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Communication researchers, concerned with gathering complete, valid, and reproducible results, are being encouraged to use a group of qualitative research methods for studying business communication. The question that intuitively arises, then, is whether qualitative methods are increasingly utilized in pub- lished business communication research. This paper addresses the call for qualitative research m business communication, describes qualitative research methods with examples of business communication articles in which qualitative and qualitative/quantitative methods were used effectively, and presents an analysis of research methods used in articles published m three business com- munication journals during the last four years. The paper concludes with recommendations for business communication research.

Qualitative Hesearch in Business Communication: A Review and Analysis Mary L. Tucker Karen Sterkel Powell Colorado State University

G. Dale Meyer Universiiy of Cotorado at Boulder

/"lommunication has been studied for over 2,500 years and has \^ been recognized as increasingly more important during the last 30 years (Hickson & Jennings, 1993). In fact. Tucker, Meyer, and Westerman (1994) propose that effective business communication should be researched as the key strategic advantage in today's suc- cessful firms.

Communication researchers, concerned with gathering complete, valid, and reproducible results, are being encouraged to use a group of qualitative research methods for studying business communication (Kreps, Herndon, & Arneson, 1993). According to Kreps, et al., "Qual- itative research in the field of communications has emerged since the 1970s as a legitimate and widely recognized phenomenon in two ways: 1. it has produced a growing body of literature, and 2. it has developed a significant group of methods by which to study

the process of communication" (p. 1).

Tlie question that intuitively arises, then, is whether these signif- icant qualitative methods are increasingly used in published business communication research.

This paper will (1) address the call for qualitative research in busi- ness communication, (2) describe qualitative research methods and

383

3 8 4 The Journal of Business Communication 32 4 Oaober 1995

provide examples of business communication articles in which qual- itative and qualitative/quantitative methods were used effectively, and (3) present an analysis of research methods used in articles pub- lished in three business communication journals during the last four years. The paper concludes with recommendations for business com- munication research.

Call for Qualitative Research in Business Communication A decade ago, Cochran and Dolan (1984) challenged business com-

munication researchers to seek new approaches to their research, stressing the need for research that is diverse and uses multiple sources of data. They proposed that the use of limited and conventional research methodologies has led to studies that generally support specific, narrow research paradigms on repetitive topics. To generate new research topics, they suggested that researchers conduct more qual- itative research to focus on the context of discovery rather than the context of justification.

Likewise, Moran and Moran (1985) criticized the redundancy in busi- ness communication research topics from 1960 to 1985. As recently as 1993, Yates stated that researchers have continued to examine repet- itive questions that can be answered by using quantitative methods, hindering the research efforts in business communications.

According to Halpern (1988), the business communication litera- ture does not lack empirical research as a whole, but it lacks research that discovers what and how students and business professionals write. Halpern believes that the neglect of qualitative research by business communication professionals has limited the kinds of questions that are asked and answered, hindered the discovery of sound theoretical approaches to teaching and practicing business communication, and encouraged researchers from related disciplines to explore the field and use strong qualitative methods to answer questions that are not being addressed. Halpern believes business communication researchers need to commit themselves to learning and using qualitative research methods so that they learn more about their discipline and grow pro- fessionally. Likewise, Forman (1991) believes qualitative field work should be the first phase of research in the 1990s for the many unex- plained communication issues, such as collaborative writing.

Smeltzer (1993) reiterates Halpern's and Forman's recommendation to use both quantitative and qualitative research methods, stating that little is known about the true nature of business communication and the needs of business practitioners. Smeltzer urges communication academicians to understand and to "feel" the needs of business prac- titioners, and to understand the context of the "real world" and the problems people face in it (p. 192).

Qualitative Research in Business Communication / Tucker. Powell, Meyer 3 8 5

Not only have researchers been encouraged to perform more qual- itative studies, but editors also have been encouraged to publish more qualitative studies. Cochran and Dolan (1984) challenged the edi- tors of The Journal of Business Communication to publish more qual- itative studies, noting that the choice of topics studied and research methods used in a study are influenced by the probability of its pub- lication.

The call for qualitative research in business communication is clear and strong. However, before embarking on a qualitative research project, researchers must understand qualitative methods, including their advantages and disadvantages.

A n Overview of Qualitative Methods According to Yin (1984), qualitative methods assist researchers who

desire to understand complex social phenomena. They are appropri- ate when seeking knowledge about the fundamental characteristics of a phenomenon being studied before theorizing about it. This knowl- edge often surfaces through close contact with subjects of a study, allow- ing the researcher to understand their points of view about and experiences with the phenomenon.

However, the potential of qualitative methodologies in providing answers to questions about phenomena related to management and organization science has been hindered by the confusion about the nature of qualitative research. Van Maanen (1983) puts this confusion in context:

The label qualitative methods has no precise meaning in any of the social scieBces. It is at best an umbrella term covering an array of interpretive tech- niques which seek to describe, decode, translate, and otherwise come to terms with the meaning, not the frequency, of certain more or less naturally occurring phenomena in the social world.

lb operate in a qualitative mode is to trade in linguistic symbols and, by so doing, attempt to reduce the distance between indicated and indicator, between theory and data, between context and action (p. 9).

Researchers even disagree on the definition of "qualitative." For example, some researchers use terms such as naturalistic and descrip- tive, as well as field, product, and case study. Perhaps the best way to clear up some ofthe confusion about qualitative research is to exam- ine some its most accepted methodologies and characteristics.

Qualitative Research Methodologies Wolcott (1992) proposes that there are but three general types of

data-gathering techniques in qualitative studies: experiencing, enquir- ing, and examining (p. 19). These three techniques are used, Wolcott argues, m such diverse qualitative approaches as case studies, non-

3 8 6 The Journal of Business Communication 32 4 October 1995

participant observed studies, interviews, participant observation, phenomenology, ethnomethodology, enography, and ethnology.

As Wolcott notes, most qualitative research is based on a case study that uses one or several of these qualitative techniques, enabling researchers to immerse themselves within a culture or a context, producing questions to pursue for further research and understand- ing of phenomena. A review of qualitative articles published from 1990- 1994 in three journals of business communication, as presented in Tkble 1, shows that business communication researchers perform eth- nomethodology studies more often than other types of qualitative studies.

As an extension of the qualitative technique of interviewing, Byers and Wilcox (1991) propose that focus groups offer business commu- nication researchers a rich source in which to gather genuine infor- mation about participants' perceptions, experiences, and attitudes which provide a basis from which to build theory. Another variation of interviewing techniques proposed by Martin and Chaney (1992) is the Delphi technique, which can be valuable in gathering data on a subject from a panel of experts.

For researchers who want to learn how to conduct qualitative research, numerous sources are available. Herndon and Kreps (1993) present essays on interviews, focus groups, narrative analysis, criti- cal incidents, and ethnographic analysis; Anderson (1987) offers good procedures for participant observations; Smith (1988) describes con- versation, narrative, and content analysis; Krueger (1988) and Mor- gan (1988) provide guidelines for focus groups; McCracken (1988) discusses interviews; and Pfaffenberger (1988) explores microcomputer applications in qualitative research. Other useful sources on qualitative methodology are cited throughout this article and appear in the Ref- erence section.

Qualitative Research Characteristics The value of qualitative research can best be understood by exam-

ining its characteristics. One of the primary advantages of qualitative research is that it is more open to the adjusting and refining of research ideas as an inquiry proceeds. Also, the researcher does not attempt to manipulate the research setting, as in an experimental study, but rather seeks to imderstand naturally occurring phenomena in their naturally occurring states. Inductive reasoning, as opposed to deduc- tive reasoning, is common in qualitative research, along with content or holistic analysis in place of statistical analysis.

Miles and Huberman (1984) believe that the data of qualitative research are particiilarly attractive because they provide: 1. well-grounded, rich descriptions and explanations;

Qualitative Research in Business Communication / Tucker, Powell, Meyer 387

Table 1 Examples of Qualitative Methods in Business Communication Studies

Genre

Participant observation study

Interview study

Ethnomethodology (conversational, narrative, and content analysis)

Noaparticipant observation

Ethnography (cultural description/ interpretation)

Topic

Ownership in observation corporate texts study

Evaluating a performance appraisal instrument

Teamwork and communication

Writing tasks m four departments of an insurance company

Communication practices of a company experiencing a disaster

Framing devices used m implementing total quality

Compliance gaining features m management memos

Strategic ambiguity m the birth of an organization

Appeals to ethos in business speeches

Significance of narratives m research interviews

Value of formal conventions in disciplinary writing

Shift from orality to textuality m Enghsh accounting and its books

Computer network collaboration

Dana Corporation's Code

How managers handle performance problems

Gender differences in written business communications

Asking ihe right questions about the Challenger

Strategies for multiple-audience adaption

Managerial communication practices in Chinese factories

Shared meaning as a sales inducement strategy

Function of OK-leave m videos in the corporation's rites and ceremonials

Roles of written texts m an insurance company's media communications

Proposal writing at Atherton Jordan, Inc

Author and Date

Winsor, 1993

Williams & Hummert, 1990

Glaser, 1994

Pomerenke, 1992

lyier, 1992

Fairhurst, 1993

David & Baker, 1994

Contractor & Ehrhch, 1993

Beason, 1991

Ledwell-Brown & Dias, 1994

Hagge, 1994

Tebeaux, 1993

Mabnto, 1992

Rogers & Swales, 1990

Morris, Gaveras, Baker, & Coursey, 1990

Tebeaux, 1990

Winsor, 1990

Spilka, 1990

Krone, Garrett, & Chen, 1992

DiSanza, 1993

Thralls, 1992

Cross, 1994

Mclsaac & Aachauer, 1990

3 8 8 The Journal of Business Communication 32 4 October 1995

2. preservations of time flows, chronologies, causality; 3. serendipitous findings for new theory construction; and 4. a quality of "undeniability."

However, the contextual and subjective nature of qualitative data can be a concern for a researcher who seeks to generalize the findings. What is true in one situation or context may not be true for another. To overcome this concern, data need to be gathered in a variety of con- texts, which takes considerable time and effort. Therefore, researchers under pressure to publish may not view a qualitative study as a fea- sible research paradigm.

To ensure that qualitative research is rigorous, Howe and Eisen- hart (1990) propose five standards: 1. Appropriate data collection and analysis techniques to fit and pro-

vide answers to the research questions asked. The research ques- tions should lead the data collection and analysis techniques rather than vice versa.

2. Competent, technically correct data collection and analysis (e.g. design of instruments, conduct of interviews, sampling, data reduc- tion and display, proper inferences, and justifiable generaliza- tions).

3. Complete literature review and theory identification as basis for research questions (including making as explicit as possible the researcher's own subjectivity).

4. Useful balancing of present research with broader knowledge bases from other bodies of knowledge.

5. Cogent assessment of the value of the research findings (External: "So what?"; Internal: Confidentiality, privacy, and truth-telling).

Another solution to the subjectivity of qualitative research data is triangulation. According to Patton (1989), there are four tYiies of tri- angulation: 1. Data Triangulation: the use of a variety of data sources in a study,

such as different times, places, and subjects; 2. Investigator Triangulation: the use of one or more researchers or

evaluators; 3. Theory Triangulation: the use of multiple perspectives or compet-

ing theories to interpret a single set of data; and 4. Methodological Triangulation: the use of multiple data collection

methods to study a single problem.

As an illustration, Flynn, Savage, Penti, Brown, and Watke (1991) incorporated all four triangulation methods in their study on the effect of gender on modes of collaboration. The study was based on gender and collaborative writing'theories (theory triangulation) and was

Qualitative Research in Business Communication / Tucker, Powell, Meyer 389

conducted in a design and laboratory course over a period of four years (data triangulation). All of the authors (investigator triangulation) par- ticipated in data gathering, which consisted of observations and interviews (methodological triangulation).

While the above study used only qualitative methods, method- ological triangulation often results in a research study that combines qualitative and quantitative (qual-quant) techniques. Patton (1989) states that this type of triangulation can be achieved by a variety of qual-quant mixes in a study's design (experimental/naturalistic), data measurement (quantitative/qualitative), and analysis methods (sta- tistical/content) .

Qualitative, quantitative, and qual-quant research techniques can all generate data that explain and predict phenomena, as shown in Figure 1.

INDUCTIVE RESEARCH (Qualitative)

(A) Qualitative

(B) laws, theories,

research models

DEDUCTIVE RESEARCH (Qualitative, Quantitative,

or Qual-Quant)

^ IP (C)

prediction and explanations

Figure 1. A Model for Qualitative, Quantitive, and Qual-Quant Methods Source Meyer, G D , and Tucker, M L., 1993.

Path A^B indicates that inductive research (qualitative) tech- niques can lead to establishing laws, theories, and models. This path can be by-passed by researchers who simply adopt an existing theory for a research study or by researchers who, through their creative minds, propose a theory to test. Subsequently, deductive research, including qualitative, quantitative, or qual-quant designs, can confirm theories, leading to prediction and explanations, as shown in Path B->C. If hypotheses were rejected at point C, the researcher might use qualitative techniques to re-evaluate the hypotheses, as represented in Path C^A. Path Â >-C represents studies that use qualitative tech- niques to draw conclusions about a phenomenon without developing a law, theory, or model.

3 9 0 The Journal of Business Communication 32 4 October 1995

A study by Fairhurst (1993) illustrates how qualitative research can lead to theory building (Path A-^B). Using discourse analysis, Fairhurst studied framing devices used to implement a total quality (TQ) pro- gram at a large multinational manufacturing company in order to iden- tify framing devices that are effective in implementing a TQ vision and, thus, can be considered effective in any vision implementation situ- ation. Five such framing devices were identified in the study.

Similarly, lyier (1992) studied Exxon's communication efforts dur- ing the Valdez crisis by reading books and newspaper and magazine articles, as well as by viewing or reading transcripts of news and doc- umentary programs. Eleven communication practices were identified that damaged the corporation's credibility and antagonized the public, thus contributing valuable knowledge to crisis communication theory.

While quantitative research appears to be the preferred method of confirming theory (Path B--»-C), qualitative research can also test the- ory, as illustrated in the study by Contractor and Ehrlich (1993). Draw- ing from theoretical perspectives on organizational birth and the role of communication in the creation of organizations. Contractor and Ehrlich proposed that strategically ambiguous messages that foster multiple messages play a key role in the birth of organizations. Their case study confirmed their hj^othesis.

Meyer (1992) has argued that qualitative research techniques are better for theory building, but quantitative research techniques are more effective and efficient for theory testing. Whether or not one agrees that qualitative techniques have potential in theory testing along with quantitative techniques (Path B^C), qualitative approaches are a common first step in quantitative studies.

Even some well-known quantitative researchers have proposed more of a qual-quant fusion in research studies. Miles and Huberman (1984) argue that the dichotomy of a quantitative-qualitative separa- tion is an archaic distinction:

In fact, it is getting harder to find any methodologists solidly encamped in one epistemology or the other. More and more "quantitative" methodologists, operating from a logical positivist stance, are using naturalistic and phe- nomenological approaches to complement tests, sun^eys, and structured inter- views. On the other side, an increasing number of ethnographers and qualitative researchers are using predesigned conceptual frameworks and prestructured instrumentation, especially when dealing with more than one institution or community (p. 20). Thus, Miles and Huherman mdicate a shift m the "social research paradigms" to a more "ecumenical" condition.

Considering the attention being given qualitative research in busi- ness communication, a review of what research methods are being pub- lished is important and interesting. The following section presents an

Qualitative Research in Business Communication / Tucker, Powell, Meyer 3 9 1

analysis of research methods published within the past four years in three business commmunication journals.

Analysis of Business Communication Journal i?esearch Methods

Methodology lb provide a "glimpse" of research methods currently being pubLished

in selected business communication journals, an inductive search of the three journals was conducted, followed by a simple quantitative analysis. The journals included in this survey were The Journal of Busi- ness Communication (JBC), Management Communication Quarterly (MCQ), and the Journal of Business and Technical Communication (JBTC). Editorials, book reviews, news and notes, commentaries, and research instrument articles appearing in these three joimnals were not considered in this study. We reviewed the research studies pub- lished in these three journals and divided them into four categories: Qualitative, Quantitative, Qual-Quant, or Other.

The first step was to create a set of guidelines for the categorizing of each journal article. For this analysis, Patton's (1989) interpreta- tion of qualitative and quantitative measurement was used:

Qualitative measurements consist of detailed descriptions of situations, events, people, interactions, and observed behaviors; direct quotations from people about their experiences, attitudes, beliefs, and thoughts; and excerpts or entire passages from documents, correspondence, records, and case histories. These studies involved no statistical analysis. Quantitative measurement relies upon the use of instruments that provide a standard- ized framework in order to limit data collection to certain predetermined response or analysis categories. The experiences of people in programs and the important variables that describe program settings are fit into these stan- dardized categories to which numerical values are then attached (p. 22).

Qual-Quant research is a combination of both qualitative and quan- titative research. The last category is "Other" and includes articles such as literature reviews, instructional articles, theory-building essays and opinion pieces. In other words, in this study we are look- ing at published research studies, dividing them into four categories: Qualitative, Quantitative, Qual-Quant, or Other.

Findings A total of 247 articles appeared in these three business communi-

cation journals (JBC, MCQ, and JBTC) from 1990 to 1994 and were categorized by two independent raters, one outside reviewer (gradu- ate student) and one of the authors. The first review was conducted by a graduate student after being instructed on the specific charac- teristics of each category. Both reviewers looked at each article and

3 9 2 The Journal of Business Communication 32 4 October 1995

categorized each into one of the four categories: Qualitative, Quan- titative, Qual-Quant, or Other. Raters agreed in their separate ratings with 93 percent accuracy. As illustrated in Table 2, the majority of the 247 articles were placed in the Quantitative (89) and Other (97) cat-

Table 2 Breakdown of Research Methods by Journal

Journal

The Journal of Business Communication

Management Communication Quarterly

Journal of Business and Technical Communication

Total

Qual

2 (10%)

2 (12%)

1 (6%)

2 (11%)

2 (13%)

0 (0%)

3 (23%)

32 (5%)

3 (33%)

1 (5%)

5 (25%)

4 (19%)

6 (32%)

35 (14%)

Quant

9 (45%0

8 (47%)

10 (59%)

10 (47%)

8 (44%)

7 (47%)

9 (60%)

10 (83%)

5 (38%)

4 (33%)

0 (0%)

3 (14%)

5 (25%)

0 (0%)

3 (16%)

89 (36%)

Qual-Quant

1 (5%)

1 (6%)

4 (24%)

4 (12%)

1 (6%)

2 (13%)

1 (8%)

5 (38%)

1 (8%)

0 (0%)

3 (14%)

0 (0%)

1 (5%)

2 (11%)

26 (11%)

Other

8 (40%)

6 (35%)

2 (12%)

2 (35%)

7 (39%)

4 (27%)

1 (8%)

0 (0%)

4 (33%)

6 (67%)

15 (68%)

10 (50%)

16 (76%)

8 (42%)

97 (39%)

Total

247

egories, accounting for 75 percent of published research in these 3 jour- nals.

Over one-third (39 percent) were categorized as "Other" works: lit- erature reviews, instructional pieces, theory-building works, or opin-

Qualitative Research in Business Communication / Tucker, Powell. Meyer 3 9 3

ion papers. Quantitative articles were the second most frequent, con- sisting of over one-third (36 percent) of the total articles. Thirty-five (14 percent) ofthe articles were classified as Qualitative studies and only 26 (11 percent) were Qual-Quant.

When totals for each journal are reviewed in Table 3, the Journal of Business and Technical Communication has both the largest num- ber (19) and the highest percentage (21 percent) of Qualitative arti- cles. The Journal of Business Communication and Management Communication Quarterly tie with 8 qualitative articles each for the four years studied.

Table 3 Total and Percentages of Analysis Method by Journal

Journal

The Journal of Business Commumeation

Management Communication. Quarterly

Journal of Business and Technical Communication

Qual

8 (9.0%)

8 (119%)

19 (209%)

Quant

43 (43.3%)

35 (52 2%)

11 (121%)

Qual-Quant

9 (10.1%)

11 (16.4%)

6 (66%)

Other

29 (32.6%)

13 (19.4%)

55 (60.4%)

Tbtal

The Journal of Business Communication published mostly Quan- titative (43 articles, or 48 percent) and Other (29 articles, or 33 per- cent) articles. In fact, this journal published the greatest number of quantitative studies of all three journals; although, when considering the percentage of total articles. Management Communication Quar- terly ranks first with over one-half (35 articles, or 52 percent) of total articles being Quantitative.

Management Communication Quarterly has both the highest num- ber (11) and highest percentage (16 percent) of published articles considered Qual-Quant in nature. The Journal of Business Commu- nication ranks second with 9 articles for 10 percent of 89 total Qual- Quant articles.

Research methods used in these three business communication jour- nals are visually displayed in Figure 2, recapitulating in a pie chart the total percentages of articles making up Qualitative, Quantitative, Qual-Quant, or Other categories of journal articles. The "Other" cat- egory, consisting of literature reviews, instructional articles, theory- building essays and opinion pieces, account for 39 percent of the 247 articles reviewed. However, Quantitative articles were only 3 percent less at 36 percent of total articles in these three journals over a four- year period. Qualitative studies (14 percent) and Qual-Quant articles (11 percent) together only amount to 25 percent ofthe published arti- cles in these journals.

394 The Journal of Business Communication 32 4 October 1995

Figure 2. Percentage of Articles Using Each Research Method that Were Published in Three Business Communication Journals Between 1990 and 1994

When the data are put into a line chart to show research methods used in these business communication journals over time, an inter- esting indication is visually displayed in Figure 3. Although trends can- not be established with data from only four years, this chart graphs a steady increase in published Qualitative research over the last three years. Interestingly, Qual-Quant studies declined rapidly between 1993 and 1994. Even though Quantitative articles are much greater in volume than Qualitative or Qual-Quant publications, there is a dip between 1992 and 1993 in Quantitative research that only slightly increases again from 1993 to 1994.

- • - Q U A L - • - QUANT - ^ QUAL-QUANT - * - QTHER

1990 1991 1992

YEAR

1993 1994

Figure 3. Research Methods Used in Articles Published by Three Business Com- munication Journals Between 1990 and 1994

These results show that all three business communication journals analyzed published considerably more quantitative than either qual- itative or combined qualitative-quantitative research between the

Qualitative Research in Business Communication / Tucker, Povi/ell, Meyer 3 9 5

years of 1990 and 1994. Combined, they published more than twice as much quantitative research (36 percent) than either of these other two categories individually (14 and 11 percent respectively), and almost one and one half times as much as these two categories com- bined (totaling 25 percent). This may indicate that more quantitative than qualitative business communication research is performed by researchers, or that quantitative research is more readily publishable because of characteristics in the reviewing process, procedures, or peo- ple. The present research cannot answer that question. A longitudi- nal study of research methods used in business communication Journals over time might add some insight. Additional research doc- umenting research methods of articles submitted to these journals, along with acceptance data, could also add to these findings and would be enlightening to other researchers when deciding upon appropriate research methods for undertaking a publishable study.

Questions Raised for Business Communication Researcli Qualitative studies are being called for in business communication

research, but the number of published qualitative studies has not increased significantly in the last four years. Qualitative research meth- ods can answer numerous questions about the who, what, when, where, why, and how of communication; however, apparently, few busi- ness communication researchers are publishing articles using these methods to understand the real needs and problems business people face. The lack of qualitative research in the field may account for some of the disagreement reported by Smeltzer (1993) as occurring between business practitioners and academicians on the areas of business communication that need additional research.

Given the desirability of using qualitative methods to add to our knowledge about business communication and to investigate toipics that business professionals would like to see researched, why are we not publishing more qualitative research? • Are we untrained in qualitative methods? • Is qualitative research too time consuming? • Are we concerned about getting it published? • Are the rewards higher for publishing quantitative research?

TMs paper has suggested some sources that will add to our knowl- edge of and skills in qualitative research techniques, as well as ways that we can make our qualitative studies more rigorous and, thus, hope- fully more publishable. Business communication researchers who are not familiar with qualitative techniques should team up with more experienced researchers who can mentor ttem in the use of these techniques. In addition, researching with academicians across busi-

3 9 6 The Journal of Business Communication 32 4 October 1995

ness and non-business disciplines would bring more theoretical knowl- edge to a research project, thus enhancing the study's contribution to theory building.

Since a qualitative study may take years to gather adequate data and interpret the findings, researchers should consider publishing por- tions ofthe study over time. A qualitative study requires a significant commitment from the researcher. However, the opportunity it provides to get in touch with the feelings, concerns, and needs of the business community makes its undertaking important to business communi- cation research.

NOTES

Mary L. Tucker is an Assistant Professor of Management and Business Com- munication at Colorado State University. Dr. IVicker researches, presents, publishes and consults in leadership, communications, and customer satisfaction. Mary L. Tlicker can be reached at the Department of Management, College of Business, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523,- Internet: [email protected].

Karen Sterkel Powell is Assistant Professor of Management and Business Com- mimication in the College of Business at Colorado State University. Dr. Powell serves as Co-Coordinator ofthe Communication-Across-the-Curriculum program in the College and provides consulting and training services for business organizations. Karen Powell can be reached at the Department of Management, College of Busi- ness, Fort Collins, CO 80523; Internet: [email protected].

G. Dale Meyer is Chair ofthe Management Division, Executive Director ofthe Center for Entrepreneurship, Professor of Strategic Management, and Anderson Professor of Entrepreneurial Development in the College of Business and Admin- istration at the University of Colorado at Boulder. Dr. Meyer's research includes interests in new venture creation and failure in both small and large firms, devel- opment in new market economies, strategy making and behavior of entrepreneurial teams, the founder/entrepreneur "executive limit," qualitative research design, and financial performance results of communication-based new organizational struc- tures. G. Dale Meyer can be reached at Campus Box 419, College of Business and Administration, University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309- 0419.

This article is an adaptation of a paper presented at the annual meeting of the Southern Management Association, Track 9, New Orleans, November 3,1994, and published in Southern Management Association Proceedings. The authors wish to thank Tony Dimas, Don Bacon, Karen Roybal, and John C. Sherblom for their helpful insights in this article revision.

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