1- Give a brief synopsis of your selected case study ? 2- Identify problems to be addressed ( research question) ? 3- What organizational behavior theory will you use ? 4- What is the objective of the study

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Home >Human Resource Management homework help >1- Give a brief synopsis of your selected case study ? 2- Identify problems to be addressed ( research question) ? 3- What organizational behavior theory will you use ? 4- What is the objective of the study

What is motivation?

What can we learn from the needs theories of motivation?

What is the equity theory of motivation?

What are the insights of the expectancy theory of motivation?

What is the goal-setting theory of motivation?

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Motivation

Individual forces that account for the direction, level, and persistence of a person’s effort expended at work.

Direction - an individual’s choice when presented with a number of possible alternatives.

Level - the amount of effort a person puts forth.

Persistence - the length of time a person sticks with a given action.

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Because motivation influences productivity and job satisfaction, part of being a good manager is understanding what motivates employees to work at their full potential.

Motivation is an internal process that energizes, directs, and sustains behavior. Individual differences have a strong impact on behavior motivation patterns.

However, all motivated behavior relies to a larger or lesser extent on the forces of direction, level, and persistence.

Level is concerned with how hard a person tries.

However, unless effort is channeled in a direction that benefits the organization and the individual, high level of effort is not a guarantee of high performance on the job.

Finally, persistence (how long a person can maintain effort) is important. A motivated person stays with a task long enough to achieve his or her goal.

Types of motivation theories

Content theories

Focus on individual needs – that is, physiological or psychological deficiencies that individuals feel a compulsion to reduce or eliminate.

Process theories

Focus on the thoughts, or cognitive processes, that take place within the minds of individuals and that influence their behavior.

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Theories of both types contribute to our understanding of motivation to work. But none offers a complete explanation.

Content Theories – Deal with ‘what’ – What internal factors cause us to behave the way that we do.

Primarily focused on needs, feelings of satisfaction, and our efforts to satisfy those needs.

Process Theories – Deal with ‘how and why’ motivation arises - the interaction between the individual and the environment, and their active thoughts about what is motivating and what is not.

Motivation Across Cultures

Motivation theories are largely developed from a North American perspective.

They are subject to cultural limitations and contingencies.

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The determinants of motivation and the best ways to deal with it are likely to vary considerably across the cultures of Asia, South America, Eastern Europe, and Africa.

We must not assume that people in all cultures are motivated by the same things in the same ways – because they are not. Managers who are placed in global assignments must be knowledgeable about what the members of the culture value.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Identifies five levels of individual needs.

Assumes that some needs are more important than others and must be satisfied before the other needs can serve as motivators.

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Needs range from self-actualization and esteem at the top, to social, safety, and physiological at the bottom.

Physiological needs must be satisfied before safety needs are activated – safety needs must be satisfied before social needs are activated.

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Maslow’s theory has some limitations. It presumes that people have to have one need met before the next need emerges.

Satisfying the higher-order needs can present more of a challenge, and individuals are different in terms of their ‘level’ of need and at what point they are satisfied. As an individual moves through their career, different needs may vary.

To address some of the limitations of Maslow's hierarchy, Clayton Alderfer proposed the ERG theory. It orders needs as a hierarchy (like Maslow).

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Alderfer’s ERG Theory of Motivation

ERG theory helps to explain why a lower-level need can become activated when a higher-level need cannot be satisfied. E.g., if an individual is frustrated in trying to move forward in their growth needs (career advancement), relatedness needs can become key motivations.

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McClelland developed the TAT, to identify the three basic needs that people develop over a lifetime. The TAT is a projective test that presents people with a series of ambiguous pictures and asks them to develop a story about the pictures. The assumption is that the person will project his or her needs or drives onto the pictures.

What do you see?

Acquired needs theory

Need for achievement (nAch).

The desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks.

Need for affiliation (nAff).

The desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with others.

Need for power (nPower).

The desire to control others, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for others.

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According to McClelland, the presence of these motives or drives in an individual indicates a predisposition to behave in certain ways.

McClelland encourages managers to learn how to identify the presence of nAch, nAff, and nPower in themselves and others, since each need can be linked with a set of work preferences and motivation. Since these three needs are acquired, McClelland believes it may be possible to teach people to develop profiles for success in various types of jobs.

For example, a low nAff can predispose an executive to make difficult decisions without undue worry about being disliked.

Two-Factor Theory

Identifies two different factors as primary causes of job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction.

Also known as the motivator-hygiene theory.

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Herzberg asked workers to report the times they felt exceptionally good about their jobs and the times they felt exceptionally bad about them. Researchers noticed that people talked about very different things when they reported feeling good or bad about their jobs.

Hygiene factors

Sources of job dissatisfaction associated with job context.

Job dissatisfaction results when hygiene factors are poor.

Improving the hygiene factors only decreases job dissatisfaction.

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Herzberg found that a low base salary or wage makes people dissatisfied, but that paying more does not necessarily satisfy or motivate them.

Motivator factors

Sources of job satisfaction related to job content.

Presence or absence of motivators is the key link to satisfaction.

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When motivator factors are minimal, low job satisfaction decreases motivation and performance.

When motivator factors are substantial, high job satisfaction raises motivation and performance.

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Equity Theory

Any perceived inequity

becomes a motivating state

of mind.

People are motivated to behave in ways that restore equity in situations.

Foundation of equity is social comparison.

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Motivation is a function of how one evaluates rewards relative to efforts made, and as compared to the rewards received by others relative to their efforts made.

A key word in this comparison is “fairness.” Everyone does not have to receive the same rewards, but the rewards should be in accordance with individual contributions.

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Individual Outcomes

Individual Efforts

Others’ Outcomes

Others’ Efforts

Perceived inequity occurs when someone believes that the rewards received for their work contributions compare unfavorably to the rewards other people appear to have received for their work.

We compare our efforts and resultant outcomes to the efforts and outcomes of others. If we find they are equivalent, we are satisfied and motivated. When the comparison is out of balance, we are dissatisfied and lose motivation.

Equity theory prediction:

Negative inequity.

Individual feels he/she has received relatively less than others in proportion to work inputs.

Positive inequity.

Individual feels he/she has received relatively more than others in proportion to work inputs.

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When people believe that an inequity exists, the theory states that they will be motivated to act in ways that remove the discomfort and restore a sense of felt equity.

People who feel they are overpaid are likely to try and increase the quantity and quality of their work.

Those who feel they are underpaid are likely to try and decrease the quantity and quality of their work.

Equity restoration behaviors.

Change work inputs.

Change the outcomes received.

Leave the situation.

Change the comparison person.

Psychologically distort the comparisons.

Take actions to change the inputs or outputs of the comparison person.

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Steps for managing equity dynamics

Recognize that equity comparisons are inevitable in the workplace.

Anticipate felt negative inequities when rewards are given.

Communicate clear evaluations for any rewards given.

Communicate an appraisal of performance on which the reward is based.

Communicate comparison points that are appropriate in the situation

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A reward given by a team leader and expected to be motivational to a team may or may not work as intended. Unless it is perceived as fair and equitable in comparison with results for other teammates, the reward may create negative equity dynamics and work just the opposite of what the team leader expected.

You regularly work longer hours than anyone else in your department. Yet, you do not feel that you are being adequately recognized or rewarded. According to equity theory, you will most likely ….

Increase your efforts by working longer hours.

Ask for a raise or bonus.

Reduce your efforts by decreasing hours.

Frame the situation as a learning experience and beneficial for your future career.

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You will most likely reduce your efforts (3.) or try to restore equity by increasing our outcomes (2.)

Organizational justice

How fair and equitable people view the practices of their workplace.

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In ethics, the justice view of moral reasoning considers behavior to be ethical when it is fair and impartial in the treatment of people. Organizational justice notions are important in OB. It refers to the ways in which people perceive they are being treated at work in respect to procedural, distributive, and interactional justice are likely to affect their motivations.

It is their perceptions of these justice types that create the ultimate motivational influence.

Distributive justice - degree to which all people are treated the same under a policy, regardless of race, ethnicity, gender, age or any other demographic characteristic.

Interactional justice - degree to which the people affected by a decision are treated with dignity and respect.

Procedural justice, degree to which the rules and procedures specified by policies are properly followed.

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A person’s motivation is a multiplicative function of expectancy, instrumentality, and valence (M = E x I x V).

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Expectancy theory posits that motivation is a result of a rational calculation – people will do what they can do when they want to do it.

Expectancy

effort will yield acceptable performance

Instrumentality

performance will be rewarded

Valence

value of the rewards is highly positive

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Equity theory is based on the concept of fairness.

Expectancy theory is based on the concept of effort.

How much effort should be put out to achieve a desired outcome?

Expectancy is the probability assigned by an individual that work effort will be followed by a given level of achieved task performance.

Instrumentality is the probability assigned by an individual that a given level of achieved task performance will lead to various work outcomes.

Valence is the value attached by the individual to various work outcomes.

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Motivational implications of expectancy theory.

Motivation is sharply reduced when, expectancy, instrumentality, or valence approach zero or are negative.

Motivation is high when expectancy and instrumentality are high and valence is strongly positive.

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Expectancy logic argues that managers should always try to intervene actively in work situations to maximize work expectancies, instrumentalities, and valences that support organizational objectives.

Even though the theory has received substantial support, some components, such as the multiplier effect, remain subject to some question.

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Goal setting

The process of developing, negotiating, and formalizing the targets or objectives that a person is responsible for accomplishing.

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The basic precepts of goal-setting theory are an important source of advice for managing human behavior in the work setting.

Reasonably Difficult goals are more likely to lead to higher performance than are less difficult ones.

Specific goals are more likely to lead to higher performance than vague or very general ones.

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If the goals are seen as too difficult, the relationship with performance no longer holds.

All too often people work with very general goals such as the encouragement to “do your best.”

Task feedback is likely to motivate people toward higher performance by encouraging the setting of higher performance goals.

Goals are most likely to lead to higher performance when people have the abilities and the feelings of self-efficacy required to accomplish.

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Feedback lets people know where they stand and whether they are on course or off course in their efforts.

The individual must be able to accomplish the goals and feel confident in those abilities.

Goals are most likely to motivate people toward higher performance when they are accepted by the individual, and there is commitment to them.

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Participating in the goal-setting process helps build acceptance and commitment. It creates a sense of “ownership”.

Management by Objectives (MBO)

Process of joint goal setting between a supervisor and a subordinate.

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MBO involves managers working with their team members to establish performance goals and make plans that are consistent with higher level work unit and organizational objectives. When done throughout an organization, MBO helps clarify the hierarchy of objectives as a series of well-defined means-end chains.

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