paraphrasing

1. - In the Gothic art, Paris is the center of intellect, and people made enormous book illuminations. Thus, book manufactures became professional artists, and they made books for royal family, scholars, and prosperous merchants. The image of Christ represents many characteristics of Gothic Arts. For example, like other illuminated books in Gothic period, it is consisted of three dimensional architectural setting similar to the figure 13.36. It is dived two big parts, drawing and texts. The upper side of drawing depicts Christ with two angels. Christ is blessing with his right hand, and he holds the bible with his left hand-old iconography of Christ. The lower side of drawing demonstrates three small figures. One of them is the angel of God who directs Saint John to write the book. Artist shows his motivation to make this book through the angel figure who directs him. Many artist in Gothic period, represents his motive, name or brand name on the books. In addition, similar to the figure 13.32, it gives figures volume by using different colors and lights. It uses distinctive colors, especially blue and red.

2.- The image of Christ has been changed many times. At first, in Byzantine period, Christ is often depicted as royal and sacred being. Byzantine considered them as Roman empire, so they tried to depict Christ with resembling Roman royal people. For example, Jesus in the figure 9.13 appears in a deep blue almond shape mandorla-the light, and the background is gold colors which is related Roman empire. Also, Jesus is bigger than others, and he is blessing others with his right arms. It represents that Jesus has powers and authority, and he is sacred being. The other example is the figure 9.29 Virgin and Child. The Christ and Mary wear gold and black clothing related royal art. Also, Mary is depicted omniscient being because the sadness appears on her face as if she already know sacrifice of her son.

In Romanesque period, people depict Christ as a final judge after he returns. In that time, people tried to inherit Roman empire’s works like Byzantine period, but Romanesque Europe has combinations of lots of art style from different cultures. For example, the figure 12.12 depicts the last judgment. Christ is larger than other figures, and he is in the mandorla like Byzantine works. There is both heaven and hell, so it warns to people that they go to hell when the last judgment if they don’t believe Jesus. In addition, the figures are similar to icon image rather than roman figures. It indicates that Romanesque art is the combinations of all different art.

In Gothic period, Christ is more humanize because, in Gothic period, people emphasize humanism on their art. Thus, people depict intensive emotion of both Christ and Mary on the works. The example is the figure 13.51 Virgin with the Dead Christ. The body of Christ is stiffed in death, and covered with blood. Unlike the former image of Christ, it represents death of Christ as human being rather than as God. Also, Mary holds his dead son with extreme sadness. Mary seems to be just mother who lost her son not the sacred mother of Christ or Queen of heaven.

3.It represents the usage of the concrete. In addition, Romans tried to show the growing dominance of Rome, and human will and rational order with natural itself. Thanks to the concrete, Roman invented various vaults such as barrel and groin vaults. Then, they could build larger, more complex, flexible, and various shape buildings fast than in the past. Thus, Sanctuary of Fortuna is large, has unique shape, and it is complex building including temple, theater, shop, and official building. Its large scale and complexity implies great dominance of Rome. Also, it is made on the hillside, but people tried to present their strong will and rational order of building even on the natural which makes construction hard.

4.He ended the bloody civil war after the murder of Julius Caesar. The Rome was republic without big change, but Augusta made princeps who can occupy all important rights. He became a princeps, imperator-chief commander- and chief priest. In means that he could control all aspects of the Rome. Therefore, Augusta brought peace in Rome as well as whole Mediterranean world, and he could construct various architectures such as bridges, roads, amphitheaters, and bathing complex. Indeed, from his time, the figure of royal sculpture which is young, handsome was appeared.

5.Unlike Greek women who have to remain at home, women in Etruscan have independence and freedom. They could attend political events and sporting events with men. Thus, they get high social status as much as men. For example, in the figure 6.5, when the banquet is held, woman reclines with her husband on a couch. Also, she is depicted as tall as man, so she seems to be confident. It shows that women in Etruscan have freedom, and they could participate in official event like banquet with her husband. Thanks to increasing social status, Etruscan women could have their own property, and could get high education. In addition, people used names of both father and mother for their children.

6.They didn’t use the term “Byzantine.” They called their emperors as Rome, and referred themselves to Roman. Although they spoke Greek, not Latin, they tried to show that their entity wasn’t Greek. For example, the region of Byzantine was Christianity like Roman emperor, and they kept creating a lot of Christian art works.

7.The term “Romanesque” means “Roman-like.” It represents well that periods because, in Romanesque period, a lot of architectures or sculptures resembles to the arts of Roman empire. For example, artists bring barrel and groin vaults based on the round arch of ancient Roman architecture style.

8.

- The Flamboyant style emphasis on decoration. It exaggerates s-shaped tracery, so the tracery made of many curves from the decorative arch webs. It values large, expensive window with flying buttresses. In addition, all figures are overlapped, so it brings complexity of views.

9.During the middle age, German king occupied Roman emperor. He suggested his authority by using God, and he could rule Roman emperor. Thus, ‘holy’ is the words that intensifies king’s authority while ruling Roman emperor. Because ruler got power through God, he made a lot of church, and church got power as well. Also, church and empire has close connection.

10.The stained glass doesn’t conceal walls, so they can transmit the light directly in the cathedral. People considered the natural light as God, so stained glass especially, rose colors, makes people feel holy by transmitting the light inside the church. In addition, it takes role in decorating the church.

11.- It is cross vault which is the edge between intersecting of two equal size barrel vaults. People can invent it due to the concrete. Before the invention of the groin vault, people used wood roof or a barrel vault. However, the wood roof made the whole building burned, and the roof made of the barrel vault is really heavy and thick. Thus, people could make only small, and a few windows. Unlike the barrel vault makes the weights go to the four corners not the wall, so it doesn’t have many buttress, and the roof or wall doesn’t have to be thick and heavy. Thus, people could make many large windows, and it brings more lights and variation of interior decorations. In addition, the groin vault is made of stones or concrete, so it becomes fireproof of buildings. It is important because Roman has many places where fire occurs frequently.

12.One of the figures which related to a religious function is Mihrab. It is a wall recess in arched niche, and it indicates the position of the praying direction toward Mecca-Muslim must pray only toward to Mecca. The other figure is Minarets. They are the towers use to call the faithful when they worship their god. They provide vantage points to the prayers.

13.- Basilica is a building with a central nave, an apse at the end, and two side aisles by rows of columns in Rome.

But, through the invention of skills and materials, its compositions are slightly changed. For example, Roman built basilica nova, the figure 7.78. It has central nave, has one apse at the end of the left side, two side aisles by rows of columns. However, it is made of concrete, so it has windows, groin vaults unlike original basilica. Due to the groin vaults, people replace the clerestory of traditional stone timber basilica. It means that the groin vaults take role of lighting system of clerestory. In addition, Roman adjusts the skills and styles which are from the formal building such as baths and market halls to the figure 7.7, so it affects that Roman made new style basilica.

14.- It is because he adjusts empire’s monuments style to Ottonain architecture, especially to abbey church of Saint Michael at Hildesheim. Bishop Bernward was scholar and tutor of Otto3, and he love arts. He traveled Carolingian empire, and brought basilican plan of the church. Thus, Saint Michael is used masterpiece of basilica design- it has tow apses, transepts, and multiple towers.

15. The flying buttress is the exterior arches spring from the lower roofs over the aisles or ambulatory. Due to the combination of flying buttress and rib vaults, people could construct taller towers, and huge windows on the church. People developed skill of making stained glass on huge windows by using that combination, and people could use stained glass much wider on the building.

16.The orant is the praying figure with raising their arms. Putti is a figure of playing kid on the grape bines. The presence of both figures indicates that people get dipper piety. Also, it represents that artist made Christian orants for their patron. The artist in early Christian art produced mural art works depicting Old and New Testament in order to decorate tombs of their patron.

17.Theodosius established Christianity as the state religion. After Theodosius died, one of his sons named Honorius who is affected by Theodosius’ religion made Ravenna as his capital. Thus, many early Christian art works were made in Ravenna. For example, in Ravenna, people developed mosaic skill on the wall of the church, and made two master pieces, the figure 8.16, and the figure 8.18. Still iconography of Christ remains in two mosaics. Later, Byzantine emperor Justinian occupied Ravenna. During the Justin’s reign, Ravenna constructed a lot of prosperities of culture and economic. Byzantine artist made new Byzantine style Christian works based on Ravenna’s early Christian art.

18. The carpet page is a characteristic feature of illuminated manuscripts, especially Gospels. It is little contain text, and the text is used only decorative function. It has brilliant colors, active lines and complex patterns. For example, the figure 11.8 Chi-rho-iota page of the book of Kellls shows characteristics of the carpet page. It depicts the initial three letters of Christ, XPI, on entire pages. The letters don’t have narrative functions, but they only have decorative function of the whole page. Also, its letters design as abstract patterns with brilliant colors.

19.It is because most calligraphy represents the Koran’s sacred words in beautiful manner. The task to represent Koran’s words through calligraphy is holy task, and requires long time. Thus, Islam people consider calligraphy as a works of purity soul, and they value this work.

20.It is because it represents luxurious figures of Gothic royal art, and it also suggests the style of Gothic arts. Jeanne d’Evereux depicts Mary as the queen of heaven by using luxurious materials such as gold, and silver. It is decorated with enamel, and it is donated to the royal abbey church of Saint Denis. In addition, that sculptures shows humanized mother of Christ. Mary is beautiful young women, has saying posture and heavy drapery folds, and has intimacy to her son, Christ. It emphasizes humanism through the intimacy between mother and son rather than Christ and mother of Christ. However, unlike other Gothic art, both Mary and Christ don’t have any fear of the death of Christ.

21.The book of hours is most popular type of medieval illuminated manuscript. It often depicts the prayers to at specified times of the day. It is important because it affects specific type of prayers of later European art.

22.It is an arch, and triangular section of a sphere. It makes a dome is located over the square. When the dome is located on the arch, four segments are omitted, and it creates pendentives. The pendentive makes the weight of the dome go to the ground not to wall. Thanks to the pendentive, Byzantine artist could illuminate a floating dome of Heaven.