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Effective Intake Interviewing

Intake occurs every Monday morning at 8:00. A pre-intake is a precaution with referrals from the court system. We want to protect our other clients. So these referrals are often on parole or probation and during the pre-intake, I consider attitude, any violent behavior history, and the presence of any communicable diseases.

Mission Director, Miami

Interviewing is described in the previous chapter as directed conversation or professional conversation. Many helpers consider it an art as well as a skilled technique that can be improved with practice. In the helping process, the intake interview is a starting point for providing help. Its main purpose is to obtain an understanding of the problem, the situation, and the applicant. A clear statement of the goals of the interview helps both participants reach the intended outcomes. In the example above, the goal of intake is to screen referrals for several factors.

A number of factors influence interviewing in the helping professions. Some factors apply directly to the interviewer, such as attitudes, characteristics, and communication skills. Others are determined by the agency under whose auspices the interview occurs: the setting, the purpose of the agency, the kinds of information to be gathered, and recordkeeping. This chapter explores many of these factors.

The intake interview is usually the first face-to-face contact between the helper and the applicant. In some agencies, the person who does the intake interview will be the helping professional whose primary responsibility is intake interviews. Interviews are also a part of the subsequent helping process, and some of the skills used in the intake interview apply there, too. This chapter uses the term interviewer to refer to the helping professional who is conducting the interview.

This chapter is about effective interviewing: the attitudes and characteristics of interviewers, the skills that make them effective interviewers, how these skills are used in structured interviews, and the pitfalls to avoid when interviewing. We refer you to Figure 4.1 to review the place that intake interviewing has in the helping process. For each section of the chapter, you should be able to accomplish the following objectives.

Figure 4.1 The Helping Process

· Attitudes and Characteristics of Interviewers

· List two reasons why the attitudes and characteristics of the interviewer are important to the interview process.

· Describe four populations of clients that require a culturally sensitive approach.

· Name five characteristics that make a good interviewer.

· Draw a physical space that encourages positive interactions between the client and the interviewer.

· List barriers that discourage a positive interview experience.

· Essential Communication Skills

· List the essential communication skills that contribute to effective interviewing.

· Demonstrate three interviewing skills.

· Support the importance of listening as an important interviewing skill.

· Offer a rationale for questioning as an art.

· Write a dialogue illustrating responses that an interviewer might use in an intake interview.

· Interviewing Pitfalls

· Name four interviewing pitfalls.

Attitudes and Characteristics of Interviewers

The attitudes and characteristics of an interviewer are particularly important during the initial interview because this meeting marks the beginning of the helping relationship. Research supports the view that the personal characteristics of interviewers can strongly influence the success or failure of helping (Capuzzi & Gross, 2009). In fact, Brammer and MacDonald (2003) concluded after a review of numerous studies that these personal characteristics are as significant in helping as the methods that are used.

One approach to the attitudes and characteristics of interviewers focuses on the self and on the treatment of the other person. Those related to self include self-awareness and personal congruence, whereas respect, empathy, and cultural sensitivity are among the attitudes related to treatment of another person. Similarly, elsewhere in the literature, other perspectives on helping attitudes and characteristics have as common themes the ability to communicate, self-awareness, empathy, responsibility, and commitment (Woodside & McClam, 2009).

The interviewer communicates a helping attitude to the applicant in several ways, including greeting, eye contact, facial expressions, and friendly responses. The applicant’s perceptions of the interviewer’s feelings are also important in his or her impression of the quality of the interview. Communicating warmth, acceptance, and genuineness promotes a climate that facilitates the exchange of information, which is the primary purpose of the initial interview. The following dialogue illustrates these qualities.

INTERVIEWER: (stands as applicant enters) Hello, Mr. Johnson (shakes hands and smiles). My name is Clyde Dunn—call me Clyde. I’ll be talking with you this morning. Please have a seat. Did you have any trouble finding the office?

APPLICANT: No, I didn’t. My doctor is in the building next door, so I knew the general location.

INTERVIEWER: Good. Sometimes this complex is confusing because the buildings all look alike. Have you actually been to the Hard Rock Cafe in Cancun (pointing to the applicant’s shirt)?

APPLICANT: No, I haven’t. A friend brought me this T-shirt. I really like it.

INTERVIEWER: They certainly are popular. I see them all over the place. Well, I’m glad you could come in this morning. Let’s talk about why you’re here.

The interviewer communicates respect for the applicant by standing and shaking hands. It is also easy to imagine that Clyde Dunn is smiling and making eye contact with Mr. Johnson. Clyde takes control of the interview by introducing himself, suggesting how Mr. Johnson might address him, and asking him to have a seat. His concern about Mr. Johnson finding the office and his interest in the T-shirt communicate warmth and interest in him as a person. Clyde also reinforces Mr. Johnson’s request for help in a supportive way. All these behaviors reflect an attitude on Clyde’s part that increases Mr. Johnson’s comfort level and facilitates the exchange of information.

The positive climate created by such a beginning should be matched by a physical setting that ensures confidentiality, eliminates physical barriers, and promotes dialogue. It is disconcerting to the applicant to overhear conversations from other offices or to be interrupted by phone calls or office disruptions. He or she is sharing a problem, and such events may lead to worries about the confidentiality of the exchange. Physical barriers between the client and the interviewer (most commonly, desks or tables) also contribute to a climate that can interfere with relationship building. As much as the physical layout of the agency allows, the interviewer should meet applicants in a setting where communication is confidential and disruptions are minimal. It is preferable to have a furniture arrangement that places the interviewer and the applicant at right angles to one another without tables or desks between them and that facilitates eye contact, positive body language, and equality of position.

A sensitive interviewer is also cognizant of other kinds of barriers, such as sexism, racism or ethnocentrism, ageism, and attitudes towards sexual orientation or disabilities. Problems inevitably arise if the interviewer allows any biases or stereotypes to contaminate the helping interaction. To help you think about your own biases and stereotypes, indicate whether you believe each of the following statements is true or false.

T	F	Boys are smarter than girls when it comes to subjects like math and science.
T	F	Men do not want to work for female bosses.
T	F	Mothers should stay home until their young children are in school.
T	F	Women cannot handle the pressures of the business world.
T	F	Asians are smarter than other ethnic groups.
T	F	People on welfare do not want to work.
T	F	People who do not attend church have no moral principles.
T	F	A mandatory retirement age of 65 is necessary because people at that age have diminished mental capacity.
T	F	The older people get, the lower their sexual interest and ability.
T	F	Gays are incapable of commitment in relationships.

How did you respond to these statements? Each statement reflects an unjustified opinion that is based solely on a stereotype of gender, race, age, or attitude toward sexual orientation.

Sensitivity to issues of ethnicity, race, gender, age, and sexual orientation is important when interviewing. Many clients and families have backgrounds very different from that of the interviewer. In the United States today, an increasing number of the population originates from non-European backgrounds, a large number of clients are women, and the population proportion of elderly people is increasing rapidly. For many people in these populations, life is difficult, and they have few places to turn for help. Many of them live in poverty, have inadequate education, have a disproportionate chance of getting involved in the criminal justice system (either as a victim or a perpetrator), possess few useful job skills, are unemployed, and suffer major health problems at a disproportionate rate (Anderson & Middleton, 2005).

Interviewers should ask themselves, “How do I become sensitive to my clients and relate to them in a way that respects and supports their race, culture, gender, age, and sexual orientation?” The following points may be helpful. These points are also important to consider during the assessment phase that we talked about in the previous chapter.

Each Client is Unique

It is easy to stereotype cultural, racial, gender, or age groups, but clients cannot be understood strictly in terms of their particular culture. For example, poverty-stricken, homeless clients share values and experience similar life events, but they are not all the same. Interviewers must take special care to get to know each individual client rather than categorizing him or her as a member of one particular group. One interviewer for example, explained how she struggles to see each individual as unique: “I see one face and then I see ten familiar faces. It is important to see every face as a different one, no matter what you think the outcome will be.”

Language has Different Meanings

Do not assume that words mean the same to everyone who is interviewed. When questions are posed, clients sometimes do not understand the terminology. Likewise, words or expressions that clients use may have a very different meaning for the interviewer. For example, questions about family and spouse are familiar subjects in an intake interview. When clients talk about “partners” or “family,” these terms can have various meanings, depending on the cultural background and life experiences of the individual being interviewed. For example, in the Native American culture, the family is an extended one that includes many members of the clan. For gay men and lesbian women, the word partner has the special meaning of “significant other.”

Another example of language having different meanings is when working with a client who is deaf. One general rule of thumb is to avoid idioms and figurative language, such as “Cat got your tongue?” Someone who is hearing impaired may respond “Where is the cat?” after interpreting the phrase literally. A second general rule is to be aware of words with multiple meanings. For example, hard may mean difficult or it could mean rigid or unyielding. Words with multiple meanings are difficult for individuals with hearing impairment.

Explain the Purpose of the Intake Interview and the Interviewer’s Role

Clients may show up for the interview without understanding its purpose or the role of the interviewer in the helping process. Confidentiality may also be an important issue for them—sharing information about themselves and others may be contrary to the rules of their culture. For example, for many people raised in Asian cultures, to describe a problem to someone who is not in the family implies making the matter public, an act that is believed to bring shame to the family.

Clients May be Different from You

It is easy to make the mistake of expecting the clients we serve to be like us. We begin the interview process wanting to find similarities as a way of building a bridge to them. When clients prove to be very different, or we cannot understand them, we often want them to change so that they will be easier to “manage.” In the United States, we often like to think of our country as a melting pot in which all cultures mix together and lose their original identities. When individuals do not want to lose their own culture, there is a tendency to blame them for being difficult. Interviewers must take special care in the interview process to let clients know that there is respect for differences.

We have assembled some suggestions for developing sensitivity in interviewing individuals with certain cultural backgrounds (Atkinson, Morten, & Sue, 2004; Gilligan, 1982; Slattery, 2004; Sue & Sue, 2007). These are meant to be guidelines and points of awareness; they should be used with caution. As we mentioned earlier, individuals seldom exhibit all the characteristics of their cultural group.

Interviewing Clients of Native American Origin

In many Native American cultures, sharing information about oneself and one’s family is difficult. It is important not to give others information that would embarrass the family or imply wrongdoing by a family member. Listening behaviors such as maintaining eye contact and leaning forward are considered inappropriate and intrusive in some Native American cultures. For many Native Americans, trust increases as you become more involved in their lives and show more interest in them. Making home visits and getting to know the family can significantly improve an interviewer’s chances of getting relevant information. Native Americans tend not to make decisions quickly. The slowness of the process could influence how soon the client is willing to share information or make judgments.

Native American cultures sometimes incorporate a fatalistic element—a belief that events are predetermined. During the initial stages of the process, the client may not understand how his or her responses and actions can influence the course of service delivery.

Interviewing Clients with a Common Background of Spanish Language and Customs

Individuals living in the United States who are of Mexican, Central and South American, or Caribbean ancestry are often referred to as Hispanic, Latino, and Chicano. There is actually little agreement on the appropriate term for identification across groups and even within subgroups. Although they share some commonalities, they may differ in appearance, country of origin, date of immigration, location and length of time in the United States, customs, and proficiency in English. Interviewers should be sensitive to terminology and avoid stereotypes.

Many cultures with this common background view informality as an important part of any activity, even the sharing of information. Taking time to establish rapport with the client before direct questioning begins is helpful.

Some people of this origin may be perceived as submissive to authority because they appear reticent or reluctant to answer questions. Their behavior, in fact, may be shyness or the natural response to a language barrier.

The father may be seen as aloof as he performs his roles of earning a living for the family and establishing the rules. The mother and other members of the family tend to assume more nurturing roles. Questions that do not take these roles into consideration may be misinterpreted by the clients or may suggest to them that the interviewer is an outsider incapable of understanding the culture or of helping them.

Fatalism often plays a role in these cultures. These clients may not see any point in discussing the future, preferring to talk about the present.

Interviewing African Americans

Many African Americans do not believe that they receive the same treatment from social service agencies and professionals as Caucasian Americans. Reactions to this belief include a distrust of the human service delivery system, anger about discriminatory treatment, or both. This distrust may result in a reluctance to share information during the intake interview. During the intake interview, it is important to focus on concrete issues that can be connected to services. This approach shows respect for the client’s right to expect fair treatment and quality services (Sue & Sue, 2007).

When being interviewed by a Caucasian professional, an African American may feel powerless or believe that his or her input does not matter. Consideration of cultural values such as family characteristics, extended family and friends, educational orientation and experiences, spirituality, and racial identity may help demonstrate to the client that his or her input does matter (Sue & Sue, 2007).

Interviewing Women

Many women do not know how to talk about the difficulties that they are experiencing, and they may not know how to respond to the questions they are asked. Some have had few opportunities to discuss their problems and may believe they do not have the right to complain. Listening carefully is very important.

Anger may play a part in the initial interview. Many women come to the helping process frustrated, either because their efforts have been unrecognized or because they believe that others expect them to be perfect. Often this anger must be expressed before any information can be gathered.

Women often feel powerless and do not expect the bureaucracy to serve them well. They may be reluctant to communicate and doubtful that the interview or the process as a whole can make a difference.

Women may also fill different roles in their lives that may conflict or cause confusion. When interviewing about client strengths, women from some traditional cultures in the United States may defer to males and elders and subordinate their own individuality, yet at work and at school, they may be assertive and confident (Gil & Vasquez, 1996). Without exploration, these differences may be perceived as weaknesses while in fact, the flexibility and role shifts may be strengths. Learning about roles and demands contributes to an understanding of the client’s situation.

Women may be overly dependent as clients and assume that the interviewer will take complete control of the interview. They may want the interviewer to be the one to identify problems and possible goals. In such cases, care should be taken to give the woman opportunities and encouragement to respond more fully.

Interviewing Elderly Clients

In this society, elderly people are often disregarded and devalued. The interviewer must show respect for the elderly client’s answers and opinions about the issues discussed. Such a client needs to be assured that his or her responses are important and have been heard by the helper.

Pay special attention to the elderly client’s description of support in his or her environment. Many live in an environment of decreasing support (changing neighborhood, death of friends) and with decreasing mobility. Others live with limited family support. These clients may not realize how their environment has changed.

Elderly clients may be reluctant to share their difficulties for fear of losing much of their independence. They may understate their needs or overstate the amount of support they have, hoping to avoid changes in their living conditions, such as being removed from their homes or relinquishing their driving privileges.

Interviewing Individuals with Disabilities

Although individuals with disabilities are not traditionally considered a cultural group, it is important to develop a sensitivity to the issues these individuals may encounter. Attitudes toward people with disabilities are often based on the amount of information and education about disabilities and on the amount of contact a person has had with individuals with disabilities (Atkinson & Hackett, 2004). These factors are also the best predictors of positive attitudes toward people with disabilities (Yuker, 1994). Helping professionals working with this population need to know about mental, physical, and emotional disabilities; the onset of disability; acceptance of disability; disabilities as handicaps; accommodations; and treatment.

A major source of information about a disability is the client. As with other clients, establish the helping relationship by building rapport and trust. Then address the disability or condition: Is it the problem? If not, does it affect the problem? Is it even related to the reason the client is seeking services? Don’t make assumptions about why the individual is there or about the disability, and don’t generalize. Each person is unique. Interviewers also need to increase self-awareness about their own attitudes and knowledge. Know your limits and control your reactions. Increase your knowledge by learning from your client about a particular disability, the difficulties faced, and the environmental situations that are problematic.

Interviewing Sexual Minorities

In this society, discrimination against members of the gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender (GLBT) community is practiced in religious, legal, economic, and social contexts. This discrimination exists as an obvious external practice as well as a more subtle internal practice. To begin work with individuals who are part of the GLBT community, interviewers need information about lifestyle issues and challenges these individuals confront. Issues include understanding the effects of prejudice, developing a positive identity, and becoming more aware of community resources. Those in the GLBT community also experience a loss of support from family and friends and are often victimized and harassed. One way interviewers can establish a positive atmosphere is by using non-heterosexist language such as “partners” instead of “husband and wife.” Intake forms also can be revised to use non-heterosexist language (Sue & Sue, 2007). It is also important to conduct intake interviews that focus on the special issues described earlier that this community experiences.

These are only a few of the differences that helpers may encounter during the intake interview with individuals of various ethnic, racial, gender, and age groups. In several ways, helpers can continue to learn more about how to interview culturally diverse clients. Among them are becoming knowledgeable about other cultures, reading professional articles that focus on ways to modify the interviewing process to meet the needs of certain client groups, and talking with other helpers whose own cultural origins give them insight into cultural barriers. Gaining an understanding of diversity is a process that continues throughout the professional life of every effective helper. Such an understanding enhances the interviewing environment for both parties.

Essential Communication Skills

Communication forms the core of the interviewing process. In interviewing, communication is the transmission of messages between applicant and helper. As the first face-to-face contact, the interview is a purposeful activity for both participants. In many cases, the motivation is a mutual desire to decide whether the applicant is in the right place for the needed services. This is a negotiation that is facilitated by effective communication skills.

An important skill that promotes the comfort level of the applicant and lays the foundation for a positive helping relationship is using language the person understands. This means avoiding the use of technical language. For example, terms such as eligibility, resources, and Form 524 may not mean much to an applicant who is not familiar with the human service system. Another example is to imagine that the interviewer is discussing the benefits of taking a vocational or interest test. Rather than going into detail about the validity or reliability of the test, the helper should discuss how it might help in establishing a vocational objective. Using language or words the applicant does not understand tends to create distance and disengagement.

Congruence between verbal and nonverbal messages is another way to facilitate the interaction between an applicant and a helper. A major part of the meaning of a message is communicated nonverbally, so when conflict is apparent between the verbal and nonverbal messages, the applicant is likely to believe the nonverbal message. A common example of this is the person who says, “Yes, I have time to talk with you now,” while dialing the phone or looking through her desk drawer for a folder. The lack of eye contact or any other encouraging nonverbal message communicates to us that the person is indeed busy or preoccupied with other matters.

Another skill that facilitates the interview process is active listening—making a special effort to hear what is said, as well as what is not said. An interviewer who is sensitive to what the applicant is communicating, verbally as well as nonverbally, gains additional information about what is really going on with the individual. This ability is particularly helpful in situations in which the presenting problem may differ from the underlying problem and when interviewing an individual from another culture. Later in the chapter, we present a more detailed discussion of listening as it relates to the intake interview.

A popular way to elicit information is by asking questions. Questioning is an art as well as a skill. Unfortunately, helpers don’t often develop their questioning skills, relying instead on questioning techniques that have served them well in informal or friendly encounters. Typically, this means asking questions that focus on facts, such as “What happened?” “Who said that?” “Where are you?” “Why did you react that way?” Questions such as these usually lead to other questions, placing the burden of the interview on the helper and allowing the applicant to settle into a more passive role. The applicant’s participation is then limited to answering questions, so the interview may begin to feel like the game “Twenty Questions.” Skillful questioning combined with effective responding helps elicit information and keep the interaction flowing. Appropriate questioning and responding techniques are introduced later in this chapter.

Patterns of communication vary from culture to culture, according to religion, ethnicity, gender, and lifestyle differences. In the dominant culture in the United States, it is effective to use a reflective listening approach when feelings are important. Many of the techniques that are useful in this approach are not appropriate for all cultures. For example, eye contact is inappropriate among some Eskimos. The sense of space and privacy is different for Middle Easterners, who often stand closer to others than Americans do. Some people from Asian cultural backgrounds may prefer more indirect, subtle approaches of communication. Thus, a single interviewing approach may have different effects on people from various cultural backgrounds. The skillful and sensitive helper must be aware of these differences.

Both spoken language and body language are expressions of culture. Many helpers work with clients from several cultures, each with their own assumptions and ways of structuring information. Both talking and listening provide many occasions for misunderstanding. Assigning great significance to any single gesture by the applicant is also risky, but a pattern or a change from one behavior to another is meaningful (Sielski, 1979). Once again, the key is the helper’s awareness during the interview process.

Now that you have read about general guidelines for essential communication, let’s focus on the specific skills of listening, questioning, and responding.

Interviewing skills aim to enhance communication, which involves both words and nonverbal language. Spoken language varies among individuals and cultures. Understanding spoken language is challenging because it is always changing, it is usually not precise, and it is ambiguous. Body language, which is also important and challenging to understand, includes body movement, posture, facial expression, and tone of voice. Knowing the ways in which body language varies culturally can help the interviewer fathom the thoughts and feelings of the applicant.

In talking with an applicant, the helper must strive for effective communication, making sure that the receiver of the message understands the message in the way the sender intended. In the intake interview, the helper listens, interprets, and responds. To understand the applicant’s problem as fully as possible, the helper constantly interprets the meanings of behaviors and words. He or she should always have a “third ear” focused on this deeper interpretation.

At the same time, the applicant is interpreting the words and behaviors of the interviewer. An effective interviewer can help the applicant make connections and interpretations. Also contributing to correct interpretations and connections is a good working relationship between the two of them, good timing, and sensitivity to whether the material being discussed is near the applicant’s level of awareness.

A caseworker at a settlement house describes the initial meeting at her agency. She is sensitive to how clients are treated this first visit; she expresses concern that without sensitive treatment, the clients may not return.

Telling a potential client to “come back later” may be the very thing that discourages the person who has finally and perhaps even agonizingly decided to come for help. It is possible the person will never return.

A particularly challenging group to work with are gangs. Establishing a relationship is critical and involves talking about cars, the neighborhood, girlfriends, or clothes—anything but crime. A Los Angeles law enforcement officer uses this approach to identify commonalities. Once a comfort level is established, then a gang member will often share what’s happening in the neighborhood.

Both of these helping professionals are experienced at intake interviewing. They value the helping relationship and recognize its importance in the service delivery that is to follow. To establish the relationship, they use communication skills, such as listening, questioning, and responding. These are discussed and illustrated next, with excerpts from intake interviews.

Listening

Listening is the way most information is acquired from applicants for services. The interviewer listens to the applicant’s verbal and nonverbal messages. “Listening with the eyes” means observing the client’s facial expressions, posture, gestures, and other nonverbal behaviors, which may signal his or her mood, mental state, and degree of comfort. Verbal messages communicate the facts of the situation or the problem and sometimes the attendant feelings. Often, however, feelings are not expressed verbally, but nonverbal messages provide clues. A good listener should be sensitive to the congruence (or lack of it) between the client’s verbal and nonverbal messages. The interviewer must pay careful attention to both forms of communication.

Good listening is an art that requires time, patience, and energy. The interviewer must put aside whatever is on his or her mind—whether that is what to recommend for the previous client, the tasks to be accomplished by the end of the day, or making a grocery list—to focus all attention on the applicant. The interviewer must also be sensitive to the fact that his or her behavior gives the applicant feedback about what has been said (Epstein, 1985). During the interview, the helper must also recognize cultural factors that play into the interpretation of body language. For example, the proper amount of eye contact and the appropriate space between helper and applicant may vary according to the cultural identity of the applicant. As you can see, listening is indeed complicated. What behaviors characterize good listening? How are attentiveness and interest best communicated to the applicant?

Attending behavior, responsive listening, and active listening are terms that indicate ways in which helpers let applicants know that they are being heard. The following five behaviors are a set of guidelines for the interviewer (Egan, 2010, pp. 134–135). They can be easily remembered by the acronym SOLER.

S: Face the client Squarely; that is, adopt a posture that indicates involvement.

O: Adopt an Open posture. Crossed arms and crossed legs can be signs of lessened involvement with or availability to others. An open posture can be a sign that you’re open to the client and to what he or she has to say.

L: Remember that it is possible at times to Lean toward the other. The word lean can refer to a kind of bodily flexibility or responsiveness that enhances your communication with a client.

E: Maintain good Eye contact. Maintaining good eye contact is a way of saying, “I’m with you; I’m interested; I want to hear what you have to say.”

R: Try to be relatively Relaxed. Being relaxed means two things. First, it means not fidgeting nervously or engaging in distracting facial expressions. Second, it means becoming comfortable with using your body as a vehicle of personal contact and expression.

Attending behavior is another term for appropriate listening behaviors. Eye contact, attentive body language (such as leaning forward, facing the client, using facilitative and encouraging gestures), and vocal qualities such as tone and rate of speech are ways for the interviewer to communicate interest and attention (Ivey, Ivey, & Zalaquett, 2010). Attending behavior also means allowing the applicant to determine the topic.

Other guidelines for good listening are provided by Epstein (1985, pp. 18–19):

1. Be attentive to general themes rather than details.

2. Be guided in listening by the purpose of the interview in order to screen out irrelevancies.

3. Be alert to catch what is said.

4. Normally, don’t interrupt, except to change the subject intentionally, to stop excessive repetition, or to stop clients from causing themselves undue distress.

5. Let the silences be, and listen to them. The client may be finished, or thinking, or waiting for the practitioner, or feeling resentful. Resume talking when you have made a judgment about what the silence means, or ask the client if you do not understand.

Skillful listeners also hear other things that may contribute to understanding what is going on. A shift in the conversation may be a clue that the applicant finds the topic too painful or too revealing, or it might indicate that there is an underlying connection between the two topics. Another consideration is what the applicant says first. “I’m not sure why I’m here” or “My probation officer told me to come see you” give clues about the applicant’s feelings about the meeting. Also, the way the applicant states the problem may indicate how he or she perceives it. For example, an applicant who states, “My mother says I’m always in trouble,” may be signaling a perception of the situation that differs from the mother’s. Concluding remarks may also reveal what the applicant thinks has been important in the interview. The skilled interviewer also listens for recurring themes, what is not said, contradictions, and incongruencies.

Good listeners make good interviewers, but as you have just read, listening is a complex activity. It requires awareness of one’s own nonverbal behaviors, sensitivity to cultural factors, and attention to various nuances of the interaction. It is further complicated by the fact that people seeking assistance don’t always say what they mean or behave rationally. However, the use of good listening skills always increases the likelihood of a successful intake interview.

Questioning

Questioning, a natural way of communicating, has particular significance for intake interviews. It is an important technique for eliciting information, which is a primary purpose of intake interviewing. Many of us view questioning as something most people do well, but it is in fact a complex art. This section elaborates on questioning skills, introduces the appropriate use of questions, identifies problems that should be considered, and explores the advantages of open inquiry as one way to elicit information.

Questioning is generally accepted by some as low-level or unacceptable interviewer behavior (Carkhuff, 1969; Egan, 2010). Others view it as a complex skill with many advantages (Ivey, Ivey, & Zalaquett, 2003). Let’s explore its complexity and its advantages. Long, Paradise, and Long (1981) give three reasons that questioning is a complex skill: Questioning may assist and inhibit the helping process; it can establish a desired as well as an undesired pattern of exchange; and it can place the client in the one-sided position of being interrogated or examined by the helper.

For these reasons, we may consider questioning an art form. The wording of a question is often less important than the manner and tone of voice used to ask it. One human service professional says: “I think that people have to be detectives.... They have to enjoy walking into a new setting and seeing what is there.... It is not just going out with your 12-page assessment form and asking alienating questions.” Another helper who works for a school for the deaf concurs: The “skills are those involved with being a private eye, nosy in a tactful way.”

Also, too many questions will confuse the applicant or produce defensiveness, whereas too few questions place the burden of the interview on the client, which may lead to the omission of some important areas for exploration. The pace of questions influences the interview, too. If the pace is too slow, the applicant may interpret this as lack of interest, but a pace that is too fast may cause important points to be missed. A delicate balance is required.

What are the advantages of questioning? One is that questioning saves time. If the interviewer knows what information is needed, then questioning is a direct way to get it. Questioning also focuses attention in a particular direction, moves the dialogue from the specific to the general as well as from the general to the specific, and clarifies any inaccuracies, confusion, or inconsistencies. Let’s examine some examples of the appropriate uses of questioning. After each example provide two relevant questions.

· To begin Could you tell me a little about yourself? What would you like to talk about? Could we talk about how I can help? You work at the county Office on Aging. A woman comes in with her elderly mother. List two questions that you might use to begin the interview.

· To obtain information How long did you stay with your grandmother? What happens when you refuse to do as your boss asks? Who do you think is pressuring you to do that? Can you give me an example of a time when you felt that way? A client tells you about mistreatment by her boss at her new job. She claims that she is being sexually harassed. What two questions would help you understand what happened?

· To focus Why don’t we focus on your relationship with your daughter? What happens when you do try to talk to your husband? Of the three problems you’ve mentioned today, which one should we discuss first? A client is worried about how her surgery will go, who will care for her children while she is in the hospital, and whether she will be fired for missing so much work. She wrings her hands and seems ready to burst into tears. What are two questions that would focus her attention?

· To clarify Could you describe again what happened when she left? How did you feel about that conversation compared with others you have had with him? What is different about these two situations? A young man shares his anguish over his mother’s death a year ago. You notice that he is smiling, and you are confused about what he is really saying. Write two questions that help clarify what is going on.

· To identify strengths What is a current problem you have also faced in the past? Can you now use the same resources to solve your current problem? What did you do to keep the problem from turning into a crisis? A family member with a disability is questioned to assess functioning level and suitability for a program that requires her to ride public transportation. Write two questions to help you identify her strengths.

These are examples of interview situations in which the helper might legitimately use questions. In all of them, the general rule of questioning applies: Question to obtain information or to direct the exchange into a more fruitful channel.

Although questioning may seem to be the direct path to information, sometimes this strategy can have negative effects. Long, Paradise, and Long (1981) suggest that interviewers not rely on questions to carry the interaction or interview. This is particularly problematic for beginning helpers because people generally have a tendency to ask a question whenever there is silence. Questions may also be inappropriate when the interviewer does not know what to say. Asking questions nervously may lead to more questions, which can put the interviewer in the position of focusing on thinking up more questions rather than listening to what the client is saying. Prematurely questioning to assess client strengths during the interview can also be problematic and may be viewed as rejection by the client.

An overreliance on questioning can create other problems for both interviewers and clients. For the client, too many questions can limit self-exploration, placing him or her in a dependent role in which the only responsibility is to respond to the questions. A client may also begin to feel defensive, hostile, or resentful at being interrogated. Using too many questions may place the interviewer in the role of problem solver, giving him or her most of the responsibility for generating alternatives and making decisions. In the long term, over-reliance on questioning leads to bad habits and poor helping skills. Using questions to the exclusion of other types of helping responses eventually results in the withering of these other skills (as discussed in the next section).

In conclusion, questioning is an important strategy for effective interviewing, but it is more than a strategy for obtaining information. Because of the subtleties of questioning, the matter of its appropriate uses in interviewing, and the potential problems, questioning is an art that requires practice. The skillful interviewer who uses questioning to best advantage knows when to use open and closed inquiries to gather information during the intake interview. These types of questions are discussed next.

Closed and Open Inquiries

The questions used in intake interviews can be categorized as either open or closed inquiries. Determining which one to use depends on the interviewer’s intent. If specific information is desired, closed questions are appropriate: “How old are you?” “What grade did you complete in school?” “Are you married?” If the interviewer wants the client to talk about a particular topic or elaborate on a subject that has been introduced, open questions are preferred: “What is it like being the oldest of five children?” “Could you tell me about your experiences in school?” “How would you describe your marriage?”

Closed questions elicit facts. The answer might be yes, no, or a simple factual statement. An interview that focuses on completing a form generally consists of closed questions like those in the previous paragraph. However, the interviewer must be cautious, for a series of closed questions may cause the client to feel defensive, sensing an interrogation rather than an offer of help. One approach is to save the form until the end of the interview, review it, and complete the unanswered questions at that time. If the completion of an intake form is allowed to take precedence in the interview, the interviewer misses the opportunity to influence the client’s attitudes toward the agency, getting help, and later service provision. Perhaps equally important, information that could be acquired through listening and nonverbal messages may be missed if the interviewer is focused on writing answers on the intake form.

Open inquiries, on the other hand, are broader, allowing the expression of thoughts, feelings, and ideas. This type of inquiry requires a more extensive response than a simple yes or no. The exchange of this type of information contributes to building rapport and explaining a situation or a problem. Consider the following example.

FATHER: I’m having trouble with the oldest boy, William. He’s in trouble again at school.

INTERVIEWER 1: How old is William?

INTERVIEWER 2: Could you tell me more about what’s going on?

Interviewer 1’s response is a closed question that asks for a simple factual answer. Interviewer 2’s response is an open inquiry that asks the father to elaborate on what he thinks is happening with William. This allows William’s father to determine what he wishes to tell the interviewer about the situation. Such an open inquiry emphasizes the importance of listening—to what the individual says first, how he or she perceives the problem, and what is considered important.

You can see how valuable open inquiries can be in intake interviewing. They also provide an opportunity for the clients to introduce topics, thereby putting them at ease by allowing discussion of their problems in their own way and time. Besides providing the information that the interviewer needs, open inquiries encourage the exploration and clarification of the client’s concerns.

Four methods are commonly used to introduce an open inquiry (Evans, Hearn, Uhle-mann, & Ivey, 2008). Each is presented here with an example of a client statement, the interviewer’s response, and the kind of information that the client might volunteer in response to the open inquiry.

· “What” questions are fact-oriented, eliciting factual data. MR. CAGLE: I’m here to get food stamps. Here’s my application. 
INTERVIEWER: Let’s review it to make sure you’ve completed it correctly. What’s your income? 
MR. CAGLE: Well, I make minimum wage at my job, and my wife don’t make much either. We have three children and we live in a low-income apartment. 


· “How” inquiries are people-oriented, encouraging responses that give a personal, or subjective, view of a situation. TAMISHA: My boyfriend doesn’t like my parents, and when we are all together, nobody agrees with anyone about anything. 
INTERVIEWER: How do you feel about that? 
TAMISHA: I hate it. Everyone is so uncomfortable. I want everyone to get along, but I dread the times we have to be together. Sometimes I feel like somebody will yell at someone else or even hit somebody. 


· “Could,” “could you,” or “can you” are the kinds of open inquiries that offer the client the greatest flexibility in responding. These inquiries ask for more detailed responses than the others. JUAN: I hate school. My teacher doesn’t like me. She’s always on my case about stuff. 
INTERVIEWER: Could you describe a time when she was on your case? 
JUAN: Well, I guess. Like yesterday, she was mad at me because I was late to class ... but I was only five minutes late. Then she called on me to answer a question. Well, I hadn’t read the stuff because I lost the book, so how could I answer the question? I mean, give me a break. 


The fourth type of open inquiry is the “why” question, which experienced interviewers often avoid because it may cause defensiveness in clients. Examples of “why” questions that may do this are “Why did you do that?” and “Why did you think that?” Phrased this way, these responses may be perceived as judgments that the client should not have done something, felt a certain way, or had certain thoughts. Less risky “why” questions are those phrased less intrusively: “Why don’t we continue our discussion next week?” “Why don’t we brainstorm ways that you could handle that?”

In what follows, we analyze some excerpts from an intake interview that occurred at juvenile court. Tom Rozanski is the case worker who was assigned to court on that particular day. In some such cases, the juvenile is remanded to state custody that very day, that is, he or she can leave the courthouse only to go to a local or state facility. The juvenile in this case, Jonathan Douglas, has been charged with breaking and entering. He has a history of substance abuse and school truancy and is well known to the judge, who finds him guilty and remands him to state custody. The case then comes under the jurisdiction of an assessment, care, and coordination team, which takes responsibility for assessing the case, developing a plan of services, and coordinating the needed services among the agencies that are involved with the plan. Tom finds on this day that court is very crowded. Once Jonathan Douglas has been remanded to state custody, Tom asks him to follow him into the hall, and the initial intake interview occurs there. Jonathan’s parents also join them, as do two officers, who suspect that Jonathan will run if he gets the chance. They stand together in the hall for a brief interview so that Tom can gather enough information to arrange a placement that afternoon. Here’s what happens:

TOM: Jonathan, my name is Tom. (Shakes hands) I work for the assessment, care, and coordination team. We are responsible for assessing your case and planning services for you.

JONATHAN: (Limply shakes hands and looks everywhere but at Tom)

TOM: Jonathan, are you listening? Please look at me. Are you on any drugs right now?

JONATHAN: (Unintelligible response)

Tom realizes that it is futile to try to talk with Jonathan now and hopes that in a few hours he will be down from whatever drugs he has taken.

TOM: Mr. and Mrs. Douglas, I am Tom Rozanski, a case worker for the assessment, care, and coordination team in this county. Let me review for you what has happened. The judge found Jonathan guilty of breaking and entering. Because of his prior record, he is in state custody, and it is my job to find a place for him to stay while we evaluate his case. I need some basic information right now. Can you help me?

MRS. DOUGLAS: Yes, we want to help him any way we can.

TOM: Does Jonathan live with either of you?

MRS. DOUGLAS: He stays with me once in a while, but mostly he stays with his dad.

TOM: Mr. Douglas, could you describe his behavior when he stays with you?

MR. DOUGLAS: Well, I guess he goes to school sometimes. Leastways, when I leave for work, I try to get him up. I don’t know if he goes, though. Sometimes he’s here when I get home and sometimes he isn’t. He’s a big boy now, and I can’t do much with him, so I just let him be.

TOM: Does either of you have health insurance?

BOTH PARENTS: No.

The interview lasts approximately five more minutes, and Tom obtains some key information about the family situation. He has very little time and needs specific information, so he hurriedly asks closed questions. “What is your address, Mr. Douglas?” “What grade is Jonathan in?” “Has he had a medical examination recently?” Finally, Tom has enough information to complete most of the intake form. That afternoon, he meets with Jonathan and makes another attempt to talk with him. He is relieved to find Jonathan more communicative at this meeting. Here’s an excerpt; note Tom’s use of open inquiries.

TOM: Jonathan, I would like to talk with you about what’s going to happen. I’d also like you to tell me your side of what’s going on.

JONATHAN: (Looks at Tom but makes no comment)

TOM: When we finish talking, Deputy Johnston will take you to Mountainview Hospital, where you will spend the next two weeks. During that time, we will talk again, you will take some tests, and you will meet with a group of young people who are your age. At the end of that time, we will develop a plan of services for you. Now, could you tell me about yourself?

JONATHAN: Well, I’m 15. I don’t like school and I don’t get along with either of my parents. My mother doesn’t want me since she moved, and my dad don’t care if I’m at home or not.

TOM: This is the first time you have been in trouble for breaking and entering. What happened?

JONATHAN: Well, I was with these guys and we needed money for some dope. It looked easy. I think I made a mistake.

TOM: Yeah. It seems so. Let’s talk about what you can do now. What kind of changes would you like to see?

JONATHAN: Well, I don’t want to go to jail and I don’t want to go to Red River [a juvenile correctional facility]. I can’t stay home though. They don’t care about me and I don’t care about them.

TOM: How would you describe your relationship with your parents?

JONATHAN: We don’t have no relationship. They don’t care about me. Sometimes I stay with my mom, but she’s looking for another husband and she don’t want me around. My dad, he just don’t want to be bothered.

TOM: Hmm. Sounds as though you’re not sure if there’s a place for you with them. What changes would you like to see in your relationship with your parents?

JONATHAN: I wish they ... wish ... I wish they liked me.

TOM: I see. Could you give me an example of what they would do if they liked you?

JONATHAN: I don’t know.

TOM: Can you describe a time when you did something they liked?

JONATHAN: My mom likes it when I come in early. My dad, he don’t care.

TOM: What have you done to please your mom?

JONATHAN: (Pauses) I cleaned up the kitchen once.

In this excerpt, Jonathan mentions his family and school in his first response. Tom picks up on the family situation and decides to explore it with Jonathan. He has talked with the parents, and although they are not living together, he senses that both are interested in Jonathan and willing to help him but don’t seem to know what to do, and they feel that Jonathan rebuffs any overtures they make. Tom is trying to discover what kind of support may be available to Jonathan from his parents and how receptive he would be to it. Tom uses open inquiries in his conversation with Jonathan to elicit the boy’s thoughts and feelings about this issue. The use of “what” questions gets at factual information, and the “how” questions are aimed at people-oriented information.

In summary, good interviewers use both open and closed inquiries, although open inquiries are preferred whenever possible. They are also careful to ask one question at a time and to avoid asking consecutive questions of a kind that might create the feel of a cross-examination. What other types of responses do interviewers use? The next section suggests other ways of responding to clients in an interview situation.

Responding

An interviewer might use various kinds of responses during the course of an intake interview. Of course, the type of response depends on the intent at that particular point. Let’s review some of the most common responses. In the following material, each response is followed by an example of its use. Joe Barnes, a recent parolee, has returned home and is having a difficult time with his wife. His parole officer, sensing that the relationship is in trouble, suggests that Joe see a helper at the Family Service Center.

· Minimal responses Sometimes called verbal following, minimal responses let the client know that you are listening. “Yes,” “I see,” “Hmm,” and nodding are minimal responses. Using them is important when getting to know the applicant. 
JOE BARNES: I’m here because my probation officer thought it would be a good idea for me to talk with someone about things at home. Things haven’t been very good since I came home. 
MIKE MATSON: I see. 


· Paraphrase This response is a restatement (in different words) of the main idea of what the client has just said. It is often shorter and can be a summary of the client’s statement. Paraphrasing lets the client know that the helper has absorbed what was said. 
JOE: I just don’t know what the trouble is. I was glad to get home, and I thought my wife would be glad to have me there. But we fight about everything—even stuff like when to feed the dog. I don’t know what to do. 
MIKE: You don’t know what’s happening between you and your wife since you got home. Sounds like it’s pretty unpleasant for both of you ... and you’re wondering what to do about it. 


· Reflection Sometimes people get out of touch with their feelings, and reflection can help them become more aware. The feelings may not be named by the individual but, rather, communicated through facial expression or body language. For example, a flushed face or a clenched fist may show anger. The interviewer’s reflective response begins with an introductory phrase (“You believe,” “I gather that,” “It seems that you feel”) and then clearly and concisely summarizes the feelings the helper perceives. 
JOE: Yes. I don’t know how we can continue to live like this. I know she is really angry about me getting in trouble with the law, but I’ve paid my dues, learned my lesson. I don’t plan to ever get in that mess again. 
MIKE: I gather that you really do feel bad about what you did, but you would like to put the past behind you and focus on the future and how to make your marriage work. 

Reflection is a response that facilitates a discussion of the client’s feelings, particularly when he or she may feel threatened by such a discussion. It is also helpful as a way to check and clarify the helper’s perception of what was said during the interview.

· Clarification Clarifying helps the interviewer find out what the client means. When the interviewer is confused or unsure about what has taken place, it is more productive to stop and clarify at the time than to continue. 
JOE: I got so angry last week because she wouldn’t listen to me and she didn’t seem to care that I was home. I was yelling, she was yelling, she threw a bowl at me, and I almost hit her. 
MIKE: Sounds to me like you got so angry and frustrated that you were almost out of control. 


· Summarizing With this response, the interviewer provides a concise, accurate, and timely summing up of the client’s statements. It also helps organize the thoughts that have been expressed in the course of the interview. Summarizing is used to begin an interview when there is past material to review. It is also useful during the interview when a number of topics have been raised. Summarizing directs the client’s attention to the topics and provides direction for the next part of the interview.

From the summary, the client can choose what to discuss next. Summarizing is also useful when the client presents a number of unrelated ideas or when his or her comments are lengthy, rambling, or confused; such a response can add direction and coherence to the interview. Finally, summarizing is a way to close the interview: The interviewer goes over what has been discussed. Prioritizing next steps or topics becomes easier at this point.

JOE: I told her I didn’t care what she thought. I’m sure she knew what I meant even though I didn’t know what I meant. She won’t give me a chance. I am trying hard, so what does it mean to her that I have been gone? She has no idea what I have been through.

MIKE: Let me see if I can summarize what we’ve talked about today. Returning home has been very difficult for you and you’re confused about your relationship with your wife. She still seems angry about your trouble with the law, and the two of you just can’t seem to communicate.

JOE: I guess that’s about it.

MIKE: Let’s focus on the communication problems at our next meeting.

The following is an excerpt from an intake interview that incorporates all the responses that you have just read about: open and closed inquiries, minimal responses, paraphrases, reflection, clarification, summarization, interpretation, confrontation, and informing. Notice how and when the interviewer uses each response and the client’s reaction to it.

Mathisa walked into the AIDS Community Center one Wednesday evening about 8 o’clock. She had come to talk to a helper because she had just discovered that her best friend had AIDS. Her friend had told Mathisa and no one else, and Mathisa was scared. She did not know what to tell her friend, and she did not know what to do. Mathisa passes by the center on her way to school each morning, but she had barely noticed it. And now she was here.

A young man came up to her and introduced himself. She said “Hi” but did not want to tell him her name. In fact, she really did not want anyone to know that she was there. He asked her if she had come to talk and she nodded. He led her into a small room that had three comfortable chairs. He sat in one and pointed to one where she could sit.

The young man, Dean, started by telling Mathisa about the agency and about his job as a helper. He also talked to her about the confidentiality policies of the agency.

DEAN: I’m glad you’re here.

MATHISA: I’m not sure I’m glad to be here. I’ve never been in this place before.

DEAN: It’s scary to be in a place for the first time. We’re always glad to welcome newcomers and visitors. (Smiles) What’s going on?

MATHISA: (Pauses) I’m here for a friend.

DEAN: Your friend is very lucky that you could come for him or her. How did you decide to come here?

MATHISA: Well, this is a place I pass every morning on my way to school. Sometimes I wonder what it’s like here. And today I knew that I needed to come. Can I be sure that nobody will find out what I tell you?

DEAN: Yes, what you tell me stays between the two of us. Confidentiality is very important to you.

MATHISA: I have some information, and I don’t want anyone else to know. I don’t know what I can do.

DEAN: Umm ... (Nods)

MATHISA: You need to know what before you can help, I guess.

DEAN: Could you describe the event that brought you here?

MATHISA: I’m just so scared and I don’t know what to do.

DEAN: It’s scary having information and not having any idea what to do with it. How do you think I can help you?

MATHISA: I don’t know for sure. But I do know that you understand AIDS and you help people with AIDS. I only know what they taught us in school. (Mathisa is obviously in distress; she is almost in tears and is choosing her words carefully.)

DEAN: Your quiet voice and your tears let me know that the reason you came is very upsetting to you.

MATHISA: (Nods)

DEAN: (Silence)

MATHISA: My best friend just told me that she has AIDS. She got tested when she was on a trip a month ago. She went to a state that does not ask your real name. She just found out yesterday. She’s really blown away by it. No one else knows—not even her parents.

DEAN: She told you and you don’t know what to do.

MATHISA: I don’t really know anything about it. I don’t want her to die, and I don’t want to die. Her boyfriend doesn’t know, and I don’t know what she’ll tell her parents. She may even run away or kill herself, but what if the tests are wrong? And seeing the really sick people here makes me think that I don’t want to live.

DEAN: Mathisa, I’m not sure what you said just then; you said that you didn’t want your friend to die, and then you said that you didn’t want to die.

In this interview, Dean promoted good rapport with Mathisa by providing a good physical setting. It was simple, without distractions; they sat in close proximity, with no barriers between them, in comfortable chairs. Perhaps most important, it was an environment that was private. Dean introduced himself and assured her of confidentiality so that Mathisa felt comfortable beginning to talk.

Dean used a combination of open inquiries and responses. His first open inquiry was “Can you tell me why you’re here?” This was designed to elicit a fact from Mathisa. She did not elaborate, but she did give enough information to continue the conversation. Dean also used “how” and “could” questions to encourage Mathisa to provide more information.

Dean’s responses also included a paraphrase (“Confidentiality is very important to you”) as well as reflection (“Your quiet voice and your tears let me know that the reason you came is very upsetting to you”). Both of these responses helped Mathisa understand that Dean was actively listening to her and had heard what she had said. He had also interpreted her nonverbal messages.

At the conclusion of this excerpt from the interview, Dean used clarification (“I’m not sure what you said just then...”) to try to sort through the information that Mathisa has given. In the remainder of the interview, Dean will continue to find out more about the problem and its implications for Mathisa and her friend. When they finish talking, Dean will summarize what has transpired and perhaps suggest where the relationship can go at that point.

Interviewing Pitfalls

Clearly, interviewing requires a great deal of skill. An effective interviewer is one who listens attentively, questions carefully, and uses other helpful responses to elicit information and promote client understanding. However, caution is necessary. The desire to be helpful and the anxiety of conducting that first interview can lead to a number of pitfalls. Four of them will be discussed here.

Premature Problem Solving

This arises from a desire to be helpful to the applicant by removing the pain, the discomfort, or the problem itself as soon as possible. Unfortunately, if the interviewer suggests a change, strategy, or solution before the problem has been fully identified and explored, this may address a symptom of the presenting problem rather than the actual problem. Premature problem solving may cause the client to lose confidence in the helper’s knowledge and skills or to become impatient. Also, premature problem solving undermines the client’s self-determination and can lead to false assumptions, misinterpretation of what the client says, and steering him or her in the wrong direction. In the case of mental illness, misdiagnosis can result.

Giving Advice

In attempting to solve the problem or offer a solution, the helper may mistakenly give advice. When given hurriedly and before the problem has been explored sufficiently, advice may be seen as indicating a lack of interest or thoroughness. The client may also feel misunderstood, or he or she may superficially agree, without intending to follow through. Advice giving also tends to diminish the client’s level of responsibility, self-determination, and partnership in problem solving.

Overreliance on Closed Questions

The pitfall of overuse of closed questions has been discussed elsewhere in this chapter. Remember that closed inquiries are usually directive and focused on facts; they rarely provide the opportunity for exploration. A series of closed inquires may also make the client defensive. Once this feeling is established, it is difficult to overcome.

Rushing to Fill Silence

Because silence is often awkward in everyday social situations, beginning helpers as well as seasoned professionals are sometimes uncomfortable with pauses and rush to fill them, believing that silence indicates that nothing is happening. In fact, silence does have meaning. The client may be waiting for direction from the interviewer, thinking about what has transpired so far, or just experiencing an emotion. Constant dialogue can be a false signal that something is happening. Skillful helpers learn to listen to silence.

Chapter Summary

This chapter focuses on the interviewing process, especially the intake interview that initiates the helping process. Critical to this process are the helper’s values and attitudes because these can convey to the client how the helper feels about him- or herself and how the helper feels about the client. A positive interaction is more likely to occur if the helper demonstrates warmth and caring. Attention to the physical space can also facilitate the intake interview process. For example, talking with the client in a private area can signal that confidentiality is important. Barriers that discourage the client can be a lack of sensitivity to racial, religious, cultural, or gender issues.

Basic communication skills are important if the interviewer is to establish a dialogue with the client. Effective communication includes demonstrating congruence between what is said verbally and nonverbally, engaging in active listening, and being sensitive to cultural differences. Listening is key to conducting an effective interview. This means imparting to the client that attention is being paid to what is said, which conveys respect and the desire to learn about a client. Listening also includes responsive listening and the active listening described earlier. Questioning is also a skill and an art. Used appropriately, questioning is an effective way of helping people talk about themselves without asking direct, closed questions.

Good interviewers not only develop communication skills, they also learn to avoid pitfalls, including premature problem solving and giving advice. Helpers are often tempted to identify the problem too quickly or to seek an immediate solution. Both of these responses may focus more on the helper than the client. Another pitfall is an overreliance on closed questions, which discourage clients from talking. The final barrier is rushing to fill silence rather than giving clients time to assume responsibility for part of the dialogue. These barriers can be replaced with other communication skills that encourage client participation.

Chapter Review

Chapter Four introduces you to the knowledge necessary for effective (and efficient) intake. You can use the following key terms and review questions to reinforce the knowledge gained in this chapter.

Key Terms

· Active listening

· Attending behavior

· Closed questions

· Effective communication skills

· Open inquiries

· Questioning

· Verbal following

Reviewing the Chapter

1.	What attitudes and characteristics facilitate the development of a helping relationship?
2.	Write a dialogue representing the beginning of an intake interview to illustrate desirable attitudes and characteristics of the helper.
3.	Draw a floor plan for an office setting that facilitates relationship building.
4.	Discuss the problems that are created by stereotypes based on gender, race, age, and sexual orientation.
5.	Write general guidelines for essential communication skills in interviewing.
6.	Discuss the importance of listening in the intake interview.
7.	What is attending behavior (active listening)?
8.	What are the five listening behaviors represented by the acronym SOLER?
9.	Why are listening and questioning both complex skills and arts?
10.	State the advantages and disadvantages of questioning.
11.	Describe the five situations in which questioning is appropriate.
12.	Distinguish between closed and open inquiries.
13.	What are the four commonly used methods of introducing an open inquiry?
14.	Name four pitfalls of interviewing and tell how each may be avoided.

Questions for Discussion

1.	Do you think that you will be able to conduct a good interview? What skills will you need to strengthen your competence as an interviewer?
2.	What are the advantages and disadvantages of using computers during an interview? Speculate about how interviewing will change if computers are used in the process.
3.	Discuss the kinds of activities that might help you practice your listening skills.
4.	Do you believe that certain communication skills are essential to effective interviewing? If your answer is no, why not? If yes, what are they, and why are they important?

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The Helping Process. Assessment to Termination

Chapter 4: Effective Intake Interviewing

ISBN: 9781111298432 Authors: Tricia McClam, Marianne Woodside

Copyright © Cengage Learning (2012)