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These seventeen ships . . . made a long, a

troublesome, and costly voyage . . . with contrary

winds after they set sail, and so scattered with mist

and tempests that few of them arrived together . . .

—Thomas Dudley, March 28, 1631

New Mexico. Pueblos de Taos.

HOW DID conditions in New Spain and New France differ from Virginia and

New England?

HOW DID tobacco change the nature of English colonization in Virginia?

WHAT WERE the social and political values of Puritanism

and how did religious dissent shape the

history of the New England colonies?

WHAT ROLE did the crown play in the founding of

English colonies after 1660?

WHAT LED to violent conflict between Indians and

colonists?

PLANTING COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA

1588-1701

48 tip CHAPTER 3 PLANTING COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA, 1588-1701

AMERICAN COMMUNITIES Communities and Diversity

in Seventeenth-Century Santa Fe IT WAS A HOT AUGUST DAY IN 1680 WHEN THE FRANTIC MESSENGERS rode into the small mission outpost of El Paso with the news that the Pueblo Indians to the north had risen in revolt. The corpses of more than 400 Spanish colonists lay bleeding in the dust. Two thousand survivors huddled inside the Palace of Governors in Santa Fe, surrounded by 3,000 angry warriors. The Pueblo lead- ers had sent two crosses into the palace—white for surrender, red for death. Which would the colonists choose?

Spanish colonists had been in New Mexico for a century. Franciscan priests from Mexico came first, in the 1580s, followed by a military expedition in search of precious metals. In 1609, colonial authorities founded La Villa Real de la Santa Fe de San Francisco soon known simply as Santa Fe. The Pueblos were to be converted to Christianity, subjected to the authority of the king of Spain, and forced to labor for the Hispanic colonists. The Pueb- los at first resisted, but in the face of Spanish armed might, they were forced to give in.

Colonization took a tremendous toll on them. Epidemic disease, striking in successive waves, claimed thousands of lives. Taxes, tribute, and labor service left Pueblo storehouses empty, and starving times came much more frequently. Nomadic Apache neighbors, mounted on stolen Spanish horses, raided their villages with increasing fre- quency. From 1610 to 1680 the Pueblo popu- lation plummeted by two-thirds to fewer than 20,000 people.

A devastating drought in the 1670s seemed a sign of final and complete collapse. Over the decades thousands of Pueblos had accepted Christianity, but in the face of disaster there was a revival of their traditional religious rituals. Outraged Franciscan missionaries invaded the underground kivas, destroyed sacred Indian artifacts, and publicly humiliated holy men. In 1675 the Spanish governor rounded up religious leaders from many villages, publicly executed three of them, and whipped the others. One of those men, Pope of San Juan Pueblo, vowed to overthrow the regime. During the next several years he and other rebel leaders organized a conspiracy among more than twenty Pueblo communities.

In response to the Pueblo demand of surrender, the besieged colonists were defiant, sending back the red cross. Three days later, with supplies running out, they counterat- tacked, winning just enough time to allow for the evacuation of the capital. Harassed by the Pueblos, they made their way south to El Paso, "the poor women and children on foot and unshod,"

in the words of one account, and "of such a hue that they looked like dead people." The Pueblos ransacked the missions, desecrat- ing the holy furnishings and leaving the mutilated bodies of priests lying upon the altars. They transformed the governor's chapel into a traditional kiva, his palace into a communal dwelling.

Santa Fe became the capital of a Pueblo confederacy led by Pope. He forced Christian Indians "to plunge into the rivers" to wash away the taint of baptism and ordered the destruction of everything Spanish. Getting rid of Jesus was one thing, but the rest was harder. Horses and sheep, fruit trees and wheat, new tools and new crafts—these things the Pueblos found useful. They also found that they missed the support of the Spanish in their struggle against the Apaches. With chaos mounting, Pope was deposed in 1690.

In 1692, a Spanish force under Governor Diego de Vargas returned to New Mexico in an attempt to reestablish the colo- nial regime. Some communities welcomed him while others , resisted. In 1696 there was another attempt at revolt, but Vargas crushed it with overwhelming force. The Spanish succeeded in

their reconquest, but they seemed to have learned some- thing in the process. They began to practice

greater restraint, which enabled the Pueblos to accept their authority. As long as Pueblos dutifully observed Catholic rituals in the missionary chapels, missionaries looked the other way when the people also resorted to

their kivas and their old faith. Royal officials promised the inviolability of Pueblo title to

their lands, and Pueblos in turn swore loyalty to the Spanish monarch. Pueblos turned out

for service on colonial lands, while colonists abandoned the system of forced labor. New Mexico remained a colony under the authority of the Spanish. But in the aftermath of the Pueblo Revolt, the governing principle was accommodation.

Thus did the Spanish in New Mexico and elsewhere seek to include native peoples as subjects of the king and communi- cants of the Church. Because the French developed a commer- cial empire, they too came to rely on a policy of native inclusion. In New England, Virginia, and Carolina, however, where English settlers developed agricultural colonies, the policy was one of exclusion. Indians were pushed to the periphery. These differ- ences help explain the very different histories of the three prin- cipal colonial empires in North America.

11=11111111 HOW DID conditions in New Spain

and New France differ from Virginia

and New England?

myhistylab Review Summary

1-6

0 Don Juan de Orlate, Spanish Exploration in the Southwest (1599)

IMAGE KEY for pages 46-47

a. Several sugarcane stems. Sugar was an

important New World crop.

b. New Mexico. Pueblos de Taos.

c. Beavers were a plentiful source of

clothing and income for their pelts.

d. Matoaka, or Pocahontas

(c. 1595-1617), the daughter of Native

American Chief Powhatan, after her

conversion to Christianity and marriage

to settler John Rolfe under the new name

Rebecca.

e. A tattered historical beaver hat from

1620.

f. New Amsterdam traders bargaining

with each other.

g. An illustration of a tobacco plant.

h. John Winthrop (1588-1649), governor

of the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

i. Ships sail into the port of New

Amsterdam (New York).

Colonists square off against Indians in

a detail of a 17 th century map of new

England.

PLANTING COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA, 1588-1701 CHAPTER 3 AP 49 THE SPANISH, THE FRENCH, AND THE DUTCH

IN NORTH AMERICA

t the beginning of the seventeenth century the Spanish controlled the only colonial outposts on the North American mainland, a series of forts along the Florida coast to protect the Gulf Stream sea-lanes used by the

convoys carrying wealth from their New World colonies to Spain. During the first two decades of the new century, however, the Spanish, French, Dutch, and Eng- lish were all drawn into planting far more substantial colonies in North America.

NEW MEXICO

After the 1539 expedition of Francisco Vasquez de Coronado failed to turn up vast Indian empires to conquer in the northern Mexican deserts, Spanish inter- est in the Southwest faded. The densely settled farming communities of the Pueb- los did offer a harvest of converts for Christianity, however, and by the 1580s Franciscan missionaries were at work there. Soon rumors drifted back to Mexico City of rich mines along the Rio Grande. In 1598, Juan de Ofiate financed an

expedition made up of Indians and mestizos (people of mixed Indian and European ancestry) with the purpose of mining both gold and souls.

Moving north into the upper Rio Grande Valley, Onate encountered vary- ing degrees of resistance. He lay siege at Acoma, set high atop a great outcropping of desert rock. Indian warriors killed dozens of Spaniards with their arrows, and women and children bombarded them with stones. But in the end, the attackers succeeded in climbing the rock walls and laying waste to the town, killing 800 men, women, and children. All surviving warriors had one of their feet sev- ered, and more than 500 people were enslaved. In 1606 Spanish authorities in Mexico recalled Ofiate for his failure to locate the fabled gold mines. The Church, however, convinced the Spanish monarchy to subsidize New Mexico as a special missionary colony. In 1609, a new governor founded the capital of Santa Fe, and from this base the Franciscan missionaries penetrated all the surrounding Indian villages (see Map 3.1).

Acoma Pueblo, the "sky city," was founded in the

thirteenth century and is one of the oldest con-

tinuously inhabited sites in the United States. In

1598, Juan de Dilate attacked and laid waste to

the pueblo, killing some 800 inhabitants and

enslaving another 500.

Zuni •

■ Hopi

Acoma ■

50 CHAPTER 3 PLANTING COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA, 1588-1701

The colonial economy of New Mexico, based on small-scale agriculture and sheep raising, was never very prosperous. Very few newcomers came from Mexico.

Population growth was almost entirely the result of marriages between colonial men and Indian women. By 1700 this north- ernmost outpost of the Spanish empire in America contained some 3,000 mestizos in a few towns along the Rio Grande, sur- rounded by an estimated 50,000 Pueblos in some fifty villages. New Mexico was a "frontier of inclusion."

2-2

CO Samuel de Champlain, Journal of Samuel de Champlain (1609)

Santa Fe (1609)

Albuquerque (1706)

NEW MEXICO

El Paso del Norte

(1681)

NEW VIZCAYA

f, NEW

- LEON 73 73

-v NEW

GALICIA 0

PACIFIC

NEW

OCEAN SPAIN

Mexico City

iek.lornada del Muerto

■ Indian pueblo

(to Mexico) -9494. 4)FL

sem • Spanish town

MAP 3.1 New Mexico in the Seventeenth Century By the end of the seventeenth century, New Mexico numbered 3,000 colonial settlers in several towns,

surrounded by an estimated 50,000 Pueblo Indians living in some fifty

farming villages.

WHAT ROLE did church officials play in the govern- ment of New Mexico?

NEW FRANCE

In the early seventeenth century the French devised a strategy to monopolize the northern fur trade. In 1608 Samuel de Champlain, acting as the agent of a royal monopoly, founded the settlement of Quebec on the St. Lawrence River at a site where he could intercept the traffic in furs. He forged an alliance with the Huron Indians, who controlled access to the rich fur grounds of the Great Lakes, and in 1609 and 1610 joined them in making war on their traditional enemies, the Five Nation Iroquois Confederacy. Champlain sent agents and traders to live among native peoples, where they learned native languages and customs, and directed the flow of furs to Quebec.

Thousands of Frenchmen went to New France as engages ("hired men") in the fur trade or the fishery, but nine out of ten returned to France when the term of their service ended. The French might have populated their American empire with thousands of willing Huguenot reli- gious dissenters, but the state resolved that New France would be exclusively Catholic. As a result, the population grew very slowly, reaching a total of only 15,000 colonists by 1700.

Rather than facing the Atlantic, the communities of Canada tended to look westward toward the continental interior. It was typical for the sons of habitants to take to the woods, working as independent traders or coureurs de bois, paid agents of the fur companies. Most eventually returned to their home communities, but others married Indian women and raised mixed-ancestry families in distant Indian villages. French traders were living on the Great Lakes as early as the 1620s, and both missionaries and traders were exploring the upper Mississippi River by the 1670s. In 1681-82, fur-trade commandant Robert Sieur de La Salle navigated the mighty river to its mouth on the Gulf of Mex- ico and claimed its entire watershed for France (see

Map 3.2). Thus, the French, like the Spanish, established a fron-

Coureurs de bois French for

"woods runner," an independent fur

trader in New France.

tier of inclusion in North America. But in other ways the two colonial systems were quite different. The Spanish program

was the conquest of native peoples and their exploitation as a labor force in mining, farming, or livestock raising. The French, on the other hand, lacking sufficient man- power to bully, dispossess, or enslave native peoples, sought to build an empire

Gulf of

Sr. Lawrence

ie Superli

Quebec.

Tadoussac . i

:(1i.ACADIA

Sault

• Ste-Marie Fort ?NEW_

Montreal ..N.413:

Bz F.rayPort Royal

./„.

Ste. Marie \-----._ , i

St. Ign:ce • , 4, ,--, des Huvrisons .

'',' •

Fort -,-- Detroit. ,e '''''' o'F°":Nlaral)1E‘lir

-p 5

St. Louis • NETHERLAND

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

MAP 3.2 New France in the Seventeenth Century By the late seventeenth centu- ry, French settlements were spread from the town of Port Royal in Aca- dia to the post and mission at Sault Ste. Marie on the Great Lakes.

HOW DID French settlements differ from their English counterparts?

Frontenac ENGLAND

• Fort .47 St. Joseph

PLANTING COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA, 1588-1701 CHAPTER 3

through alliance and commerce with independent Indian nations. There were also important differences between Spanish and French missionary efforts. Unlike Franciscans in seventeenth-century Santa Fe, who insisted that natives must accept European cultural norms as part of their conversion, Jesuit missionaries in New France learned native languages and attempted to understand native customs, in an effort to intro- duce Christianity as a part of the existing Indian way of life.

NEW NETHERLAND

The United Provinces of the Netherlands, commonly known as Holland, was only a fraction of the size of France, but in the sixteenth century it became the center of Europe's economic transformation. Amsterdam became the site of the world's first stock exchange and investment banks. Dutch investors built the largest commercial fleet in Europe and captured the lucra- tive Baltic and North Sea trade in fish, lumber, iron, and grain. It was said that the North Sea was Holland's "America."

Soon, however, the Dutch were establishing trading outposts in America itself. Early in the seventeenth century the United Netherlands organized two great monopolies, the Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company, combining naval military might and commercial strength in campaigns to seize the maritime trade of Asia and the Atlantic. The Dutch first established themselves in North America with the explorations of Henry Hudson in 1609, and within a few years had founded settlements on the Hudson River at the head of oceangoing navigation, a place they called Fort Orange (today's Albany), and at New Ams- terdam on Manhattan Island, which guards the entrance to the river. In the 1640s the Dutch also succeeded in overwhelming a small colony of Swedes planted by a Swedish company on the lower Delaware River in 1637, incorporating that region as well into their sphere of influence (see Map 3.2).

This drawing by Samuel de Champlain shows how Huron men funneled deer

into enclosures, where they could be

trapped and easily killed.

3-3 James Marquette, Early French Explorations of the Mississippi River (1673)

2-8 A Jesuit Priest Describes New

Amsterdam (1642)

52 CHAPTER 3 PLANTING COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA, 1588-1701

Seeking to match French success in the fur trade, the Dutch West India Com- pany negotiated a commercial alliance with the Five Nation Iroquois Confederacy. Access to Dutch products, including metal tools and firearms, greatly augmented the power of the Iroquois, and they soon launched a campaign to make them- selves into the strategic middlemen of the fur trade. Beginning in the 1640s the Iroquois conducted a series of military expeditions against their northern, west- ern, and southern neighbors, known as the Beaver Wars. They attacked and dis- persed the Hurons, who had long controlled the flow of furs from the Great Lakes to their French allies.

THE CHESAPEAKE: VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND F 4 ngland first attempted to plant colonies in North America during the 1580s in Newfoundland and at Roanoke Island in present-day North Car-

olina (see Chapter 2). Both attempts were dramatic failures. England's war with Spain (1588-1604) suspended further efforts, but thereafter the English once again turned to the Americas.

JAMESTOWN AND THE POWHATAN CONFEDERACY In 1607, a group of London investors known as the Virginia Company sent a small convoy of vessels to Chesapeake Bay, where a hundred men built a fort they named Jamestown in honor of King James I (reigned 1603-1625) . It was destined to become the first permanent English settlement in North America.

The Chesapeake was already home to an estimated 14,000 Indian inhabitants. The village communities of the Chesapeake were united in a politically sophisticated union known as the Powhatan Confederacy, led by a powerful chief named Wahunsonacook, whom the Jamestown colonists called "King Powhatan." Powhatan's feelings about Europeans were mixed. He knew they could mean trou-

This illustration, taken from Samuel de Champlain's 1613 account of the founding of New France, depicts him joining the Huron attack on the Iroquois in 1609. The French and their Huron allies controlled access to the great fur grounds of the West. The Iroquois then formed an alliance of their own with the Dutch, who had founded a trading colony on the Hudson River. The palm trees in the background of this drawing suggest that it was not executed by an eyewitness, but rather by an illustrator more familiar with South American scenes.

QUICK REVIEW

New Netherland

• United Province of the Netherlands played a key role in sixteenth-century Europe's economy.

• The Dutch established trading out- posts throughout the Americas.

• Dutch expansion led by the Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company.

HOW DID tobacco change the

nature of English colonization in

Virginia?

myhist4ylab Review Summary

my h stc3i'yla b Exploring America: Jamestown

Beaver Wars Series of bloody conflicts, occurring between 1640s and 1680s, during which the Iroquois fought the French for control of the fur trade in the east and the Great Lakes region.

Virginia Company A group of London investors who sent ships to Chesapeake Bay in 1607.

Powhatan Confederacy A village of communities of the Chesapeake united under Chief Wahunsonacook, who was called King Powhatan by the colonists.

John Smith's Cartoon History of His Adventures in Virginia

his elaborate illustration, executed by English engraver Robert Vaughan, accompanied John r-r Smith's 1624 account of his years at the English settlement ofJamestown, from 1606 to 1609.

It constitutes an early kind of cartoon history. Smith knew how to spin a tale, and these illus-

trations depict some of the most important turns in his

story. A map of "Ould Virginia" (bottom center) is sur-

rounded by vignettes depicting Smith's adventures, includ-

ing his seizure by the Powhatans (top left), his capture of

notable leaders (top right and bottom left), and his rescue

from execution by Pocahontas (bottom right). The images told a story of conflict and violence.

Much more was to come. One interesting detail is the immense size of the chiefs compared to

Smith. The costume, hairstyles, and body decorations of the Indians were taken directly from the

images produced by English artist and colonial governor John White. ■

John Smith, The General History of Virginia (1624) from Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.

WHAT MESSAGE do you think Smith and

Vaughan were trying to send with this

complex illustration?

54 41 CHAPTER 3 PLANTING COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA, 1588-1701 ble. In 1571, Spanish missionaries had attempted to plant a colony on the Chesa- peake shore, but after they interfered with the practice of native religion they were violently expelled. Still, Powhatan was eager to forge an alliance with these people from across the sea to obtain access to supplies of metal tools and weapons. He allowed the English colonists to build their outpost at Jamestown.

The Jamestown colonists had come to find gold and a passage to the Indies, and failing at both they spent their time gambling and drinking. They survived only because of Powhatan's help. But as more colonists arrived from England and demands for food multiplied, Powhatan had second thoughts. He now realized, he declared to Smith, that the English had come "not for trade, but to invade my peo- ple and possess my country." During the terrible winter of 1609-10 more than 400 colonists starved and a number resorted to cannibalism. Of the 500 colonists at Jamestown in the fall, only 60 remained alive by the spring.

Determined to prevail, the Virginia Company sent out a large additional force of men, women, and livestock, committing itself to a protracted war against native men, women, and children. The grim fighting persisted until 1613, when the English cap- tured one of Powhatan's favorite daughters, Matoaka, a girl of about fifteen whom the colonists knew by her nickname, Pocahontas. Eager for the return of his child, and worn down by violence and disease, the next year Powhatan accepted a treaty of peace. The peace was sealed by the marriage of Pocahontas, who converted to Chris- tianity, to John Rolfe, one of the leading colonists. For a brief moment it seemed the English too might move in the direction of a society of inclusion.

In 1617 Rolfe traveled with his wife and son to England, where they were greeted as a new American noble line. But Pocahontas fell ill and died there. Crushed by the news, Powhatan abdicated in favor of his brother Opechancanough before dying of despair. Economic and social developments, however, were already push- ing Virginia in the direction of a frontier of exclusion.

TOBACCO, EXPANSION, AND WARFARE

Tobacco had been introduced to the English by Francis Drake in the 1580s, and by the 1610s a craze for smoking had created strong demand for the product. Poc- ahontas's husband John Rolfe developed a mild hybrid variety, and soon the first commercial shipments of cured Virginia leaf reached England. Tobacco pro- vided the Virginia Company with the first returns on its investment.

Questions of land and labor would dominate the history of colonial Virginia. Tobacco cultivation required a great deal of hand labor, and it quickly exhausted the soil. The Virginia Company instituted a program of "headright grants," awards of large plantations to wealthy colonists who agreed to transport workers from England at their own cost. Because thousands of English families were being thrown off the land (see Chapter 2), many were attracted to Virginia. Thus, English colonization took a different turn from the Spanish, who mostly sent male colonists. Moreover, the Eng- lish concentration on plantation agriculture contrasted with the French emphasis on trade. With little need to incorporate Indians into the colony as workers or marriage partners, the English pushed natives out. Virginia became a "frontier of exclusion."

Pressed for additional lands on which to grow tobacco, Chief Opechan- canough decided on an assault that would expel the English for good. He encour- aged a cultural revival under the guidance of a native shaman named Nemattanew, who instructed his followers to reject the English and their ways. This was the first of many Indian resistance movements led jointly by strong political and religious figures. Opechancanough's uprising, which began on Good Friday, March 22, 1622, completely surprised the English, claiming the lives of 347 colonists, nearly a third of Virginia's colonial population. Yet the colony managed to hang on. The attack stretched into a ten-year war of attrition with horrors committed by both sides.

QUICK REVIEW

Powhatan, Indian Leader

• Chief of a confederacy of about thirty tribes.

• Besieged Jamestown when colonists began stealing corn.

• Instructed in English manners and religion by John Rolfe.

• Father of Pocahontas.

PLANTING COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA, 1588-1701 CHAPTER 3 41111110 55

In this eighteenth-century engraving used to promote the sale of tobacco, slaves

pack tobacco leaves into "hogsheads"

for shipment to England, overseen by a Virginia planter and his clerk. Note the incorporation of the Indian motif.

The Powhatans finally sued for peace in 1632. In the meantime, however, the war had bankrupted the Virginia Company. In 1624 England converted Vir- ginia into a royal colony with civil authorities appointed by the crown, although property-owning colonists continued to elect representatives to the colony's House of Burgesses, created in 1619 in an attempt to encourage immigration.

In 1644 Opechancanough organized a final desperate revolt in which more than 500 colonists were killed. But the next year the Virginians crushed the Powhatans, capturing and executing their leader. A formal treaty granted the Indians a number of small reserved territories. By 1670 the Indian population had fallen to just 2,000, overwhelmed by the 40,000 English colonists.

MARYLAND

In 1632, King Charles I (reigned 1625-49) granted 10 million acres at the north- ern end of Chesapeake Bay to the Calvert family, important Catholic supporters of the English monarchy. The Calverts named their colony Maryland. Two fea- tures distinguished Maryland from Virginia. First, it was a "proprietary" colony in which the Calvert family held the sole power to appoint civil officers and was sole owner of all the land. Second, the Calvert family encouraged settlement by Catholics, a persecuted minority in seventeenth-century England. In fact, Maryland became the only English colony in North America with a substantial Catholic minority.

Yet Maryland quickly became much like neighboring Virginia. The tobacco plantation economy created pressures for labor and land. In 1640, the colony adopted the system of headright grants previously developed in Virginia, and settlements of independent planters quickly spread out on both sides of Chesapeake Bay.

COMMUNITY LIFE IN THE CHESAPEAKE

At least three-quarters of the English migrants to the Chesapeake came as inden-

tured servants. In exchange for the cost of their transportation to the New World,

men and women contracted to labor for a master for a fixed term. Most were young, unskilled males, who served for two to seven years, but some were skilled craftsmen, unmarried women, or even orphan children. African slaves were first

House of Burgesses The legislature of colonial Virginia. First organized in 1619, it was the first institution of representative government in the English colonies.

Indentured Servants Individuals who contracted to serve a master for a period of four to seven years in return for payment of the servant's passage to America.

56 i CHAPTER 3 PLANTING COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA, 1588-1701

introduced to the Chesapeake in 1619, but slaves were more expensive than ser-

vants, and as late as 1680 they made up less than 7 percent of the population. In the hard-driving economy of the Chesapeake, however, masters treated servants as cruelly as they treated slaves.

Many indentured servants who survived their terms and were able to raise the price of passage quickly returned to England. Those who remained became eligible for "freedom dues"—clothing, tools, a gun, or a spinning wheel to help them get started on their own. They often headed west in the hope of cutting a farm from the forest.

Because most emigrants were men, whether free or indentured, free unmar- ried women often married as soon as they arrived in the Chesapeake, and widows remarried quickly, sometimes within days. Their scarcity provided women with cer- tain advantages. Shrewd widows bargained for a remarriage agreement that gave them a larger share of the estate than what was set by common law. So notable was the concentration of wealth in the hands of these widows that one historian has sug- gested early Virginia was a "matriarchy." But because of high mortality rates, fam- ily size was smaller and kinship bonds—one of the most important components of community—were weaker than in England.

Prosperous planters, investing everything in tobacco production, lived in rough wooden dwellings. On the western edge of the settlements, freed servants lived with their families in shacks, huts, even caves. Colonists spread across the countryside in search of new tobacco lands, creating dispersed settlements with hardly any towns. Before 1650 there were few community institutions such as schools and churches.

Nevertheless, the Chesapeake was a growing region. By the end of the seventeenth century the combined population of the Maryland and Virginia colonies was nearly 90,000. In contrast to the colonists of New France, who were developing a distinctive identity because of their connections with native peoples, the English residents of the Chesapeake maintained close emotional ties to the mother country.

QUICK REVIEW

The Pilgrims

• Plymouth Colony founded in

1620.

• Puritans wanted reform of the Church of England.

• Pilgrims were separatists who believed the Church of England could not be reformed.

.111111101=1=1-, WHAT WERE the social and

political values of Puritanism and

how did religious dissent shape the

history of the New England colonies?

THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES

B oth in climate and in geography, the northern coast of North America was far different from the Chesapeake. "Merchantable commodities" such as tobacco could not be produced there, and thus it was far less favored for investment and settlement. Instead, the region became a haven for Protestant dissenters from England, who gave the colonies of the north a distinctive charac-

ter of their own (see Map 3.3).

PURITANISM

Most English men and women continued to practice a Christianity little different from traditional Catholicism. But the English followers of John Calvin, known as Puritans because they wished to purify and reform the English church from within, grew increasingly influential during the last years of Elizabeth's reign at the end of the sixteenth century. The Calvinist emphasis on enterprise meant that Puri- tanism appealed to merchants, entrepreneurs, and commercial farmers, those most responsible for the rapid economic and social transformation of England. Yet the Puritans were also the most vocal critics of the disruptive effects of that change, condemning the decline of the traditional rural community and the grow- ing number of "idle and masterless men" produced by the enclosure of common

myhistdi ylab Review Summary

Puritans Individuals who believed that Queen Elizabeth's reforms of the Church of England had not gone far enough in improving the church. Puritans led the settlement of Massachusetts Bay Colony.

Puritanism Movement to purify and reform the English Church.

MAP EXPLORATION To explore an interactive version of this map, go to http://www.prenhall.com/faraghertIc/map3.3

NEW 1,,11104V4Eit

MAINE

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Boston • Albany. -- •Plymouth

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PLANTING COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA, 1588-1701 CHAPTER 3 411110 57 lands. They argued for reviving communities by placing reformed Christian congregations at their core to mon- itor the behavior of individuals.

James I abandoned Queen Elizabeth's policy of reli- gious tolerance. His persecution of the Puritans, however, merely stiffened their resolve and turned them toward open political opposition. James's son and successor, Charles I (reigned 1625-49), was heavily criticized by the increasingly vocal Puritan minority for marrying a French Roman Catholic princess and supporting "High Church" policies, emphasizing the authority of the clerical hierarchy and traditional forms of worship. In 1629, determined to rule without these troublesome opponents, Charles dis- missed Parliament and launched a campaign of repression against the Puritans. This political turmoil provided the context for the migration of thousands of English Protes- tants to New England.

PLYMOUTH COLONY

The first English colony in New England was founded by a group of religious dissenters known to later genera- tions as the Pilgrims. At the time they were called Sep- aratists because they believed the English church was so corrupt they had to establish independent congrega- tions. One group moved to Holland in 1609, but fearful that tolerant and secular Dutch society was seducing their children, they decided on emigration to North America. Backed by the Virginia Company of London and led by tradesman William Bradford, 102 people sailed from England on the Mayflower in September 1620.

The little group, mostly families but including a sub- stantial number of single men hired by the investors, arrived in Massachusetts Bay at the site of the former Indian village of Pawtuxet, which the English renamed Plymouth. Soon the hired men began to grumble about being excluded from decision making, and to reassure them Bradford drafted an agreement by which all the male members of the expedition did "covenant and combine together into a civil body politic." The Mayflower Compact was the first document of self-gov- ernment in North America.

Weakened by scurvy and malnutrition, nearly half the colonists perished over the first winter. Like the earlier settlers of Roanoke and Jamestown, however, they were rescued by Indians. Massasoit, the sachem or chief of the Pokanokets, offered the newcomers food and advice in return for an alliance against his enemies, the Narragansets. It was the familiar pattern of Indians attempting to incorporate Euro- pean colonists into their own world.

The Pilgrims supported themselves by farming, but like all colonies Ply- mouth needed a source of revenue, in their case in order to pay off their English investors. The foundation of their commercial economy was the cod fishery in the rich coastal banks of the Atlantic. With this revenue the Pilgrims were able to establish a self-sufficient community.

• Roanoke

Cape Hatteras

Pi lgrims Settlers of Plymouth Colony, who viewed themselves as spiritual wanderers.

Separatists Members of an offshoot branch of Puritanism. Separatists believed that the Church of England was too corrupt to be reformed and hence were convinced they must "separate" from it to save their souls.

Mayflower Compact The first document of self-government in North America.

MAP 3.3 European Colonies of the Atlantic Coast, 1607-39 Virginia, on Chesa- peake Bay, was the first English colony in North America, but by the mid-seventeenth century, Virginia was joined by settlements of Scandi- navians on the Delaware River and Dutch on the Hudson River, as well as English religious dissenters in New England.

HOW MANY European nations had established colonies on the Atlantic coast by the middle of the seven- teenth century?

QUICK REVIEW

Mayflower Compact

♦ Mayflower Compact signed in 1620.

♦ Established self-government in North America.

♦ Pilgrim leaders urged all adult males to sign the compact.

2-5

0 John Winthrop, A Modell of Christian Charity (1630) Massachusetts Bay Company A group of wealthy Puritans who were granted a royal charter in 1629 to settle in Massachusetts Bay.

58 411110 CHAPTER 3 PLANTING COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA, 1588-1701

THE MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY

In England, the political climate of the late 1620s convinced growing numbers of influential Puritans that the only way to protect their congregations was by emi- gration. In 1629 a royal charter was granted to a group of wealthy Puritans who called their enterprise the Massachusetts Bay Company, and an advance force of 200 settlers left for the fishing settlement of Naumkeag on Massachusetts Bay, which they renamed Salem.

The colonists hoped to establish what John Winthrop, their leader and first governor, called "a city on a hill," a New England model of reform for old England. In this they differed from the Pilgrims, who never considered returning. Between 1629 and 1643 some 20,000 individuals relocated to Massachusetts, establishing the port town of Boston and ringing it with towns. By the 1640s their settlements had spread seventy-five miles west to the Connecticut River Valley.

Taking advantage of a loophole in their charter, in 1629 Puritan leaders transferred company operations from England to Massachusetts, and within a few years had transformed the company into a civil government. The original char- ter established a General Court composed of a governor and his deputy, a board of magistrates (or advisers) , and the members of the corporation, known as freemen. In 1632, Governor Winthrop and his advisers declared that all the male heads of households in Massachusetts, who were also church members, were freemen. Two years later, the freemen secured their right to select delegates

to represent the towns in drafting the laws of the colony. These delegates and the magistrates later became the colony's two legislative houses. Thus, the procedures of a joint-stock company provided the origins for democratic suffrage and the bicameral division of legislative authority in America.

DISSENT AND NEW COMMUNITIES

Doctrinal disagreements among the Puritans often led to the establishment of new colonies. In 1636 Thomas Hooker, min- ister of the congregation at Cambridge, after objecting to the Massachusetts policy of restricting male suffrage to church members, led his followers west to the Connecticut River, where they founded the town of Hartford. The same year Roger Williams, the minister at Salem, was banished from Massachu- setts for advocating religious tolerance. With a group of his followers, Williams emigrated to the country surrounding Nar- raganset Bay.

In 163

Governor John John Winthrop, ca. 1640, a portrait by an unknown artist. Winthrop was first elected governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629, then was voted out of office and reelected a total of twelve times.

ne tilitC11111S011, tne mutant anct outspoken wire or a run-

tan merchant, criticized a number of Boston ministers. Their concentration on good works, she argued, led people to believe they could earn their way to heaven. Hutchinson was called before the General Court, and in an extraordinary hearing was reprimanded, excommunicated, and banished. She and a group of followers relocated to the Williams colony on Narra- ganset Bay.

To protect the dissenters in his settlement from Puritan interference, Williams won royal charters in 1644 and 1663 estab- lishing the independent colony of Rhode Island, with guarantees of self-government and complete religious liberty

PLANTING COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA, 1588-1701 CHAPTER 3 %IP 59 INDIANS AND PURITANS

The Indian communities of southern New England discovered soon after the arrival of the Pilgrims and the Puritans that these colonists were quite different from the French and Dutch traders who had preceded them. Although the fur trade was an important part of the economy of Plymouth and Massachusetts, the principal concern of the colonists was the acquisition of Indian land for their growing settlements.

Like the Jamestown colonists, most Puritans believed they had the right to take what they considered "unused" lands, that is, lands not used in the English way. Potential conflicts among settlers over title, however, made it necessary to obtain original deeds from Indians, and the English used a variety of tactics to pressure leaders into signing "quitclaims," relinquishing all claim to specified properties. Meanwhile epidemic disease continued to devastate Indian villages. Disorganized and demoralized, many coastal native communities not only gave up their lands but also placed themselves under the protection of the English. By the late 1630s only a few tribes in southern New England retained the power to challenge Puritan expansion. The Pequots, who lived along the shores of Long Island Sound near the mouth of the Connecticut River, were one of the most pow- erful. Allies of the Dutch, the Pequots controlled the production of wampum, woven belts of seashells used as a medium of exchange in the Indian trade. In 1637, Puritan leaders pressured the Pequots' traditional enemies, the Narragansets of present-day Rhode Island, to join them in waging war on the Pequots. Narra- gansett warriors and English troops attacked the main Pequot village, burning the houses and killing most of their slumbering residents.

THE ECONOMY: NEW ENGLAND MERCHANTS In England, the dispute between King Charles I and the Puritans in Parliament esca- lated into armed conflict in 1642. Several years of revolutionary confrontation finally led to Charles's arrest, his execution in 1649, and the creation of an English Com- monwealth, headed by the Puritan military leader Oliver Cromwell. Because the Puritans were on the victorious side in the English civil war, they no longer had the same incentive to migrate to New England. A number of colonists returned to England.

New England's economy had depended on the sale of supplies and land to arriving immigrants, but this market collapsed as the migration tailed off. Puri- tan merchants turned to the flourishing fishery, shipping cod (in addition to lumber and farm products) to the West Indies, where they bartered for sugar, molasses and rum. By midcentury New England had constructed a commercial fleet of more than 300 vessels, and by the end of the century Boston had become the third largest English commercial center in the Atlantic (after London and Bris- tol) . The development of a diversified economy provided New England with important long-term strength and offered a striking contrast with the specialized fur-trade economy of New France.

COMMUNITY AND FAMILY IN NEW ENGLAND Pilgrims and Puritans stressed the importance of well-ordered communities. Settlers typically clustered their dwellings in a central village, near the meetinghouse that served as both church and civic center. Clustered settlements and strong communi- ties distinguished New England from the dispersed and weak communities of the Chesapeake.

2-7 The Trial of Anne Hutchinson (1638)

QUICK REVIEW

Early Dissenters

• Thomas Hooker: Objected to restrictions on male suffrage.

♦ Anne Hutchinson: Voiced theo- logical disagreements with Boston ministers.

• Roger Williams: Advocated reli- gious toleration.

2-6 John Mason, The Taking of the Fort at Mystic (1637)

lip 6o CHAPTER 3 PLANTING COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA,Rg 15...,-1701

The first map printed in the English colonies, this view of New England was published in Boston in 1677. With north oriented to the right, it looks west from

Massachusetts Bay, the two vertical

black lines indicating the approximate .

boundaries of the Commonwealth of

Massachusetts. The territory west of Rhode Island is noted as an Indian

stronghold, the homelands of the Narraganset, Pequot, and Nipmuck

peoples.

The ideal Puritan family was also well ordered. Parents often participated in the choice of mates for their offspring, and children typically married in the order of their births, younger children waiting until arrangements had been made for their elder siblings. Another source of New England's strength was the impressive Puritan education system. In 1647 the Massachusetts General Court required that towns with 50 families or more support a public school; those with 100 families were to establish a grammar school instructing stu- dents in Latin, knowledge of which was required for admission to Harvard College, founded in 1636. The Puritan colony of Connecticut enacted similar requirements. By the mid-seventeenth century, New England men boasted the highest rates of literacy in North America and much of Europe. Because girls were excluded from grammar schools, however, women's literacy remained relatively low.

The Puritans were not "puritanical" in the modern sense of the word. Although they treated adultery as a capital crime, they celebrated sexual expres- sion within marriage. Courting couples were encouraged to engage in "petting," and married couples were expected to enjoy sexual relations.

THE POSITION OF WOMEN

Families were supposed to operate as "little commonwealths," with everyone work- ing cooperatively. The domestic economy required the combined efforts of hus- band and wife. Men were generally responsible for fieldwork, women for the work

of the household, garden, henhouse, and dairy. Still, the cultural ideal was the subordination of women to men. Married

women could not make contracts, own property, vote, or hold office. A typical woman, marrying in her early twenties and surviving through her forties, could expect to bear eight children and devote herself to husband and family. Aside from abstinence, there was no form of birth control. Wives who failed to have

myhistd ylab Exploring America: Witches in the American Imagination

HAMPSHIRE 44"holuk

NEW YORK x

PENNSYLVANIA Philadelphia, NEW JERSEY

MAP EXPLORATION To explore an interactive version of this map, go to http://www.prenhall.com/faraghertIcimap3.4

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PLANTING COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA, 1588-1701 CHAPTER 3 111110 61

children, or widows who were economically independent, aroused significant suspicion among their neighbors.

THE SALEM WITCH TRIALS

The cultural mistrust of women came to the surface most notably in periodic witchcraft scares. During the seventeenth century, according to one historian, 342 New England women were accused by their neighbors of witchcraft. The majority of the accused were unmarried, or childless, or widowed, or had repu- tations in their communities for assertiveness and independence. In the vast majority of cases, the charges were dismissed by authorities as baseless. In the infamous 1692 case of Salem, Massachusetts, however, the whole community was thrown into a panic of accusations when a group of girls claimed that they had been bewitched by a number of old women. Before the colonial governor finally called a halt to the persecutions in 1693, twenty people had been tried, con- demned, and executed.

The Salem witchcraft scare may have reflected social tensions that found their outlet through an attack on peo- ple perceived as outsiders. Salem was a booming commer- cial port, but while some residents were prospering, others were not. Most of the victims came from the commercial eastern end of town, the majority of their accusers from the economically stagnant western side. Most of the accused also came from Anglican, Quaker, or Baptist families. Finally, a majority of the victims were old women, suspect because they lived alone, without the guidance of men. The Salem witchcraft crisis exposed the dark side of Puri- tan thinking about women.

WHAT ROLE did the crown play in

the founding of English colonies

after 1660?

myhistdiylab Review Summary

DELAWARE

THE PROPRIETARY COLONIES

Oirni R.

lanes

0 liver Cromwell died in 1658 and two years later Parliament, anxious for stability, restored the Stu- art monarchy, placing on the throne Charles II

(reigned 1660-85), eldest son of the deposed king. Charles took an active interest in North America, establishing sev- eral new proprietary colonies on the model of Maryland

(see Map 3.4).

THE CAROLINAS

Charles II issued the first of his charters in 1663, establishing a new colony called Carolina, which stretched along the Atlantic coast from Virginia south to the northern limits of Spanish Florida. Virginians had already begun moving into the vicinity of Albermarle Sound in the northern part of this territory, and in 1664 the Carolina proprietors appointed a governor and created a popularly elected assembly. By 1700 North Carolina, as it became known, included 11,000 small

farmers and large tobacco planters. Settlement farther south began in 1670 with the

founding of coastal Charles Town (renamed Charleston in

MAP 3.4 The Proprietary Colonies After the restoration of the Stuart monarchy in 1660, King Charles II of England created the new proprietary colonies of Carolina, New York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. New Hampshire was set off as a royal colony in 1680, and in 1704, the lower counties of Pennsylvania became the colony of Delaware.

EXAMINE THE processes underlying the founding of the Proprietary Colonies. How had the political land-

scape changed since 1639?

(NEW YORK ) , 1051

62 4111110 CHAPTER 3 PLANTING COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA, 1588-1701

The earliest known view of New Amsterdam, published in 1651. Indian traders are shown arriving with their goods in a dugout canoe of distinctive

design known to have been produced by

the native people of Long Island Sound.

Twenty-five years after its founding, the

Dutch settlement still occupies only the

lower tip of Manhattan Island.

Fort New Amsterdam, New York, 1651. Engraving.

Collection of The New-York Historical Society,

77354d.

1783). Most South Carolina settlers came from the sugar colony of Barbados, a Caribbean colony founded by the English in 1627. They lent a distinctly West Indian character to the colony. By 1700 South Carolina's population was more than 6,000, including some 3,000 enslaved Africans. (For a complete discussion of slavery see Chapter 4.)

Proprietary colony A colony created when the English monarch granted a huge tract of land to an individual or group of individuals, who became "lords proprietor."

Quakers Members of the Society of Friends, a radical religious group that arose in the mid-seventeenth century. Quakers rejected formal theology, focusing instead on the Holy Spirit that dwelt within them.

NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY

Charles also coveted the lucrative Dutch colony of New Netherland. In 1651, Par- liament passed a Trade and Navigation Act that barred Dutch vessels from Eng- lish colonial possessions. This led to an inconclusive naval war between the two nations from 1652 to 1654. Ten years later the two powers clashed once again, this time along the West African coast, leading to a second Anglo-Dutch war. In Sep- tember 1664 a small English fleet sailed into Manhattan harbor and forced the sur- render of New Amsterdam without firing a shot. When the war ended with an inconclusive peace in 1667, the English were left in possession. Holland briefly regained control during a third and final conflict from 1672 to 1674, but the Eng- lish won the war and won possession of the colony in the peace negotiations. This final war bankrupted the Dutch West India Company and marked the ascension of the English to dominance in the Atlantic, although Holland remained supreme in the Baltic and the East Indies.

Charles II issued a proprietary charter granting the former Dutch colony to his brother James, the Duke of York, renaming it New York in his honor. Ethnically and linguistically diversified, and accommodating a wide range of religious sects, New York society was the most heterogeneous in North America. In 1665, the commu- nities of the Delaware Valley were split off as the proprietary colony of New Jersey.

THE FOUNDING OF PENNSYLVANIA

In 1676, the proprietary rights to the western portion of New Jersey were sold to a group of English religious dissenters, including William Penn. A member of the Society of Friends (known popularly as the Quakers), Penn intended to

3-6 William Penn, Charter of Privileges (1701)

QUICK REVIEW

Pennsylvania

• Territory west of the Delaware River granted to William Penn in 1681.

• Penn supervised the establish- ment of Philadelphia in 1682.

♦ Penn, a Quaker, saw the colony as a "holy experiment."

PLANTING COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA, 1588-1701 CHAPTER 3 63

The Delawares presented William Penn with this wampum belt after the Shackamaxon Treaty of 1682. In friendship, a Quaker in distinctive hat clasps the hand of an Indian. The diagonal stripes

on either side of the figures represent the "open paths" between the English and the Delawares.

Wampum belts like this one, made from strings of white and purple shell beads, were used to

commemorate treaties throughout the colonial period, and were the most widely accepted form of

money in the northeastern colonies during the seventeenth century.

make the colony a haven for religious toleration and pacifism. In 1681, to set- tle a large debt he owed William Penn's father, King Charles issued to his son a proprietary grant to a huge territory west of the Delaware River.

Penn wanted this colony to be a "holy experiment." In his first Frame of Gov- ernment, drafted in 1682, he included guarantees of religious freedom, civil liber- ties, and elected representation. He also attempted to deal fairly with the native peoples, refusing to permit colonization to begin until settlement rights were nego- tiated and lands purchased. Although relations between Pennsylvania and Indian peoples later soured, during Penn's lifetime his reputation for fair dealing led a number of native groups to resettle in the Quaker colony.

During the first two decades of Pennsylvania's settlement, nearly 20,000 set- tlers spread agricultural communities from the banks of the Delaware to the fer- tile interior valleys. In 1704 Penn approved the creation of a separate colony called Delaware for the governance of the counties near the mouth of the river formerly controlled first by the Swedes and then the Dutch.

CONFLICT AND WAR

p ennsylvania's ability to maintain peaceful relations with the Indians proved the great exception. The last quarter of the seventeenth century became a time of great violence throughout the colonial regions of the continent,

mostly because of the expansion of European settlement (see Map 3.5). Much of this warfare was between colonists and Indians, but intertribal warfare and inter- colonial rivalry greatly contributed to the violence.

KING PHILIP'S WAR

In New England, nearly forty years of peace followed the Pequot War of 1637.

Natives and colonists lived in close, if tense, contact. Some two thousand native con- verts eventually relocated to Christian communities known as "praying towns." But there remained several independent tribes, including the Pokanokets, the

WHAT LED to violent conflict

between Indians and colonists?

myhistdciylab Review Summary

Frame of Government William Penn's constitution for Pennsylvania which included a provision allowing for religious freedom.

Pequot War Conflict between English settlers and Pequot Indians over control of land and trade in eastern Connecticut.

King Philip's War Conflict in New England (1675-1676) between Wampanoags, Narragansetts, and other Indian peoples against English settlers; sparked by English encroachments on native lands.

Covenant Chain An alliance between the Iroquois Confederacy and the colony of New York which sought to establish Iroquois dominance over all other tribes.

MAP 3.5 Spread of Settlement: British Colonies, 1650-1700 The spread of settlement in the English colonies in the late seventeenth century

created the conditions for a number of violent conflicts, including

King Philip's War, Bacon's Rebellion, and King William's War

WHAT FACTORS were behind the spread of British settlement in the second half of the seven-

teenth century?

3-4

04 Edward Randolph, King Philip's War (1685)

Narragansets, and the Abenakis of northern New England. The extraordinary expansion of the colonial population, and the increasing hunger for land, created inexorable pressures for expansion into their territories.

The Pokanokets, whose homeland lay between Rhode Island and Plymouth, were led by the sachem Metacom, whom the English called King Philip. Metacom had been raised among English colonists and educated in their schools. He operated on the assumption that his people had a future in the English colonial world but was gradually forced to conclude that the colonists had no room for the Pokanokets. In 1671 the colonial authorities of Plymouth pressured Metacom into granting them sovereign authority over his homeland. This humiliation convinced him that he had to break the half-cen- tury alliance with Plymouth and take up armed resistance. The Puritan colonies, meanwhile, prepared for a war of conquest.

What became known as King Philip's War came in the spring of 1675, and at first things went well for the Indians. They forced the abandonment of English settlements on the Connecticut River and torched towns less than twenty miles from Boston. By the beginning of 1676, however, their cam- paign was collapsing. A combined colonial army defeated a large Indian force in a battle known as the Great Swamp Fight in Narraganset country. Metacom led his men and fled west to the border with New York where he appealed for support from the Iroquois. But instead of helping, the Iroquois attacked forcing Metacom back to Pokanoket territory, where colonists annihilated his army in August 1676. Metacom was quartered, his severed head mounted on a pike at Plymouth.

In attacking the Pequots, the Iroquois were motivated by interests of their own. Extending the role they had played

in the Dutch trading system, they now cast themselves as powerful intermediaries between other tribes and the English. In a series of negotiations conducted at Albany in 1677, the Iroquois Confederacy and the colony of New York created an alliance known as the Covenant Chain. It envisioned Iroquois dominance over all other tribes, thus putting New York in an economically and politically dominant position among the other colonies.

An estimated 4,000 natives and 2,000 colonists died during the war, and dozens of native and colonial towns lay in ruins. Fearing attack from Indians close at hand, colonists also destroyed most of the Indian praying towns, killing many of the Christian residents. Calculated in the number of lives lost, King Philip's War was the most destructive Indian—colonist conflict in early American history.

BACON'S REBELLION AND SOUTHERN CONFLICTS

While King Philip's War raged in New England, another English—Indian con- frontation took shape in the Chesapeake and mutated into civil war. The basic cause of the conflict was the old problem of land and labor. By the 1670s Indian communities residing on the frontier of the colony were under assault by colonists in search of new tobacco lands. The insatiable hunger came not only from estab- lished planters with lands reaching exhaustion but also from former servants who

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Q P

•2,\

ATLANTIC

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64 411110 CHAPTER 3 PLANTING COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA, 1588-1701

QUICK REVIEW

King Philip's War

• King Philip's War broke out in 1675.

• Conflict between Wampanoags and settlers led to war.

• Thousands of settlers and Indians died in the fighting.

3-2 Nathaniel Bacon's Challenge to

William Berkeley and the

Governor's Response

Culpeper's Rebellion The overthrow of the established government in the Albermarle region of North Carolina by backcountry men in 1677.

PLANTING COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA, 1588-1701 CHAPTER 3 410 65 Indians and New Englanders skirmish during King Philip's War in a detail from

John Seller's "A Mapp of New England,"

published immediately after the war.

had served out their indentures. Governor William Berkeley, in office since the 1640s, ruled in alliance with the big planters, who feared landless freemen even more than they did Indians. In 1670 the Burgesses had enacted legislation restrict- ing the suffrage to property owners; nevertheless every man still had to pay taxes. Smoldering class antagonism thus added to the volatile mix. When in 1675 the gov- ernor declined to send the militia against the Indians, colonists under the lead- ership of wealthy backcountry planter Nathaniel Bacon embarked on unauthorized raids resulting in the indiscriminate murder of many natives, including those allied with the colony. Bacon became a hero to former servants, and although Berkeley fumed, he ordered the first elections in many years in an attempt to appease the people.

But Berkeley's move backfired when Bacon went further, demanding the death or removal of all Indians from the colony as well as an end to the rule of aristocratic "grandees" and "parasites." Berkeley fled across the Chesapeake, Bacon seized con- trol, and his volunteer force burned Jamestown to the ground. Soon thereafter, however, the rebel leader came down with dysentery. He died and the rebellion col- lapsed. Berkeley returned, reestablished control, and ordered the execution of

Bacon's lieutenants. This brief but violent clash signaled a developing conflict between back-

country districts and more established coastal regions where the "Indian prob- lem" had long since been settled. Backcountry men in the Albermarle region of North Carolina staged a similar revolt in 1677, an episode known as Culpeper's

Rebellion. They overthrew the established government and held power for two years before the proprietors reestablished authority. These rebellions revealed the power of class antagonism. But they also suggested that the Indians could play the role of convenient scapegoats.

66 gip CHAPTER 3 PLANTING COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA, 1588-1701

Colonial officials in South Carolina seemed to be paying attention. They encouraged Indians allied with the colony—Yamasees, Creeks, Cherokees, and Chickasaws—to wage war on tribes affiliated with rival colonial powers, including

the mission Indians of Spanish Florida, the Choctaw allies of the French, and the Tuscaroras, trading partners of the Virginians. In addition to opening new lands for settlement, the brutal fighting resulted in the capture of many thousands of Indians who were sold into slavery. These wars continued into the first quarter of the eighteenth century.

THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION IN AMERICA

Dynastic change in England was another factor in the violence in North Amer-

ica. After Charles II died in 1685, his brother and successor, James II (reigned 1685-88), began a concerted effort to strengthen royal control over the colonies. The king's ministers believed colonial assemblies had grown too powerful and independent and were determined to rein them in. The New York assembly, con- sidered particularly troublesome, was abolished and all power placed in the hands of the colony's royal governor. In the other colonies governors challenged the authority of assemblies. The king annulled the charter governments of New Eng- land, New York, and New Jersey and combined them into a single supercolony known as the Dominion of New England. Edmund Andros, appointed royal gov- ernor, imposed Anglican forms of worship in Puritan areas and overthrew long- standing traditions of local autonomy.

James ruled England in the same imperious style. He was a practicing Catholic, and his appointment of Catholics to high positions of state added to ris- ing discontent and protest. The last straw was the birth of a royal son in 1688. Fearing the establishment of a Catholic dynasty, Parliamentary leaders deposed James and replaced him with his Protestant daughter Mary, who was married to William of Orange, hereditary head of state of the Netherlands. When the army refused to prevent William and Mary from landing in England, James fled to France. The relatively nonviolent "Glorious Revolution," as it came to be known, included a Bill of Rights, issued by the new monarchs at the insistence of Parlia- ment, in which they promised to respect traditional civil liberties, to summon and consult with Parliament annually, and to enforce and administer its legislation. These were significant concessions with profound implications for the future of English politics. In essence, England had become a "constitutional monarchy."

In North America, news of the Glorious Revolution sparked a series of colo- nial rebellions against the authorities set in place by King James. In the spring of 1689, Governor Andros was attacked by a Boston mob. He escaped their wrath but was arrested and deported. The Boston uprising inspired another in New York led by merchant Jacob Leisler that included many prominent Dutch residents. They seized control of the city and called for the formation of a new legislature. In Maryland, rumors of a Catholic plot led to the overthrow of the proprietary rule of the Calvert family by an insurgent group calling itself the Protestant Association.

The new regime in London carefully measured its response to these upris- ings. When Jacob Leisler attempted to prevent the landing of the king's troops in New York, he was arrested, tried, and executed. But William and Mary also con- sented to the breakup of the Dominion of New England and the termination of proprietary rule in Maryland. All the affected colonies quickly revived their assemblies and returned to their tradition of self-government. The monarchs strengthened royal authority, however, by decreeing that henceforth Massachu- setts, New York, and Maryland would be royal colonies.

PLANTING COLONIES IN NORT H AMERICA, 1588-17o i CHAPTER 3 lb 67

CHRO NOLOGY

1598 Juan de Ofiate leads Spanish into New Mexico 1675 King Philip's War

1607 English found Jamestown Bacon's Rebellion

1608 French found Quebec 1680 Pueblo Revolt

1609 Spanish found Santa Fe 1681-82 Robert Sieur de La Salle explores the Misissippi

1620 Pilgrim emigration The Glorious Revolution 1688

1622 Indian uprising in Virginia 1689 King William's War

1625 Jesuit missionaries arrive in New France 1696 Spanish reconquest of the Pueblos completed

1629

1637

Puritans begin settlement of Massachusetts Bay 1701 English impose royal governments on all colonies but Massachusetts, Connecticut, and

Pequot War Pennsylvania

1649 Charles I executed

1660 Stuart monarchy restored Charles II becomes king

KING WILLIAM'S WAR

The year 1689 also marked the beginning of nearly seventy-five years of armed con- flict between English and French forces for control of the North American inte- rior. The competition in the colonies was part of a larger conflict between England and France over the European balance of power. Armed conflict in what is known as the War of the Grand Alliance began in Europe in 1688 and spread to the

colonies, where it was known as King William's War (for the new king of England). The inconclusive war ended in 1697 with an equally inconclusive peace. War between England and France would resume only five years later.

The persistent violence of the last quarter of the seventeenth century greatly concerned English authorities, who began to fear the loss of their North Ameri- can possessions by outside attack or internal disorder. In 1701 the English Board of Trade converted the remaining charter and proprietary colonies into royal ones. Eventually William Penn succeeded in regaining private control of Pennsyl- vania, and Rhode Island and Connecticut won reinstatement of their charter gov- ernments. But the most lasting result of this quarter-century of turmoil was the tightening of English control over its North American colonies.

CLUSION

A t the beginning of the seventeenth century, the European presence north of Mexico was extremely limited: Spanish bases in Florida, a few Francis-can missions among the Pueblos, and fishermen along the North At- tic coast. By 1700 the human landscape of the Southwest, the South, and the

Northeast had been transformed. More than a quarter million migrants from the Old World had come to North America, the great majority of them to the English colonies. Indian societies had been disrupted, depopulated, and in some cases destroyed. The violence that flared during the last quarter of the seventeenth cen- tury was a measure of the cost of empire. Indian people resisted colonial rule in New Mexico, New England, and the Chesapeake.

CON

King William's War The first of a series of colonial struggles between England and France, these conflicts occur principally on the frontiers of northern New England and New York between 1689 and 1697.

68 44110 CHAPTER 3 PLANTING COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA, 1588-1701

Like King Philip's War and Bacon's Rebellion, the Pueblo Revolt was an

episode of great violence and destruction. Yet it resulted in a long period of ac-

commodation between the Pueblos and the Spanish colonists. The English colonists,

however, took a different lesson from the violent conflicts in their colonies. They

renewed their commitment to establishing communities of exclusion with omi-

nous implications for the future of relations between colonists and natives.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Using examples drawn from this chapter, discuss the differences between

colonizing "frontiers of inclusion" and "exclusion."

2. What factors turned England's Chesapeake colony of Virginia from stark

failure to brilliant success?

3. Discuss the role of religious dissent in the founding of the first New Eng-

land colonies and in stimulating the creation of others.

4. Compare and contrast William Penn's policy with respect to Indian tribes

with the policies of other English settlers, in the Chesapeake and New

England, and with the policies of the Spanish, the French, and the Dutch.

5. What were the principal causes of colonial violence and warfare of the late

seventeenth century?

KEY TERMS

myhistcylab Flashcard Review

Beaver Wars (p. 52)

Coureurs de Bois (p. 50)

Covenant Chain (p. 64)

Culpeper's Rebellion (p. 65)

Frame of Government (p. 63)

House of Burgesses (p. 55)

Indentured Servants (p. 55)

King Philip's War (p. 64)

King William's War (p. 67)

Massachusetts Bay Company (p. 58)

Mayflower Compact (p. 57)

Pequot War (p. 63)

Pilgrims (p. 57)

Powhatan Confederacy (p. 52)

Proprietary colony (p. 62)

Puritans (p. 56)

Puritanism (p. 56)

Quakers (p. 62)

Separatists (p. 57)

Virginia Company (p. 52)