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information_infrastructure_management.docxINFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE MANAGEMENT
A New Role for IS Managers
Corporate survival in an information economy requires that IS managers assume the new role of information infrastructure management, an architecture-focused approach that results in an integrated IS and business organization with an integrated strategic plan. The approach enables IS managers to anticipate future organizational demands and stimulate innovative redesign of business processes to continuously improve performance.
THE TRANSFER OF LABOR-INTENSIVE activities to low-income countries is causing industrial countries to shift from labor-intensive activities to knowledge-intensive activities whose products add value based on know-how and creativity. The resultIng information economy, which is based on knowledge and communication, has the following characteristics:
Accelerated technological developments.
Enhanced information- and knowledge-intensive activities.
Reduced time-to-market and life cycles of products and services.
Globalization of the marketplace.
Fading boundaries between branches of industry.
Accelerating technological developments result from spiraling information technology (IT) supply and demand. They continually drive the enhancement of information- and knowledge-intensive activities and the reduction in time-to-market and life cycles of products and services. Businesses seize these opportunities to distinguish themselves from their competitors. IT also helps companies produce new products and services and cross traditional industry boundaries.
In the information economy, enterprises engage in an ongoing battle to increase their productivity, adaptive capacity (the ability to rapidly adapt to changes in the external environment), and flexibility (the ability to swiftly execute internal organizational changes, against low costs). The shorter time-to-market and life cycles of products and services demand drastic cuts in throughput time.
In a globalized marketplace, an Increasing number of companies view the world as one enormous market. These companies develop their products and services in places where know-how is available, buy materials and components where they are cheapest, produce in countries with the lowest labor and distribution costs, and sell their products internationally. Although global companies require huge investments and must therefore be large, they must also be small enough to respond quickly to local markets.
The application of IT in enterprises is usually based on existing organizational characteristics, such as business strategy, organization structure, and culture. This approach is a reactive application of IT. To survive in the information economy, enterprises must apply IT proactively. This means that existing organizational characteristics are not taken as fixed facts but are changed to profit fully from the possibilities of IT. This approach can be achieved through business process redesign (BPR) or even business scope redefinition (i.e., business redesign).(n1)
The proactive application of IT requires that IS managers know more than simply what the company needs at a given moment. IS management's new role is to anticipate future demands and stimulate innovative redesign of business processes. To accomplish this, IS managers should be well informed about market developments, business strategy, and business processes. Because the success of a redesign project greatly depends on fast implementation of changes, the necessary information systems must be available quickly. This in turn requires an appropriate information infrastructure.
In this approach, the IS strategy does not derive from the business strategy, nor is the IS organization derived from the business organization. One integrated strategic plan is worked out, and an integrated IS and business organization is set up. This new IS management role is referred to as information infrastructure (11) management and summarized in Exhibit 1.(n2)
Successful launching of the new IS management role requires a new method of information service provision. Such a method must meet the following several requirements:
Aim at achieving business goals, not IS needs or IS goals.
Recognize processes as an organization's building blocks.
Include all business and information functions, business and information processes, and information infrastructure components.
Encompass the total IS organization, in terms of managing, developing, maintaining, and using the information infrastructure.
Assume that the organization and infrastructure are constantly changing.
Consider both advanced and older methods, techniques, and tools in order to ease the legacy problem inherent to most organizations.
These requirements form the principles of the information infrastructure management (IIM) methodology, which is based on distributed systems integration and developed under the supervision of Lansa Publishing.(n3) A methodology describes a structured way of thinking and acting that alms to fulfill a particular purpose. The purpose of IIM is to realize organizational goals through a suitable information infrastructure. IIM makes it possible to integrally manage, develop, maintain, and use information infrastructures.
The information infrastructure of an organization is defined as all the IT resources (i.e., infrastructure components) used in the information processes and controlled by IS management. It includes both common and specific IT resources and consists of the following three layers of (sub) infrastructures:
1. The application infrastructure. The application infrastructure includes all the applications. The development infrastructure or systems development environment (i.e., prescribed development methods, techniques, and tools) are often also included in this infrastructure.
2. The data infrastructure, The data infrastructure comprises the (multimedia) data and knowledge bases, facilities for data protection, integrity, and consistency, and the organization's data model. The data base management systems belong to the technical infrastructure.
3. The technical infrastructure. The technical infrastructure consists of the hardware and system software of:
--Computer systems (i.e., mainframes, midrange computers, and PCs). In a client/server architecture, a subdivision is made into client (i.e., workstation) components and server components.
--Communications networks, or external and internal wide area networks (WANs) and local area networks (LANs).
IIM has solved the difficulty of adequately fitting an information infrastructure to an organization by focusing on the architecture. Architecture is defined in IIM as the total framework (i.e., conceptual model) of business and information functions, business and information processes, and information infrastructure of (a section of) an organization. In IIM thinking, an organization is seen as a network of business processes that contain and are supported by information processes. Support is given where business processes are executed. The information processes use the information infrastructure to perform the activities (i.e., process steps). The IIM methodology distinguishes the following (sub) architectures:
1. Functional architecture. The functional architecture describes the most important business and information functions and their interrelations.
2. Process architecture. The process architecture describes the most important business and information processes and their interrelations.
3. Application architecture. The application architecture describes the most important applications, the processes they support, their interrelations, and the systems development methodologies.
4. Data architecture. The data architecture describes the most important data and knowledge bases, the applications they support, and the requirements regarding use, accessibility, management, storage, and security.
5. Architecture of the technical infrastructure. This architecture describes the technical components (i.e., hardware and system software of computers and communications networks), their interrelationships, and the projection of applications and data and knowledge bases on these components. If a client/server architecture is used, this architecture is subdivided into the following components:
--A client architecture.
--A server architecture.
--A communications architecture.
The architecture ensures that the development of the 11 components over a period of time occurs in the same framework. In this way, the various developments remain compatible with each other and so-called IS islands are avoided. In addition, the architecture aids in decisions regarding standard components, reuse of existing components, and coordination of custom solutions development to prevent unnecessary custom software. IS managers can also indicate by means of the architecture which information infrastructure components are for common use and which are for specific use.
The IIM work method describes the processes for managing, developing, maintaining, using, and administering the architecture and supplies the techniques and tools required for these activities.
The IIM process diagram in Exhibit 2 shows the generic IIM processes. The development of the IIM process structure aims to achieve maximal coherence between the distinct IIM process activities and minimal interdependence among the processes.
As previously mentioned, IIM focuses primarily on use of the architecture, which is evaluated by inspecting and measuring the processes and their accompanying infrastructure components. Together with change requests, stemming from users' difficulties, this evaluation provides information for realizing and implementing (small) improvements or changes.
Although such improvements or adaptations do not principally change the architecture, the measurements, inspections, and evaluations provide input for a more thorough evaluation of the effectiveness and efficiency of the processes, which together with users' requests, may lead to new architectural requirements. In turn, these new requirements may serve as input toward structural changes to the architecture. This process also receives input from IS managers, who are responsible for the link to the business goals. IS management is supported by an administrative process that registers the configuration and structure of the architecture. After the architecture is determined, it is adapted, renewed, or developed from scratch. The result of this process is readied for use by the installation and implementation process. Finally, users are also supported by a process that solves their daily queries and problems concerning the architecture.
The following four levels are differentiated in the IIM process diagram:
A use level, which involves using the architecture and user support.
A maintenance level, which comprises change requests, evaluation, changes (i.e., improvements and adaptations), installation, and implementation.
A development level, which executes the more drastic changes on the basis of new or adapted requirements.
A management level, which alms at strategic change and is responsible for the links to business goals.
Contrary to traditional methods, IIM is not divided into phases that must be passed through successively. Instead, IIM is characterized by continuous processes aimed at continuous performance improvement. In other words, the model offers a continuous improvement mechanism in which the quality of the architecture is central. As such IIM is a total quality assurance approach. Management, development, maintenance, and use of the entire information infrastructure are brought together in an integral approach. Details of the 11 IIM processes, as well as the activities (i.e., process steps), resources, and results to be achieved for each IIM process are available in the literature. The following sections provide a brief description of each IIM process.
Determining Architecture Requirements
This process alms to determine the architecture's specifications for the benefit of line management through decisions about which functions must be carried out to achieve organizational goals. The process uses input from the architecture management and evaluation-processes and from users, who relay their requests directly to this process. The most important activities or process steps are:
Planning the determination of the requirements.
Collecting data.
Determining the functional requirements.
Determining the quality requirements.
Determining the management and operational requirements.
Determining the security requirements.
Determining the financial requirements.
Consolidating all requirements.
The architecture determination process leads to the definition and design of the architecture and of the business models for the benefit of Is management. The architecture is determined by grouping the necessary functions in the functional architecture, which consists of a hierarchy of functions and can be converted to a process architecture. The process architecture then indicates by means of processes and process steps (i.e., activities) bow functions are to be carried out. Each process in the process architecture is then worked out distinctly regarding the determination of activities and required IT resources or information infrastructure components, from which the data, applications, and technical infrastructures are derived.
The architecture should be described in general terms but also be detailed enough to enable decisions about adaptations. Although IIM is confined to the information infrastructure, the process of determining the architecture also results in the determination of the business functions and business processes. These are used to derive the specific information infrastructure components. In this way, the information infrastructure is fitted closely to the organization and not vice versa.
The architecture determination process is influenced by both the requirements determination process and the architecture management process. It yields an architectural plan, and its most important activities are as follows:
Planning the determination of the architecture.
Determining the current architecture if it is incompletely documented. Determining standards and guidelines.
Designing the functional architecture and the process architecture.
Designing the applications architecture, data architecture, and architecture of the technical infrastructure (i.e., client, server, and communications architectures).
Administering the information infrastructure.
Evaluating and planning the architecture, which includes a cost-benefit analysis and setting up an architectural plan for developing the information infrastructure components.
This process comprises further formulation of the architecture and realization into functions, processes, and information infrastructure components. It also ensures that the components are obtained, developed, and delivered, which includes adapting them to changing organizational demands. The process yields the functions, processes, and infrastructure components desired, together with the accompanying documentation. Its most important activities are:
Planning the development of the architecture.
Designing functions, processes, and information infrastructure components.
Describing (i.e., specifying and documenting) functions, processes, and information infrastructure components.
Realizing and adapting functions and processes.
Evaluating existing components.
Developing or purchasing components.
Testing and approving components.
Integrating functions, processes, and components.
Securing components.
Documenting components.
Developing user training programs and user support.
Updating the administration of information infrastructure components.
These three IIM processes can be consolidated
into one main process called architecture development.
This process ensures that requests for changes, issuing from users following problems with the architecture are dealt with adequately (see the section on supporting architecture use). The process results in proposals for changes to the next process and reports to the issuers of the requests. The most important activities or process steps are:
Planning the activities.
Receiving and analyzing change requests.
Determining how to deal with these requests.
Reporting to issuers of the requests and completing the actions.
In this process, measurements of the functions, processes, and infrastructure components are used to evaluate use of the architecture. Proposed changes are also evaluated. More drastic changes are passed on to the requirements determination process as new function requirements; smaller changes that do not fundamentally affect the architecture are passed on to the architecture change process. The most important activities of the architecture evaluation process are:
Planning the activities.
Measuring business processes and accompanying information infrastructure components.
Inspecting business processes and accompanying information infrastructure components for possible bottlenecks.
Evaluating functions and processes in terms of whether they meet requirements.
Evaluating the applications, data, and technical infrastructures to determine whether actual performance of the components deviates from required performance.
Evaluating security and availability.
Evaluating costs and benefits.
Determining the actions to be taken.
Administering the evaluations.
The architecture change process implements the requested improvements or changes to the architecture by designing, developing, and adapting functions, processes, and infrastructure components on the basis of a maintenance plan. The most important activities of this process are:
Planning the activities.
Designing changes to functions and processes.
Designing, realizing, and testing changes to information infrastructure components.
Implementing changes to functions and processes.
Optimizing use of information infrastructure components.
Administering the changes made to the architecture.
Installing and Implementing the Architecture
The architecture installation and implementation process aims to install and implement ready-to-use functions, processes, and infrastructure components. As a result of this process, new and improved functions, processes, and infrastructure components become available. The most Important activities of this process are:
Planning the activities.
Setting up locations.
Obtaining, transporting, and installing information infrastructure components.
Testing Information infrastructure components and preparing them for use.
Educating and training systems managers and users.
Implementing business processes.
Accepting processes and accompanying information infrastructure components.
Distributing new versions.
Updating the architecture administration.
In this process, users employ the functions, processes, and infrastructure components that are developed and maintained by other processes. The most important activities of this process are:
Planning use.
Receiving, processing, and entering inputs.
Processing data.
Obtaining, processing, evaluating, and distributing outputs.
Auditing data processing and security.
Providing back-up and recovery.
Measuring reliability, availability, and security.
Measuring performance and capacity.
Updating the information infrastructure administration.
Supporting Use of the Architecture
This process aims to promote effective use of the architecture by users. It provides services (i.e., the help desk) to users who have difficulties employing the infrastructure components. Assistance is usually given with the execution of information processes, rather than in performing functions and executing business processes. The process results in advice to users and change requests made by users. Its most important activities are:
Planning user support.
Receiving, analyzing, and evaluating requests for support.
Educating and assisting users.
Solving users' problems through the help desk.
Assisting in ad hoc information retrieval from data bases.
Formulating change requests.
Administering requests for help.
Managing the Architecture (II Management)
The architecture management process ensures that the architecture is tuned to the business goals and determines the business and IS organization according to situational factors. The process also includes operational management of the IS organization. Information infrastructure management consists of planning, organizing, and controlling the information facilities according to the IIM method. The most important activities in the process are:
Evaluating the current business organization and IS organization.
(Assisting in) determining the business strategy and IS strategy.
Determining the business organization and IS organization based on the results of the architecture determination process.
Setting up and executing an organization and IS plan.
Managing the development, maintenance, and use of the information infrastructure.
Administering the Architecture
The architecture administration process comprises the administration of functions, processes, and infrastructure components so that an up-to-date picture of the architecture and its components is available at any given time. This includes an up-to-date registration of the configuration of the architecture and the specifications of the information infrastructure components. A version is also indicated for each component. These versions might be operational, in development, and planned.
An information system is usually implemented to carry out this process; it also plays a role in controlling the information infrastructure (i.e., network management). The process, which is also called configuration management, results in up-to-date architecture administration and documentation. Information about the architecture's configuration is stored in a configuration management data base. This process supplies data to other processes.
The processes of handling change requests, evaluating the architecture, changing the architecture, and installing and implementing the architecture may be consolidated into one main process called architecture maintenance. This main process ensures that the architecture is available to different users, both inside and outside the organization. The ITIL method (IT Infrastructure Library of the CCTA, an advisor to the British government regarding IT), which is currently popular with many organizations, divides this main process into several control processes, such as:
Problem management. The problem management process controls the progress of problem solutions (i.e., incident control), identifies and diagnoses structural imperfections in the information infrastructure that have led to one or more incidents (i.e., problem control), ensures a structural solution to known imperfections in the information infrastructure and guards those identified imperfections for which there is no affordable, structural solution (i.e., error control), and prevents service Interruptions (i.e., proactive problem management).
Change management. Change management accepts and registers change requests, authorizes and plans changes, executes and tests changes, distributes and implements changes, and evaluates changes.
Availability management. The availability management process assesses the availability of information infrastructure components, ensures that the actual availability matches the availability specified in the service-level agreement, ensures that suppliers meet their obligations regarding reliability and maintainability, and plans appropriate availability in the longer term.
One of IIM's premises is that existing methods, techniques, and tools must be fitted into IIM whenever necessary. For example, in the architecture development process, new infrastructure components may be realized using existing development methodologies, including the following:
1. Linear development. In the traditional approach of linear development, development phases are executed consecutively. Each phase is completed with a document stating the results achieved and the next steps to be taken (e.g., systems development methodology or SDM).
2. Spiral development. An adaptation of the linear development method, the spiral development methodology involves completion of a few development phases and a pilot information system (i.e., pilot component) that is improved in the next series of phases, finally resulting in a full-fledged information system. This method is also known as prototyping.
3. Interactive development. In interactive development, each development phase, of which there are only a few, is realized in close contact with users. This method is often referred to as rapid application development (RAD).
The ITIL method may be used in the main process of maintaining the architecture. The IIM process of supporting architecture use is congruent with the ITIL control process of problem management; the IIM processes of handling change requests, changing the architecture, and installing and implementing the architecture are congruent with change management, whereas evaluating the architecture matches with availability management. This reveals also that IIM has a greater scope than ITIL. IIM not only considers the business functions and business processes, it also encompasses the management, development, and use of the architecture. IIM therefore offers a consistent overall approach, in which ITIL publications have a place as elaborations of (or parts of) IIM processes.
The 11 IIM processes described indicate what should be done, using which resources, to manage, develop, maintain, and use a modern (knowledge and) information infrastructure. No assumptions were made about the type of organization in which these processes are accommodated. In other words, the IIM process structure is generic and can be applied in all kinds of organizations.
The IIM processes must be tailored to every situation and for every organization. One of the activities of the architecture management process is to structure these processes. IIM processes can be centralized, decentralized, or outsourced depending on situational factors. How the IIM processes should be structured depends mainly on the organization's current stage of development in the application of IT and IS management, or its IT management plateau.(n4) The five such plateaus, on each of which IT adds increasing value, are functional integration, cross-functional integration, process integration, business process redesign, and business scope redefinition (i.e., business redesign). In this way, the large number of situational factors are replaced by the characteristics of each plateau.
IIM can be implemented on each plateau and in various ways. The following five possibilities range from minimal to complete:
1. Implementation as a checklist. In this approach, no special measures are used to implement IIM; the descriptions of IIM processes and activities are used as a checklist to determine if everything has been considered.
2. Implementation as a results-oriented approach to improve information activities. Here, the results of the information activities must conform to the results as described by IIM in the activities concerning the information infrastructure.
3. Implementation of information functions and processes (the IS organization) and information infrastructure according to IIM. In this implementation approach, the noun architecture in Exhibit 2 is changed into information infrastructure.
4. Implementation as a results-oriented approach to improve business and information functions and business and information processes. Here, the results must conform to those described for the IIM activities.
5. Implementation of business and information functions, business and information processes, and information infrastructure according to IIM.
In the second and third possibilities, IIM is only used for the IS organization. The fourth and fifth possibilities encompass the business organization as well as the IS organization.
Many parts of the IIM methodology may not be new. What is new is that the different parts have been consolidated into one overall approach. Compared to existing methods, IIM offers the following advantages:
It provides a total framework for managing, developing, maintaining, and using an organization's information infrastructure.
It is directly geared to achieving business goals.
It leads to continuous improvement in the performance of business processes.
It lets the IS organization change with the business organization.
It uses existing methods, techniques, and tools.
It results in improved cooperation among managers, users, and IT specialists because all groups use the same goals and terminology and focus primarily on the functioning of the business functions and processes.
It facilitates increased control because of a consequent administration of activities and infrastructure components; this forms an organization's knowledge base. Such a knowledge base is required, for example, in working with self-managed teams.
Because IIM can be implemented on each IT management plateau, it also provides a vehicle for transforming an organization to a higher plateau. Further information on implementing IIM in organizations is available in the literature.(n5)
(n1.) T.H. Davenport, Process Innovation: Reengineering Work through Information Technology (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1993).
(n2.) D.S. Tan, From Information Systems Management to Information Infrastructure Management (Leidschendam, The Netherlands: Lansa Publishing, 1996).
(n3.) G.F. Hice, DSI: Distributed Systems Integration (Leidschendam, The Netherlands: Lansa Publishing, 1991).
(n4.) A.A. Uijttenbroek, et al., IIM: Information Infrastructure Management, (Leidschendam, The Netherlands: Lansa Publishing, 1996).
(n5.) D.S. Tan, "IT Management Plateaus: An Organizational Architecture for IS," Information Systems Management 12, no. 1 (1995), pp. 44-53.
EXHIBIT 1 The Changing Role of IS Management
Prevalent IS Management
Role Supplier of IT products and services
Purpose Ensuring optimum IT facilities
Products IT products and services
Primary Knowledge Applying IT
Method of IT Application Reactive
Primary Focus Applications
IS Strategy Derived from business strategy
IS Organization Derived from business organization
Information Infrastructure
Management
Role Leader in organizational change
Purpose Optimum contribution to achieving
business goals
Products Knowledge and information
Primary Knowledge Market, business strategy, and
business processes
Method of IT Application Proactive
Primary Focus Information infrastructure
IS Strategy Integrated with business strategy
IS Organization Integrated with business organization
DIAGRAM: EXHIBIT 2 The IIM Process Structure
Ref.
· Tan, D. S., & Uijttenbroek, A. A. (1997). Information infrastructure management. Information Systems Management, 14(4), 33.
