For Solutions Pro

I S 41/ • • • Cause and Effect: • Explaining Why 410

11111111111iiiikap- - - 11,

• I Cause and effect, like the two sides of a coin, are inseparably linked and together

• make up causation. Cause probes the reasons why actions, events, attitudes, and conditions exist. Effect examines their consequences. Causation is important to 111 us because it can explain historical events, natural happenings, and the actions

• and attitudes of individuals and groups. It can help us anticipate the conse- quences of personal actions, natural phenomena, or government policies. Everyone asks and answers questions of causation. Scott wonders why Sue Wily broke off their relationship, and Jennifer speculates on the consequences

wr of changing her major. People wonder why child abuse and homelessness are on

the lige, and Millions worry about the effects of corporate cost cutting and vio- lence in our schools.

Inevitably, therefore, you will need to write papers and reports that employ causation. Your instructors might ask you to write on topics such as the causes of the American Revolution, the consequences of white-collar crime, the reasons

10 why so many couples are divorcing, or the effects of different fertilizers on plant growth. An employer may want a report on why a certain product malfunctions,

11/ what might happen if a community redesigns its traffic pattern, or how a school

closing might affect business.

110

116 Patterns in Causal Analysis IP Several organizational patterns are possible for a causal analysis. Sometimes, a sin- e gle cause produces several effects. For instance, poor language skills prevent col-

lege students from keeping up with required reading, taking adequate notes, and writing competent papers and essay exams. To explore such a single cause—multiple effect relationship, construct outlines similar to the following two:

I. Introduction: identifies cause I. Poor language skills

111110 II. Body

A. Effect number 1 II. Body

A. Can't keep up with required reading

•

tINIM =NM

149

•• ••

•• ••

•• ••

• • ••

•• ••

•• ••

•• ••

•

150 CHAPTER 9 Cause and Effect: Explaining Why

B. Effect number 2

B. Can't take adequate notes C. Effect number 3

C. Can't write competent III. Conclusion papers or exams

III. Conclusion

Alternatively, you might discuss the cause after the effects are presented. On the other hand, several causes may join forces to produce one effect.

Zinc production in the United States, for example, has decreased over the last few years because it can be produced more cheaply abroad than it can here, it is being replaced on cars by plastics and lighter metals, and it cannot be recycled. Here's how you might organize a typical multiple cause—single effect paper:

I. Introduction: identifies effect

II. Body A. Cause number 1 B. Cause number 2 C. Cause number 3

III. Conclusion

I. Decrease in U.S. zinc production II. Body

A. Produced more cheaply abroad B. Replaced on cars by plastics,

lighter metals C. Cannot be recycled

III. Conclusion

Sometimes discussion of the effect follows the presentation of causes. At times a set of events forms a causal chain, with each event the effect of the

preceding one and the cause of the following one. For example, a student sleeps late and so misses breakfast and ends up hungry and distracted, which in turn results in a poor performance on an exam. Interrupting the chain at any point halts the sequence. Such chains can be likened to a row of upright dominoes that fall one after the other when the first one is pushed. Belief in a domino the- ory, which held that if one nation in Southeast Asia fell to the communists all would, one after the other, helped bring about U.S. entry into the Vietnam War. Causal chains can also help explain how devices function and some social changes proceed. The following outlines typify the arrangement of a paper explaining a causal chain:

I. Introduction

I. Introduction II. Body

II. Body A. Cause

A. Sleep late B. Effect

B. Miss breakfast C. Cause

C. Become hungry and distracted D. Effect

D. Perform poorly on exam III. Conclusion

III. Conclusion

Papers of this kind resemble process analyses, but process is concerned with how the events occur, cause and effect with why.

In many situations the sequence of causes and effects is too complex to fit the image of a chain. Suppose you are driving to a movie on a rainy night. You approach an intersection screened by bushes and, because you have the

411, Patterns in Causal Analysis 151

411 right-of-way, start across. Suddenly a car with unlit headlights looms directly in your path. You hit the brakes but skid on the slippery pavement and crash into

• the other car, crumpling its left fender and damaging your own bumper. Later, as you think about the episode, you begin to sense its complexities.

• Obviously, the immediate cause of the accident was the other driver's failure to heed the stop sign. But other causes also played roles: the bushes and unlit head-

• lights that kept you from seeing the other car sooner; the starts and stops, speedups and slowdowns that brought the two cars to the intersection at the

II same time; the wet pavement you skidded on; and the movie that brought you

• out in the first place.

You also realize that the effects of the accident go beyond the fender and

• bumper damage. After the accident, a police officer ticketed the other driver. As a result of the delay, you missed the movie. Further, the accident unnerved you

• so badly that you couldn't attend classes the next day and therefore missed an important writing assignment. Because of a bad driving record, the other driver

• lost his license for sixty days. Clearly, the effects of this accident rival the causes in complexity.

III Here's how you might organize a multiple cause–multiple effect essay:

fra Introduction The accident Body Body

1111 I. Causes I. Causes of the accident A. Cause number 1 A. Driver ran stop sign

• B. Cause number 2 B. Bushes and unlit headlights

41/ C. Cause number 3 impaired vision

II. Effects C. Wet pavement caused skidding

• A. Effect number 1 B. Effect number 2

II. Effects of the accident A. Missed the movie

• C. Effect number 3 B. Unnerved so missed classes Conclusion next day

III C. Other driver lost license Conclusion

•

III In some situations, however, you might first present the effects, then turn to the causes.

411 1. Read the following selection and then arrange the events in a

causal chain:

• Although some folk societies still exist today, similar human groups began the slow process of evolving into more complex

• societies many millennia ago, through settlement in villages and

through advances in technology and organizational structure. This gave rise to the second

• level of organization: civilized preindustrial, or "feudal," society. Here there is a surplus of food because of the selective cultivation of grains—and also because of the practice of

III animal husbandry. The food surplus permits both the specialization of labor and the kind of class structure that can, for instance, provide the leadership and command the

111

152 CHAPTER 9 Cause and Effect: Explaining Why

manpower to develop and maintain extensive irrigation systems (which in turn makes

possible further increases in the food supply). . . .

Gideon Sjoberg, "The Origin and Development of Cities"

2. Trace the possible effects of the following occurrences:

a. You pick out a salad at the cafeteria and sit down to eat. Suddenly you notice a large green worm on one of the lettuce leaves.

b. As you leave your composition classroom, you trip and break your arm. c. Your boss has warned you not to be late to work again. You are driving to work with

ten minutes to spare when you get a flat tire.

Reasoning Errors in Causal Analysis Ignoring Multiple Causes An effect rarely stems from a single cause. The person who believes that permis- sive parents have caused the present upsurge of venereal disease or the one who blames television violence for the climbing numbers of emotionally disturbed children oversimplifies the situation. Permissiveness and violence perhaps did contribute to these conditions. Without much doubt, however, numerous other factors also played important parts.

Mistaking Chronology for Causation Don't assume that just because one event followed another that the first necessarily caused the second. This kind of faulty thinking feeds many popular superstitions. Horace walks under a ladder, later stubs his toe, and thinks that his path caused his pain. Sue breaks a mirror just before Al breaks their engagement; then she blames the cracked mirror. Many people once believed that the election of Herbert Hoover as president in 1928 brought on the Great Depression in 1929. Today some people believe that the testing of atomic weapons has altered our weather patterns. Don't misunderstand: One event may cause the next; but before you go on record with your conclusion, make sure that you're not dealing with mere chronology.

Confusing Causes with Effects Young children sometimes declare that the moving trees make the wind blow. Similarly, some adults may think that Pam and Paul married because they fell in love, when in reality economic necessity mandated the vows, and love came later. Scan your evidence carefully in order to avoid such faulty assertions.

1. Which of the following statements point toward papers that will focus on causes? Which point toward papers focusing on effects?

Explain your answers.

a. Most of the problems that plague newly married couples are the direct outgrowth of timidity and pride.

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

I •

Reasoning Errors in Causal Analysis 153

b. The Marshall Plan was designed to aid the economic recovery of Europe after World War II.

• c. The smoke from burning poison ivy can bring on a skin rash and lung irritation. d. Popularity in high school stems largely from good looks, a pleasing personality,

• participation in school activities, the right friends, and frequent dates.

2. Identify which of the following paragraphs deals with causes, which with effects. List

• the causes and effects.

• a. Color filters offer three advantages in black-and-white photography.

First, a particular color will be lightened by a filter of the same color. For

• example, in a photograph of a red rose in a dark blue vase, both will appear

• almost the same shade of gray if no filter is used. However, when pho-

tographed through a red filter, the rose will appear much lighter than the

• vase; and through a blue filter the vase will appear much lighter than the

410

rose. This effect can be useful in emphasizing or muting certain objects in a

photograph. Second, a particular color filter will darken its complementary

40 color in the scene. Consequently, any orange object will appear darker than

• normal if a blue filter is used. Finally, color filters can reduce or increase

atmospheric haze. For example, in a distant aerial shot there will often be so

• much haze that distant detail is obscured. To eliminate haze almost entirely,

• the photographer can use a deep red filter. On the other hand, if more haze is

desired in order to achieve an artistic effect, varying shades of blue filters

• can be used.

Timothy Kelly • b. Overeating, which has become a national pastime for millions of

411 Americans, has several roots. For example, parents who are concerned that

• their children get enough to eat during the growing years overfeed them and

thereby establish a lifetime overeating habit. The child who is constantly

• praised for cleaning up his plate experiences a sort of gratification later on

• as he cleans up all too many plates. The easy availability of so much food

is a constant temptation for many people, especially the types of food served

• at fast-food restaurants and merchandised in the frozen food departments

of supermarkets. Equally tempting are all the snack foods constantly adver-

tised on TV. But many people don't need temptation from the outside; their

• overeating arises from such psychological factors as nervousness, boredom,

41111 loneliness, insecurity, an overall discontent with life, or an aversion to

exercise. Thus, overeating can actually be a symptom of psychological

• surrender to, or withdrawal from, the complexities and competition of

• modern life.

Kenneth Reichow • •

1 54 CHAPTER 9 Cause and Effect: Explaining Why

• • • • • • • • • • • • • to • S • • • • • • • •

_AM

Ethical Issues

Causation is not immune from abuse, either accidental or deliberate. Imagine the consequences of an article that touts a new herbal remedy but fails to mention sev- eral potentially serious side effects that could harm many users. Think about the pos- sible strain on your relationship with a friend if she unjustly suspected you of starting a vicious rumor about her. Writing cause-and-effect papers creates an ethical respon- sibility. Asking and answering these questions will help you meet that obligation.

■ Have I tried to uncover all of the causes that might result in a particular out- come? A report blaming poor instruction alone for a high student failure rate in a certain town's public schools almost certainly overlooks such fac- tors as oversized classes, inadequate facilities, and poor home environments.

■ Have I carefully weighed the importance of the causes I've uncovered? If a few, but not most, of the classes in the school system with problems are oversized, then the report should not stress their significance.

■ Have I tried to uncover and discuss every important effect, even one that might damage a case I'm trying to make? A report emphasizing the beneficial effects of jogging would be dangerously negligent if it failed to note the potential for injury.

■ What would be the consequences if people act on my analysis?

Careful evaluation of causes and effects not only fulfills your writing obligation but also your ethical one.

Writing a Causal Analysis

Planning and Drafting the Causal Analysis Because you have probably speculated about the causes and effects of several campus, local, state, or national problems, writing this type of paper should pose no great difficulty. If you choose your own topic, perhaps your personal experi- ence will suggest something promising. Topics such as "Why I Dislike (or Like) Foreign Cars" and "How My Father's (or Someone Else's) Death Has Changed My Life" might work well. Nonpersonal topics also offer writing possibilities. For instance, "What's Behind Teenage Suicides?" and "The Impact of Global Markets on American jobs" would allow you to draw on library resources.

The strategies on pages 31-39 can also help you find several topics. Answer these questions about each candidate:

What purpose will guide this writing?

Who is my audience? Will the topic interest them? Why or why not?

Shall I focus on causes, effects, or both?

Brainstorming your topic for supporting details should be easy. If you're dealing with causes, pose these questions about each one:

How significant is this cause?

Could it have brought about the effect by itself?

Writing a Causal Analysis 155

• For papers dealing with effects, substitute the following questions for the ones above:

How important is this effect?

What evidence will establish its importance?

Charting your results can help you prepare for writing the paper. To tabulate causes, use an arrangement like this one:

Cause Contribution to Effect

First cause Specific contribution Second cause Specific contribution

For effects, use this chart:

Effect Importance

First effect Why important Second effect Why important

Once your items are tabulated, examine them carefully for completeness. Perhaps you've overlooked a cause or effect or have slighted the significance of one you've already mentioned. Think about the order in which you'd like to discuss your items and prepare a revised chart that reflects your decision.

• Use the opening of your paper to identify your topic and indicate whether

you plan to discuss causes, effects, or both. You can signal your intention in a

• number of ways. To prepare for a focus on causes, you might use the words cause, reason, or stem from, or you might ask why something has occurred. To signal a

• paper on effects, you might use effect, fallout, or impact, or you might ask what has happened since something took place. Read these examples:

Signals causes: Midville's recent decrease in street crime stems primarily from its expanded educational program, growing job oppor- tunities for young people, and falling rate of drug addiction.

Signals effects: Since my marriage to Rita, how has my social life changed?

At times you may choose some dramatic attention-getter. For a paper on the

effects of radon, a toxic radioactive gas present in many homes, you might note that "Although almost everyone now knows about the hazards associated with

smoking, eating high-cholesterol foods, and drinking excessively, few people are aware that just going home could be hazardous to one's health." If you use an arresting statement, be sure the content of your paper warrants it.

How you organize the body of the paper depends on your topic. Close scrutiny may reveal that one cause was indispensable; the rest merely played sup- porting roles. If so, discuss the main cause first. In analyzing your automobile

• • •

Does it form part of a chain?

Precisely how does it contribute to the effect?

• • • • • • S • • • • • •

• • • • • •

1 56 CHAPTER 9 Cause and Effect: Explaining Why

mishap, which fits this situation, start with the failure of the other driver to yield the right-of-way; then fan out to any other causes that merit mentioning. Sometimes you'll find that no single cause was essential but that all of them helped matters along. Combinations of this kind lie at the heart of many social and economic concerns: inflation, depression, and urban crime rates, to name just a few. Weigh each cause carefully and rank them in importance. If your topic and purpose will profit from building suspense, work from the least important cause to the most important. Otherwise, reverse the order. For analyzing causal chains, chronological order works effectively.

If space won't permit you to deal adequately with every cause, pick out the two or three you consider most important and limit your discussion to them. To avoid giving your reader an oversimplified impression, note that other causes exist. Even if length poses no problem, don't attempt to trace every cause to some more remote cause and then to a still more remote one. Instead, deter- mine some sensible cutoff point that accords with your purpose, and don't go beyond it.

Treat effects as carefully as you do causes. Keep in mind that effects often travel in packs, and try to arrange them in some logical order. If they occur together, consider order of climax. If one follows the other in a chainlike sequence, present them in that fashion. If space considerations dictate, limit your discussion to the most interesting or significant effects. Whatever order you choose for your paper, don't jump helter-skelter from cause to effect to cause in a way that leaves your reader bewildered.

As you write, don't restrict yourself to a bare-bones discussion of causes and effects. If, for instance, you're exploring the student parking problem on your campus, you might describe the jammed lots or point out that students often miss class because they have to drive around and look for spots. Similarly, don't simply assert that the administration's insensitivity contributes to the problem. Instead, cite examples of the college's refusal to answer letters about the situa- tion or to discuss it. To provide statistical evidence of the problem's seriousness, you might note the small number of lots, the limited spaces in each, and the approximate number of student cars on campus.

It's important to remember, however, that you're not just listing causes and effects; you're showing the reader their connection. Let's see how one student handled this connection. After you've read "Why Students Drop Out of College," the student essay that follows in this chapter, carefully reexamine paragraph 3. Note how the sentence beginning "In many schools" and the two following it show precisely how poor study habits develop. Note further how the sentence beginning "This laxity produces" and the three following it show pre- cisely how such poor habits result in "a flood of low grades and failure." Armed with this information, readers are better able to avoid poor study habits and their consequences.

Causal analyses can end in several ways. A paper discussing the effects of acid rain on America's lakes and streams might specify the grave consequences of fail- ing to deal with the problem or express the hope that something will be done. Frequently, writers use their conclusions to evaluate the relative importance of their causes or effects.

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Writing a Causal Analysis 157 • Revising the Causal Analysis

411 Follow the guidelines in Chapter 4 and answer these questions as you revise your

causal analysis:

411 Have I made the right decision in electing to focus on causes, effects, or

• both?

Have I ferreted out all important causes and effects? Mistakenly labeled

• something as an effect merely because it follows something else?

Confused causes with effects?

• Am I dealing with a causal chain? An immediate cause and several support-

ing causes? Multiple causes and effects?

• Have I presented my causes and effects in an appropriate order?

• Have I supported my discussion with sufficient details?

Have I considered appropriate ethical issues?

SAMPLE

STUDENT ESSAY OF CAUSE AND EFFE

Why Students Drop Out of College Diann Fisher

Each fall a new crop of first-year college students, wavering

between high hopes for the future and intense anxiety about their new

status, scan college maps searching for their classrooms. They have

been told repeatedly that college is the key to a well-paying job, and

they certainly don't want to support themselves by flipping hamburgers

or working at some other dead-end job. So, notebooks at the ready, they

await what college has in store. Unfortunately many of them—indeed,

over 30 percent—will not return after the first year. Why do so many stu-

dents leave? There are several reasons. Some find the academic pro-

gram too hard, some lack the proper study habits or motivation, others

fall victim to the temptations of the college environment, and a large

group leave for personal reasons.

2

Not surprisingly, the academic shortcomings of college students

have strong links to high school. In the past, a high school student who

lacked the ability or desire to take a college-preparatory course could

settle for a diploma in general studies and afterward find a job with

Continued on next page

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

158 CHAPTER 9 Cause and Effect: Explaining Why

Continued from previous page

decent pay. Now that possibility scarcely exists, so many poorly pre- •

pared students feel compelled to try college. Getting accepted by some •

schools isn't difficult. Once in, though, the student who has taken noth-

ing beyond general mathematics, English, and science faces serious •

trouble when confronted with college algebra, first-year composition,

and biological or physical science. Most colleges do offer remedial

courses and other assistance that may help some weaker students to •

survive. In spite of everything, however, many others find themselves •

facing ever-worsening grade-point averages and either fail or just

give up. • 3 Like academic shortcomings, poor study habits have their roots in

40 high school, where even average students can often breeze through with

a minimum of effort. In many schools, outside assignments are rare and •

so easy that they require little time or thought to complete. To accommo-

date slower students, teachers frequently repeat material so many times

that slightly better students can grasp it without opening their books. •

And when papers are late, teachers often don't mark them down. This •

laxity produces students who can't or don't want to study, students totally

unprepared for the rigorous demands of college. There, courses may

require several hours of study each week in order to be passed with even

a C. In many programs, outside assignments are commonplace and

demanding. Instructors expect students to grasp material after one •

explanation, and many won't accept late papers at all. Students who •

don't quickly develop disciplined study habits face a flood of low grades

and failure. •

4 Poor student motivation aggravates faulty study habits. Students

who thought high school was boring find even less allure in the more

challenging college offerings. Lacking any commitment to do well, •

they shrug off assigned papers, skip classes, and avoid doing

required reading. Over time, classes gradually shrink as more

and more students stay away. With final exams upon them, some •

return in a last-ditch effort to salvage a passing grade, but by then •

it is too late. Eventually, repetition of this scenario forces the

students out. 410 • • •

• • •

Writing a Causal Analysis 159

5 The wide range of freedoms offered by the college environment can

overwhelm even well-prepared newcomers. While students are in high

school, parents are on hand to make them study, push them off to class,

and send them to bed at a reasonable hour. Once away from home and

parents, however, far too many students become caught up in a constant

round of parties, dates, bull sessions, and other distractions that seem

more fascinating than schoolwork. Again, if such behavior persists, poor

grades and failure result.

6 Personal reasons also take a heavy toll on students who might

otherwise complete their programs successfully. Often money prob-

lems are at fault. For example, a student may lose a scholarship or

grant, fail to obtain needed work, or find that the family can no longer

afford to help out. Some students succumb to homesickness; some

are forced out by an illness, injury, or death in the family; and

yet others become ill or injure themselves and leave to recuperate.

Finally, a considerable number become disillusioned with their

programs or the size, location, or atmosphere of their schools and

decide not to return.

7 What happens to the students who drop out? Some re-enroll in

college later, often in less demanding two- and four-year schools

that offer a better chance of academic success. Of the remainder,

the great bulk find civilian jobs or enlist in the armed forces. Most,

whatever their choice, go on to lead productive, useful lives. In the

meantime, campus newcomers need to know about the dangers that

tripped up so many of their predecessors and make every effort to

avoid them.

Discussion Questions •

•• • •

•• ••

•• ••

•• ••

•• • •

•• ••

•• •.

0

1. Identify the thesis statement in this essay.

2. Trace the causal chain that makes up paragraph 2. 3. What is the function of the first sentence in paragraph 3? 4. In which paragraphs does the writer discuss causes? Effects?

• 160 CHAPTER 9 Cause and Effect: Explaining Why

• Suggestions for Writing

• Use one of the following topics, or another that your instructor approves, to develop a • causal analysis. Determine which causes and/or effects to consider. Scrutinize your analysis for errors in reasoning, settle on an organization, and write the essay. •

1. Reasons that relationships fail •

2. The effect of some friend, acquaintance, public figure, or writer on your life 411

3. Effects of talking on cell phones while driving 4. Effects of divorce on children 411 5. Why you are a major 6. Causes, effects, or both of the popularity of FaceBook 1111 7. Causes of school violence 8. Causes or effects of the popularity of casino gambling

• 9. Causes, effects, or both of widespread cell phone use 10. Reasons that you have a particular habit or participate in a

• particular sport 11. Causes or effects of sleep deprivation

• 12. Reasons that is a popular celebrity 13. Effects of some recent Supreme Court decision or change in

• public policy 14. The effects of environmental concerns on our way of life

• 15. Causes, effects, or both of our hunger for heroes 16. Causes, effects, or both of the high cost of gasoline 17. Causes, effects, or both of drinking on college students 411 18. Causes of procrastination 111 19. Reasons that some students drop out of high school 20. Causes and effects of violence at sporting events

•

Although nearly everyone recognizes the role of causation in human affairs, differences of opinion often surface about the causes and effects of important matters. What lies behind the widespread incivility in the United States today? Why are women

more likely than men to leave management jobs? How do video games affect children? What impact does the high divorce rate have on American society? Obviously such questions lack simple answers; and as a result investigators, even when they agree on the causes and effects involved, often debate their relative importance.

Suppose your women's studies instructor has asked you to investigate the departure of women from managerial positions. A library search reveals several articles on this topic as well as a number of reasons for resigning.

• • • • • • • • • • • •

•

Writing a Causal Analysis 1 61 • •

Some women leave because they find it harder to advance than men do, and as a result they seldom attain senior positions. Others leave because

• they receive lower salaries than their male counterparts. Still others leave because of the stifling effects of corporate rigidity, unrealistic expectations,

• the demands of raising a family, or possibly diminished chances of marriage. Although most articles cite these causes, their relative impor-

• tance is debatable. One writer, for example, emphasizes family concerns by

• discussing them last and at greatest length. Another puts the chief blame on obstacles to upward mobility—the existence of a "glass ceiling" that blocks

ill women from upper-level positions along with an "old-boy network" of en- trenched executives that parcels out jobs among its members.

• Once you've finished your research, you're ready to synthesize the views

of your sources as well as your own views. Before you start to write, though, • take some time to consider carefully each cause and effect you've uncov-

ered. Obviously you should ground your paper on well-supported and

• widely acknowledged causes and effects, but you might also include more speculative ones as long as you clearly indicate their secondary nature. To il-

• lustrate, one writer, while mentioning corporate rigidity as a reason that women leave management jobs, clearly labels this explanation as a theory

• and backs it with a single example. As you examine your material, ask your- self these critical questions as well as any others that occur to you: Does any

• writer exhibit obvious bias? Do the studies cited include a sufficient number

• of examples to be meaningful? Do the statistics appear reliable, or are some out of date, irrelevant, or skimpy? Have the writers avoided the reasoning

410 errors discussed on page 152-153 Whenever you find a flaw, note where the problem lies so that you can discuss it in your writing if you choose. Such

• discussions often clear up common misconceptions. There are various pos- sibilities for organizing your paper. If your sources substantially agree on

4111/ the most important cause, you might begin with that one and then take up the others. A second possibility, the order-of-climax arrangement, reverses

• the procedure by starting with secondary causes and ending with the most significant one. You can use the same options for organizing effects. When

• no clear consensus exists about the relative importance of the different causes and effects, there is no best arrangement of the material. 1

410 • 11111 • •

1 Because this type of paper draws upon published information, it is important to understand card catalogs and periodical indexes as well as how to handle quotations and avoid plagiarism. As always, follow your instructor's

guidelines for documenting sources.

162 CHAPTER 9 Cause and Effect: Explaining Why

Suggestions for Writing

1. Read three articles on the causes of a major social problem such as domestic violence and incorporate those causes and your own views in a paper.

2. Read two articles that disagree about the effects of a proposed government program such as oil and gas drilling on public land and write a paper that incorporates the writers' views and presents your own conclusions.

3. Write an essay that corrects a common misconception about the causes or effects of a matter about which you feel strongly. Possibilities might include the causes of homelessness or the impact of capital punishment on murder rates in different states.

• 0 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

•

• • • • • • • • • • • •

Test causes and effects.

Are you • missing causes or effects? • ignoring multiple causes? ■ mistaking correlation for

causation? ■ confusing causes and

effects?

Do you have good evidence to claim something a cause or effect?

Decide on focus. Create a table that organizes causes or effects and provides details.

Create a rough outline or plan of pattern of cause and effect.

■ Identify key topic based on assignment or personal interest. ■ Identify audience and purpose. ■ Decide if you are more interested in causes or effects.

Brainstorm and take notes on causes and effects.

■ Read and conduct research. ■ Observe. ■ Talk with others for ideas.

Identify most a Effects of a sing single event, a c causes, and effE

ppropriate pattern. le cause, of a hain of effects or acts of an event.

Writing a Causal Analysis

Plan.

Write a rough draft.

■ Intro introduces topic, reasons for analysis, focus on cause or effect. ■ Body provides causes or effects with details and reasons, shows connections,

follows pattern. ■ Conclusion may specify consequences, warn readers, evaluate importance

of cause or effect.

Revise.

Gather peer response, test analysis carefully, read more if needed, talk over with others.

■ Does focus on cause or effect fit purpose and facts? ■ Add missing cause or effect, detail, or evidence. ■ Cut parts that don't fit. ■ Evaluate accuracy of account and pattern. ■ Test organization to make it clear to reader. ■ Test for ethics.

.0.0,VOMPIWPFM.PANIIRTIPWIMPF,

Proofread.

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

163

strat for writing reading strategies pages 236-237.pdf

• Page 1
• Page 2