6

ICOM101-

SEMESTER 2 2014

Take home test Due Date: 2nd September

Weight: 20%

NAME & NO.

A) In your own words, explain the following quote and give a brief definition of each of the following terms. Identify where they come from (eg. which scholar, which school, which theory). Use an example to illustrate each of your definitions. (around 100w each). Use your own words.

“Culture is the best that has been thought and said in the world”

Culture and Anarchy is a series of periodical essays by Matthew Arnold, first published in Cornhill Magazine 1867-68 and collected as a book in 1869.

Arnold's famous piece of writing on culture established his High Victorian cultural agenda.

His often-quoted phrase "[culture is] the best which has been thought and said" comes from the Preface to Culture and Anarchy:

The whole scope of the essay is to recommend culture as the great help out of our present difficulties; culture being a pursuit of our total perfection by means of getting to know, on all the matters which most concern us, the best which has been thought and said in the world, and, through this knowledge, turning a stream of fresh and free thought upon our stock notions and habits, which we now follow staunchly but mechanically, vainly imagining that there is a virtue in following them staunchly which makes up for the mischief of following them mechanically.

References

Robert H. Super, Culture and Anarchy with Friendship's Garland and Some Literary Essays, Volume V of The Complete Works of Matthew Arnold, The University of Michigan Press, 1965.

1) Social identity

Social Identity Theory was developed by Tajfel and Turner in 1979. The theory was originally developed to understand the psychological basis of intergroup discrimination

In the Social Identity Theory, a person has not one, “personal self”, but rather several selves that correspond to widening circles of group membership. Different social contexts may trigger an individual to think, feel and act on basis of his personal, family or national “level of self” (Turner et al, 1987). Apart from the “level of self”, an individual has multiple “social identities”. Social identity is the individual’s self-concept derived from perceived membership of social groups (Hogg & Vaughan, 2002). In other words, it is an individual-based perception of what defines the “us” associated with any internalized group membership. This can be distinguished from the notion of personal identity which refers to self-knowledge that derives from the individual’s unique attributes.

References

Tajfel, H. and Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of inter-group behavior. In S. Worchel and L. W. Austin (eds.), Psychology of Intergroup Relations. Chigago: Nelson-Hall

Turner, J. C. (1982). Towards a cognitive redefinition of the social group. In H. Tajfel (ed.), Social Identity and Intergroup Relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hogg, M.A. & Vaughan, G.M. (2002). Social Psychology (3rd ed. ) London: Prentice Hall.

2) High Context Culture

High context cultures are terms presented by the anthropologist Edward T. Hall in his 1976 book Beyond Culture (T. Hall, 1976). It refers to a culture's tendency to use high context messages over low context messages in routine communication. This choice of communication styles translates into a culture that will cater to in-groups, an in-group being a group that has similar experiences and expectations, from which inferences are drawn. In a high context culture, many things are left unsaid, letting the culture explain.

Words and word choice become very important in higher context communication, since a few words can communicate a complex message very effectively to an in-group (but less effectively outside that group) Highest context cultures to be found in Asia include China, Japan, south Korea and in countries with low racial diversity.

Higher-context cultures tend to correlate with cultures that also have a strong sense of tradition and history, and change little over time. For example, Native Americans in the United States have higher-context cultures with a strong sense of tradition and history. The focus on tradition creates opportunities for higher context messages between individuals of each new generation

References

Hall, Edward, T. Beyond Culture. Anchor Books (December 7, 1976).

3) Stereotype

In social psychology, a stereotype is a thought that can be adopted about specific types of individuals or certain ways of doing things (Russel, 2002) These thoughts or beliefs may or may not accurately reflect reality. They can, however, keep people from processing new or unexpected information about each individual, thus biasing the impression formation process (Russel, 2002)

There were a couple uses for the term stereotype prior 1922, however it was not until then that "stereotype" was first used in the modern psychological sense by American journalist Walter Lippmann in his work Public Opinion (Milton, 1993) By the mid-1950s, Gordon Allport wrote that "it is possible for a stereotype to grow in defiance of all evidence".

Stereotype content refers to the attributes that people think characterize a group. Studies of stereotype content examine what people think of others, rather than the reasons and mechanisms involved in stereotyping, and often occurs without conscious awareness (Susan. T, 2003).

Early theories of stereotype content proposed by social psychologists such as Gordon Allport assumed that stereotypes of outgroups reflected uniform antipathy (Xu Jun, 2002. Cuddy, 2002). For instance, Katz and Braly argued in their classic 1933 study that ethnic stereotypes were uniformly negative (Susan. T, 2003).

References

McGarty, Craig; Yzerbyt, Vincent Y.; Spears, Russel (2002). "Social, cultural and cognitive factors in stereotype formation". Stereotypes as explanations: The formation of meaningful beliefs about social groups. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–15. ISBN 978-0-521-80047-1.

Kleg, Milton (1993). Hate Prejudice and Racism. Albany: State University of New York Press. pp. 135–137. ISBN 978-0-585-05491-9.

Operario, Don; Fiske, Susan T. (2003). "Stereotypes: Content, Structures, Processes, and Context". In Brown, Rupert; Gaertner, Samuel L. Blackwell Handbook of Social Psychology: Intergroup Processes. Malden, MA: Blackwell. pp. 22–44. ISBN 978-1-4051-0654-2.

Fiske, Susan T.; Cuddy, Amy J. C.; Glick, Peter; Xu, Jun (2002). "A Model of (Often Mixed) Stereotype Content: Competence and Warmth Respectively Follow From Perceived Status and Competition". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (American Psychological Association) 82 (6): 878–902. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.82.6.878.

Cuddy, Amy J. C.; Fiske, Susan T. (2002). "Doddering But Dear: Process, Content, and Function in Stereotyping of Older Persons". In Nelson, Todd D. Ageism: Stereotyping and Prejudice against Older Persons. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. pp. 7–8. ISBN 978-0-262-14077-5.

4) Enculturation

Enculturation is the process by which people learn the requirements of their surrounding culture and acquire values and behaviours appropriate or necessary in that culture (Hastings, 2007). As part of this process, the influences that limit, direct, or shape the individual (whether deliberately or not) include parents, other adults, and peers. If successful, enculturation results in competence in the language, values and rituals of the culture (Hastings, 2007).

Herskovits' definition of enculturation includes a process of novel change and inquiry. Two phases of enculturation, according to Herskovits, can be distinguished: the "unconscious" stage of early years in human growth, where the individual "unconsciously" internalizes his culture; the "conscious" stage of later years, which involves innovations initiated by individuals.

References

Grusec, Joan E.; Hastings, Paul D. "Handbook of Socialization: Theory and Research", 2007, Guilford Press; ISBN 1-59385-332-7, ISBN 978-1-59385-332-7; p 547.

B) Introduce 3 types of identity and outline their relevance in intercultural relations. (max 300w)

A country can be broken up into many different forms of separated and estranged identities or identity sects. People usually tend to navigate towards others with similar identities and beliefs as it provides them with a sense of comfort and familiarity, in an otherwise somewhat unknown place. National identity, Class Identity and Spiritual Identity come into place with their relevance in intercultural relations, as although people tend to surround themselves with the like minded, it allows us to scope our surroundings and learn how to see oneself and the world through the eyes of another

National identity

National identity is a person's identity and sense of belonging to one state or to one nation, a feeling one shares with a group of people, regardless of one's citizenship status.

National identity is not an inborn trait; various studies have shown that a person's national identity is a direct result of the presence of elements from the "common points" in people's daily lives: national symbols, language, national colours, the nation's history, national consciousness, blood ties, culture, music, cuisine, radio, television, etc.

The national identity of most citizens of one state or one nation tends to strengthen when the country or the nation is threatened militarily. The sense of belonging to the nation is essential as an external threat becomes clearer when individuals seek to unite with fellow countrymen to protect themselves and fight against the common threat. There are cases where national identity collides with a person's civil identity. For example, many Israeli Arabs associate themselves or are associated with the Arab or Palestinian nationality, while at the same time they are citizens of the state of Israel, which is in conflict with the Palestinians and with many Arab countries.

Class Identity

Social class is a political theory centered on models of social stratification in which people are grouped into a set of hierarchical social categories, (G.J. Andrew, 2001) the most common being the upper, middle, and lower classes.

In the late 18th century, the term "class" began to replace classifications such as estates, rank, and orders as the primary means of organizing society into hierarchical divisions. This corresponded to a general decrease in significance ascribed to hereditary characteristics, and increase in the significance of wealth and income as indicators of position in the social hierarchy (P. Robert, 2003).

For Marx, class is a combination of objective and subjective factors. Objectively, a class shares a common relationship to the means of production. Subjectively, the members will necessarily have some perception ("class consciousness") of their similarity and common interest. Class consciousness is not simply an awareness of one's own class interest but is also a set of shared views regarding how society should be organized legally, culturally, socially and politically. These class relations are reproduced through time. (F. Parkin, 1979)

A person's socioeconomic class has wide-ranging effects. It may determine the schools they are able to attend, the jobs open to them, who they may marry, and their treatment by police and the courts.

Spiritual Identity

Depending on the context, spiritual identity is salient particularly in the church, temple and any fellowship gathering. Typically in everyday secular activities in the United State spiritual identity is not apparent. In countries like the Middle East to Northern Ireland, said from India and Pakistan to Bosnia, spiritual differences are at the forefront of conflict and strife in which people have waged war and are willing to die for their spiritual beliefs. In some interpersonal relationships, spiritual identity becomes salient if both parties have the same spiritual commitment in their lives. In other relationships, when one party is spiritually oriented, and the others does not believe in the same God or does not believe in a God, their differences in their spiritual identities have many times created a wedge between both parties. Peoples spiritual identity can also be a source of conflict, specially among those who are not open-minded and are judgemental of other spiritual faiths.

People who truly understand and love God strive to live a godly life. These people who take on a serous spiritual identity, either private or public, no matter what race, ethnicity, and culture, will practice their spirituality to help them to live and to communicate toward others according to godly principles. Some people who are serous about their spiritualty will look to their faith to help them during difficult times to resolve issues, to become more solid in character, to be stronger in faith, and to serve others, especially people who are in need.

References

Andrews, G. J. & Macken, D. (2001). Listening to older people: An evaluation of a Forum in Buckingham and district. Age Concern Buckinghamshire, Aylesbury.

Penney, Robert (2003). "Class, social". In Christensen, Karen & Levinson, David. Encyclopedia of community: from the village to the virtual world, Volume 1. SAGE. p. 189. ISBN 978-0-7619-2598-9.

Parkin, F. Marx’s Theory of History: A Bourgeois Critique. New York: Columbia University Press, 1979.

C) Choose one of the tasks outlined below and write a mini essay of no more than 500 words. Your essay needs to be referenced (references are not part of the word count.)

3. In what ways are international relations affected by new media technologies? Give examples (one or two will be enough) from current affairs.

THIS PART HERE IS FROM 3 DIFFERENT ARTICLES, THEY NEED TO BE INTERTWINED, RE-WORDED AND CUT DOWN TO 500 WORDS.

The international relations profession has not fully taken stock of the way in which user-driven information technologies—including Blogger, Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, and Wikipedia—are reshaping our professional activities, our subject matter, and even the constitutive rules of the discipline itself. As international studies pro- grams spread from the developed world to the rest of the globe, these technolo- gies will become ever more important as means of engaging peers across many time zones.

The rise of social media across the globe has increased the complexity of an already rapidly evolving communications landscape. This complexity presents both obstacles and opportunities for international relations as traditional business and political conventions are constantly challenged.

1. An Increasingly Connected, Complex World

An increasingly interconnected world has emerged due to globalization and rapid advances in information technology. Social media, mobile technology and the Internet continue to spread globally, accelerating and expanding the free flow of information. This interconnectivity enables influencers to create deep transnational networks and impact on a global scale. Global communities can also be created virtually and conversations can start anywhere at any time, mobilizing audiences that transcend borders and geographic distance.

2. Political Mobilization on a Global Scale

The Arab Spring is often considered one of social media’s breakout moments. Sometimes referenced as the “Twitter Revolution,” participants used social networks such as Facebook*, Twitter and YouTube both to mobilize and inform the world as the story unfolded. In Egypt, Libya and more recently in Syria, government leaders temporarily cut off Internet access, indirectly recognizing the role social media and other connective technologies played in accelerating the social movements. These movements demonstrate the power of a digitally empowered public and how technology can be leveraged for global influence.

3. Transparency in International Diplomacy

Social media has emerged in a period marked by the dispersion of authority, the fragility of trust and a crisis in leadership, all of which contribute to a greater public demand for transparency from government and business institutions. While diplomacy has traditionally taken place behind closed doors, social media provides new tools for world leaders to communicate with each other and with citizens. In the U.S., former Secretary of State

New media is becoming the preferred term for a range of media practices that employ digital technologies and the computer in some way or another (Dewdney & Ride, 2006). It is used as a term in educational settings as the title of university departments and courses and also as a title of certain artistic practices, making new media both an academic and intellectual subject, and a practice (Dewdney & Ride, 2006). New media definitions remain fluid and are evolving, with some definitions of new media focusing exclusively upon computer technologies and digital content production whilst others stress the cultural forms and contexts in which technologies are used (Dewdney & Ride, 2006). One key feature of new and emerging media technologies is that they are often portable and facilitate mobility in communications. New media has a wider reach that anything before it (Lindgren cited in Galloway, 2005). Wireless and digital technological improvements to media have lifted previous restrictions that required connecting to a static, physical network or machine.

Although corporate websites, chat-rooms, email customer response facilities and electronic news release distribution are now viewed as standard aspects of international relations practice (Galloway, 2005) many relations practitioners are struggling with the impact of new media, and especially the Internet. Research has shown that practitioners are not fully embracing new media, are ill-equipped to do so and have a fear of the technology (Alfonso & de Valbuena Miguel, 2006).

The terrain of international relations practice is also shifting with new media bringing about substantial increases in stakeholder strength through facilitating communication within stakeholder groups and between different stakeholder groups (Van der Merwe, Pitt & Abratt, 2005). Information ‘pours out of digital spigots [sic]’ (Stephens 2007, p. 35) and news now arrives ‘astoundingly fast from an astounding number of directions’ (Stephens 2007, p. 35) and it is often free. Anyone with a computer linked to the Internet has the ability to publish information for potential global consumption and it is clear that the Internet ‘is revolutionising many aspects of international relations research and practice’ (Taylor & Kent 2006, p. 145).

References

Alfonso, G.-H., & de Valbuena Miguel, R. (2006). Trends in online media relations: Web-based corporate press rooms in leading international companies. Public Relations Review. [Electronic version]. 32, pp. 267–275.

Carpenter, C., Drezner, W. D, 2010. International Studies Perspectives- International Relations 2.0: The Implications of New Media for an Old Profession 255-272 . 1st ed. U.S: Daniel Drezner .

Dewdney, A. & Ride, P. (2006). The New Media Handbook. London; New York: Routledge.

Friday Five: How Social Media is Transforming International Relations and Business | Edelman Digital. 2014. Friday Five: How Social Media is Transforming International Relations and Business | Edelman Digital. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.edelmandigital.com/2013/05/10/friday-five-how-social-media-is-transforming-international-relations-and-business. [Accessed 29th August 2014].

Galloway, C. (2005). Cyber-PR and ‘dynamic touch’, Public Relations Review, [Electronic version]. 31, pp. 572–577.

Stephens, M. (2007). Beyond News. Columbia Journalism Review. [Electronic version]. 45, pp. 34–39.

Van der Merwe, R., Pitt, L. & Abratt, R. (2005). Stakeholder Strength: PR Survival Strategies in the Internet age. Public Relations Quarterly.

[Electronic version] 50, pp. 29–39.