Art

The supernatural realm lies beyond our senses, yet in almost every age and culture, people have created diagrams, symbols, and pictures that express to some extent their understanding of divinity.

8.1 Transformation Mask, Kwakiutl, British Columbia, 20th century. Painted wood. American Museum of Natural History, NY

Humans strive constantly to grasp divine realm through: → rituals → oral tradition → sacred writings → meditation → prayer → music

And art.

8.30 Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem, 687–692.

8.13 Matthias Grünewald. The Isenheim Altarpiece, Germany, c. 1510–1515. Oil on wood; center panel: Crucifixion, 9' 9 1/2" × 10' 9". Musée d’Unterlinden, Colmar, France.

Animal features or natural phenomena can symbolize deities: →  the sun can be a symbol for God. → Jesus is symbolized by a

sacrificial lamb

→ the Holy Spirit by a dove or by fire. Other religions are animistic, with

natural elements or animals as deities.

8.42 Masjid-i-Shah, or Royal Mosque (detail of the main portal), Isfahan, Iran, 1612–1637.

In many religions, God is not pictured.

Most African religions and the Hindu religion recognize a completely unknowable Supreme Being.

In the Islamic religion, Allah is never depicted.

8.3 Snake Goddess, Minoan, from the palace at Knossos, c. 1600 BCE. Glazed earthenware, 13 1/2" high. Archeological Museum, Heraklion.

Polytheism - the belief in many gods. The Earth Mother - first of the polytheistic

gods, the giver of life, fertility and the carrier of death.

In ancient myths the Goddess existed first. She created her male counterpart, she mated with him to produce the rest of Creation.

The Snake goddess likely evolved from the Earth Mother; she represents male and female regenerative powers.

8.4 Zeus or Poseidon, Greece, 460–450 BCE. Bronze, 6' 10" high. National Archeological Museum, Athens.

Ancient Greeks believed all life on earth began with Gaia, the Earth Goddess, the Greek gods of Olympus were her descendants.

Greek gods were always portrayed in human form.

The earliest figures were stiff and frontal without fluid movement.

Later Classic depictions had convincing anatomy and movement - were idealized and flawless.

8.4, left, Zeus or Poseidon, Greece, 460–450 BCE. Bronze, 6' 10" high. National Archeological Museum, Athens. 8.5, right, detail -The Goddess Hathor and the Overseer of Sealers, Psamtik. Saqqara, Egypt, Late 26th Dynasty, 6th century BCE. Gray stone; base: 11 1/2" × 43 1/4"; height of cow to horns, 33". Cairo Museum, Egypt.

Compare these 2 figures.

Zeus, (or possibly Poseidon), from the Classic period. Shown as:

→ chief among Greek gods → a mature male → ideal, godlike in his

physique

→ larger than life size figure monumental, muscular, ideally proportioned

→ conveying action and energy

→ poised and dignified

8.5,The Goddess Hathor and the Overseer of Sealers, Psamtik. Saqqara, Egypt, Late 26th Dynasty, 6th century BCE. Gray stone; base: 11 1/2" × 43 1/4"; height of cow to horns, 33". Cairo Museum, Egypt.

Deities of ancient Egypt were personifications of natural forces. Most were represented as animals or as animal-human combinations.

The goddess Hathor, associated with the sky, stars, love, mirth, and joy, was depicted as a human and a cow.

The goddess Hathor encompasses and hovers protectively over Psamtik, an Egyptian official.

She is identified by:

→ horns which surround the head of a cobra, a sign of royalty

→ the combination of horns and sun disk which symbolize royalty and divinity

→ a calm, majestic face

8.6, Xilonen, Goddess of Young Corn. Huastec. Tuxpan (Veracruz), Mexico, 1000–1200. Limestone, 33" high.

Mesoamerican cultures often linked the gods with corn and water, because water was essential and corn symbolically stood for all food.

The maize goddess, Xilonen was the protector of young corn plants.

→ her head is rounded, humanlike, grandly adorned

→ her headdress is adorned with ornamental bands and ears of corn

→ she wears a collar made of sunrays

→ heavy pendants decorate her ears

→ the jade necklace symbolizes crop fertility

4.2 Tlalco Vessel, Aztec, ca. 1440–1469. Clay and pigment, 13" × 13" × 12.5" Museo Templo Mayor, Mexico City, D.F., Mexico.

Also from Mesoamerica, Tlaloc, the rain deity made crops flourish.

Tlaloc was traditionally shown with distinctive features:

→ circular eyes → twisted serpent nose → fanged mouth → headdress → large ear ornaments → flattened features

rendered as geometric shapes

Compare how the Mesoamerican artists show the divine status of Tlaloc and Xilonen to the way that divinity is shown in Minoan and Greek gods.

8.7 Shiva as Nataraja, or Lord of the Dance. Naltunai Isvaram Temple, Punjai, India, c. 1000. Bronze.

Brahman is one, pure being, pure intelligence, and pure delight, and is therefore unknowable.

Shiva, an avatar, is: →  good and evil → male and female → unity in which all opposites meet → the destroyer of life, who also

recreates it → terrible and, at the same time mild.

Shiva has often been depicted as the Lord of the Dance.

→ his body, like a dancer, is supple, sleek, graceful

→ he stands in perfect balance → he is the embodiment of cosmic

energy

→ the balanced pose is the concept of eternal stillness.

→ multiple arms tell of his power → divine wisdom is shown by the

third eye in the middle of his forehead

→ his far right hand holds an hourglass-shaped drum the beating stands for creation and the passing of time.

→ the second right arm is coiled by a snake symbolizing regeneration

→  the mudra is a sign of protection → the far left hand balances a flame

that symbolizes destruction

→ the left foot is elevated in the dance, indicating release from this earth

→ right foot crushes ignorance → the circle of fire radiating around

Shiva shows the unfolding and transformation of the universe and its destruction

8.9 Seated Buddha. Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, India, late fifth–early sixth centuries. Sandstone, 63" high. Sarnath museum.

8.8 Great Stupa. Sanchi, India, third century BCE–first century CE. Dome, 50' high. Robert Harding Picture Library.

Stupa symbolism: → the form represented the cosmos, dwelling place of the ancient gods and sacred womb of the universe

→ the low balustrade wall containing four heraldic gates, called toranas, are located at the four cardinal points

→ the square enclosure on top of the dome symbolized the heavens

→ the mast with umbrellas, called chatras, united the world with the paradises above

→ chatras signified the levels of human consciousness through which the human

soul ascends to enlightenment

→ the stupa as a symbol of Buddhahood spread throughout Asia, although there were local variations in its design

Later sects emphasized a more personal Buddha. Early sculptures were variations of older Hindu spirits, with Buddha-identifying attributes:

→ the topknot of hair, a cranial bump indicating wisdom

→ a circle between the eyebrows.

→ earlobes were long, since he was once a bejeweled prince

In later images, the emphasis was on the serenity of Buddha:

→ the body seems almost weightless. → the torso and limbs are simplified

into graceful lines and elegant shapes

→ clothing is sheer and clinging, unworldly in its draping and perfection

→ tall arches of the brow, downcast eyes, quiet but sensual mouth speak of a transcendent serenity

→ Buddha is seated in lotus position on a throne, under which are carved worshippers around the Wheel of the Law.

→ abstracted foliage above and around represents the Tree of Enlightenment

8.10 The Water and Moon Guanyin Bodhisattva, China, Song Dynasty, c. 1100. Painted wood, 7' 11" high. The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City.

Over the centuries, Buddhist beliefs became more complex.

Bodhisattvas are living beings who have attained Buddhahood but have chosen to remain on earth to help others. The Bodhisattvas are immediate personal intercessors who give aid.

Depictions of Guanyin vary radically, with two to twelve arms, often crowned, sometimes with a muscular male body and sometimes with an effeminate body

8.11 Synagogue at Dura-Europos, Syria, 245–256 CE. Interior, with wall paintings of biblical themes. National Museum, Damascus.

It was thought that the making of images in the Jewish faith was forbidden because of the 2nd Commandment.

But images have been found in scripture illumination and on the walls of ancient synagogues.

The Synagogue at Dura-Europos, was transformed into a place of worship in the 2nd C. CE.

The paintings on the walls:

→ illustrate stories found in the Hebrew Bible

→ figures have stylized gestures, lack expression, mass, and depth

→ stand in frontal rows → action was not depicted → Yahweh shown as a hand

8.12 Raphael. Madonna of the Meadow, Italy, c. 1505. Panel painting, 44 1/2" × 34 1/4". Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.

In Madonna of the Meadow , Jesus is the center, his cousin, St. John the Baptist, at the left, and Mary, his mother.

→ the children sweet, but solemn → the cross portends their roles

of savior and prophet

→ human, but dignified and divine → Mary and the children fit into an

implied triangle, the sacred shape of the Trinity

→ Mary completely contains the form of Jesus, attesting she is His mother

→ she is a symbol for the church, → the harbor implies protection

Mary was known as the Port of Salvation

8.13 Matthias Grünewald. The Isenheim Altarpiece, Germany, c. 1510–1515. Oil on wood; center panel: Crucifixion, 9' 9 1/2" × 10' 9". Musée d’Unterlinden, Colmar, France.

The Isenheim Altarpiece, shows Jesus at death, a moment both of annihilation and of redemption from sin.

The Isenheim Altarpiece conceptual rather than a realistic representation:

→ the lamb holding a cross, bleeding into a chalice, symbolizes animal sacrifices of the past and the current offering of bread and wine

→ people who were present at the Crucifixion are omitted → St. John the Baptist is shown, although he was dead

The painting consoled hospital patients. They could see the suffering of Christ and relate it to their own suffering

8.14 Hasa. The Birth of the Prophet. From Volume I of the Progress of the Prophet, by Mustafa Darir, Katab Siyar-I Nabi, Istanbul, 1594. Miniature, 18.5 × 18 cm (3/4" × 11/16"). Istanbul.

This miniature appears in the biography Life of the Prophet:

→ Mohammed and his mother are veiled out of respect

→ the infant Prophet floats on a golden flame-like cloud or pillar

→ 3 crowned angels bear gifts, a pitcher, basin, and towel, needed for ritual ablutions

→ the baby Mohammed places his tiny hand in the basin, Islam’s

first purification rite

8.16,Offering with Cili-Shaped Crown, Bali, c. 1985. Flowers, fruit, and palm leaves, approximately 24" tall.

8.1 Transformation Mask, Kwakiutl, British Columbia, 20th century. Painted wood. American Museum of Natural History, NY

During the performance, the character changes from an earthly being to a supernatural being.

The dancer turns and manipulates the mask with hidden strings and devices, and turns into a completely different mask. The intent of this magical event was to make humans fear the supernatural.

8.15, Retablo of Maria de la Luz Casillas and Children, Central Mexico, 1961. Oil on metal, 7" × 10".

→ we see Maria twice, a helpless and vulnerable patient, as the supplicant with her children

→ the Virgin looms large in the gray room, golden rays, miraculously intervene

→ extraneous details are omitted to emphasize the Maria’s helplessness and the Virgin’s power.

8.16, Offering with Cili-Shaped Crown, Bali, c. 1985. Flowers, fruit, and palm leaves, approximately 24" tall.

The Balinese commemorate religious days by giving handmade offerings.

They regard these offerings as artworks and consider many of their people to be artists.

Religion and art are integrated components of everyday life.

8.17 Lorenzo Ghiberti. Sacrifice of Isaac (detail), Florence, Italy, 1401–1402. Gilded bronze, 21" × 17 1/2". Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence.

The Sacrifice of Isaac shows:

→ an emotionally intense moment

→ Isaac’s nude body as perfect, increasing the merit of the sacrifice

→ food, a ram (not visible in our detail), became an acceptable offering

In other cultures, human offerings to deities also involved blood sacrifice.

Various Mesoamerican cultures— Maya, Toltec, Aztec, and others practiced blood sacrifice to the sun.

8.18 Shield Jaguar and Lady Xoc. Classic Maya. From a palace at Yaxchilan, Chiapas, Mexico, c. 750. Relief.

Shield Jaguar and Lady Xoc, an example of a bloodletting ceremony:

→ the Mayan ruler holds a torch over his principal wife

→ she pulls a thorny rope through a hole in her tongue

→ blood sacrifices had to be performed by a high ranking

person

→ rank shown by wrist bracelets, necklaces,

crowns, and garb

→ flattened foreheads were signs of beauty

More extreme forms of blood sacrifice were practiced, such as cutting out the hearts of captured warriors or the captains of ball teams.

8.19 Jimmie Kewanwytewa. Ahola Kachina, Hopi, Third Mesa, Oraibi, 1942. Cottonwood, paint, feathers, wool, 13" high. Museum of Northern Arizona.

Male members of the Hopi community perform as kachinas during religious festivals, they also carve dolls that reproduce the costume of specific spirits.

The colors on the dolls represent sacred directions:

→ North-blue or green → West-yellow → South-red → East-white → the heavens- multicolor → the nadir - black

During ceremonies:

→ children receive the dolls to educate them

→ women receive them as symbols of fertility

→ dolls are hung from rafters in houses as blessings and as prayers for rain and good crops.

8.20 Power Figure (Nkisi n’kondi), Kongo, Zaire, 1998. Wood, nails, blades, medicinal material with cowrie shell, 46 1/4" high. Detroit Museum of Art.

The Power Figure is an art object used as a form of prayer to counter the evil influence of enemies--- human, animal, or spiritual.

Shamans activate them, placing medicines in the figure’s abdomen or in the back or head.

The figure’s power is released by driving in a metal nail or blade for each request for help.

8.21 Michelangelo. Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, The Vatican, Rome, Italy, 1508–1512. Fresco, approximately 128' × 45'

The images on the Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel present the origin of the universe, human beings, and sin.

Cosmic moments:

→ God depicted as a powerful, older man in pink robes separates light from darkness

→ God creates the sun and moon → He separates the water from

land.

→ Creates Adam, then Eve → Adam and Eve break God’s

commandment, create original sin

→ expulsion from Paradise

8.22 Mandala of Samvara (Kharamukha Cakrasamvara Mandala), Tibet, c. 16th century.Water-based pigments on cotton cloth. 23" high, 18" wide.

The mandala, is a radially balanced, geometric diagram augmented by images of deities, humans, and symbols of the universe.

The mandala forms a map of the structure of the cosmos.

The mandala reinforces the belief that the cosmos, including the physical and spiritual worlds, is an uninterrupted whole of continually fluctuating energy states.

8.23 The Ark of the Covenant and sanctuary implements. Hammath, near Tiberias, 4th century. Mosaic. Israel Antiquities Authority, Jerusalem.

8.24 Ziggurat at Ur (partially reconstructed), Third Dynasty of Ur, Iraq, c. 2150–2050 BCE.

Places of worship may:

→ shelter a congregation → house sacred objects → incorporate elements of nature → incorporate symbolic geometry in their dimensions or the

determination of their location

→ be sites of sacred ceremonies and pilgrimages

8.24 Ziggurat at Ur (partially reconstructed), Third Dynasty of Ur, Iraq, c. 2150–2050 BCE.

The Ziggurat at Ur is a sacred artificial mountain erected by the Sumerians of Ur to honor their special deity.

The word ziggurat means “mountain” or “pinnacle.” Surrounded by flat land, this terraced tower of rubble and brick seemed to reach into the heavens.

8.25, Main Shrine at Ise (exterior), Japan, c. 685, rebuilt every twenty years.

The Shinto religion teaches that forests and enormous stones are sacred dwellings of the gods of nature, called the Kami.

The Kami are prevailed upon to enter the shrine, where their powers are worshiped and their aid solicited.

8.25, Main Shrine at Ise (exterior), Japan, c. 685, rebuilt every twenty years.

The Main Shrine at Ise is made of natural materials - wood and thatch.

It is rebuilt every twenty years to exactly the same specifications. builders observe careful rituals and express gratitude as they take wood from the forest.

The wood is left plain and unpainted to retain its natural character, and it is carefully fitted and joined with pegs. Nails are not used.

8.26, Stonehenge, Wiltshire, England, c. 2000 BCE. Diameter: 97'; upright stones with lintel, approximately 24' high.

Stonehenge is an altar

and

an astronomical device mapping solar and planetary movement.

The arrangement marks the midsummer solstice, essential to an agrarian civilization dependent on successful crop planting.

8.27 Pantheon, Rome, Italy, 118–125. Concrete and marble; 142' from floor to opening in dome.

The Pantheon is a shrine to the chief deities of the Roman Empire.

The entire structure is symmetrical, both inside and out, and creates the impression of loftiness, simplicity, and balance.

→ a142-foot-diameter sphere fits into the interior space, making the width equal to its height

→ the dome, a perfect hemisphere, is the top half of that sphere

→ a 30 foot circular opening at top the oculus, creates a shaft of sunlight that dramatically illuminates the interior.

→ square are inscribed in the dome and wall surfaces and are the basis of the pattern on the marble inlay floor.

8.28 Shrine to Vairocana Buddha. Longmen, Luoyang, Valley of the Yellow River, China, c. 600–650. Natural rock carving, 50' high.

Longmen Caves in China, a Buddhist pilgrimage destination is a complex of cave-shrines for 1000s of sacred statues, dedicated to Buddha.

The largest of these is the monumental Shrine to Vairocana Buddha who is the universal principle dominating all life and all phenomena.

8.29 Le Corbusier. Notre Dame du Haut, Ronchamps, France, 1950–1955.

Notre Dame du Haut is a Catholic chapel in the Vosges Mountains of France. The design recalls: →  praying hands → the wings of a dove → the shape of a boat

Christian symbols of divine generosity to humans. To accommodate large crowds on holy days, the church has an outdoor altar and pulpit so that services could be conducted for twelve thousand pilgrims on the lawn.

8.30 Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem, 687–692.

The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem is a historic and sacred pilgrimage place for Jews, Christians, and Muslims.

Built on a rock platform, it occupies the site believed to be:

→ the burial place of Adam → the altar upon which Abraham’s son Isaac was

saved by an angel

→ the Hebrew Temple destroyed by the Roman Emperor Titus

→ the stone from which Mohammed ascended to heaven

8.35 First Hypostyle Hall, Horus Temple at Edfu, Egypt, c. 237–57 BCE. The roof slabs are 50' from the floor.

8.32 Iktinos and Kallikrates. Parthenon, Athens, Greece, 447–432 BCE. Pentelic marble; columns 34' high, dimensions of structure 228' × 104'.

With imposing size and lavish detail, these structures are spectacles, amazing to see. In ceremonies, the individual is reduced to spectator, part of the throng that adds to the religious importance of the site.

8.31 Comparison of the plans of various places of worship.

8.32 Iktinos and Kallikrates. Parthenon, Athens, Greece, 447–432 BCE. Pentelic marble; columns 34' high, dimensions of structure 228' × 104'.

8.33 Horsemen (from the Parthenon frieze), Athens, Greece, c. 440 BCE. Marble, 42" high.

8.34 Great Pylon of the Horus Temple at Edfu, Egypt, c. 237–57 BCE. The pylons are 118' high and the façade is 230' wide. Unlike most Egyptian cult temples, this one is located on the west side of the Nile River. Ronald Sheridan Ancient Art & Architecture.

8.35 First Hypostyle Hall, Horus Temple at Edfu, Egypt, c. 237–57 BCE. The roof slabs are 50' from the floor.

Two covered rooms are located beyond the entrance courtyard at Edfu. They were hypostyle halls, with parallel rows of columns that supported the ceiling.

The columns are huge and closely spaced.

The shapes of the columns and capitals were probably derived from bundles of reeds used to build early Egyptian buildings.

To express divine permanence and power, Egyptians translated that original organic material into massive and monumental granite and limestone.

8.36 Kandarya Mahadeva Temple, Khajuraho, India, 10th–11th centuries. This is one of thirty temples at this site, dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu, or Mahavira. Main tower is 130' high.

The second belief system is an understanding of the cosmos in symbolic, geometric terms.

Temple architecture gives form to these spiritual beliefs. → earliest temples were cave temples carved into mountains, like opening the earth’s womb → later temples were freestanding, thick-walled cubes, containing a womb-chamber that housed the cult image

The latest Hindu temples became much more elaborate, but the same basic formula of womb-chamber and mountain remains.

Visual unity in the temple is maintained because of the basic mountain-like form and the simple umbrella shape (which represents the Unbounded) that tops the tallest tower.

The temple exterior is an instrument of meditation on reincarnation.

8.38, right Round Hall from the Temple of Heaven, Beijing, China, begun 1420, restored 1754. Wood with tile roof

The Temple is laid out on a north- south axis.

Altars and temples face south, the source of temperate weather and abundance.

Temple complexes were also carefully sited relative to the forces of wind and water.

8.39 Chartres Cathedral. Chartres, France. Although parts of the west front date from 1145–1170, most of the exterior of this structure was built between 1194 and 1220. South tower 344' high, north tower 377' high; the cathedral itself is 427' long. A rose window is visible at the middle of the church.

The plan of Chartres is symmetrical, in the shape of a cross, symbolizing Jesus’ crucifixion as the act of salvation.

The emphasis on verticality continues inside, the piers, flow gracefully up the pointed groin vaults. The vaults seem to billow overhead rather than being stone structures that weigh tons.

8.40 Rose Window. From the north transept of Chartres Cathedral. Chartres, France, 1233.

The Rose Window, from on the north transept of Chartres shows Old Testament prophets and kings surrounding Mary with her child Jesus.

Geometry was used to locate the small scenes in this window by inscribing and rotating squares within a circle.

The window is shaped like a blooming rose, a symbol of Mary.

8.42 Masjid-i-Shah, or Royal Mosque, Isfahan, Iran, 1612–1637. The arch of the main portal, to the left in this picture, is 90' high; the minarets are 110' high.

Later Developments in Mosque Design

One of the most beautiful mosques ever constructed is in Iran, Masjid-i-Shah, or the Royal Mosque.

The Masjid-i-Shah has a very rough exterior, contrasting with the lavishly decorated interior.

The spaciousness and symmetry of the mosque represent the infinity and completeness of Allah.

8.42 Masjid-i-Shah, or Royal Mosque (detail of the main portal), Isfahan, Iran, 1612–1637.

Pattern Ornamentation is profuse and serves

several purposes:

→ it symbolizes Allah in its suggestion of infinity and

creation

→ it enhances the sacred character of the mosque

→ it identifies and makes visually distinct the various parts of the mosque

→ it disguises the mosque’s mass, although not the form

Calligraphic lettering become very elegant and almost indistinguishable from geometric or foliage patterns.

The panels on either side of the doorway resemble Persian weavings and tapestries.

The entire complex is unified by the enormous, patterned turquoise dome that dominates the skyline.

The circular dome stands for the heavens and symbolizes the oneness of Allah.

8.43 Pyramid of the Sun, with the Avenue of the Dead in the foreground. Teotihuacán, Mexico, begun before 150 CE. Pyramid is 768' along one side of the base.

Temple Designs In the middle of the Avenue of the Dead was the Pyramid of

the Sun.

The pyramid is staggering in size, covering 7.5 acres and rising 215 feet. This huge pyramidal temple is part of an expansive complex known as the Place of the Gods.

8.44 Tlalocan Painting. From Tepantitla compound, Teotihuacán, Mexico. Copy by Agustin Villagra. Original: pigment on stucco.

Temple Painting Early temples had sculptural ornamentation, but after the third

century, paintings were used.

The deity is distinguished by her larger size, frontality, and the symmetrical patterns that ornament her.The entire piece shows the Teotihuacános’ fondness for elaborate symmetrical patterns.