analysis Relationships Model

parental-child experiences of growing up. Though familiar, and while they are functional, these relationships are not optimal for the organization and are considered unhealthy to the organization in the long run. For example, the child does not engage in innovation, creativity, or perhaps even honesty, so the organization does not get the full benefits of their skills and competencies. Also, the parent has to spend so much time directing and leading, that other activities go undone or are done less well.

The adult-adult relationship is different. Not only is it functional, it promotes the full use of the human resources in both the subordinate and the supervisor. The relationship is objective, honest, open, and innovative. These are major positives for both the people in the relationship as well as the organization. Everyone wins (a "win-win" relationship).

Crossed Transactions. The model shows a variety of circumstances where the mix of the relationship results in dysfunctional operations and outcomes. When both participants behave as parents, there is obvious friction because neither party recognizes the authority of the other. When one participant behaves as a parent and the other as an adult, there is friction because both participants need a different type of response in their relationship that they are not getting. Here, because of the strength of the parent role, the normal situation is that the adult becomes the child in order to achieve some level of harmony (though resentment could be present). Similarly, when one participant behaves as an adult and the other as a child, friction again comes as a result of neither participant receiving the responses they prefer in their relationships. Often, the extreme power of the child is usually effective in forcing the adult into a parental position.

A Special Crossed Transaction: Child-Child. The model identifies one final relationship that can be either functional or dysfunctional, based on the circumstances. The child-child relationship is functional, when it is all right to play, and such circumstances exist. Time away from the office, parties, clearly social occasions, and being able to see the humor in a difficult situation are all made more enjoyable when the participants can be more child-like in their behaviors. Child-child relationships can be disastrous when important work needs to be done. When no one in the relationship takes responsibility, uses initiative, or exercises honesty, results are never good.

Ulterior Transaction. Here the employee is communicating using one ego state while intending another. For example, the manager asks for the employee’s input yet has already made up his or her mind about the situation prior to consultation. By hiding his or her ego state from the other individual, communication is blocked creating an environment of distrust.

Strokes. These transactions produced what Berne called strokes, the units of interpersonal recognition, which help individuals survive and thrive. Complimentary transactions tend to lead to positive strokes, crossed and ulterior transactions to negative strokes. Understanding how people give and receive positive and negative strokes and changing unhealthy patterns of stroking are powerful aspects transactional analysis.

The TA intervention is based on an examination of interpersonal encounters to determine which of the three ego states - parent, adult, child - are involved. Used correctly, TA can help a manager motivate employees, increase productivity, and improve interpersonal relations. TA comprises four basic parts: structural analysis (having the participants describe the ego states that occur during a specific transaction), transactional analysis (participants describe the types of transactions that occur), game analysis (understanding the underlying motives behind the role playing) and script analysis (analyzing dysfunctional behaviors which have become routine because of previous positive and negative strokes associated with the behavior). Identifying and breaking up psychological games, which can result in injury, mental illness, or even death, is one of the most productive uses of TA. The most common organizational use of TA, however, is as a means for avoiding communication breakdown.

TA has fallen out of favor as an intervention technique in the last decade since it has been criticized as simplistic, superficial, therapy (not training), and ineffective. Hay noted that there are many misconceptions about TA including that the adult state is the only proper state of communication. She postulated that many trainers have abused the TA system and have failed to point out that the purpose of TA is not only bettering interpersonal communications but self-discovery and self-acceptance.

Process Consultation (PC). According to the father of PC, Edgar H. Schein XE "Schein, Edgar H." , “PC is a set of activities on the part of the consultant which help the client perceive, understand, and act upon process events which occur in the client’s environment.” PC consequently helps the client learn how to learn about him or herself and his or her interaction with others. Schein XE "Schein, Edgar" indicated that there are six types of clients in the process consulting: contact clients (the individual(s) who first contact the consultant with a request, question or issue); intermediate clients (the individuals or groups who or which get involved in various interviews, meetings, and other activities as the project evolves); primary clients (the individual(s) who ultimately own the problem or issue being worked on; they are typically also the ones who pay the consulting bills or whose budget covers the consultation project); unwitting clients (members of the organization or client system above, below and laterally related to the primary clients who will be affected by interventions but who are not aware that they will be impacted); indirect clients (members of the organization who are aware that they will be affected by the interventions but who are unknown to the consultant and who may feel either positive or negative about these effects); and ultimate clients (the community, the total organization, an occupational group, or any other group that the consultant cares about and whose welfare must be considered in any intervention that the consultant makes).

So what makes PC different from any other typical organization intervention managed by an external change agent? Schein XE "Schein, Edgar" noted that PC is much more of a clinical approach to organization intervention in that it starts, not with the typical diagnosis phase of gathering data about the organization, but instead with the needs of the client. The client drives the process and involves the researcher in the client's issues rather than the researcher involving the client in the issues the researcher thinks is driving the firm. The word clinical is deliberately used by Schein in order to highlight that some perceived problem of the client is involved and that the consultant takes on the obligations that are associated with being a helper rather than a problem-solver. The interests and the welfare of the client must be protected at all times, and all of the consultant’s actions, whether diagnostic or not, are de facto interventions and must be evaluated as possible interventions before they are undertaken.

In process consultation, the consultant becomes deeply involved in the client's system and assists the client in learning about that system whether the system is an individual person, a small group, or the entire firm. The client is actively involved and responsible for the process with the PC consultant providing a strong supportive presence through high client contact. The primary tasks for the consultant are to gather valid information, and to make it possible for the client to make free and informed choices and to help the client become committed to the choices that have been made. PC, however, is highly dependent on group involvement and participation by members of the client system in the diagnostic and problem-solving states. The client and the consultant must discuss the assumptions that they have in order to develop the appropriate psychological contract and role expectations each has of the other. The consultant must start where the client is in terms of readiness for a particular consulting approach rather than forcing a prescribed intervention.

According to Lind, the PC consulting experience consists of: an impulse or idea coming from within the client or sense impressions from the surrounding world, intensified and increased awareness of the client of a problem, a mobilization of energy for change by the client, client change actions, interpersonal and group contact with the consultant, the culmination of the merger of energy and action, resolution or closure, and withdrawal of awareness. These principles and processes apply to individuals, as well as to groups of people. The consultant's function then is to intervene so that conditions for learning are created.

Schein XE "Schein, Edgar" denoted that the consultant must understand that only the client ultimately knows what he or she can do, will do, and wants to do, hence the strategic goal of process consultation must be to develop a process that will build the consultant and client into a team that will own all the interventions. Further, that it is the job of the consultant to educate the client through the early interventions on the potential consequences of later interventions and that everything the consultant does, from the earliest responses to the client's initial inquiries, is an intervention. The consultant must be highly aware of the consequences of different diagnostic interventions.

Even though process consultation has been widely practiced there is only a modest amount of research on the technique. None of the available studies have produced concrete evidence of a favorable impact of process consultation on client groups. Research findings on the effects of efforts to promote group development are somewhat vague. It is important that interventions relate to the criteria of job performance and that their consequences be assessed by those criteria rather than measured against some psychologically ideal state. Most small group and personal interventions appear to be isolated from task performance. The humanistic values of the small group tradition need to be blended with the real complexities of today's organizational life.

Team/Group/Subsystem Interventions. Team and group interventions focus on the social, behavioral, technical, and structural aspects of the group’s performance while subsystems interventions deal directly with the system in question (i.e. organization redesign for changes in firm’s structure; leadership training in addressing the issue of leadership style, and cultural analysis to examine the firm’s underlying social system).

Team Building. The way work is being performed is changing, with middle management being reduced or eliminated by organizations that are flattening their structures through new business process methodologies. Many of these changes are being caused by restructuring, mergers and acquisitions, global competition and changing work trends. Teams are becoming more of the norm in this new workplace and teams are seen as one way of leveraging organizational strengths to offset new competitive challenges. Furthermore, teams are beginning to change the way workers work and organizations are beginning to realize that a ‘we’ culture may better suit business needs than the traditional ‘I’ culture.

Group dynamics has been an area of intense study in management since the 1940’s and has re-emerged as one of the keys to developing a successful firm. In the 21st century team building, whether it be called developing self-managed work teams or cross-functional work teams, has been one of the hottest, and most applied intervention techniques. Research has shown that team building takes time and effort to produce systematic, lasting results. Team building is one of a few techniques that meta-analyses of intervention studies proved has a positive impact on employee attitude and satisfaction. Teams create more visionary and creative results than one person usually ever can. Building a team is defined as equipping the people of the organization with the necessary information, skills, and competencies to leverage their collective think power. Building a team produces tangible end-results. People are able to identify strategies for addressing issues and opportunities in addition to having realized solutions during the intervention.

Team building is not as easy as it sounds. The team building process often is flawed right from the start since managers may try to form and implement teams without a plan and an understanding of group dynamics. They may initiate team building based upon intuition instead of common sense yet team building requires logic and creativity. Employees must have the opportunity to get used to the idea of teams. For management to demand team building is a mistake since employees who are not used to working with one another or who are used to working independently will resist a mandate to form teams. Potential team members need to know there is something in it for them since if they suspect teams are being built to reduce the workforce or to make them do more work with no reward, they will sabotage the process. There are several guidelines for team building, including start talking about teams early, select team membership for success, go slow to go fast, and create a common goal from the start. Tippet and Peters XE "Peters, Thomas J." ’s research of over one hundred teams indicated that despite positive indications on some of the key team-building elements, overall companies were generally doing a poor job of team building. Weaknesses included lack of effective rewards, inadequate individual and team performance feedback mechanisms, lack of project management skills, and inadequate individual and team goal setting. In a number of cases, management was taking advantage of the downsizing environment and uncertainty by treating employees as disposable assets, knowing they feared for their jobs.

For team building to work, management must put themselves at as much risk as other employees in the team building process, that is, management must be prepared to share the workload related to team building while relinquishing some decision-making power to the team. To lead a successful team, team leaders need to stop acting authoritatively, engage and facilitate people, deal with group dominators, share their vision, and commit themselves to the process. A team leader should concentrate on getting results by creating a high-expectations climate where team members accomplish what they are expected to accomplish. Leaders should coach team members to set high standards to achieve meaningful results. A supervisor can become a more effective team member by helping the team define the results it wants to achieve, praising team members liberally for what they achieve, training the team to do the job, and keeping communication lines open. Some of the most common mistakes made by management in team building are not allowing the team to define its own mission, having someone else do the team's planning, not ascribing due dates to tasks, and not training.

Team building begins with the concepts that the people on the team are all part of the team, are all individuals, all want to succeed to varying degrees, and all have different skills. By encouraging team members to plan together, they are bonded by an agreed upon and common purpose, one in which they can all participate. Teamwork requires commitment and effort, a willingness to accept the uniqueness of others, and an appreciation of diversity. The most successful teams are clear about their goals and how each person contributes to achieving them. Team building is a process in which participants and facilitators experience increasing levels of trust, openness, and willingness to explore core issues that affect excellent team functioning.

The need for team building usually starts with the manager of a work unit noticing a lowering of productivity and/or morale. More specifically, the manager might have observed a reduction of unit output, an increase in the number of complaints and grievances, increased conflict and hostility amongst unit members, unclear roles and task ambiguity, incomplete assignments, apathy and a lack of innovation, ineffective group meetings, hostility towards the manager, increased costs, and customer complaints. In order to implement team building, firms often turn to outside facilitators, armed with team-building and development skills, to help teams become more viable and productive organizational entities. Team-building facilitators (internal or external) structure their interventions to fulfill three broad goals: they want team members to appreciate and understand the complexity and dynamics of the team-building process; they want members to identify needs and build greater proficiency in the approaches and skills necessary to help the team develop; and they want to create a forum for discourse - a safe and open environment in which team members can ask tough questions and share deep concerns that have been plaguing them and their team's movements.

There are differing models of team building including the goal-setting model (getting the team to establish goals, assign activities, and evaluate its progress, i.e. MBO), the interpersonal model (working on team member communication and interaction, i.e. transactional analysis), the role model (developing an understanding of each member’s tasks and responsibilities, i.e. role analysis technique), and leadership model (developing an appropriate team leadership style, i.e. grid training). Regardless of the model that may be employed, all team building starts with pre-preparation where team members learn about the purpose and process of team building, and, more importantly, given a chance to air their questions and concerns. This will allow the facilitator (external consultant or manager) of the team building intervention to also observe some of the group dynamics of the team and determine the relative readiness of the team to participate in this change technique. The start-up phase begins the job of creating a climate where people feel comfortable to work and usually involves some sort of ice breaking exercise (i.e. administering a short survey about participants’ feelings about the team building intervention, an experiential exercise where the team is asked to describe itself as an object or animal or to draw or construct something that represents the group, or a mock work session where the team is asked to work on a real problem while being observed by the facilitator). Before the exercise begins, the facilitator may encourage participants to develop systems of rules or "contracts" that regulate the purpose of the relationship and define acceptable behavior in order to create an environment in which team members can exchange the correct type of information. A task contract deals with the goals and strategy of the team and a personal contract deals with the dynamics within the group. The personal contract should establish safe areas wherein team members feel free to be open and share personal information affecting the group's effectiveness. The creation of safe areas provides the group with a mechanism for dealing with such destructive elements as personal anger and group conflict. Contract packages need to be openly discussed and understood by all participants. As the group develops and matures, contracts require regular review to determine if they continue to meet the group's needs.

At the end of the exercise the group is asked to discuss the data gathered at this first meeting (whether it be survey data or facilitator and participant observations) and to diagnose the findings. The facilitator starts the diagnosis by asking team members what questions do they think need to be asked about the team and the exercise and helps participants form the questions to be asked. Questions are asked such as: what are the team’s strengths and weaknesses; what are their opportunities growth and threats to team development; how can the team use its strengths to overcome its weaknesses and take advantage of opportunities; what technical, human relations, and conceptual skills do group members need to better team performance; is there a critical task or problem that the teams needs to tackle now, etc…

Once the questions have been asked, the facilitator tries to clarify and categorize them into different themes or topics (task accomplishment, interpersonal relations, group process [i.e communication and roles], and team culture). Once the questions have been sorted, the team is asked to prioritize the questions and determine which questions they want to tackle first. The group then develops assignments for team members that usually involve data gathering so that they can answer, as a team, the questions they have posed, and sets deadlines and future meeting dates. These future meetings become working sessions for the team who may ask the facilitator to assist the team by providing specific training services (i.e. case analyses to sharpen problem solving, role playing to enhance interpersonal skills, active listening exercises to clarify communications, etc…). The team is also being asked to assess their progress in addressing the questions they originally posed and to determine what additional resources and support they need in order to become a high performance team. As the team improves, the role of the facilitator will be reduced to a point where, at least in theory, the group is self-monitoring and self-developing and no longer requires assistance, except for occasional consultation.

Intergroup/Subsystems Interface Interventions. These interventions address social, behavioral, and structural dimensions of intergroup behavior and subsystem interface with the intergroup techniques being similar to group and interpersonal interventions. For example, intergroup team building is similar in intent and method to team building except that the separate teams work independently to analyze the problems and then come together as one group to share their findings in order to develop joint questions and create joint problem-solving task forces. An organizational mirror is similar to third party peace making except that in this case the third party is a mutually agreeable team or work group who interacts with the other two teams that are having difficulties.

Lateral Relations. When two or more groups need to coordinate their operations and the firm does not want to permanently change its formal structure in order to create formal reporting lines of authority and communications, the firm may intervene in its own information processing by developing an alternative human information network (a secondary structure) that creates a bridge or interface between these groups. The role of the facilitator or change agent in this intervention is to describe the differing lateral relation options available to the firm, determine what skills or competencies would be required by those involved in the intervention, provide training where needed, and assisting in the evaluation of the intervention. Galbraith XE "Galbraith, Jay R." notes that there are seven options, see Figure 8.4.

Direct contact, allowing two members from different organization units or teams to contact one another who share a problem without permission from both their superiors (bypassing the normal chain of command), is the most efficient, simplest and least formal intervention. In order to foster interdepartmental or interteam contact, many firms employ job rotation and job transfers between operating units. This breaks down the impersonality of inter-unit contacts by having former team members with prior familiarity feel contact one another.

Liaison roles make direct contact (which is informal in nature and unplanned) a little more formal by designating a particular person on each team to act as the contact person for the group. Any information that needs to be passed from one team to another flows through the two liaisons, who may be asked to serve as ad-hoc members on the other team’s meetings and planning sessions. When problems arise in the organization when more than just two or three different teams or work units are involved, the firm may establish a task force, a temporary committee or one may arise informally. Task forces allow input and representation from each of the work units through a designated or emergent representative and simultaneously provide each team feedback through its spokesperson.

If the problems are of a more permanent basis, teams are formally created to address these problems. (See the prior discussion on team building in terms of how to create effective teams.) Teams may vary in purpose and composition. For example, cross-functional teams include a member from each impacted work unit and usually involves several business functions (i.e. marketing, finance, operations, information systems). Self-managed work teams are teams that operate without a designated manager or leader while junior executive boards and quality circles are parallel structures to the board of directors and

Figure 8.4

Types of Lateral Interventions

represent the interests of middle-level and lower-level managers and employees. Teams may be formed for the purpose of merely disseminating and sharing information, or making recommendations to a superior, or empowered to actually make decisions.

Integrating, linking, and matrix lateral relations are used as intervention strategies when the firm has highly differentiated operating work units (i.e. specialized units that produce parts of a unique good and service for niche markets), which need to be coordinated in order to create a particular good or service. Each unit must maintain its independence and uniqueness while simultaneously integrating its operation with the other units. Cross-functional teams may be ineffective in these cases since specialization within the cross-functional team would be lower when compared to a unit purely devoted to each of the functions the team performs. Integrating roles are managerial positions established by the firm to assist those individuals and work units in task completion. These individuals do not supervise the work in question but act as general managers for a particular work process (i.e. product or project manager) although they have no formal authority over the workers in question. Integrators hence are staff personnel -- they may chair task forces or teams but must coordinate work efforts through their organizational contacts, the development of trust amongst the different work units in question, their expertise on work processes, and their role as an information center.

The firm may find that information and expert power may be inadequate to properly coordinate the work in question. The work may cut across such a disparate set of business functions and specializations that developing an expertise in all of these areas by one individual may be difficult, if not impossible, thus minimizing the ability of the integrator to influence work processes without formal organizational authority. The firm may then opt to increase the formal authority of the integrator and create a linking manager, an individual that now may have some supervisory capacity of the task of the differing work units. This is accomplished by the firm providing the linking manager at least partial decision-making authority over certain portions of the work process, earlier entrance and influence into the decision-making process surrounding the work, and at least partial control of the budget. Finally, if the firm is not satisfied with the linking manager’s ability to integrate work across work units, the firm may opt to completely formalize the linking relationship by creating a matrix structure. Here the matrix manager is given complete authority over the work processes across all of the work units and concurrently reports to all of the managers who are responsible for the operating units involved in the work process (see Chapter 6 for a description of matrix structures).

Organizational/Systems Wide Interventions. These comprehensive techniques impact all of the organization’s subsystems and work groups and deal with core organizational issues. Each technique takes a differing approach to total organizational change (i.e. the confrontation meeting has the entire management of a firm meet for one day to analyze the firm and develop action plans, MBO develops a systematic methodology for coordinating goal-setting through negotiations, and TQM creates a management system which focuses on creating total customer service and satisfaction ) yet each technique shares in common the need for the firm to master change and therein transform the entire organization.

Empowerment. Empowerment is one of the pinnacle values of strategic management in that it provides the means in which highly competent employees can make decisions without consultation. Empowered employees are motivated employees. They excel at their job and profession. Decisions made by lower level, highly specialized employees, provide for a rapid response to on-the-job problems and/or clients and consequently creates a competitive advantage for the firm. Silver observed that in many workplaces, empowerment is regarded as a fad that had its 15 minutes of fame and has joined the ranks of other so-called management fads including zero-based budgeting, re-engineering, total quality management, and customer focus. Empowerment, however, is different. Unlike other fads, he believes that the desire of all employees to be empowered will only grow over time, and organizations that do not take this concept seriously are ultimately at risk.

Empowerment is an enabling and ennobling process where employees learn how to overcome their feelings of powerlessness and gain power and then invest their power in others. Empowerment interventions focus on the personal characteristics of employees (their task-relevant knowledge, personal attraction, effort, and behavioral fit with the institution's values) and their position characteristics (access to information, impact on work flow, discretion in position, job visibility, and job alignment with organizational priorities). Empowering employees makes them feel that they are important and significant to the organization that their work is both challenging and exciting, that they are part of the firm, and that learning and job competency really matters. Empowerment is the first step in creating a learning, self-renewing organization.

In order to empower employees, Yukl XE "Yukl, Gary" has suggested that managers express confidence in the employees' ability to get the job done, foster employee initiative and responsibility, reward and encourage employees in both personal and visible ways, involve employees in the assignment of work, build on success, and provide a collaborative work environment. Macleod XE "Macleod, Jennifer S." observed that in order for employees to feel empowered, they first need training in self-empowerment. Such programs often make a profound difference in people's lives and careers and allow them to take charge of their lives instead of allowing circumstance to control them. These programs differ in theory, technique, and terminology, but all generally share an emphasis on experimental learning. Learning by experience seems more effective in helping self-empowerment than does learning based on lectures and reading. Employees can be sent to existing, fully structured programs, or instructors can be brought into the company. Existing programs, however, tend to be inflexible in form, content, and schedule. In this training employees will, perhaps, examine their innermost desires; if those desires include a productive career, their value to their employer is enhanced. A company that provides such training may lose a few employees, but those who remain may be so much more effective that the company may gain more than it loses.

Gering indicated that an empowered company pays a great deal of attention to setting up an empowerment framework. This framework includes communicating the company strategy to all managers, setting well defined goals and targets, establishing a clear link between performance and reward, instilling a culture of feedback, developing an organizational awareness of individual strengths and weaknesses, setting authority limits individually, installing a mentoring process, deliberately structure team based activity, encouraging junior and middle managers to make decisions, and managing by walkabout. Lawson XE "Lawson, Karen" saw the four keys to successful empowerment as involving employees in the decision-making process, including employees in the planning process, offering praise freely, and providing continual training and support.

French XE "French, Wendell L." and Bell XE "Bell, Cecil H., Jr." suggested starting the empowerment intervention by requesting that participants from their own experience describe their personal best leadership situation. They have the employees reflect on the feelings and behaviors that accompanied these situations and asked the employees and their administrators what both can do to create similar conditions. This coincides with current research which has pointed to trust and leader-member relations as the key mediating variables impacting employee empowerment; the greater the trust and stronger the leader-member relations, the more the employee felt empowered.

Whetten XE "Whetten, David A." and Cameron XE "Cameron, Kim S." described the empowerment intervention as including a skill pre-assessment survey, a series of readings on power and influence, a skill analysis case, skill practice exercises, skill application activities, and skill evaluation. Eylon XE "Eylon, Dafna" and Herman developed an in-basket exercise, which introduced the participant to either empowering or disempowering situations. Through survey feedback, dyad, small group and discussions, the group eventually is lead to develop an empowerment plan for the in-basket scenarios and the organization as a whole. Mainiero XE "Mainiero, Lisa A." and Tromley XE "Tromley, Cheryl L." created a series of vignettes (fifteen in all), which required the participants to choose from a series of alternatives in terms of how they would handle each situation. These answers would be scored, with the each vignette answer falling into one of six empowerment styles; assertion, ingratiation, alternatives, coalitions, coercion and acquiescence. A style profile would be generated which would indicate the participants’ primary strategy style as well as how this style changed from vignette to vignette. Regardless of methodology, increasing employee participation in the operation of the firm will increase organization performance and employee job satisfaction.

Transorganizational/Environmental Interventions. Organizations have traditionally sought internal solutions to performance decline and to change their internal operations to fit environmental changes. However, in many situations, a trans-organizational systems (TS) response to organizational decline may be more effective by bringing mutually threatened organizations together to fight for survival since the decline may be part of a market or industry trend. For example, many local stores will band together to contest the introduction of a large chain store such as Wal-Mart or Home Depot since they perceive these chains as direct threats that will destabilize current market dynamics. TS responses will be favorably considered by organizations that face environmental turbulence, perceive interdependence with other organizations, lack options for exiting the market, have strong commitments to social responsibility, and experience a mandate from higher and or external authorities to form external linkages. When decline is a result of shrinkage of the total market for an industry's goods or services, similar organizations, experiencing shared fates and environmental turbulence, will form TS collaborations. An organization facing declining market share will tend to form TS linkages with dissimilar organizations, which experience a shared fate at the community level and have strong social commitment.

The concept of transorganization intervention (TI) is fairly new concept from an organization change perspective in that it attempts to, to paraphrase Ackoff XE "Ackoff, Russell L." , take a step outside the organization as a system and examine the larger system in which the organization is a part of. Organizations using TI attempt to either adapt to changing markets or try to protect themselves from market changes by changing the nature and structure of competition within those markets. Preston XE "Preston, Joanne C." and DuToit XE "DuToit, Louw" observed that large system changes such as changes within nations (i.e. South Africa, Russia) resemble those involved in traditional organizational change, but, because of the complexity of large systems, the interrelation and interaction between the subsystems require careful analysis. There also needs to be a clear understanding of the main actors and probable major intervening factors that can decide both the inputs and outputs in the intervention.

The notion, as developed by Cummings XE "Cummings, Thomas G." , looks at business alliances, network organizations, consortia, and joint ventures in order to determine who are potential member organizations, then convene possible members, and finally organize the transorganizational system (TS). TI involves multiple, simultaneous interventions aimed at both the TS and its constituent organizations. TI is concerned with creating and modifying networks of TS participants who have a stake in particular outcomes and depend on the network for the accomplishment of their goals. The environment or context within which interactions take place has three attributes: interactions are governed by a negotiation process in which network participants collectively define their organizing or problem issues; domains are created as stakeholders identify their special interests in these issues; and exchanges link participants together in interdependent relations. Negotiating contexts are dynamic and changing and vary as new problems become salient and old issues recede.

Ironically, much of what we have described in this textbook under strategy formulation falls under the transorganizational rubric, that is, firms examining their remote, industry, and competitive environments through industry and SWOT analyses in order to determine their best position and appropriate strategy orientation in their market(s) relative to their stakeholders. Through environmental, industry, and value-chain analyses, firms can determine which environment linkages are too loose or misaligned and what actions they need to take in order to tighten those linkages. Here is where transorganization interventions become management strategy in that we have turned our analyses from within the organization to without.

Many of these interventions we have already described in Chapters 6 under the topic of cooperative strategies (joint ventures, strategic alliances, mergers, and network organizations) and growth or market bridging strategies (vertical and horizontal integration, relating and unrelated diversification, and acquisitions). These structural TI’s reorganize the market/industry or the firm in order to decrease the competitiveness of the market/industry by: reducing the number of competitors in the market or market niche, sharing the risk amongst conglomerate or TS members, creating market and industry buffers for the conglomerate or current TS members, and establishing entrance barriers for non-members/competitors.

Buffering. Buffering interventions create walls around the organization that, rather than adapt to market and or industry changes, allow the organization to survive (at least in the short run) in its maladaptive form. More specifically, certain buffers allow the firm’s operation to continue by insuring supplies (resources/inputs) and guaranteeing customers (outputs are being purchased). The firm will specifically intervene in the industry or marketplace to ensure inputs by having liquid assets or easy access to capital, stockpiling inventory, using multiple suppliers, locking suppliers into long-term contracts, becoming their own supplier (backward integration), investing heavily in equipment maintenance and repair, and cross-training employees. On the output side, the organization may itself sign long-term contracts with purchasers, sell products to distributors and wholesalers (rather directly to consumers), and become its own customer (forward integration). Note that in both the input or output approaches, the firm in many cases is intervening in its relationships with other organizations in its value chain.

These buffering interventions, however, tend to be defensive in nature by protecting the firm’s inputs and outputs but not protecting the market or industry that the firm competes in. Pfeffer XE "Pfeffer, Jeffrey" and Salancik XE "Salancik, Gerald R." noted that firms needed to become political actors in their marketplace in order to protect their interests. Business’s interaction with government has been well documented by such authors as C. Wright Mills XE "Mills, C. Wright" and Harold Seidman XE "Seidman, Harold" ; Mills hypothesized the existence of a power elite where businesses colluded with government and the military to protect the status quo while Seidman believed that a similar triumvirate existed between elected officials, businesses, and government regulators.

Regardless of the exact nature of the interaction between government and business, firms do intervene in the political system through direct lobbying, campaign contributions, and indirectly through trade associations in order to influence politicians and government regulators to institute laws that would protect their economic interests and provide benefits to industry members. From the industry’s standpoint, these benefits include direct cash subsidies and tax incentives, special tax deductions, entrance barriers (i.e. tariffs), legislation that negatively impacts substitute products or services, regulating prices, and purchasing of industry services. Specific firms in an industry would share these benefits but may also receive specifically earmarked benefits based upon either a set of government program participation criteria (i.e. small business, female and minority-owned businesses) or special government set aside programs.

Use the Appropriate Intervention to Produce the Desired Changes

Derived from systems theory, one of the overriding principles in management is the concept of equifinality, that a manager may use one of several different approaches in order to reach a desired goal or objective; there is no one best way to manage. This certainly holds true in strategic planning where, based upon a SWOT analysis, a firm may chose from one of several corporate level strategies from the corporate level strategy matrix in which to execute the firm’s mission and objectives.

However, as discussed in Chapter 6, certain corporate level strategies are not appropriate for firms given the results of a SWOT analysis. One would not select a growth strategy such as market penetration when the results of a SWOT analysis indicate a very weak company in a no growth or declining market. The point we are making is that although there are several alternatives for a firm to follow in choosing a corporate level strategy, there are in fact better and worse choices to make given one’s analysis of the firm’s situation as well as the knowledge we currently possess about which strategies work under what business conditions. Certain choices consequently lack face validity and will lead to Type 1 failures (as described in Chapter 7).

The same can also be assumed about strategy implementation and the use of intervention techniques to execute strategic change. If the firm decides that it needs to create a more flexible organization, then certain intervention techniques may be reasonable to employ (i.e. empowerment, lateral relations, and visioning) while others may not (i.e. third party peacemaking, buffering, and organizational mirror). In order to determine which intervention techniques are appropriate to use, we suggest asking the following questions:

1. At what level or levels of the organization does the required change(s) in strategy impact? What is the primary target of the change (market, systems-wide, team, etc…)?

2. Given the level or levels in question, what types of change(s) is(are) required? Are the changes attitudinal, social, behavioral, technical, and/or structural, or a combination thereof?

3. What activities seem necessary given the needed changes? Are they diagnostic, team-building, intergroup, education and training, structural, process management, leadership development, conflict resolution, life and career planning, goal-setting, coaching/counseling, and transformational (systems-wide)?

4. Which techniques are acceptable to the participants in the change process?

Since many of the intervention techniques have multiple targets (systems-wide change may require interventions that impact group and individual behavior), may have several change objectives (i.e. transactional analysis impacts attitudes, behavior, and social interaction), and may involve several change activities (most include a diagnostic step in the intervention), the expectation is that there may be several intervention techniques for the firm to chose from that may meet the change needs of the firm. As we suggested earlier in this chapter, an external change agent (consultant) would be quite useful in this selection process as long as the firm understood the biases and limitations of using an outside consultant.

Summary

Intervention techniques provide managers specific tools for developing employee competencies and skills, as well as assisting employees to learn how to learn, and changing the firm’s processes, systems, and structures. Interventions techniques are not only appropriate for implementing strategic plans (creating both revolutionary and evolutionary change) but also can be utilized as continuous improvement and continuous learning instruments. There are three risks associated with performing an organizational intervention: risk in diagnosis, risk in prescription, and risk in treatment. In order to reduce these risks, change interventions require the assistance of a team of external and internal change agents. External change agents are trained facilitators who have the expertise and objectivity to assist the organization to learn how to learn while internal change agents understand the organization and how it operates. Both have their inherent limitations (external change agents need to quickly learn about the firm, internal change agents are subjective and may be perceived as biased).

The intervention process has been structured to educate members as to the need for change, involve them in the change process, and then evaluate the success of the intervention to elicit the desired changes. Steps in the process include convergence of interest and intervention team building, establishing a charter, formalizing the process, intervention identification and selection, reporting, acting and evaluating. Intervention techniques are categorized by level of analysis (intrapersonal, dyad/triad/small group, intragroup/subsystem, intergroup/subsystem links, organizational, and trans-organizational) with each technique addressing certain specific needs for change and/or improvement within the organization (attitudinal, social, behavioral, technical, and structural).

Several intervention techniques are described (at least one for each level) including sensitivity training (increasing self-awareness and awareness of others), cognitive mapping (understanding how one sees the organization), transactional analysis (understanding one’s role interaction with others), process consultation (a client-driven approach for understanding client interactions), team building (harnessing group dynamics), lateral relations (creating an alternative communication network), empowerment (providing employees psychological ownership of the firm), and buffering (strengthening the firm’s value chain and competitive advantage through supplier, customer, and political agreements). There is no best way to select an intervention technique but selection should be guided by the organizational level of the change (target group), the change required (attitudinal, social, behavioral, technical, and/or structural), activities needed for change (i.e. conflict resolution), and the acceptability of the intervention technique to the participants.

Key Terms and Concepts

Interventions; risks associated with interventions; internal and external change agents; facilitator; diagnosis; intervention process; levels of analysis; sensitivity training and T-groups; cognitive mapping; causal and moderating variables; self-awareness; transactional analysis; child, parent and adult roles; complimentary, crossed and ulterior transactions; strokes; process consultation; clinical approach; team building; cross-functional and self-managed teams; lateral relations; direct contact, liaison roles, task forces, managerial linking pins, integrators, and matrix managers; empowerment; transorganizational interventions, buffering; and equifinality.

Web Sites

http://www.ntl.org/ - The National Training Laboratories Institute’s website, the home of T-training. Provides information about NTL, Public Training programs, Graduate and Certificate programs, partners and resources, as well as membership in NTL including e-mail updates.

http://www.itaa-net.org/ta/ - The home of The International Transactional Analysis Association. Offers visitors information about TA (and in numerous applications), a calendar of organizational events, training programs, resources, a library, membership information and e-mail news. The library is a particularly good resource for abstracts and links to articles.

http://www.trainings.org/ - Home page of the Student Empowerment Training Project. This not-for-profit organization was started to provide training, materials, and technical assistance to student governments all over the country in order to make theses governments operate more effectively. The site includes training programs, an on-line manual, a newsletter, and internet links to student governments around the coutry.

http://web.nmsu.edu/~dboje/TDgameboard.html - The TransOrg Development Game, developed by David M. Boje, Editor of the Journal of Organizational Change Management, offers a rather humorous approach to understanding the sixteen approaches to transorganizational change and provides a learning lab of network consultation approaches to multi-organizational change methodologies.

Discussion Questions

1. Discuss the role and use of interventions in strategy implementation. Why can’t the firm “just do it”, put the strategy into action?

2. Change agents seem to be the key to organizational change and executing organizational interventions. Describe the types of agents and their roles in the change process.

3. Do you agree or disagree that sensitivity training (T-groups) and transactional analysis seemed to have dropped out of favor with change consultants because these techniques do not transfer well to job environments? Discuss your position and provide support for it.

4. What changes are needed at Southwest Airlines and what interventions do you recommend for producing those changes?

5. Going back to the Daimler Chrysler case in Chapter 7, what changes were needed to make the merger a success and what interventions do you recommend for producing those changes?

Exercises

1. Going back to the firm that you have been analyzing, what, if any, interventions have been tried at the firm to date? Describe those interventions and your perception of the success or failure of these techniques to produce change.

2. Going back to Chapter 7, exercise questions 2 and 3, discuss what intervention techniques would be needed to help the organization create a more perfect fit in terms of the market’s structure (Table 7.1) or the industry’s life cycle (Table 7.2).

3. Going back to Chapter 7, exercise question 4, which intervention techniques might be helpful for overcoming resistance to change?

4. What other interventions might be needed in the firm given the firm’s strategic plan and the strategic direction that you believe the firm needs to follow. Are there skills and competencies that need to be developed, systems readjusted, etc…?

Experiential Exercise

Are Your ready to Change?

Learning Objectives:

1. For students to experience an intra-individual intervention exercise that is utilized to assess an individual’s readiness for change.

2. For students to see how strategic change may require overcoming individual, group, and organizational resistance to change.

3. For students to assess their own change competency, and the change competency of their in-class group (if they are in one), and their class.

Procedure:

1. Complete the following questionnaire utilizing a 1-7 scale where 1 means completely disagree; 4 means neither agree nor disagree; and 7 completely agree.

_____ 1. I believe that an expert who doesn’t come up with a definitive answer probably doesn’t know too much.

_____ 2. I think it would be fun to live in a foreign country for a period of time.

_____ 3. The sooner we all agree on some common values and ideals, the better.

_____ 4. A good teacher is one who makes you wonder about your way of looking at things.

_____ 5. I enjoy parties where I know most of the people more than ones where all or most of the people are strangers.

______6. Supervisors who hand out vague assignments give me a chance to show initiative and originality.

_____ 7. People who lead even, regular lives – in which few surprises or unexpected events arise – really have a lot to be grateful for.

_____ 8. Many of our most important decisions are actually based on insufficient information.

_____ 9. There is really no such thing as a problem that can’t be solved.

_____ 10. People who fit their lives to a schedule probably miss most of the joy of living.

_____ 11. A good job is one in which what is to be done and how it is to be done are always clear.

_____ 12. It is more fun to tackle a complicated problem that to solve a simple one.

_____ 13. In the long run, it is possible to get more done by tackling small, simple problems than large and complicated ones.

_____ 14. Often the most interesting and stimulating people are those who don’t mind being different or original.

_____ 15. What we are used to is always preferable to what is unfamiliar.

_____ 16. People who insist on a “yes” or “no” answer just don’t know how complicated things really are.

2. To get your total score, first sum your responses to the odd-numbered items and write your score here _____. Second add 64 points to that score and create the first subtotal and record that here _____. Third, sum your responses to the even-numbered items and write your score here _____. Then subtract that number from the subtotal for the odd-numbered items (second blank) to determine your overall score; _____.

3. Your score should be somewhere between 16 and 112. The lower overall score, the more willing you may be to deal with uncertainty and ambiguity that typically go with change. Research data show that the range of scores for a group is usually between 20 and 80, with a mean of 45.

4. Most capstone courses have students working in groups or on teams. If a group or team structure exists, each group should calculate their average, low and high score. If there are no groups, skip to procedure 5.

5. The instructor should then calculate the average, low and high score for the class and then share this information with the class.

Questions

1. Discuss the importance of change readiness. When during the strategy implementation process should an instrument like the change readiness questionnaire be utilized?

2. How did your score compared to the norms listed above? What do you think that your score indicates in terms of your change readiness?

3. If in a group setting, find out the high, the low and the average score for the group. How did your score compare to your group members’ scores? Does this information assist you in understanding your change readiness?

4. How did your group’s scores compare with the norms listed above? What do you think the similarities and/or differences in scores indicate in terms of the change readiness of your group?

5. How did the class score compare with your group’s and your own scores? Additional learning derived from these comparisons?

6. How did the class scores compare with the norms listed above? What do you think the similarities and/or differences in scores indicate in terms of the change readiness of your class?

Appendix

Description of Other Intervention Techniques

Life and Career Planning

Knowing oneself and others not only allows individuals to better handle change in the work environment it also puts oneself in touch with personal wants and desires. This allows individuals to then reflect on their personal goals and career, looking at the factors that influenced the path that they have so far followed including the role of circumstance and chance. Life and career planning intervenes in an individual’s career path by trying to have the individual first learn about him or herself and then systematically develop a plan for reaching their personal and career goals and objectives.

A career is a sequence of positions occupied by a person during his or her lifetime. As recently as fifteen years ago, career development programs were a means for organizations to attract and retain highly talented people. The focus was to provide the information, assessment and training that employees would need to navigate their career within a firm. Current trends in downsizing, de-layering and reengineering have made this version of career development obsolete. The new career concept, a boundaryless career, indicates that individuals and not organizations are responsible for their career development through-out their working lives. The challenge is to choose a career and manage its path without the benefit of pre-existing norms and rules. The marketplace, not the organization dictates the necessary development of skills, knowledge abilities. A good career choice is apparent when an individual develops a positive self concept, does work that he or she thinks is important, and leads a desired lifestyle.

The management of an individual's own career is a big subject and is acutely personal. The task of advising people in general terms about their career in an objective way is very difficult. There is no such thing as the perfect career and careers do not tend to progress at a consistently rapid speed, even amongst the supremely talented. Careers more usually tend to grow in fits and starts, molding themselves to opportunity, domestic issues and circumstances beyond the individual's control. Whether a person is actively looking for a job or not, reviewing available options as well as the resume is very important. Being ever-ready for an internal promotion, chance invitation or business opportunity, means that the person is more likely to be able to react quickly when the time comes, hence avoiding the risk of opportunities going to waste.

From the firm’s perspective, career planning and development attempts to align the needs, goals and aspirations of the firm’s individual employees with the mission, goals, and objectives of the firm. Career planning is making sure that the organization will have the right people with the right skills at the right time. This requires examining strategic plans that may include demand for future skills or the need to reduce the labor force (downsizing). Andrew Mayo XE "Mayo, Andrew" indicated that organizations needed to determine their own level of involvement in employee career planning and development before establishing complex bureaucracies, committees, and computerized succession plans. He suggested that a balance to be struck between those careers being centrally managed by the firm and those being allowed to develop solely through the ambition of the individual. He also recommended that a systematic methodology for creating and managing career planning include assessing the needs of the organization, analyzing the organizational culture, analyzing the organization's structure and its opportunities, reviewing and revising those processes that involve the individual, working out how to hold, manage, and use human resource management data, and reviewing and revising the opportunities for learning through experience.

Career planning usually involves four major steps. The first step, individual assessment, requires that individuals perform a self-evaluation in terms of his or her life goals and career objectives, their abilities, competencies, skills and his or her desire. This may include the employee taking aptitude and skills tests as well as consulting self-help books such as What Color Is Your Parachute. The second step entails the organization developing career paths within the firm, that is, that the organization has a structured progression of jobs (as well as related training) that individuals should follow in order to successfully grow within the firm. The third step involves connecting the firm’s performance appraisal system to career planning so that the individual is given proper feedback on his or her job performance and promotability. The last step in the process is career counseling. Here the counselor has an open and honest discussion with the employees as to his or her goals and offers advice as to what the individual needs to do in order to pursue his or her goals. This may include coping with early, mid-passage, and late career problems through career counseling programs.

Recent research in the field of career development indicated that personality factors have an influence on career variables while there are many gender differences both in the United States and internationally that impact career paths. Regarding ethnic minority clients, researchers have noted the importance of helping clients process their experience of navigating two cultures while helping them with career-related concerns. Furthermore, the interaction between gender and race should be considered in providing career counseling to clients and mentoring tended to have a positive impact on all employees. In terms of the impact of career counseling on career paths and participants, research indicated that many clients enter career counseling with high levels of psychological distress, and career counseling does reduce many clients' distress levels. Also, clients are generally satisfied with the career counseling they have received. Furthermore, career counseling tended to be helpful to individuals with various psychopathologies. On a more negative note, there were ethnic differences in terms of probability of using career services.

Coaching/Mentoring/Counseling

Coaching is the most often employed on-the-job training technique with the goal of coaching being to motivate behavioral change in employees. Wexley XE "Wexley, Kenneth N." and Latham XE "Latham, Gary P." observed that coaching was a periodic review of employee performance by supervisors and occurred so as to: inform subordinates as to their superiors’ evaluation of their job performance, allow employees and supervisors to work together to increase employee effectiveness, increase cooperation and collaboration between superior and subordinate, and provide a structure for creating short and long-term employee career goals.

Blanchard XE "Blanchard, Kenneth H." and Thacker indicated that coaching is a five-step process. Step one involves the manager understanding the employee’s job (the knowledge, skills, and abilities), the goals of the job, and the resources that the employees has to accomplish his or her tasks. The supervisor should also become well acquainted with the employee’s performance history and his or her current level of functioning on-the-job. Once the supervisor has the proper understanding of the employee’s behavior, the supervisor then schedules a meeting with the employee to review this information and to set mutually agreeable performance objectives. Part of this meeting may also include discussions for the need for on-the-job assistance (either from a coworker or from the supervisor), personal counseling, career planning, and/or additional off-the-job training and education and/or raising performance standards in order to accommodate more competitive markets.

Step three is creation of a mutually agreed upon plan and/or schedule for achieving the performance objectives. This should be a formally signed, written document that goes into the employee’s personnel folder and is tied to the employee’s compensation and career progression. Step four obliges the coach to now demonstrate to the employee how to achieve the specifically agreed upon objectives. This may include demonstrating how a particular task of function is to be done, observing the employee and providing feedback on-the-job, and having more formally structured debriefing sessions. Step five is an assessment of the process – has the employee increased his or her performance and if not, what additional assistance may be necessary.

A second form of coaching, called business or executive coaching, has been developed in order to meet the developmental needs of top management. Today's top professional is motivated to excel and to differentiate him or herself from the competition. Executive coaching is a powerful tool that can be used to rapidly introduce new skills into a company's leadership ranks. For both high-potential executives and those newly entrusted with high-level leadership, one-on-one executive coaching can meet developmental, not remedial, needs.

Personal coaches to top executives tend to be external to the firm and are hired on a one-to-one basis. A coaching relationship is a partnership that assists in developing skills by defining directions and the development of obtainable goals in a professional or personal life. The coaching process can be called a guided inquiry into ways that can improve personal and professional lives. Coaching is designed to help in achieving skills such as: learning to actively use past experiences to improve abilities, determining what goals and values are important, and developing specific action plans for reaching goals. Coach referrals can also be received from programs that train coaches or coaching associations.

The aim of business coaching then is to have top managers develop their strengths and natural skills, and put them to use where they can be most effective. It is a process with four basic steps: 1. Establish a goal that is realistic and achievable. 2. Identify what the obstacles are to achieving it. 3. Check what personal and company resources are available for use. 4. Work out a plan that achieves the goal. Tell-tale signs mentioned by many executives who have benefited from coaching include feeling blocked, as if there were obstacles at every turn, and needing to hear a friendly voice - one that is supportive. Getting it right, though, requires willing participants, a robust measurement system, careful feedback, a feedback-based action plan, and strong follow-up.

Mentoring is a specific form of coaching and describes the relationship between a senior level and a junior level employee where the senior level employee is not necessarily the employee’s direct supervisor. Mentoring focuses more on learning The Ropes to Skip and the Ropes to Know , that is, learning about the political and social systems within an organization and/or profession and tends to be an informal, rather than formal intervention technique. Goldsmith strongly recommended that the firm develop a company mentoring program and formalize this process. He suggested that the program consist of first, deciding if the program is right the company, starting small, asking for feedback about what managers want and what they care about, getting buy-in from the management team, obtaining mentor training for the executive team, creating a culture by being open about current mentor relationships, building trust with those participating and listening to their experiences and ideas, celebrating small victories and showcasing successful mentor relationships.

Research on mentoring has indicated that employees in informal mentorships reported receiving slightly more career-related support from their mentors and higher salaries than those in formal mentorships. Clear differences in outcomes were found between mentored individuals verus nonmentored individuals in terms of organizational socialization, satisfaction, and salary. Results supported a modest relationship between the mentorship functions and the job outcomes.

Counseling is the continuous process of monitoring employee performance and behavior and identifying and addressing problems by determining and implementing courses of action through one-to-one communication with affected employees. The primary purpose of counseling is to address problems at an early stage to minimize their impact or prevent them from growing, and occasionally to provide more generalized guidance and assistance in the absence of specific difficulties. Counseling applies to performance issues that relate more to an employee's attitudinal and behavioral problems than to deficiencies in skills, knowledge, or abilities. Dysfunctional performance behaviors, such as insubordination, lack of respect for authority, not accepting advice, being late for work or leaving early, substance abuse, chronic absenteeism, abusive behavior toward other employees or supervisors, and low energy levels, are often symptoms of the problem employee or marginal performer.

Minter XE "Minter, Robert L." and Thomas noted that in order for an employee to need counseling, the following conditions must apply: the employees performance is consistently below acceptable standards, the employee exhibits emotional and/or behavioral problems that impact his or her own work performance as well as the performance of others, is continuously breaking company policy and regulations, is unable to self-manage, has no previous history of management/supervisor intervention or requires one final attempt at intervention given extenuating circumstances.

They suggested that the supervisor take the following actions in the counseling process: determine if the employee is worth the effort in saving, seek advice from the human resource management department and management; document all facts surrounding the current problem especially as they impact key performance indicators of the employee; have a private confrontation meeting where the employee is appraised of the problem as well as the expected changes in behavior and/or results expected and consequences for continued problems; determine if there is a need for additional training, psychological services, and closer supervision; and conduct a final feedback session to ensure that performance indicators show signs of improvement. Positive feedback should be provided along the entire process. McConnell XE "McConnell, Charles R." recommended that effective counseling is always specific, consistent in application (between with an employee and between employees), be knowledgeable, avoid exciting defensive behavior, timely (quickly after the offense), involves actively listen to employees, using positive feedback, created action plans when needed, and following up with the employee.

Sometimes the problems that the employee is facing is too complicated for the supervisor or even the human resources management department to handle, such as substance abuse or psychological depression. In these cases, referral to an Employee Assistance Program (EAP) is the norm, unless of course the firm is not affiliated with one. According to Petersen XE "Peterson, Carolyn" , however, these once gatekeepers to mental healthcare and substance abuse treatment programs, EAPs have steadily taken on more counseling roles. This evolution has not been limited to administrative roles, but has occurred in program philosophy and structure as well. Mode of operation is one area in which EAPs are changing their focus. While they once maintained an open door for employees seeking help, they now are as likely to seek out potentially problematic situations before circumstances require expensive interventions. The risk-management approach benefits a company by allowing it to avoid the disruption that occurs when an employee leaves the job, temporarily or for an extended period, due to personal problems.

Education and Skill Training

Managers need to ensure that employees have the capabilities to perform their jobs efficiently, and effectively. Whether preparing new employees or responding to job demand changes, decisions have to made regarding when and how to provide training and education. As described earlier in this text, there are three types of employee skills that can be modified by training.

1. Basic and technical skills include reading, writing, computation and job-specific competencies. The current job market also requires proficiency in computer skills.

2. Interpersonal skills need development because employees are members of work units and need to interact effectively with each other as well as their bosses.

3. Problem solving skills or conceptual skills are particularly important in non-routine jobs. Training includes exercises to sharpen logic, reasoning, creativity and the ability to identify problems.

Teachout XE "Teachout, Mark S." and Hall noted that training interventions begin with an assessment of the current skills of the employees and then determining the gaps between their current skills, knowledge and abilities (SKA’s) and their current jobs. The assessment should also include task analysis, that is, the comparison of job specifications and job descriptions to task identity; the particular behaviors that are involved in performing a job. Last, it also entails a more broadly-based analysis of the organization as a whole (perhaps as part of a SWOT analysis) which would attempt to ascertain overall job satisfaction, satisfaction with the work itself, satisfaction with co-workers, satisfaction with compensation and advancement, overall attitude towards leadership and supervision, evaluation of communication, attitudes toward company policies, individual’s link to his or her job, and relative importance of various job aspects. The result of these analyses should lead to a definition of what each employee needs to learn in terms of his or her specific job, and the current methodologies (if any) provided by the organization to meet those training needs.

Assuming that there may be some gaps in the current training program, the new program must be designed by developing concepts and describing what participants should be able to do after training, listing possible viable training activities to deal with the stated concepts, selecting appropriate training methods, deciding on the sequence of the training program, putting together the training program agenda, and preparing the remaining materials such as an instructor's guide, handouts, outlines for briefings, role-play instructions, and visual aids. Several times during the design process, provisions need to be made to check back on prior steps to be certain that the overall objectives of the proposed program are being satisfied. The design process has been elaborated in recent years to now include: constructing criterion measures and evaluative instruments, writing concise training objectives, choosing delivery systems (in-house, consultant, off-site, educational institution), selecting and sequencing the training content including training strategies and media, and developing and validating training materials. Further specificity includes determining equipment requirements, selecting and training instructors, producing needed training documents, and calculating the costs and benefits of the training program.

Training can occur either on or off the job. On-the-job training takes place in the employee’s work unit. A popular method is job rotation that involves lateral transfers where employees get to work at different jobs. They learn many different skills and gain a wider perspective on the organization. A particular on-the-job training technique is Vestibule training. This teaches employees technical skills on the equipment they will use in a simulated work environment. This carefully controlled learning environment allows employees to deal with every conceivable problem without disrupting the actual work process. Off-the-job training is usually provided to managers and employees for developing problem solving, technical and interpersonal skills. It involves lectures, videos, case analyses, role plays, discussions and simulation exercises. Off the job training may be provided by the firm either through its human resource management department or through its own corporate university, through for profit or not-for-profit training organizations and institutes (i.e. Disney XE "Disney, Walt" Institute, National Training Laboratory), through professional conferences and seminars (i.e. the American Management Association), and through colleges and universities. Many of these services are offered as on-line instruction.

Corporations have several choices when using postsecondary institutions as a venue for employee training. They can contract for specific educational services (either at their own site or at the college’s campus), send their employees to non-credited continuing education courses, or have their employees enroll in certificate or degree-bearing programs. Porter XE "Porter, Michael E." and McKibbin XE "McKibbin, Lawrence E." conducted a three-year study of undergraduate and graduate business curriculums in the United States. In criticizing business curriculums, they noted that there was too much emphasis on quantitative techniques, insufficient attention to managing people and communication skills, lack of focus on the external business environment, and lack of attention to the international dimensions of business. They proposed the following skills be accentuated: integration across business functional areas (i.e. finance, marketing, management, etc.), communication skills entrepreneurship/creativity, international orientation, and business ethics.

Porter XE "Porter, Michael E." and McKibbin XE "McKibbin, Lawrence E." , by challenging management education, indirectly raise the key issue for any training program, is what the learner valuable to begin with and can the learner transfer what he or she has learned in a training session to their work environment? The first part of the question requires that the firm pay particular attention to the development of their own curriculum (if training in-house) or the curriculum of the provider. This requires defining a core curriculum (the basic competencies needed for a task or discipline), change driven curricula (developing courses required to offset obsolescence), course maintenance and replacement (updating and/or substituting courses), and opportunity conversion (altering a course or curriculum due to changes in training technology i.e. on-line instruction).

The second part of the question requires that the firm address the ability of the individual to learn and then apply new learning on the job. This requires that the firm ascertain the individual’s trainability or readiness to learn, providing a training environment conducive to learning, and providing desired rewards for learning. Transfer of learning to the job can be maximized by: increasing the similarity between the training situation and the work situation, providing as much practice as possible with the task being taught, providing for a variety of examples and cases when teaching concepts and skills, identifying important features of a job, ensuring that general principles are understood before specifics are broached, designing the training content to make it easy for trainees to see its applicability, and using questions and questioning to guide the trainee’s attention. As one would expect then on-the-job training tends to have better transferability that off-the-job training.

Research has indicated that the use of training techniques vary somewhat in relationship to organizational size. Gorb XE "Gorb, Peter" noted that techniques are vastly different for small firms, as opposed to those used for larger companies. Although there has been slow and steady growth in aids designed to help small businesses, few small firms have in-house specialists and must turn to outside agencies for help. Digman XE "Digman, Lester A." found that similar techniques are used by organizations in medium and large firms, however, the typical, smaller organizations rely less on internal promotions, offer less frequent and intensive supervisory training and more formal middle and executive-level training programs, and utilize university-sponsored training programs less than do the larger, well-managed organizations. However, it still remains to be shown if the difference in focus on the different types of training makes any significant contribution to the success of well-managed organizations.

Work Redesign

An alternative intervention to education and training is job redesign. This intervention technique is utilized if the employee cannot be coached or retrained in order to increase job performance; if you can’t change the employ, modify the job. The first step in work redesign is conducting a job analysis to define tasks and the behaviors necessary to perform them. This helps determine whether there is a fit between who currently works for the firm and what it needs for its work to be performed successfully. Information for job analysis is collected through direct (viewed) or indirect (taped) employee observation, employee interviews, (either individually or in groups), structured questionnaires, technical conference and expert identification of job characteristics, and employee log of daily activities. Job analysis provides the information for job descriptions (a written description of job content), work environment and conditions of employment, and job specifications (knowledge, skills and abilities needed to do the job effectively).

The Job Characteristics Model (JCM) provides a framework for analyzing and designing jobs. A job can be defined according to five core dimensions:

1. Skill variety, the degree to which a job demands a variety of activities so that an employee can use a number of different skills and talents

2. Task identity, the degree to which a job requires completion of a whole identifiable piece of work

3. Task significance, the degree to which a job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people

4. Autonomy, the degree to which a job provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to an individual in scheduling and conducting work

5. Feedback, the degree to which carrying out the work required by a job results in direct and clear information about performance effectiveness.

JCM model suggests that these dimensions and their interrelationships impact productivity, motivation and job satisfaction. Skill variety, task identity and task significance combine to create meaningful work. Autonomy provides the employee with a sense of responsibility and feedback provides knowledge regarding effectiveness.

The motivation process indicates that intrinsic (internal) rewards are obtained when an employee learns (feedback) that he or she has performed well (autonomy) on a task he or she cares about (experiences meaningfulness). The links between the job dimensions and outcomes are moderated by a person's growth need strength. The higher the growth need strength, the more appropriate JCM.

Jobs can be scored for motivating potential (MPS); if jobs score high, the model predicts that motivation, performance and satisfaction will be positively affected. To increase a job's MPS, managers can enlarge jobs to increase skill variety and task identity, create natural work units to facilitate employee ownership and sense of meaningfulness, establish direct relationships between workers and their clients to increase skill variety, autonomy and feedback, enrich jobs to increase employee responsibility and control, and provide feedback as employees engage in their jobs, instead of on an occasional basis.

Managers can deliberately engage in job redesign to incorporate the demands of changing environments, the organization's technology, skills and abilities, and individual preferences. When jobs are redesigned with these intentions, employees are motivated to be productive. Managers can choose to enlarge or enrich jobs.

Job enlargement is the horizontal expansion of jobs, increasing job scope - including different tasks required to complete a job. For instance: A supermarket employee working in the bakery can have his or her job enlarged from packing finished goods to include placing them on shelves, and designing displays. While addressing the lack of diversity in work, enlargement sometimes leaves employees feeling as if they now perform more components of boring jobs.

Job enrichment seeks to increase job depth by vertically expanding the work to include planning and evaluative functions. Employees are empowered to assume some supervisory tasks, increasing their independence and responsibility. For instance: the supermarket employee working in the bakery can determine the number of hard rolls to bake, in addition to packaging and displaying them, can monitor sales reports to prepare ingredient orders and adjust next day baking requirements. To improve performance the supervisor needs to provide feedback on quality and accuracy. Although enrichment can improve the quality of output, research demonstrated mixed results regarding its effectiveness.

The preponderance of the most recent literature on work redesign interestingly enough deals with redesigning the work of nurses and other healthcare employees in order to accommodate older workers, and increase service efficiency while maintaining the quality of care delivered, and patient-focused design. The effect of organizational redesign on employees healthcare workers has been mixed, with some investigators reporting no change in job satisfaction and employee autonomy, and others reporting improvements in satisfaction, staff autonomy, job security, and work group relationships. Yet others have reported serious to moderate levels of psychological distress and job dissatisfaction.

Some researchers, outside of the field of healthcare, have called for a more participative style of work redesign in an effort to empower employees and reduce job stress. This new approach enables organizations to redesign themselves fast and cost effectively through the involvement of the people whose work is changing. The core requirements for motivating people to do excellent work include: adequate elbowroom room for decision making, opportunity to learn continually on the job, an optimum level of variety, mutual support and respect, meaningfulness, and a desirable future.

Behavior Modeling

Behavior modeling is a simple and old style teaching technique - just show the learners exactly what one wants them to do, and then let them practice doing it. Behavior modeling is a practical, cost-effective, reliable way to change behavior. The method involves identifying the behaviors required for a particular skill, watching someone demonstrate those behaviors, practicing them, and receiving feedback on performance. The concept behind the behavior modeling technique is to teach generic skills within the context of specific situations. It is important not to teach skills that are not wanted, needed, or used. Typical programs comprise several modules spaced one or two weeks apart so trainers can try out skills on the job. Generic skills follow a progression through three levels: mechanics (the physical actions), dynamics (the connection between the actions), and synthesis (combines knowledge with skills). The trainer's performance can make the difference in these programs. The trainer's most crucial skill is the ability to ask good questions and teach trainees how to ask good questions.

According to May XE "May, Gary L." and Kahnweiler XE "Kahnweiler, William M." , behavior modeling is currently the primary training design for delivery of supervisory interpersonal skills training in business today with the practice component the crux of behavior modeling training. The current behavior modeling training design presents five critical components to ensure effective learning: content overview (the facilitator identifies the skills to be learned and presents factual content about the topic), positive model demonstration or video (learners see the skills demonstrated, generally on video), skill practice (learners practice using and applying the skills in a one-on-one exercise), feedback (participants receive feedback on how well they used the skills), and application on the job (learners discuss how they will apply the skills in the workplace).

Behavior modeling is especially useful for skill training that involves both knowledge that specifies a correct or organizationally preferred mode of execution and doing that benefits appreciably from practice. The modeling display on film or tape is a critical part of the program and must be well designed so trainees can identify with it. There are four major factors which must be decided when designing the modeling display: creating the right balance between identification and credibility in the display while avoiding distractions, whether the performance anticipated should be perfect or coping, whether the content should be real or neutral, and whether the examples presented should be negative or positive. Good behavior modeling requires advance identification of desirable, manipulable, and selectively reinforceable behavior, and the skills that it will try to reach must be outlined in a set of learning points.

Research evidence indicated that videotape modeling demonstrations are as effective as live demonstrations. There are hazards, however, to making video models, and in order to avoid them, the following is recommended: scripted models, professional actors and actresses, professional directors, and a broadcast-quality studio. These practices will make it easier to control the variables required for pure, focused video models.

Research also demonstrated that alternating use of mental and physical practice tends to produce better results than either used alone. Rehearsing new behavior makes it more resistant to breakdown and aids long-term retention. Behavior modeling though is not without its critics. Russell, Wexley XE "Wexley, Kenneth N." , and Hunter XE "Hunter, John E." noted that in their study behavior modeling prompted an increase in learning and favorable reactions, but did not produce change in on-the-job behavior or improved performance while Parry and Reich observed that user concerns include the simplicity of the models, a lack of theory, boring classes, no use of wrong examples, and weak training transfer. They further criticize role-playing enactments (when used as part of behavior modeling) since they impinge on the reality of the workplace; one player is supposed to act as if they know what is going on so that the other can practice applying key learning points.

Robinson XE "Robinson, James C." and Gaines suggested that the firm determine whether behavior modeling is appropriate. The decision-making process starts when a possible training need is identified. The seven decisions are as follows: Does the performance deficiency pertain to a lack of skill or knowledge or is it due to other factors? Is the deficiency one of skill or one of knowledge? Can the trainers identify behaviors needed to overcome the skills deficiency? Can a positive credible model be demonstrated? Can each learner practice the skill? Will the new skills be reinforced? Is it cost beneficial?

Behavior modeling in the 21st century faces some new challenges including: increased technological, managerial, and organizational sophistication that requires more complex and different skills; workers in flattened or reengineered organizations have less time for traditional classroom training; fewer professional trainers are available to conduct classroom instruction; self-study programs on CD-ROM, on-line instruction, and other multimedia formats are increasingly popular. There is a plethora of well-produced multimedia programs, real-life simulations, and multiple decision-making opportunities available to develop an individual's interpersonal skills and the confidence to integrate and use them. Computer simulations are also far more realistic and can also provide an understanding of when and how to use specific skills.

Endnotes

Step 6

Fully Implement the Strategic Plan

Step 1

Strategy Inventory

Mission, Vision,

Values, Goals, Objectives

Policies, Procedures,

Rules

Strategy Direction

Need for Change

Step 7

Evaluate Results and Revise as Necessary, Challenge and Recycle the Process

Basic

Process

Continual Challenges

Full Periodic Recycling Process

Continuous Feedback Loops

Step 5

Formalize the Organizational Strategic Plan and Begin Implementing the Plan Incrementally

Step 4

Fit the Firm’s Resources and Mission with most viable External Opportunities

Step 3

Survey and Analyze the Internal Environment

Step 2

Survey and Analyze the External Environment

Friendly Service

Competitive Advantage (profits)

Lower

Operating Costs

Quick Plane Turnaround Time

No Frills Approach

Excellent Union/ Employee Relations

No Layoffs Even In Tough Times

Slow Expansion

High Liquidity

Herb Kelleher’s Leadership Style

Fun Loving Culture

Low Cost Strategy

Note: All Connections are Positive

Functional Relationships

Dysfunctional Relationships

Special Case Relationships

Parent

Parent

Adult

Adult

Child

Child

Matrix

Linking-Pin

Role

Integrating

Role

Team

Liaison

Role

Task

Force

Direct

Contact

Formal Approach

Informal Approach

� Excerpted from the 2001 Annual Report, 1-3; � HYPERLINK "http://www.southwest.com/investor_relations/swaar01.pdf" ��http://www.southwest. com/investor_relations/swaar01.pdf�, February 21, 2003.

� Robert F. Hartley� XE "Hartley, Robert F." � (2003). Management Mistakes and Successes. 7th Edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

� Ibid.

� Ibid, p. 242.

� Southwest 2001 Annual Report.

� � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Julie%20Bennett%20%20Special%20to%20the%20Tribune)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1045857993" \t "_parent" �Julie Bennett�� XE "Bennett, Julie" � (2002). “Nothing but Blue Skies ; Employees Help Southwest Avoid Turbulence” Chicago Tribune (November 10, Chicagoland Final Edition), 5.5.

� James F. Peltz� XE "Peltz, James F." � (2002). “Southwest Still Soaring as Other Airlines Stall; Rivals and Analysts are Watching Closely to See in Which Markets the Carrier Will Land Next” Los Angeles Times (October 6, Home Edition), C.1.

� Adam Bryant� XE "Bryant, Adam" � (2001-2). “Who's Next: James Parker, CEO, Southwest Airlines” Newsweek (December 31 – January 7) Volume 139, Issue 1, 184-185.

� � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Dale%20Dauten%20%20King%20Features%20Syndicate)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1045859778" \t "_parent" �Dale Dauten�� XE "Dauten, Dale" � (2001). “Good Laugh Great for Companies” Chicago Tribune (November 18, Chicagoland Final Edition), 7.

� Erin Strout� XE "Strout, Erin" � (2002). “Crafty or Crazy” Sales and Marketing Management (April) Volume 154, Issue 4, 28-33.

� Bryant� XE "Bryant, Adam" �, 2002, 185.

� Bennett� XE "Bennett, Julie" �, 2002, 5.5.

� � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Shivy%20%20Victoria%20A%20%20Phillips%20%20Susan%20D%20%20Koehly%20%20Laura%20M)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046098467" \t "_parent" �Victoria A. Shivy� XE "Shivy, Victoria A." �, Susan D. Phillips� XE "Phillips, Susan D." �, and Laura M. Koehly�� XE "Koehly, Laura M." � (1996). “Knowledge Organization as a Factor in Career Intervention Outcome: A Multidimensional Scaling Analysis” Journal of Counseling Psychology (April) Volume 43, Issue 2, 178-189.

� Ian A Miners, Michael L. Moore� XE "Moore, Michael L." �, Joseph E. Champoux� XE "Champoux, Joseph E." �, and Joseph J. Martocchio� XE "Martocchio, Joseph J." � (1994). “� HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000000018225&Fmt=6&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=13&Sid=3&RQT=309" �Organization Development Impacts Interrupted: A Multiyear Time-Serial Study of Absence and Other Time Uses�” Group & Organization Management (September) Volume 19, Issues 3, 363-395.

� Harold J. Leavitt� XE "Leavitt, Harold J." � and Homa Bahrami� XE "Bahrami, Homa" � (1988). Managerial Psychology: Managing Behavior in Organizations. 5th Edition. Chicago, Ill.: The University of Chicago Press.

� Anonymous (2003). “Business briefs / Houston & Texas” Houston Chronicle (February 15, Three Star Edition) , p. 2.

� William G. Dyer� XE "Dyer, William G." � (1981). “� HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000001321117&Fmt=1&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=7&Sid=5&RQT=309" �Selecting an Intervention for Organization Change�” Training and Development Journal (April) Volume 35, Issue 4, 62-68.

� Bruce M. � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Meglino%20%20Bruce%20M%20)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046270169" \t "_parent" �Meglino�� XE "Meglino, Bruce M." � and William H. � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Mobley%20%20William%20H%20)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046270169" \t "_parent" �Mobley�� XE "Mobley, William H." � (1977). “Minimizing Risk in Organization Development Interventions” Personnel (November-December) Volume 54, Issue 6, 23.

� William G. Zikmund� XE "Zikmund, William G." � (2003). Business Research Methods. 7th Edition. Mason, Oh.: South-Western.

� W. Warner � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Burke%20%20W%20%20Warner)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046274715" \t "_parent" �Burke� XE "Burke, W. Warner" �, �Lawrence P. � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Clark%20%20Lawrence%20P%20)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046274715" \t "_parent" �Clark� XE "Clark, Lawrence P." �, �and Cheryl � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Koopman%20%20Cheryl)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046274715" \t "_parent" �Koopman�� XE "Koopman, Cheryl" � (1984). “Improve Your OD Project's Chances for Success” Training and Development Journal (September) Volume 38, Issue 8, 62-66.

� A version of this discussion appears in Daniel J. Rowley� XE "Rowley, Daniel J." � and Herbert Sherman� XE "Sherman, Herbert" � (2001). From Strategy to Change: Implementing the Plan in Higher Education. San Francisco, Ca.: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

� Frank L Matthews (2003). “� HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000277245471&Fmt=4&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=1&Sid=1&RQT=309" �Professors: Higher Education's Change Agents�” Black Issues in Higher Education (January 2) Volume 19, Issue 23, 4; William D. Coplin� XE "Coplin, William D." � (2002). “� HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000252480831&Fmt=3&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=5&Sid=1&RQT=309" �The Professional Researcher as Change Agent in the Government-Performance Movement�” Public Administration Review (November/December) Volume 62, Issue. 6, 699-712; Adrian Furnham (2002). “� HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000172629991&Fmt=3&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=16&Sid=1&RQT=309" �Managers as Change Agents�” Journal of Change Management (August) Volume 3, Issue 1; 21-30; Myrtle P. Bell� XE "Bell, Myrtle P." �� XE "Bell, Cecil H., Jr." � (2002). “� HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000117638305&Fmt=3&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=32&Sid=1&RQT=309" �Discrimination, Harassment, and the Glass Ceiling: Women Executives as Change Agents�” Journal of Business Ethics (April)Volume 37, Issue 1, 65-77; Miriam Shuchman (2002). “� HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000107385656&Fmt=3&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=42&Sid=1&RQT=309&L=1" �Journalists as Change Agents in Medicine and Health Care�” JAMA (February 13) Volume 287, Issue 6, 776; Irvine Lapsley (2001). “� HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000091669120&Fmt=1&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=96&Sid=1&RQT=309" �Transforming the Public Sector: Management Consultants as Agents of Change�” European Accounting Review Volume 10, Issues. 3; 523; Edward E. Lawler, III� XE "Lawler, Edward E. III" � (2000). “� HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000055587800&Fmt=3&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=118&Sid=1&RQT=309" �Pay Can be a Change Agent�” Compensation & Benefits Management (Summer)Volume 16, Issue 3; 23-27; Thomas Hoffman� XE "Hoffman, Thomas" � (1999). “� HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000040128680&Fmt=3&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=167&Sid=1&RQT=309" �CIOs Tackle Role of Change Agent�” Computerworld (March 29)Volume 33, Issue 13,42; Eileen McMorrow (1999). “� HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000038524682&Fmt=4&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=175&Sid=1&RQT=309" �The Office as Change Agent�” Facilities Design & Management (January)Volume 18, Issue 1, 9.

� Ed Kur� XE "Kur, Ed" � (1998). “� HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000029207057&Fmt=1&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=2&Sid=10&RQT=309" �Why Some Successful Change Agents Last and Others Don't�” Employment Relations Today (Spring) Volume 25, Issue 1, 39-59.

� � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Dave%20Buchanan)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046185501" \t "_parent" �Dave Buchanan�� XE "Buchanan, Dave" �, � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Tim%20Claydon)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046185501" \t "_parent" �Tim Claydon�� XE "Claydon, Tim" � and � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Mike%20Doyle)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046185501" \t "_parent" �Mike Doyle�� XE "Doyle, Mike" �� XE "Doyle, J.R." � (1999). “Organisation Development and Change: The Legacy of the Nineties” Human Resource Management Journal Volume 9, Issue 2, 20-37.

� Mike Doyle� XE "Doyle, Mike" �� XE "Doyle, J.R." � (2002). “Selecting Managers for Transformational Change” Human Resource Management Journal Volume 12, Issue 1, 3-16.

� Buchanan� XE "Buchanan, Dave" �, Claydon� XE "Claydon, Tim" �, and Doyle� XE "Doyle, J.R." �, 1999.

� Edward J. Cripe� XE "Cripe, Edward J." � (1993). “How to Get Top-Notch Change Agents” Training & Development (December) Volume 47, Issue 12, 52-57.

� James L. Eubanks� XE "Eubanks, James L." �, Julie B. Marshall� XE "Marshall, Julie B." �, and Michael P. O’Driscoll� XE "O’Driscoll, Michael P." � (1990). “� HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000000818101&Fmt=6&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=15&Sid=14&RQT=309" �A Competency Model for OD Practitioners�” Training and Development Journal (November) Volume 44, Issue 11, 85-89.

� Alan � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Carey%20%20Alan)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046291241" \t "_parent" �Carey�� XE "Carey, Alan" � and Glen H. � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Varney%20%20Glenn%20H%20)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046291241" \t "_parent" �Varney�� XE "Varney, Glen H." � (1983). “Which Skills Spell Success in OD?” �Training and Development Journal (April) Volume 37, Issue 4, 38-40.

� Robert O. Metzger� XE "Metzger, Robert O." � (1989). “With So Many Consultants, Why Aren't We Better” Journal of Management Consulting, Volume 5, Issue 3, 9-14.

� Jerome L. Franklin� XE "Franklin, Jerome L." � (1976). “Characteristics of Successful and Unsuccessful Organization Development”

The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science (October-December) Volume 12, Issue 4, 471.

� Kevin C. � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Wooten%20%20Kevin%20C%20)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046188634" \t "_parent" �Wooten�� XE "Wooten, Kevin C." � and Louis P. � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(White%20%20Louis%20P%20)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046188634" \t "_parent" �White�� XE "White, Louis P." � (1983). “Ethical Problems in the Practice of Organization Development “ Training and Development Journal (April) Volume 37, Issue 4, 16-22.

� R. Glenn Ray� XE "Ray, R. Glenn" � (1997). “� HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000013122802&Fmt=3&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=3&Sid=10&RQT=309" �Developing Internal Consultants�” Training & Development (July) Volume 51, Issue 7, 30-4.

� � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Judith%20Ann%20Chapman)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046196599" \t "_parent" �Judith A. Chapman�� XE "Chapman, Judith A." � (2002). “A Framework for Transformational Change in Organizations” Leadership & Organization Development Journal Volume 23, Issue 1/2, 16-25; Doyle� XE "Doyle, J.R." �, 2002.

� Mike Doyle� XE "Doyle, Mike" �� XE "Doyle, J.R." � (2002). “From Change Novice to Change Expert: Issues of Learning, Development and Support” Personnel Review Volume 31, Issue 4, 465-481.

� Buchanan� XE "Buchanan, Dave" �, Claydon� XE "Claydon, Tim" �, and Doyle� XE "Doyle, J.R." �, 1999.

� A version of this discussion appears in Rowley� XE "Rowley, Daniel J." � and Sherman� XE "Sherman, Herbert" �, 2001.

� James F. Gavin� XE "Gavin, James F." � and S. Morton � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(McPhail%20%20S%20%20Morton)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046268700" \t "_parent" �McPhail�� XE "McPhail, S. Morton" � (1978). “Intervention and Evaluation: A Proactive Team Approach to OD” The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science (April/May� XE "May, Gary L." �/June) Volume 14, Issue 2, 175.

� Michael � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Beer%20%20Michael)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046267523" \t "_parent" �Beer�� XE "Beer, Michael" � and Russell A. � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Eisenstat%20%20Russell%20A)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046267523" \t "_parent" �Eisenstat�� XE "Eisenstat, Russell A." � (1996). “Developing an Organization Capable of Implementing Strategy and Learning” Human Relations (May� XE "May, Gary L." �) Volume 49, Issue 5, 597-619.

� Gail Scott� XE "Scott, Gail" � (2002). “� HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000219631791&Fmt=4&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=15&Sid=1&RQT=309" �Coach, Challenge, Lead: Developing an Indispensable Management Team�” Healthcare Executive (November/Decemeber) Volume 17, Issue 6, 16-20.

� Howard W. Timm� XE "Timm, Howard W." � (1980). “Selecting Appropriate Organisation Development Interventions” �Work & People Volume 6, Issue 1, 15.

� David Coghlan� XE "Coghlan, David" � and Rachel K. McKee� XE "McKee, Rachel K." � (2000). “Aligning Grid Organization Development and Interlevel Dynamics for Systemic Change” Organization Development Journal (Fall) Volume 18, Issue 3, 37-48.

� Kamalesh Kumar� XE "Kumar, Kamalesh" � and Mary S. Thidbodeaux� XE "Thidbodeaux, Mary S." � (1990). “� HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000000480206&Fmt=6&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=45&Sid=8&RQT=309" �Organizational Politics and Planned Organization Change: A Pragmatic Approach�” Group & Organization Studies (December)Volume 15, Issue 4, 357-365; Nicholas S. � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Rashford%20%20Nicholas%20S%20%20%20Coghlan%20%20David)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046292818" \t "_parent" �Rashford and David Coghlan�� XE "Coghlan, David" � (1988). “Organisational Levels: A Framework for Management Training and Development” Journal of European Industrial Training Volume 12, Issue 4, 28-32; David Coughlan (1987). “Consultation on Organisational Levels: An Intervention Framework” Leadership & Organization Development Journal Volume 8, Issue 3, 3-7.

� Based upon the model presented in Wendell L. French� XE "French, Wendell L." � and Cecil H. Bell, Jr.� XE "Bell, Cecil H., Jr." � (2000). Organization Development: Behavioral Science Interventions for Organization Improvement. 6th Edition. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Not meant to be an exhaustive list.

� Peter J. � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Robertson%20%20Peter%20J)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046297576" \t "_parent" �Robertson�� XE "Robertson, Peter J." �, Darryl R. � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Roberts%20%20Darryl%20R)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046297576" \t "_parent" �Roberts� XE "Roberts, Darryl R." �, �and Jerry I. � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Porras%20%20Jerry%20I)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046297576" \t "_parent" �Porras�� XE "Porras, Jerry I." � (1993). “Dynamics of Planned Organizational Change: Assessing Empirical Support for a Theoretical Model” Academy of Management Journal (June) Volume 36, Issue 3, 619-634.

� � HYPERLINK "http://www.findarticles.com/cf_dls/g2699/0003/2699000309/p1/article.jhtml" ��http://www.findarticles.com/cf_dls/g2699/0003/2699000309/p1/article.jhtml�, February 27, 2003.

� � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Jane%20Whitney%20Gibson)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046355465" \t "_parent" �Jane W. Gibson�� XE "Gibson, Jane W." � and � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Dana%20V%20Tesone)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046355465" \t "_parent" �Dana V. Tesone�� XE "Tesone, Dana V." � (2001). “Management Fads: Emergence, Evolution, and Implications for Managers” The Academy of Management Executive (November) Volume 15, Issue 4, 122-133.

�Paul� XE "Paul, Marcia" � Sachdey� XE "Sachdey, Paul" � (1997). “� HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000011516605&Fmt=1&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=17&Sid=4&RQT=309" �Cultural Sensitivity Training through Experiential Learning: A Participatory Demonstration Field Education Project�” International Social Work (January) Volume 40, Issue 1, 7-25; Marianne Wilson� XE "Wilson, Marianne" � (1995). “� HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000006653565&Fmt=3&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=31&Sid=4&RQT=309" �Diversity in the Workplace�” Chain Store Age Executive with Shopping Center Age (June) Volume 71, Issue 6, 21-23.

� Elliot Aronson� XE "Aronson, Elliot" � (1980). The Social Animal. 3rd Edition. San Francisco, Ca.: W.H. Freeman and Company.

� Edgar F. Huse� XE "Huse, Edgar F." � and Thomas G. Cummings� XE "Cummings, Thomas G." � (1985). Organization Development and Change. 3rd Edition. St. Paul� XE "Paul, Marcia" �, Minn.: West Publishing Company.

� Robert T. Golembiewski� XE "Golembiewski, Robert T." � (1967). “The ‘Laboratory Approach’ to Organization Change: Schema of a Method” Public Administration Review (September) Volume 27, Issue 3, 211-221.

� see Gibson and Tesone� XE "Tesone, Dana V." �, 2001; Robert E. Kaplan� XE "Kaplan, Robert E." � (1986). “� HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000001108074&Fmt=1&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=6&Sid=4&RQT=309" �Is Openness Passe?�” Human Relations (March) Volume 39, Issue 3, 229-243.

� Cary L. Cooper� XE "Cooper, Cary L." � (1977). “� HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000001272665&Fmt=1&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=10&Sid=5&RQT=309" �Taking the Terror Out of T G�roups” Personnel Management (January) Volume 9, Issue 1, 22.

� A version of this discussion appears in Rowley� XE "Rowley, Daniel J." � and Sherman� XE "Sherman, Herbert" �, 2001.

� David Sims� XE "Sims, David" � and Sue Jones� XE "Jones, Sue" � (1985). “ Mapping as an Aid to Creativity” The Journal of Management Development Volume 4, Issue 1, 47-60.

� Karl E. Weick� XE "Weick, Karl E." �, (1979). The Social Psychology of Organizing. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

� Pierre Cossette� XE "Cossette, Pierre" � and Michel Audet� XE "Audet, Michel" � (1992). “Mapping of an Idiosyncratic Schema” The Journal of Management Studies (May� XE "May, Gary L." �) Volume 29, Issue 3, 325-347.

� � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Robert%20D%20Russell)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046811471" \t "_parent" �Robert D. Russell�� XE "Russell, Robert D." � (1999). “Developing a Process Model of Intrapreneurial Systems: A Cognitive Mapping Approach” Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice (Spring) Volume 23, Issue 3, 65-84.

� Marcia Paul� XE "Paul, Marcia" � (1994). “Mapping Your Organization” Training & Development (February) Volume 48, Issue 2, 59-60.

� David B.P. Sims� XE "Sims, David B.P." � and J.R. Doyle� XE "Doyle, J.R." � (1995). “Cognitive Sculpting as a Means of Working with Managers' Metaphors” Omega (April) Volume 23, Issue 2, 117-124.

� Eric Berne� XE "Berne, Eric" � (1964). Games People Play. New York: Grove Press.

� L. David Brown� XE "Brown, L. David" � (1983). Managing Conflict at Organizational Interfaces. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

� W. Warner Burke� XE "Burke, W. Warner" � (1982). Organization Development: Principles and Practices. Boston, Mass.: Little, Brown and Company.

� Huner R. Hollar� XE "Hollar, Huner R." � and O.C. Brenner� XE "Brenner, O.C." � (1983). “TA in the Office” Supervisory Management (January) Volume 28, Issue 1, 14-22.

� Ron Clements� XE "Clements, Ron" � (1977/8). “Transactional Analysis: A Psychological Approach to Problem Solving” Manchester Business School Review (Winter) Volume 2, Issue 3, 12.

� Julie Hay� XE "Hay, Julie" � (1992). “The Uses and Abuses of Transactional Analysis” Target Management Development Review Volume 5, Issue 1, pg. 37-40.

� Edgar H. Schein� XE "Schein, Edgar H." �� XE "Schein, Edgar" � (1969). Process Consultation: Its Role in Organization Development. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley publishing Company.

� Edgar H. Schein� XE "Schein, Edgar H." �� XE "Schein, Edgar" � (1997). “The Concept of "Client" From a Process Consultation Perspective: A Guide for Change Agents” Journal of Organizational Change Management Volume 10, Issue 3, 202-216.

� Edgar H. Schein� XE "Schein, Edgar H." �� XE "Schein, Edgar" � (1995). “Process Consultation, Action Research and Clinical Inquiry: Are They the Same?” Journal of Managerial Psychology Volume 10, Issue 6, 14-19.

� David Coghlan� XE "Coghlan, David" � (1988). “In Defence of Process Consultation” Leadership & Organization Development Journal Volume 9, Issue 2, 27-31.

�� HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Cash%20%20William%20B%20)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046969297" \t "_parent" �William B.� Cash� XE "Cash, William B." � and Robert L. � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Minter%20%20Robert%20L%20)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046969297" \t "_parent" �Minter�� XE "Minter, Robert L." � (1979). “Consulting Approaches: Two Basic Styles” Training and Development Journal (September) Volume 33, Issue 9, 26.

� � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Lind%20%20Jorgen%20Svava)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046968236" \t "_parent" � Jorgen Svava� Lind� XE "Lind, Jorgen Svava" � (1990). “Improving Process Consultation in Business and Organizations” International Journal of Technology Management Volume 5, Issue 6, 742-745.

� Schein� XE "Schein, Edgar" �, 1995.

� Robert E. Kaplan� XE "Kaplan, Robert E." � (1979). “The Conspicuous Absence of Evidence that Process Consultation Enhances Task Performance” The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science (July/August/September) Volume 15, Issue 3, 346; Raanan � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Lipshitz%20%20Raanan)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046969838" \t "_parent" �Lipshitz, �and John J. � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Sherwood%20%20John%20J%20)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046969838" \t "_parent" �Sherwood� (1978). “The Effectiveness of Third-Party Process Consultation as a Function of the Consultant's Prestige an Style of Intervention” The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science (October/November/December) Volume 14, Issue 4, 493; David G. Bowers (1973). “OD Techniques and Their Results In 23 Organizations - The Michigan ICL Study” The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science (January/February) Volume 9, Issue 1, 21.

� Jean Gordon� XE "Gordon, Jean" � (2002). “A Perspective on Team Building” Journal of American Academy of Business, Cambridge (September) Volume 2, Issue 1, 185-188.

� George S. Neuman� XE "Neuman, George S." �, Jack E. Edwards� XE "Edwards, Jack E." �, and Nambury S. Raju� XE "Raju, Nambury S." � (1989). “� HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000000743109&Fmt=6&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=112&Sid=13&RQT=309" �Organizational Development Interventions: A Meta-Analysis �of Their Effects on Satisfaction and Other Attitudes” Personnel Psychology (Autumn) Volume 42, Issue 3, 461-489.

� � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Penny%20L%20Ciaburri)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1047071533" \t "_parent" �Penny L. Ciaburri�� XE "Ciaburri, Penny L." � (1998). “Building the Team or Team Building? There's a Big Difference. Rough Notes (January) Volume 141, Issue 1, 84-85.

� Jim Temme� XE "Temme, Jim" � (1995). “Team Formation: Don't Just Hope for Success, Plan for it Step by Step” Plant Engineering (July 10) Volume 49, Issue 9, 126-127.

� Donald D. Tippett� XE "Tippett, Donald D." � and James F. Peters� XE "Peters, James F." �� XE "Peters, Thomas J." � (1995). “Team Building and Project Management: How are we Doing?” Project Management Journal (December) Volume 26, Issue 4, 29-37.

� Ben Tanzer� XE "Tanzer, Ben" � (2002). “Zen and the Art of Team Building” Nonprofit World (January/February) Volume 20, Issue 1, 27-8.

� Jim Temme� XE "Temme, Jim" � (1995). “Building Teams: Becoming an Effective Team Means Listening, Counseling” Plant Engineering (October 9) Volume 49, Issue 3, 156-157.

� � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Deborah%20S%20Kezsbom)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1047054879" \t "_parent" �Deborah S. Kezsbom�� XE "Kezsbom, Deborah S." � (2002). “A Personal Viewpoint...Team Building Lessons We Still Need to Learn” Cost Engineering (April) Volume 44, Issue 4, 42.

� Charles Macadam� XE "Macadam, Charles" � (1994). “Making the Most of Your Team” Training Tomorrow (October), pgs. 33-34.

� Donna Robbins� XE "Robbins, Donna" � (1993). “The Dark Side of Team Building” Training & Development (December) Volume 47, Issue 12, 17-21.

� William G. Dyer� XE "Dyer, William G." � (1977). Team Building: Issues and Alternatives. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

� Charles R. Stoner� XE "Stoner, Charles R." � and Richard I. Hartman� XE "Hartman, Richard I." � (1993). “Team building: Answering the Tough Questions” Business Horizons (September/October) Volume 36, Issue 5, 70-78.

� Jay S. Liebowitz� XE "Liebowitz, Jay S." � and Kenneth P. DeMeuse� XE "De Meuse, Kenneth P." � (1982). “The Application of Team Building” �Human Relations (January) Volume 35, Issue 1, 1-17.

� The description of the team building process is summarized from Dyer, 1977.

� Neil � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Oliver%20%20Neil%20%20Langford%20%20John)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1047077947" \t "_parent" �Oliver� XE "Oliver, Neil" � and John Langford�� XE "Langford, John" � (1987). “Safety in Team Building -- The Contracting Process” Industrial and Commercial Training (September/October) Volume 19, Issue 5, 3-5.

� French� XE "French, Wendell L." � and Bell� XE "Bell, Cecil H., Jr." �, 1999.

� The description of lateral relations is summarized from Jay Galbraith� XE "Galbraith, Jay R." � (1973). Designing Complex Organizations. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

� Developed from Jay Galbraith� XE "Galbraith, Jay R." � (1977). Organization Design. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

� Richard Beckhard (1969). Organization Development: Strategies and Models. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

� George S. Odiorne� XE "Odiorne, George S." � (1981). “Management by Objectives” in Stephen R. Michael� XE "Michael, Stephen R." � et al. (1981). Techniques of Organizational Change. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 89-136.

� James R. Evans� XE "Evans, James R." � and James W. Dean, Jr.� XE "Dean, James W., Jr." � (2003). Total Quality: Management, Organization and Strategy. 3rd Edition. Mason, Oh.: South-Western.

� Rosabeth M. Kanter� XE "Kanter, Rosabeth M." � (1983). The Change Masters: Innovation for Productivity in the American Corporation. New York: Simon and Schuster.

� A version of this discussion appears in Rowley� XE "Rowley, Daniel J." � and Sherman� XE "Sherman, Herbert" �, 2001.

� Jay R. Galbraith� XE "Galbraith, Jay R." � (2002). Designing Organizations: An Executive Guide to Strategy, Structure, and Process. New and Revised. San Francisco, Ca.: Jossey- Bass.

� Seth Silver� XE "Silver, Seth" � (2001). “Power to the People” Training (October) Volume 38, Issue 10, 88.

� Robert H. Waterman, Jr.� XE "Waterman, Robert H., Jr." � (1987). The Renewal Factor: How the Best Get and Keep The Competitive Edge. New York: Bantam Books.

� Gary Yukl� XE "Yukl, Gary" � (1990). Skills for Managers and Leaders: Text, Cases and Exercises. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.

� Jennifer S. Macleod� XE "Macleod, Jennifer S." � (1986). “Self-Empowerment Training Programs for Employees” Employment Relations Today Volume 13, Issue 1, 33-36.

� Micahel Gering� XE "Gering, Micahel" � (2003). “The Ten Commandments of Empowerment” Accountancy SA (January), p. 9.

� Karen Lawson� XE "Lawson, Karen" � (2001). “Build Your Business From the Inside Out: Four Keys to Employee Empowerment that Will Help Your Business Grow “ Business Credit (March) Volume 103, Issue 3, 8-10.

� French� XE "French, Wendell L." � and Bell� XE "Bell, Cecil H., Jr." �, 1999.

� � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Carolina%20Gomez)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1047326244" \t "_parent" �Carolina Gomez�� XE "Gomez, Carolina" � and � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Benson%20Rosen)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1047326244" \t "_parent" �Benson Rosen�� XE "Rosen, Benson" � (2001) “The Leader-Member Exchange as a Link Between Managerial Trust and Employee Empowerment” Group & Organization Management (March) Volume 26, Issue 1, 53-69.

�David A. Whetten� XE "Whetten, David A." � and Kim S. Cameron� XE "Cameron, Kim S." � (1993). Developing Management Skills: Gaining Influence and Power. New York: Harper-Collins College Publishers.

� � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Dafna%20Eylon)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1047327676" \t "_parent" �Dafna Evlon�� XE "Evlon, Dafna" � and � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Susan%20Herman)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1047327676" \t "_parent" �Susan Herman�� XE "Herman, Susan" � (1999). “Exploring Empowerment: One Method for the Classroom” Journal of Management Education (February) Volume 32, Issue 1, 80-94.

� Lisa A. Mainiero� XE "Mainiero, Lisa A." � and Cheryl L. Tromley� XE "Tromley, Cheryl L." � (1994). Developing Managerial Skills in Organizational Behavior. 2nd Edition. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

� Thomas G. Cummings� XE "Cummings, Thomas G." �, Judith F. Blumenthal, and Larry E. Greiner� XE "Greiner, Larry E." � “Managing Organizational Decline: The Case for Transorganizational Systems” Human Resource Management (Winter) Volume 22, Issue 4, 377-390.

� Russell L. Ackoff� XE "Ackoff, Russell L." � (1994). The Democratic Corporation: A Radical Prescription for Recreating Corporate America and Rediscovering Success. New York: Oxford University Press.

� Joanne C. � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Preston%20%20Joanne%20C)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1047331688" \t "_parent" �Preston�� XE "Preston, Joanne C." � and Louw � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(DuToit%20%20Louw)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1047331688" \t "_parent" �DuToit�� XE "DuToit, Louw" � (1992). “Large Systems Change: Issues Related to the Strategy” Journal of Organizational Change Management Volume 5, Issue 3, 7-17.

� Thomas G. Cummings� XE "Cummings, Thomas G." � (1989). “Transorganizational Development” Academy of Management OD Newsletter (Summer), p.9.

� Alexis A. Halley� XE "Halley, Alexis A." � (1994). “Applications of Transorganizational Development to Congressional-Executive Relations” Public Administration Quarterly (Summer) Volume 18, Issue 2, 177-203.

� James D. Thompson� XE "Thompson, James D." � (1967). Organizations in Action: Social Science Bases of Administrative Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.

� Stephen P. Robbins� XE "Robbins, Stephen P." � (1990). Organization Theory: Structure, Design, and Applications. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

� Jeffrey Pfeffer� XE "Pfeffer, Jeffrey" � and Gerald R. Salancik� XE "Salancik, Gerald R." � (1978). The External Control of Organizations: A Resource Dependence Perspective. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers.

� C. Wright Mills� XE "Mills, C. Wright" � (1956). The Power Elite. New York: Oxford University Press; Harold Seidman� XE "Seidman, Harold" � and Robert Gilmour� XE "Gilmour, Robert" � (1986). Politics, Position, and Power: From the Positive to the Regulatory State. 4th Edition. New York: Oxford University Press.

� Aaron Wildavsky� XE "Wildavsky, Aaron" � (1984). The Politics of the Budgetary Process. Boston, Mass.: Little, Brown and Company.

� A modified version. From Don Hellriegel� XE "Hellriegel, Don" � and John W. Slocum, Jr.� XE "Slocum, John W. Jr." � (2004). Organizational Behavior. 10th Edition. Mason, Oh.: South-Western, p. 418.

� Jerry Kanter� XE "Kanter, Jerry" �� XE "Kanter, Rosabeth M." � (2003). “� HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000200172061&Fmt=1&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=2&Sid=6&RQT=309" �Planning and Managing Your Career�” Information Strategy (Winter) Volume 19, Issue 2, 43-48.

� Edwin L. Herr� XE "Herr, Edwin L." � (2002). “Career Development and its Practice: A Historical Perspective” in Fred H. Maidment (ed.) Annual Editions: Human Resources 02/03. 12th Edition. Guilford, Conn.: McGraw-Hill/Duskin.

� Julia Hordle� XE "Hordle, Julia" � (2002). “� HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000274416511&Fmt=1&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=34&Sid=7&RQT=309" �Managing Your Own Career: Lifestyles, Economic Cycles and Counter-Cyclicals�” Business Information Review (December)Volume 19, Issue 4, 40-45.

� Andrew Mayo� XE "Mayo, Andrew" � (1992). “� HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?Did=000000000731153&Fmt=3&Deli=1&Mtd=1&Idx=40&Sid=9&RQT=309" �A Framework for Career Management�” Personnel Management (February)Volume 24, Issue 2, 36-39.

� Richard N. Bolles� XE "Bolles, Richard N." � (1993). What Color is Your Parachute: A Practical Manual for Job Hunters & Career-Changers. 21st Edition. Berkeley, Ca.: Ten Speed Press.

� Angelo S. DeNisi� XE "DeNisi, Angelo S." � and Ricky W. Griffin� XE "Griffin, Ricky W." � (2001). Human Resource Management. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

� Susan C. Whiston� XE "Whiston, Susan C." � and Briana K. Brecheisen� XE "Brecheisen, Briana K." � (2002). “Practice and Research in Career Counseling and Development—2001” The Career Development Quarterly (December) Volume 51, Issue 2, 98-154.

� Susan Cramm� XE "Cramm, Susan" � (2001). “Go Team, Go” CIO (May� XE "May, Gary L." �) Volume 14, Issue 14, 52-54.

� Kenneth N. Wexley� XE "Wexley, Kenneth N." � and Gary P. Latham� XE "Latham, Gary P." � (1981). Developing and Training Human Resources in Organizations. Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Foresman and Company.

� Jim Niemes� XE "Niemes, Jim" � (2002). “Discovering the Value of Executive Coaching as a Business Transformation Tool” Journal of Organizational Excellence (Autumn) Volume 21, Issue 4, 61-69.

� Terri L. Norvell� XE "Norvell, Terri L." � (1998). “From Goal-Setting to Goal-Getting: With a Little Help from your Coach” Journal of Property Management (January/February) Volume 63, Issue 1, 14-16.

� Roy Johnson� XE "Johnson, Roy B." � (1998). “Get Ahead, Get a Coach” The British Journal of Administrative Management (January/February), pgs. 8-9.

� R. Richard Ritti� XE "Ritti, R. Richard" � (1994). Ropes to Skip and the Ropes to Know. 4th Edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

� Baron Goldsmith� XE "Goldsmith, Baron" � (2003). “Creating a Company Mentoring Program” Office Solutions (January/February) Volume 20, Issue 1, 42-43.

� � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Chao%20%20Georgia%20T%20)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046717592" \t "_parent" �Chao, Georgia T.�� XE "Chao, Georgia T." �, Pat M. � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Walz%20%20Pat%20M%20)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046717592" \t "_parent" �Walz� XE "Walz, Pat M." �, �and Philip D. � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Gardner%20%20Philip%20D%20)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046717592" \t "_parent" �Gardner�� XE "Gardner, Philip D." � (1992). “Formal and Informal Mentorships: A Comparison on Mentoring Functions and Contrast with Nonmentored Counterparts” Personnel Psychology (Autumn) Volume 45, Issue 3, 619-636.

� � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Charles%20R%20McConnell)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046721755" \t "_parent" �Charles R. McConnell�� XE "McConnell, Charles R." � (1997). “Effective Employee Counseling for the First-Line Supervisor” The Health Care Supervisor (September) Volume 16, Issue 1, 77-86.

� Robert L. Minter� XE "Minter, Robert L." � and � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Edward%20G%20Thomas)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046719979" \t "_parent" �Edward G. Thomas�� XE "Thomas, Edward G." � (2000). “Employee Development Through Coaching, Mentoring and Counseling: A Multidimensional Approach” Review of Business (Spring) Volume 21, Issue 1/2, 43-47.

� McConnell� XE "McConnell, Charles R." �, 1997.

� Carolyn Petersen� XE "Peterson, Carolyn" � (1997). “Employee-Assistance Programs Shaping ‘Lean and Mean’ Firms” Managed Healthcare (August) Volume 7, Issue 8, pgs. 6, 10-11.

� Mark S. Teachout� XE "Teachout, Mark S." � and Carig R. Hall� XE "Hall, Craig R." � (2003). “Implementing Training: Some Practical Guidelines” in Jerry W. Hedge and Elaine D. Pulakos (eds.) Implementing Organizational Interventions: Steps, Processes, and Best Practices. San Francisco, Ca.: Jossey-Bass.

� Wexley� XE "Wexley, Kenneth N." � and Latham� XE "Latham, Gary P." �, 1981.

� Stan Camarius� XE "Camarius, Stan" � (1981). “A New Approach to Designing Training Programs” Training and Development Journal (February) Volume 35, Issue 2, 40.

� William R. Tracey� XE "Tracey, William R." � (1992). Designing Training and Development Systems. 3rd Edition. New York: AMACOM.

� Raynold A. Svenson� XE "Svenson, Raynold A." � and Monica J. Rinderer� XE "Rinderer, Monica J." � (1992). The Training and Development Strategic Plan Workbook. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

� see Daniel J. Rowley� XE "Rowley, Daniel J." �, Herman D. Lujan� XE "Lujan, Herman D." �, and Michael G. Dolence� XE "Dolence, Michael G." � (1998). Strategic Choices for the Academy: How Demand for Lifelong Learning Will Re-Create Higher Education. San Francisco, Ca.: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 158-163 for a description and examples of Corporate Universities.

� Lyman W. Porter� XE "Porter, Lyman W." �� XE "Porter, Michael E." � and Lawrence E. McKibbin� XE "McKibbin, Lawrence E." � (1988). Management Education and Development: Drift or Thrust into the 21st Century? New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.

� Svenson and Rinderer, 1992.

� Wexley� XE "Wexley, Kenneth N." � and Latham� XE "Latham, Gary P." �, 1981.

� Peter Gorb� XE "Gorb, Peter" � (1978). “Management Development for the Small Firm” Personnel Management (January) Volume 10, Issue 1, 24.

� Lester A. Digman� XE "Digman, Lester A." � (1980). “Management Development: Needs and Practices” Personnel (July/August) Volume 57, Issue 4, 45.

� Ricky W. Griffin� XE "Griffin, Ricky W." � (1982). Task Design: An Integrative Approach. Glenview, Ill: Scott, Foresman and Company.

� J. Richard Hackman� XE "Hackman, J. Richard" � and Greg R. Oldham� XE "Oldham, Greg R." � (1976). "Motivation Through the Design of Work : Test of a Theory" Organizational Behavior and Human Performance (August) Volume 16, Issue 2, 250-256.

� Francis Ulschak� XE "Ulschak, Francis L." � (1983). Human Resource Development: The Theory and Practice of Need Assessment. Reston, VA.: Reston Publishing Company.

� Lisa A. Mainiero� XE "Mainiero, Lisa A." � and Cheryl L. Tromley� XE "Tromley, Cheryl L." � (1994). Developing Managerial Skills in Organizational Behavior: Exercises, Cases, and Readings. 2nd Edition. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice- Hall, Inc.

� Ingo Von Ruckteschell� XE "Von Ruckteschell, Ingo" � (1991). “Building a Theory of Employee Participation” The Journal for Quality and Participation (July/August) Volume 14, Issue 4, 42-51.

� � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Carol%20Reineck)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046805261" \t "_parent" �Carol Reineck�� XE "Reineck, Carol" � (2002). “Leadership's Guiding Light, Part 2: Create a Learning Organization” Nursing Management (October) Volume 33, Issue 10, 42-43.

� � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Gail%20L%20Ingersoll)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046805442" \t "_parent" �Gail L. Ingersoll�� XE "Ingersoll, Gail L." �, � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Lois%20Wagner)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046805442" \t "_parent" �Lois Wagner�� XE "Wagner, Lois" �, � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Sonna%20Ehrlich%20Merck)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046805442" \t "_parent" �Sonna Ehrlich-Merck�� XE "Ehrlich-Merck, Sonna" �, � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Janet%20C%20Kirsch)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046805442" \t "_parent" �Janet C. Kirsch�� XE "Kirsch, Janet C." � (2002). “Patient-Focused Redesign and Employee Perception of Work Environment” Nursing Economics (July/August) Volume 20, Issue 4, 163-171.

� Frank � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Heckman%20%20Frank)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046806314" \t "_parent" �Heckman�� XE "Heckman, Frank" � (1996). “The Participative Design Approach” The Journal for Quality and Participation (March) Volume 19, Issue 2, 48-51; Kym Fraser� XE "Fraser, Kym" � and Joseph Novak� XE "Novak, Joseph" � (1998). “Managing the Empowerment of Employees to Address Issues of Inter-Employee Co-operation, Communication and Work Redesign” The Learning Organization Volume 5, Issue 3, 109-120; Aneil K. Mishra� XE "Mishra, Aneil K." � and Gretchen M. Spreitzer� XE "Spreitzer, Gretchen M." � (1998). “Explaining How Survivors Respond to Downsizing: The Role of Trust, Empowerment, Justice, and Work Redesign” The Academy of Management Review (July) Volume 23, Issue 3, 567-578.

� Kenneth E. Hultman� XE "Hultman, Kenneth E." � (1986). “Behavior Modeling for Results” Training and Development Journal (December) Volume 40, Issue 12, 60-63.

� � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Gary%20L%20May)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046871507" \t "_parent" �Gary L. May�� XE "May, Gary L." � and � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(William%20M%20Kahnweiler)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046871507" \t "_parent" �William M. Kahnweiler�� XE "Kahnweiler, William M." � (2000). “The Effect of a Mastery Practice Design on Learning and Transfer in Behavior Modeling Training” Personnel Psychology (Summer) Volume 53, Issue 2, 353-373.

� Alice � HYPERLINK "http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=305&SQ=AUTHOR(Pescuric%20%20Alice)&SMR=1&SAid=0&SAName=sa_menu&JSEnabled=1&TS=1046872567" \t "_parent" �Pescuric�� XE "Pescuric, Alice" � and William C. Byham� XE "Byham, William C." � (1996). “The New Look of Behavior Modeling” Training & Development (July) Volume 50, Issue 7, 24-30.

� Ron Zemke� XE "Zemke, Ron" � (1982). “Building Behavior Models That Work-the Way You Want Them to/More Hints on Successful Modeling” Training (January) Volume 19, Issue 1, 22-26.

� William R. Daniels� XE "Daniels, William R." � (1981). “How to Make and Evaluate Video Models” Training and Development Journal (December) Volume 35, Issue 12; 31-33.

� William M. Fox� XE "Fox, William M." � (1988). “Getting The Most From Behavior Modeling Training” National Productivity Review ( Summer) Volume 7, Issue 3, 238-245.

� James S. Russell� XE "Russell, James S." �, Kenneth N. Wexley� XE "Wexley, Kenneth N." �, and John E. Hunter� XE "Hunter, John E." � (1984). “Questioning the Effectiveness of Behavior Modeling Training in an Industrial Setting” Personnel Psychology (Autumn) Volume 37, Issue 3, 465-481; Scott B. Parry� XE "Parry, Scott B" � (1984). “An Uneasy Look at Behavior Modeling” Training and Development Journal (March) Volume 38, Issue 3, 57-62.

� James C. Robinson� XE "Robinson, James C." � and Dana L. Gaines� XE "Gaines, Dana L." � (1980). “Seven Questions to Ask Yourself Before Using Behavior Modeling” Training (December) Volume 17, Issue 12, 60.

� William C. Byham� XE "Byham, William C." � and Alice Pescuric� XE "Pescuric, Alice" � (1996). “Behavior Modeling at the Teachable Moment “ Training (December) Volume 33, Issue 12, 50-56.