PROF

Our lord and king it is true that the strange people have

come to the shores of the great sea . . .

—Miguel Leon-Portilla

• , s

„ • 4 I , A

' 1 $ • utt - ••••

•••

11

• '11 • •

r '

fignItt!pr,

ir/

N¶ 11P4.-1

The French, under the command of Jean Ribault, discover the River of May (St Johns River) in

Florida on 1 May 1562: colored engraving, 1591, by Theodor de Bry after a now lost drawing by

Jacques Le Moyne de Morgues. The Granger Collection.

2 WHEN WORLDS COLLIDE

1492-1590

HOW D I D social change in Europe contribute to European

expansion overseas?

WHAT FACTORS contributed to the defeat of the

Aztecs and Incas by European forces?

WHAT IMPORTANT

differences were there between Spanish,

English, and French patterns of colonization?

26 CHAPTER 2 WHEN WORLDS COLLIDE, 1492-1590

AMERICAN COMMUNIT The English at Roanoke

ES

IN LATE AUGUST 1590 GOVERNOR JOHN WHITE RETURNED TO

Roanoke Island, the first English community established in America. He had left three years before, sailing home to appeal for additional support. He was extremely anxious about the fate of the colonists, including his daughter, son-in-law, and grand- daughter Virginia Dare, the first English child born in the New World. Rowing ashore, he found the colonists' houses "taken down," their possessions "spoiled and scattered about." Looking around for some sign of hope, White noticed a word carved on a nearby tree trunk: "CROATOAN," the name of a friendly Indian village some fifty miles south. White had left instructions that in the event of trouble the colonists were to leave the sign of a cross, and not finding one he reassured himself that his people awaited him at Croatoan. He returned to his vessel, anxious to

rescue them. In 1584 Sir Walter Raleigh sponsored a small group of

adventurers who first landed on the island the Indians called Roanoke. The men found the coastal region densely popu- lated by a "very handsome and goodly people" and were "entertained with all love and kindness" by a local chief named Wingina. To Wingina, the English were potential allies in his struggle to extend authority over more vil- lages, and he granted the men permission to plan a large English settlement. He even sent two of his leading men, Manteo and Wanchese, back to England to help pre- pare the enterprise.

When the Englishmen returned in 1585, the two Indians offered Wingina con- flicting reports. Manteo argued that English technology made these men powerful allies. But Wanchese told of the disturbing inequalities he had seen among the English and warned his chief of the potential bru- tality of these men. He rightly suspected their intentions, for Raleigh's plans were based on the expectation of exploiting the Indians. Raleigh hoped for profits from a lucrative trade in furs, a flourishing plantation agriculture, or the possibility of gold and silver mines. In each case the Indians were to supply the labor.

After building a rough fort on the island, the English requested supplies from Wingina. With the harvest in the stor- age pits, fish running in the streams, and fat game in the woods, the chief did the hospitable thing. But as fall turned to winter and the stores diminished, he grew weary of their persistent

demands. In the spring Wingina ran out of patience. Before the Indians could act, however, the Englishmen caught wind of the rising hostility and in a surprise attack in May 1586 they killed several leaders, including Wingina. Leaving his head on a stake, they fled back to England.

John White and Thomas Harriot, who had spent their time exploring the physical and human world of the coast and recording their findings in notes and sketches, were appalled by the turn of events. White proposed a new plan for a colony of genuine settlers, families who would attempt to live in harmony with the natives.

In 1587, with Raleigh's financial support, John White returned to Virginia as governor of a new colony of 117 men, women, and children. They were supposed to land on Chesa- peake Bay after checking on the situation at Roanoke. But the captain, eager to get on with the profitable activity of plundering Spanish shipping, insisted on dropping the colonists there. White found himself among Indians who had already been com- pletely alienated. Within a month, one of the colonists had been shot full of arrows. White's counterattack only increased the

Indians' resolve to expel the intruders. The colonists begged White to sail home in their only seaworthy

vessel to ask Raleigh for additional support. He left reluctantly, never to return.

Blinded by their desire for immediate rewards, the colonists wasted the opportu- nity presented by the natives' initial wel-

come. But the Roanoke story also says something about the importance of commu-

nity in the first attempts at colonization. Bits of evidence suggest that the so-called lost colonists lived

out the rest of their lives as residents of Indian villages. Virginia Dare and other English children may have been adopted by Indian families, grown up and taken Indian spouses, in the process creating the first mixed community of English and Indi- ans in North America.

European colonists came to the Americas for a variety of reasons, but high on their list of priorities were plunder and profit. The invasion of America often included terrible violence, as well as frequent possibilities for accommodation and coopera- tion between natives and newcomers. The invasion also intro- duced mortal epidemic diseases that devastated native communities. The encounter of communities at Roanoke was, in numerous ways, a template for New World colonization.

HOW DID social change in

Europe contribute to European

expansion overseas?

myhistchlab Review Summary

IMAGE KEY for pages 24-25

a. An illustration of a banana blossom. b. The French, under the command of

Jean Ribault, discover St Johns River in Florida on May 1, 1562.

c. Pyramid of Kukulcan at Chichen ltza.

d. Peter Minuet purchases Manhattan

island from the local Native

Americans. e. Aztec Indians, with smallpox

contracted from the Spaniards, ministered to by a medicine man.

1. John White finding no trace of the colony of Roanoke on his return to

Virginia in 1590.

QUICK REVIEW

European Society • European states were hierarchical.

• Most Europeans were peasant farmers.

• European society was patriarchal.

WHEN WORLDS COLLIDE, I492-1590 CHAPTER 2 4 27 01a.

THE EXPANSION OF EUROPE

rirhe connection between Europe and America established by Columbus' 1492 voyage had earthshaking consequences. Within a generation, the exchanges of peoples, crops, animals, and germs had transformed the world. The key to understanding these remarkable events is the transformation of Europe during the several centuries preceding the voyage of Columbus.

WESTERN EUROPE BEFORE COLUMBUS

Western Europe was an agricultural society: Most Europeans lived in family house- holds clustered in farming villages. Farming and raising livestock had been prac- ticed in Europe for thousands of years, but during the late Middle Ages there were great advances in technology. Water mills, iron plows, improved devices for harnessing ox and horse power, and systems of crop rotation greatly increased productivity. From the eleventh to the fourteenth centuries the quantity of land under cultivation in western Europe more than doubled. During the same period the population nearly tripled.

Europe was divided into hundreds of small territories, each ruled by a family of lords that held a monopoly of wealth and power. Lords commanded labor service from peasants and tribute in the form of crops. They were the main beneficiaries of medieval economic expansion, accumulating great estates and building imposing

castles. Western Europe was officially Christian, united under the authority of the

Roman Catholic Church, whose complex organization spanned thousands of local communities with a hierarchy that extended from parish priests to the pope in Rome. The Catholic Church was one of the most powerful landowners in Europe. It insisted on its dogmas and actively persecuted heretics, nonbelievers, and devo- tees of older "pagan" religions. The Church provided legitimacy for the relationship of lord and peasant, counseling the poor and downtrodden to place their hopes in

heavenly rewards. For the great majority of Europeans, living conditions were harsh. Most rural

people survived on bread and porridge, supplemented with seasonal vegetables and an occasional piece of meat or fish. Infectious diseases abounded and famines periodically ravaged the countryside. In the fourteenth century, for example, a series of crop failures resulted in widespread starvation and death. This episode prepared the way for the so-called Black Death, a widespread epidemic of bubonic plague that swept in from Asia and wiped out a third of Europe's population between

1347 and 1353. Strengthened by the technological developments of the Middle Ages,

Europe's agricultural economy quickly recovered. By 1500 the population had

rebounded to its former high of 65 million.

THE MERCHANT CLASS AND THE RENAISSANCE

The economic growth of the late Middle Ages was accompanied by the expansion of commerce. Commercial expansion stimulated the growth of markets and towns. The heart of this dynamic European commercialism lay in the city-states of Italy.

During the late Middle Ages, the cities of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa launched armed commercial fleets that seized control of Mediterranean trade. The mer- chants of these cities became the principal outfitters of the Crusades, a series of great military expeditions promoted by the Catholic Church to recover Palestine from

A French peasant labors in the field before a spectacular castle in a page taken from the illuminated manuscript Tres Riches Heures,

made in the fifteenth century for the duc de Berry. In 1580 the

essayist Montaigne talked with several American Indians at the

French court who "noticed among us some men gorged to the full

with things of every sort while their other halves were beggars at

their doors, emaciated with hunger and poverty" and "found it strange that these poverty-stricken halves should suffer such injus- tice, and that they did not take the others by the throat or set fire

to their houses."

48 CHAPTER 4 WHEN WORLDS COLLIDE, 14g2-15go

the Muslims. With the conquest of Jerusalem at the end of the

eleventh century, the silk and spice trades of Asia were deliv- ered into the hands of Italian merchants. Asian civilization also supplied a number of technical innovations that further pro- pelled European economic growth.

Contact with Muslim civilization provided access to impor- tant ancient texts, long lost in Europe but preserved in the great libraries of Alexandria (Egypt) and Baghdad (Iraq). The revived interest in classical antiquity triggered a period of intel- lectual and artistic flowering from the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries that later generations called the Renaissance.

The Renaissance celebrated human possibility. "The nature of all other beings is limited," wrote the Italian intel- lectual Pico della Mirandola in 1486; "but you, constrained by no limits, in accordance with your own free will, shall ordain for yourself the limits of your nature." This human-centered perspective was part of what became known as humanism, in which human life on earth took precedence over the afterlife of the soul. This outlook was a critical component of the inquis- itive and acquisitive spirit that motivated the exploration of the Americas.

THE NEW MONARCHIES

The Renaissance began amid the ruins of the plague. Famine and disease led to violence, as groups battled for their share of a shrinking economy. A series of peasant rebellions culminated in the great English Peasants' Revolt of 1381. Warfare among the nobility weakened and greatly reduced the power of the landed classes, and the Catholic Church was seriously destabi- lized by an internal struggle between French and Italian factions.

It was during this period of social and political chaos that the monarchs of western Europe began to replace the lords as the new centers of power. They built their legitimacy by promising internal order as they unified their realms (see Map 2.1). In many cases, the new monarchs found support among the increasingly wealthy merchants, who in return sought lucrative royal con- tracts and trading monopolies. This alliance between com- merce and political power was another important development that prepared the way for European expansion.

Renaissance The intellectual and artistic flowering in Europe during the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries sparked by a revival of interest in classical antiquity.

THE PORTUGUESE VOYAGES

Portugal, a narrow land along the western coast of the Iberian Peninsula with a long tradition of seafaring, became the first of the new Renaissance kingdoms to send out explorers on voyages to distant lands. Lisbon, the principal port on the sea route between the Mediterranean and northwestern Europe, was a bustling, cosmopolitan city with large enclaves of Italian merchants. By 1385 the local mer- chant community had grown powerful enough to place Joao I, their favorite, on the throne. Joao had ambitious plans to establish a Portuguese trading empire.

A central figure in this development was the king's son, Prince Henry, known to later generations as "the Navigator." Prince Henry established an academy of

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

POLAND

UNITED

IRELAND NETHERLANDS

• ENGLAND Dublin Amsterdam.

acne AND GERMAN

(s0 AND OTHER Bristol • • STATES

• London (Holy Roman Empire) Plymouth A.

• ‘t. Normandy •

Vienna j Paris 2

SWITZ. 2-

• Venice

Genoa.

Pisa °

• Florence FRANCE

WHEN WORLDS COLLIDE, 1492-1590 CHAPTER 2 .44\ 29

MAP EXPLORATION To explore an interactive version of this map, go to http://www.prenhall.com/faraghertic/map2.1

UNITED SCANDINAVIA

SCOTLAND North Sea

Rome ITALIAN

Aragon STATES

Madrid • Castile

SPAIN

z Lisbon 0-

• ce a.

Palos.

m e d e net n ca n

GRANADA

MAP 2.1 Western Europe in the Fifteenth Century By the middle of the century, the monarchs of western Eu- rope had begun to build royal bureaucracies and standing armies and navies. These states spon-

sored the voyages that inaugurated the era of European colonization.

WHY WERE some European states better positioned for colonizing than others?

eminent geographers, instrument makers, shipbuilders, and seamen at his insti- tute on the southwestern tip of Portugal at Sagres Point. By the mid-fifteenth cen- tury, as a result of their efforts, most educated Europeans knew the earth was round. Studying the seafaring traditions of Asia and the Muslim world, the learned men of Sagres Point incorporated them into the design of a new ship called the

caravel, faster and better-handling than any ship previously known in Europe. They promoted the use of Arab instruments for astronomical calculation. With such innovations, Europeans became the masters of the world's seas, a supremacy that would continue until the twentieth century.

The Portuguese explored the Atlantic coast of northwestern Africa for direct access to the lucrative gold and slave trades of that continent. The Portuguese

eventually built strategic trading forts along the coasts of Africa, India, Indonesia, and China, the first and longest-lasting outposts of European world colonization, and gained control of much of the Asian spice trade. Most important for the his- tory of the Americas, the Portuguese established the Atlantic slave trade. (For a

full discussion of slavery, see Chapter 4.)

QUICK REVIEW

Portuguese Explorations

♦ Prince Henry the Navigator played a key role in sponsoring exploration.

• Technological innovations made longer sea voyages possible.

*The Portuguese explored the Atlantic coast of Africa seeking direct access to gold and slaves.

30

CHAPTER 2 WHEN WORLDS COLLIDE, 1492-1590

COLUMBUS REACHES THE AMERICAS

In 1476, Christopher Columbus, a young Genoan sailor, joined

his brother in Lisbon, where he became a seafaring merchant

for Italian traders. He developed the simple idea of opening

a new route to the Indies by sailing west across the Atlantic

Ocean, known at that time as the "Western Sea." Such a ven-

ture would require royal backing, but when he approached

the various monarchs of Europe with his idea, their advisers

laughed at his geographic ignorance, pointing out that his

calculation of the distance to Asia was much too short. They

were right, Columbus was wrong. But it turned out to be an

error of monumental good fortune.

Columbus finally sold his plan to the monarchs of Castile

and Aragon, Isabel and Ferdinand. These two had just com-

pleted the Reconquista, a centuries-long struggle between

Catholics and Muslims that ended Muslim rule in Spain. The

Catholic monarchs of Spain were eager for new lands to con-

quer, and observing the successful Portuguese push to the

south along the west coast of Africa, they became interested in

opening lucrative trade routes of their own to the Indies.

Columbus' mission was more than commercial. One of

his prime goals was to "occupy" the islands he found, establish-

ing title for Spain by the right of occupancy. Like the adven-

turers who later established the first English colony at Roanoke,

Columbus' objectives were starkly imperial.

Columbus' three vessels reached the Bahamas in Octo-

ber 1492. But Columbus believed he was in the Indies, some-

where near the Asian mainland. He explored the northern

The astrolabe, an instrument used for determining the precise position of

heavenly bodies, was introduced into

early modern Europe by the Arabs. This is one of the earliest examples, an intri- cately engraved brass astrolabe pro-

duced by a master craftsman in Syria in

the thirteenth century.

Cl National Maritime Museum Picture Library, London,

England. Neg. #E5555-3.

1-2

0 Christopher Columbus, Letter to Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain (1494)

Reconquista The long struggle (ending in 1492) during which

Spanish Christians reconquered the

Iberian peninsula from Muslim

occupiers.

island coasts of Cuba and Hispaniola before heading home,

fortuitously catching the westerly winds that blow from the American coast toward

Europe north of the tropics.

Leading Columbus' triumphal procession to the royal court were half a dozen

Taino Indians, taken by force from their homes, and dressed for the occasion in

bright feathers with ornaments of gold. "Should your majesties command it," Colum-

bus told the monarchs, "all the inhabitants could be made slaves." Moreover, he

reported, "there are many spices and great mines of gold and of other metals." In fact,

none of the Eastern spices familiar to Europeans grew in the Caribbean and there

were only small quantities of alluvial gold in the riverbeds of the islands. But the sight

of the gold ornaments worn by the Tainos infected Columbus with gold fever. He

reported that he had left a small force behind in a rough fort on the northern coast

of Hispaniola to explore for gold—the first European foothold in the Americas.

The enthusiastic monarchs financed a return convoy of seventeen vessels

and 1,500 men that sailed in late 1493 to begin the systematic colonization of the

islands. But returning to Hispaniola, Columbus found his fort in ruins and his

men all killed by the Tainos. Columbus directed his men to attack and destroy

the nearby Taino villages, enslaving the inhabitants and demanding tribute in gold.

Columbus' voyages were a disaster for the Tainos. The combined effects of

warfare, famine, and demoralization resulted in the collapse of their society. By

the 1520s they had been effectively eliminated as a people. As the native popula-

tion fell, the colony plunged into depression. As early as 1500 the Spanish mon-

archs had grown so dissatisfied that they ordered Columbus arrested and sent

back to Spain in irons.

WHEN WORLDS COLLIDE, 1492-1590 CHAPTER 2 AK . 31

Columbus bids farewell to the monarchs

Isabel and Ferdinand at the port of

Palos in August 1492, illustrated in a

copperplate engraving published in

1594 by Theodore de Bry of Frankfort.

While armed men are ferried out to the

vessels, three accountants in a room

directly above the monarchs count out

the gold to fund the journey.

Columbus made two additional voyages to the Caribbean, both characterized by the same obsessive searching for gold and violent raiding for slaves. He died in Spain in 1506, still convinced he had opened a new way to Asia. This belief per- sisted among many Europeans well into the sixteenth century.

THE SPANISH IN THE AMERICAS

T he Spanish had created a huge and wealthy empire in the Americas. In theory, all law and policy for the empire came from Spain; in practice,

the isolation of the settlements led to a good deal of local autonomy. The Spanish created a caste system, in which a small minority of settlers and their offspring controlled the lives and labor of millions of Indian and African work- ers. But it was also a society in which colonists, Indians, and Africans mixed to form a new people.

THE INVASION OF AMERICA

The first stages of the Spanish invasion of America included frightful violence. Columbus and his successors established an institution known as the encomienda, in which Indians were compelled to labor in the service of Spanish lords. Faced with labor shortages, slavers raided the Bahamas and soon depopulated them of native people. The depletion of gold on Hispaniola led to the invasion of the islands of Puerto Rico and Jamaica in 1508, then Cuba in 1511. Meanwhile, rumors

of wealthy native societies to the west led to scores of probing expeditions (see Map 2.2). The Spanish invasion of Central America began in 1511, and two years later Vasco Nunez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama to the Pacific Ocean. In 1517, Spaniards landed on the coast of Mexico, and within a year they made con-

tact with the Aztec empire.

..111.111111 WHAT FACTORS contributed to

the defeat of the Aztecs and Incas

by European forces?

myhistdrylab Review Summary

myhist4ylab Exploring America: Exploitation of the Americas

PACIFIC

OCEAN ATLANTIC

OCEAN

Caribbenri Sra

QUICK REVIEW

Cortes and the Aztecs

• Hernain Cortes arrived in Mexico in 1519.

• Cortes exploited resentment toward the Aztecs to overthrow their empire.

• Smallpox outbreaks undermined the Aztecs' ability to resist the Spanish.

1-12

44 An Aztec Remembers the Conquest of Mexico a Quarter Century Afterwards (1550)

32 A lik CHAPTER 2 WHEN WORLDS COLLIDE, 1492-1590

it. MAP EXPLORATION To explore an interactive version of this map, go to http://www.prenhall.com/faraghertIcimap 2 . 2

MAP 2.2 The Invasion of America In the sixteenth century, the Spanish first invaded the Caribbean and used it to stage their successive wars of conquest in North and South America. In the seventeenth century, the

French, English, and Dutch invaded the Atlantic coast. The Russians, sailing across the northern Pacific,

mounted the last of the colonial invasions in the eighteenth century.

WHAT IMPORTANT differences were there among the Spanish, French, and English approaches to conquest and settlement of the Americas?

Hernan Cortes, a veteran of the conquest of Cuba, landed on the Mexican coast in 1519 with armed troops. Within two years he overthrew the Aztec empire, a spec- tacular military accomplishment that has no parallel in the annals of conquest. Cortes skillfully exploited the resentment of the many peoples who lived under Aztec domination, forging Spanish—Indian alliances that became a model for the sub- sequent European colonization of the Americas. The Aztecs were militarily power- ful. They succeeded in driving the Spaniards from Tenochtitlan, then put up a bitter and prolonged defense when Cortes returned with tens of thousands of Indian allies to besiege the capital. In the meantime, however, the Aztecs suffered a devastating epidemic of smallpox that killed thousands and undermined their ability to resist. In the aftermath of conquest, the Spanish plundered Aztec society, providing the Catholic monarchs with wealth beyond their wildest imagining.

THE DESTRUCTION OF THE INDIES

The Indian peoples of the Americas resisted Spanish conquest with determination, but most proved a poor match for mounted warriors with steel swords. The record of the conquest includes many brave Indian leaders and thousands of martyrs.

Res fume quondam pray's, it Gloria Itunma °this fubicetus Cgfaris liniscrio. •

Bic longs mast, anus nuns 0 rbis Eons, Es Nouus,a4 aka paeastur Aufpie4s.

ISV:17" If

Quilfbet punelus map= combust leucas donde sins midia,ia q duo magni puneti contincnt vtgintigvincp lcucas, Manes sag Icuca Spasm's /calks miliaria ha gvamnes punsli qui bic cofiais

s

z4

WHEN WORLDS COLLIDE, 1492-1590 CHAPTER 2

33

This map of Tenochtitlan, published in 1524 and attributed to the celebrated engraver Albrecht DOrer, shows

the city before its destruction, with the principal Aztec temples in the main square, causeways connecting the city to the mainland, and an acqueduct supplying fresh water. The information on this map must have come from Aztec sources, as did much of the intelligence Cortes relied on for the Spanish conquest.

Some Europeans protested the horrors of the conquest. In 1511 the Catholic priest Antonio de Montesinos condemned the violence in a sermon delivered to colonists on Hispaniola. In the congregation was Bartolome de las Casas, a man who had participated in the plunder of Cuba. Renouncing his own wealth, las Casas entered the priesthood and dedicated his life to the protection of the Indians. Long before the world recognized the concept of universal human rights, las Casas was proclaiming that "the entire human race is one," earning him a reputation as one of the towering moral figures in the early history of the Americas.

In his brilliant history of the conquest, The Destruction of the Indies (1542), las Casas blamed the Spanish for cruelties resulting in millions of Indian deaths—in effect he accused them of genocide. Translated into several languages and widely circulated throughout Europe, las Casas's book was cynically used by other Euro- pean colonial powers to condemn Spain, thereby covering up their own dismal colo- nial practices.

1-13 Bartolome de Las Casas, The Devastation of the Indies (1565)

THE VIRGIN SOIL EPIDEMICS

Las Casas was incorrect, however, in attributing most of these Indian deaths to

warfare. The primary cause of the drastic reduction in native populations was epi-

demic disease—influenza, plague, smallpox, measles, typhus. Although preconquest America was by no means disease free, there were no diseases of epidemic poten- tial. Indian peoples lacked the antibodies necessary to protect them from

34 AN CHAPTER 2 WHEN WORLDS COLLIDE, 1492— i 590 This drawing of victims of the smallpox epidemic that struck the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan in 1520 is taken from the Florentine Codex, a postconquest history written and illustrated by Aztec scribes. "There came amongst us a great sick- ness, a general plague," reads the account, "killing vast numbers of peo-

ple. It covered many all over with sores:

on the face, on the head, on the chest,

DelYNNIR. The sores were so terri- ble that the victims could not lie face down, nor on their backs, nor move from one side to the other. And when they tried to move even a little, they cried out in agony."

European germs and viruses. Such devastating outbreaks of disease, striking for the first time against a completely unprotected population, are known as "virgin soil epidemics." Smallpox made its first appearance in America in 1518, explod- ing in an epidemic so virulent that, in the words of an early Spanish historian, "it left Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and Cuba desolated of Indians." The epi- demic hit Mexico in 1520, destroying the Aztecs and preparing the way for their conquest, then spreading along the Indian trade network. In 1524 it strategically weakened the Inca civilization of the Andes eight years before their empire was con- quered by Francisco Pizarro. Disease was the secret weapon of the Spanish, and it helps explain their extraordinary success in the conquest.

Warfare, famine, lower birthrates, and epidemic disease knocked the native population of the Americas into a downward spiral that was not reversed until the twentieth century (see Figure 2.1). By that time native population had fallen by more than 90 percent. It was the greatest demographic disaster in world history.

QUICK REVIEW

Causes of Indian Population Decline

► Disease ► Warfare ♦ Famine

► Declining birthrates

Total

Figure 2.1 North America's Indian and Colonial Popu- lations in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries The primary factor in the decimation of native peoples was epidemic disease, brought to the New World from the Old. In the eighteenth century, the colonial population overtook North America's Indian populations.

Historical Statistics of the United States (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1976), 8, 1168;

Russell Thornton, American Indian Holocaust and

Survival (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press,

1987), 32.

M ill

io ns

o f

In d

iv id

u a

ls

Colonial peoples

Indian peoples

pox and other diseases

EUROPE

NORTH maize, potatoes, to

AMERICA

sugar, rice

malaria , Yellow fever

ina\aria, Y ellowever

Tropic of Camel' aQ

Equator

cassava, manioc, cacao SOUTH

AMERICA

WHEN WORLDS COLLIDE, 1492-1590 CHAPTER 2 AN, 35 THE COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE

The passage of diseases between the Old and New Worlds was one part of the large- scale exchange of people, animals, plants, and goods—what the historian Alfred Crosby terms "the Columbian Exchange"—that marks the beginning of the mod- ern era of world history (see Map 2.3). The most obvious exchange was the vast influx into Europe of the precious metals plundered from the Aztec and Incan empires of the New World. Most of this golden booty was melted down, destroying forever thousands of priceless native artifacts. Silver from mines the Spanish discovered and operated with Indian labor in Mexico and Peru tripled the amount of silver coin cir- culating in Europe between 1500 and 1550, then tripled it again before 1600. The result of so much new coin in circulation was runaway inflation, which stimulated commerce and raised profits but lowered the standard of living for most people.

Of even greater long-term importance were the New World crops brought to Europe. Maize (Indian corn), the staff of life for most native North Americans, became a staple crop in Mediterranean countries, the dominant feed for livestock elsewhere in Europe, and the primary provision for the slave ships of Africa. Pota- toes provided the margin between famine and subsistence for the peasant peoples

of northern Europe and Ireland.

1-19 Jose de Acosta, The Columbian Exchange (1590)

Tropic of Capricorn

AUSTRALIA

sugar, rice

MAP 2.3 The Columbian Exchange Europeans voyaging between Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries began a vast intercontinental movement of plants, animals, and diseases that shaped the course of modern history.

THE COLUM It IAN EXCHANGE marked the beginning of the modern era of world history. What developments and events contributed to this? What were its advantages and disadvantages?

36 CHAPTER 2 WHEN WORLDS COLLIDE, 1492 - 1590

Although the Spanish failed to locate valuable spices such as black pepper or cloves in the New World, new tropical crops more than compensated. Tobacco, first introduced to Europe about 1550 as a cure for disease, was soon in wide use as a stim- ulant. American vanilla and chocolate both became highly valued. American cotton proved far superior to Asian varieties for the production of cheap textiles. Each of these native plants—along with tropical transplants from the Old World to Amer- ica, with sugar, rice, and coffee being the most important—supplied the basis for important new industries and markets that altered the course of world history.

Columbus introduced domesticated animals into Hispaniola and Cuba, and livestock were later transported to Mexico. The movement of Spanish settlement northward through Mexico was greatly aided by an advancing wave of livestock, for grazing animals did serious damage to native fields and forests. Horses, used by Spanish stockmen to tend their cattle, also spread northward. In the seven- teenth century, horses reached the Great Plains of North America, where they eventually transformed the lives of the nomadic hunting Indians (see Chapter 5).

1-3

0 Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, Indians of the Rio Grande (1528-1536)

THE SPANISH IN NORTH AMERICA

Ponce de Leon, governor of Puerto Rico, was the first Spanish conquistador to attempt to extend the Spanish conquest to North America (see Map 2.4). In search of slaves, he made his first landing on the mainland coast, which he named Florida, in 1513. Warriors from the powerful Indian chiefdoms there beat back this and several other attempts at invasion, and in 1521 succeeded in killing Ponce. Seven years later, another Spanish attempt to colonize Florida, under the command of Panfilo de Narviez, also ended in disaster. Most of Narvaez's men were lost in a shipwreck, but a small group of them survived. One of these castaways, Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, published an account of his adventures in which he repeated rumors of a North American empire known as Cfbola, with golden cities "larger than the city of Mexico."

Cabeza de Vaca's report inspired two great Spanish expeditions into North America. The first was mounted in Cuba by Hernan de Soto, a veteran of the conquest of Peru. Landing in Florida in 1539 with over 700 men, de Soto pushed hundreds of miles through the heavily populated South, commandeering food and slaves from the Mississippian towns in his path. But de Soto failed to locate another Aztec empire. Moving westward, his expedition was twice mauled by pow- erful native armies and reduced by half. When he reached the Mississippi, he was met by a great flotilla of 200 vessels said to have come down river from a great city to the west. The Spaniards crossed the river and pushed westward through present-day Arkansas, but failing to find the great city, returned to the Missis- sippi. There de Soto fell sick and died. Some 300 dispirited survivors eventually made it back to Mexico on rafts. The native peoples of the South had successfully turned back Spanish invasion. But de Soto had introduced epidemic disease, which over the next several years drastically depopulated and undermined the Mis- sissippian chiefdoms of the South.

In the same year of 1539, Spanish officials in Mexico launched a second attempt to conquer North America, this one aimed at the Southwest. Francisco Vasquez

de Coronado led 300 mounted men and infantry and 800 Indian porters north along well-marked Indian trading paths, passing through the settlements of Piman Indians near the present border of the United States and Mexico and finally reach- ing the Pueblo villages along the Rio Grande. Coronado sent out expeditions in all directions in search of the legendary golden cities of Cibola. He led his army as far north as the Great Plains, where they observed great herds of "shaggy cows"

Hudson's Bay

Gulf of Alaska

Gulf of

an Juan

Isthmus of Panama

PACIFIC OCEAN

—4— Spanish Voyages

—4— English Voyages

-4— French Voyages

INCA PIR

Labrada Sea

Gr e4, t L o ,

Missouri R.

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

Fort Caroline :St. Augustine

Gulf of Mexico

Havana n

eni u/a tiago A N de Cuba

Caribbean Sea

Q sP

WHEN WORLDS COLLIDE, 1492-1590 CHAPTER 2 Allitk 37

MAP 2.4 European Exploration, 1492-1591 By the mid-sixteenth century, Europeans had explored most of the Atlantic coast of North America and penetrated into the interior in the disastrous expeditions of de Soto and Coronado.

WHAT WERE the reasons behind the different experiences of the French, Spanish, and English explorations?

38 AK CHAPTER 2 WHEN WORLDS COLLIDE, 1492-1590

myhistc:ey lab Review Summary

(buffalo) and made contact with nomadic hunting peoples, but returned without gold. For the next fifty years Spain would lose all interest in the Southwest.

THE SPANISH NEW WORLD EMPIRE

A century after Columbus, some 250,000 European immigrants, most of them Spaniards, had settled in the Americas. Another 125,000 Africans had been forcibly resettled as slaves on the Spanish plantations of the Caribbean, as well as on the Portuguese plantations of Brazil.

Spanish women came to America as early as Columbus' second expedition, but over the course of the sixteenth century they made up only about 10 percent of the immigrants. Most male colonists married or cohabited with Indian or African women. Indians died by the thousands in the conquest, but Indian genes were passed on in mixed-ancestry people who quickly became the majority population in the mainland Spanish American empire.

Populated by Indians, Africans, Spanish colonists, and their hybrid descen- dants, the New World colonies of Spain made up one of the largest and most pow- erful empires in world history. In theory the empire operated as a highly centralized and bureaucratic system. But the Council of the Indies, the advisers of the Span- ish king who made all the laws and regulations for the empire, was located far away in Spain. What looked in the abstract like a centrally administered empire was in fact a fragmented collection of colonial regions that tolerated a great deal of local decision making.

NORTHERN EXPLORATIONS

AND ENCOUNTERS

hen the Spanish empire was at the height of its power in the sixteenth century, the merchants and monarchs of other European seafaring states began looking across the Atlantic for opportunities of their own

(see Map 2.4). France was first to sponsor expeditions to the New World in the early sixteenth century. The French first attempted to plant settlements on the coasts of Brazil and Florida, but Spanish opposition forced them to concentrate on the North Atlantic. England did not develop its own plans to colonize North America until the second half of the sixteenth century.

TRADE NOT CONQUEST: FISH AND FURS

Long before France and England made attempts to found colonies, however, Euro- pean fishermen were exploiting the coastal North American waters of the North Atlantic. The first European voyages of exploration in the North Atlantic used the talents of these experienced European sailors and fishermen. Giovanni Caboto (or John Cabot) reached Labrador in 1497, but the English did little to follow up on his voyage. In 1524, Giovanni da Verrazano, sailing for the French, explored the North American coast. Encouraged by his report, the French crown commissioned expe- rienced captain Jacques Carder to locate a "Northwest Passage" to the Indies. In a series of voyages undertaken in 1534, 1535, and 1541, Cartier failed to locate such a passage but became the first European to explore the St. Lawrence River, which led to the Great Lakes, and provided easy access to the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. Cartier's exploration established France's imperial claim to the lands of Canada and provided the French with an incomparable geographic advantage over other colonial powers.

WHAT IMPORTANT differences

were there between Spanish,

English, and French patterns of

colonization?

WHEN WORLDS COLLIDE, 1492-1590 CHAPTER 2 - 39

The French and other northern Europeans thus discovered the Indian peo- ple of the northern woodlands, and the Indians in turn discovered them. Contacts here were quite different than those of the tropics, based on commerce rather than conquest. The natives immediately appreciated the usefulness of textiles, glass, copper, and ironware. For his part, Cartier was interested in the fur coats of the Indians.

The fur trade would continue to play an important role in the Atlantic econ- omy for the next three centuries. The trade also had familiar negative conse- quences. European epidemic disease soon followed in the wake of the traders, and violent warfare broke out between tribes over access to hunting grounds. Moreover, as European-manufactured goods, such as metal knives, kettles, and firearms, became essential to their way of life, Indians grew dependent upon Euro- pean suppliers.

By the end of the sixteenth century over a thousand European ships were trading for furs each year along the northern Atlantic coast. The village of Tadous- sac on the St. Lawrence, where a wide bay offered Europeans safe anchorage, became the customary place for a late summer trading fair. Within a few years the French would attempt to monopolize the northern trade by planting colonies along the coast and on the St. Lawrence. The first French colonies in North Amer- ica, however, were planted farther south by a group of French Protestant religious dissenters known as the Huguenots.

THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION AND THE FIRST FRENCH COLONIES

The Protestant Reformation—the religious revolt against the Roman Catholic Church—began in 1517 when German priest Martin Luther publicized his dif- ferences with Rome. Luther declared that eternal salvation was a gift from God and not related to works or service to the Catholic Church. One of Luther's most prominent converts was Jean Chauvin (known to English speakers as John Calvin), a young theology student in Paris. In 1533, as the persecution of Protestants inten- sified, Calvin fled France, eventually taking up residence in Geneva, Switzerland, where civic leaders had renounced the Catholic Church and expelled the city's bishop. Working with those leaders, Calvin established a Protestant theocracy in Geneva. His systematic writings and teachings concerning theology, liturgy, rit-

ual, and church government proved highly influential among Protestants. His fol- lowers in France, known as Huguenots, largely came from the urban middle class but also included a portion of the nobility, those opposed to the central author- ity of the Catholic monarch. In 1560 the French crown successfully defeated a plot among powerful Huguenots to seize royal power, inaugurating nearly forty years of violent religious conflict in France.

The first French colonies developed as attempts to establish a religious refuge in the New World for Huguenots. In 1562 French naval officer Jean Ribault and a group of 150 Huguenots from Normandy landed on Parris Island, near present-day Beaufort, South Carolina, and began construction of a fort and crude mud huts. In 1564, Ribault and his followers established a second Huguenot colony, Fort Caro- line, on the St. Johns River of Florida, south of present-day Jacksonville.

The Spanish were alarmed by these moves. They had shown little interest themselves in colonizing Florida but worried about protecting their convoys, riding home to Spain on the offshore Gulf Stream, loaded with gold and silver. Not only was Fort Caroline manned by Frenchmen but also by Protestants— mortal enemies of the Catholic monarchs of Spain. In 1565 King Philip II of

Spain sent Don Pedro Menendez de Aviles, captain general of the Indies, to

1-4 Jacques Cartier, First Contact with the Indians (1534)

QUICK REVIEW

The Fur Trade

♦ Fur traders were critical to New France's success.

*New France ruled by royal appointees.

Courews de boil: independent fur traders living among the Indians.

Huguenots French Protestant religious dissenters who planted the

first French colonies in North

America.

Protestant Reformation Martin Luther's challenge to the Catholic

Church, initiated in 1517, calling

for a return to what he understood

to be the purer practices and beliefs

of the early church.

Protestants All European supporters of religious reform under

Charles V's Holy Roman Empire.

40 CHAPTER 2 WHEN WORLDS COLLIDE, 1492-1590

This watercolor of Jacques Le Moyne, painted in 1564, depicts the friendly relations between the Timucuas of coastal

Florida and the colonists of the short-lived French colony of Fort Caroline. The Timucuas hoped that the French would help defend them against the Spanish, who plundered the coast in pursuit of Indian slaves.

Jacques Le Moyne, "Rene de Loudonniere and Chief Athore," 1564. Gouache and metallic pigments on vellum. Print Collection, The New York Public Library, New

York. The New York Public Library/Art Resource, NY.

1-8

fa Pedro Menendez de Aviles, The Founding of St. Augustine (1565)

crush the Huguenots, which he did. To prevent further French incursions the Spanish built massive Castillo San Marcos (still standing) and established a gar- rison at St. Augustine, which has the distinction of being the oldest continu- ously occupied European city in North America.

SOCIAL CHANGE IN SIXTEENTH-CENTURY ENGLAND

The English movement across the Atlantic, like the French, was tied to social change at home. Perhaps most important were changes in the economy. As prices for goods rose steeply—the result of New World inflation—English landlords, their rents fixed by custom, sought ways to increase their incomes. Seeking profits in the woolen trade, many converted the common pasturage used by tenants into grazing land for sheep, dislocating large numbers of farmers.

Sixteenth-century England also became deeply involved in the Protestant Reformation. At first King Henry VIII of England (reigned 1509-47) supported the Catholic Church and opposed the Protestants. But when the pope refused to grant Henry an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabel of Spain, the king took up the cause of reform. In 1534, he declared himself head of a separate Church of England. He later took over the English estates of the Catholic Church and utilized their revenues in the construction of a power- ful English state system, including a standing army and navy. Working through Par- liament, Henry carefully enlisted the support of the merchants and landed gentry for his program. By 1547, when Henry died, he had forged a solid alliance between

the English monarchy and the wealthy merchant class.

IN WHAT ways does this image document John White's powers of observation?

1

A Watercolor from the First Algonquian-English Encounter

S ome of the first accurate images of the native inhabitants of North America

were produced by the artist John White during his stay in 1685 at the first Eng-

lish colony in North America, at Roanoke Island on North Carolina's Outer Banks.

Two years later White would become gover-

nor of the famous "Lost Colony." This

image of an Indian mother and daughter

illustrates the care White brought to the

task of recording as fully as possible the

Indians' way of life. The woman wears

an apron-skirt of fringed deerskin, its

borders edged with white beads, and a

woven beadwork necklace. The body

decorations on her face and upper arms

are tattooed. One of her arms rests in a

sling, an unusual posture, something

quite unique to this culture. In the

other hand she holds an empty gourd

container for carrying water. The little

girl holds an English wooden doll, a gift

from White, and it seems to greatly

please her. In the written account that

accompanied White's images, Thomas

Harriot wrote that all the Indian girls

"are greatly delighted with puppetts and

babes which were brought out of Eng-

land" as gifts of exchange. Historic

images bear close observation, for it is

often small details like this one that are

most revealing. ■

4 1

4 2

CHAPTER 2 WHEN WORLDS COLLIDE, 1492-1590

The Armada Portrait of Elizabeth I, paint- ed by an unknown artist in 1648. The

queen places her hand on the globe,

symbolizing the rising seapower of

England. Through the open windows, we see the battle against the Spanish Armada in 1588 and the destruction of the Spanish ships in a providential

storm, interpreted by the queen as an

act of divine intervention.

"Elizabeth I", Armada portrait, c. 1588 (oil on panel)

by English School (C16th) Private Collection/The

Bridgeman Art Library, London/New York.

Henry was succeeded by his young and sickly son Edward VI (reigned 1547-53), who soon died. Next in succession was Edward's Catholic half-sister Mary (reigned 1553-58), who persecuted and martyred hundreds of English Protestants and married Philip II of Spain, self-declared defender of the Catholic faith. With Mary's premature death, however, her Protestant half-sister Elizabeth I (reigned 1558-1603) reversed course, tolerating a variety of perspectives within the English church. Spain's monarch, Mary's widower, head of the most powerful empire in the world, vowed to overthrow Elizabeth.

Fearing Spanish subversion on the neighboring Catholic island of Ireland, Elizabeth urged enterprising supporters such as Walter Raleigh and his half-brother Humphrey Gilbert to subdue the Irish Catholics and settle homeless English fam- ilies on their land. During the 1560s, Raleigh, Humphrey, and many other com- manders invaded the island and viciously attacked the Irish, forcing them to retreat beyond a frontier line of English settlement along the coast. The English consid- ered the Irish an inferior race, and the notion that civilized people could not mix with such "savages" was an assumption English colonists would carry with them to the Americas.

EARLY ENGLISH EFFORTS IN THE AMERICAS

England's first ventures in the New World were made against the backdrop of its conflict with Spain. In 1562, John Hawkins violated Spanish regulations by trans- porting a load of African slaves to the Caribbean, bringing back valuable tropical goods. (For a full discussion of the slave trade, see Chapter 4.) The Spanish attacked Hawkins on another of his voyages in 1567, an event English privateers such as Fran- cis Drake used as an excuse for launching a series of devastating and lucrative raids against Spanish New World ports and fleets.

A consensus soon developed among Elizabeth's closest advisers that the time had come to enter the competition for American colonies, and Elizabeth autho-

QUICK REVIEW

Religion and Monarchy

♦ Henry VIII (r. 1509-1547): Broke with the Catholic Church.

• Edward W (r. 1547-1553): Strong

Protestant.

♦ Mary I (r. 1558-1603): Attempted to return England to Catholicism.

• Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603): Sought to end religious turmoil by establishing moderate Protestantism.

WHEN WORLDS COLLIDE, 1492-1590 CHAPTER 2 Ack. 43

CHRONOLOGY

1000 Norse settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows

1347-53 Black Death in Europe

1381 English Peasants' Revolt

1488 Bartolomeu Dias sails around the African continent

1492 Christopher Columbus first arrives in the Caribbean

1494 - Treaty of Tordesillas

1497 John Cabot explores Newfoundland

1500 High point of the Renaissance

1508 Spanish invade Puerto Rico

1513 Juan Ponce de Le6n lands in Florida

1514 Bartolome de las Casas begins preaching against the conquest

1516 Smallpox introduced to the New World

1517 Martin Luther breaks with the Roman Catholic Church

1519 Hernan Cortes lands in Mexico

1534 Jacques Cartier first explores the St. Lawrence River

1539-40 Hernan de Soto and Francisco Vasquez de Coronado expeditions

1550 Tobacco introduced to Europe

1552 Bartolome de las Casas's Destruction of the Indies published

1558 Elizabeth I of England begins her reign

1562 Huguenot colony planted along the mid- Atlantic coast

1565 St. Augustine founded

1583 Humphrey Gilbert attempts to plant a colony in Newfoundland

1584-87 Walter Raleigh's colony on Roanoke Island

1588 English defeat the Spanish Armada

1590 John White returns to find Roanoke colony abandoned

rized several private attempts at exploration and colonization. In the late 1570s, Martin Frobisher conducted three voyages of exploration in the North Atlantic. Next Gilbert and Raleigh, fresh from the Irish wars, planned the first true colo- nizing ventures. In 1583 Gilbert sailed with a flotilla of ships from Plymouth and landed at St. John's Bay, Newfoundland. He encountered fishermen from several other nations but nevertheless claimed the territory for his queen. But Gilbert's

ship was lost on the return voyage. Following his brother's death, Raleigh moved to establish a colony to the

south, in the more hospitable climate of the mid-Atlantic coast. The Roanoke enterprise of 1584-87 seemed far more promising than Gilbert's, but it too failed. In contrast to the French, who concentrated on commerce, the English attempted to dominate and conquer the natives, drawing on their Irish experience.

Philip II was outraged at the English incursions into territory reserved by the pope for Catholics. He committed himself to smashing England. In 1588, he sent a fleet of 130 ships carrying 30,000 men to invade the British Isles. Countered by captains such as Drake and Hawkins, who commanded smaller and more maneu- verable ships, and frustrated by an ill-timed storm that the English chose to inter- pret as an act of divine intervention, the Spanish Armada foundered. The Spanish

monopoly of the New World had been broken in the English Channel.

CONCLUSION r-r he era of European colonization in the Americas opened with Colum- bus' voyage in 1492. The subsequent Spanish invasion of America had catastrophic consequences for the Indian peoples of the Caribbean,

Mesoamerica, and beyond. Wars of conquest and dispossession, and especially

44 A\ CHAPTER 2 WHEN WORLDS COLLIDE, 1492-1590

the introduction of epidemic disease, took an enormous toll in human life. Civi- lizations collapsed and whole cultures disappeared. Amidst this destruction, the Spanish succeeded in constructing the world's most powerful empire through the use of forced labor. Enormous wealth flowed across the Atlantic to Spain.

Inspired by the Spanish success, the French and the English sought to plant colonies on the coast of North America in the second half of the century, but neither succeeded in establishing lasting communities. Meanwhile, a very different kind of colo- nial encounter, one based on commerce rather than conquest, was taking place along the coasts of northeastern North America. Early in the next century the French would turn this development to their advantage.

The English would move in a different direction. The colony of Roanoke in the land the English called Virginia failed because of the imperial assumptions and the brutal behavior of the first colonists toward the native residents. The experience might have suggested the importance and necessity of "discreet dealing" with native peoples. But instead the English would put their Irish experience to use, pioneering an altogether new kind of American colonialism.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the roles played by the rising merchant class, the new monarchies,

Renaissance humanism, and the Reformation in the development of Eu- ropean colonialism.

2. Define a "frontier of inclusion." In what ways does this description apply to the Spanish empire in the Americas?

3. Make a list of the major exchanges that took place between the Old World and the New World in the centuries following the European invasion of America. Discuss some of the effects these exchanges had on the course of modern history.

4. In what ways did colonial contact in the Northeast differ from contacts in the Caribbean and Mexico?

5. In what ways might the English experience in Ireland have shaped expec- tations about American colonization?

myhistdiylab Flashcard Review

KEY TERMS Huguenots (p. 39) Protestant Reformation (p. 39)

Protestants (p. 39)

Reconquista (p. 30) Renaissance (p. 28)

RECOMMENDED READING David Noble Cook, Born to Die: Disease and New World Conquest, 1492-1650

(1998) . A synthetic history of the impact of disease, including Indian and

European views.

Alfred W. Crosby Jr., The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences

of 1492 (1972). Pathbreaking account of the intersection of the biospheres

of the Old and New Worlds.

WHEN WORLDS COLLIDE, 1492-1590 CHAPTER 2 iligC• .‘ 45

Kathleen Deagan and Jose Maria Cruxent, Columbus's Outpost Among the Tainos: Spain and America at La Isabela, 1493-1498 (2002). An archaeological and historical account of the first European outpost in the New World.

Richard Flint, Great Cruelties Have Been Reported: The 1544 Investigation of the Coro- nado Expedition (2001). Testimony regarding the treatment of Indians and subsequent human rights debates in Spain.

Lewis Hanke, The Spanish Struggle forJustice in the Conquest of America (1949). The classic account of las Casas's attempts to rectify the wrongs committed by

the Spanish against the Indians.

Charles M. Hudson, Knights of Spain, Warriors of the Sun: Hernando de Soto and the South's Ancient Chiefdoms (1997). A very readable history of the de Soto ex- pedition, told from the viewpoint of the Indians.

Henry Kamen, Spain's Road to Empire: The Making of a World Power, 1492-1763

(2002). A fascinating account arguing that it was not Spain that made the

empire but rather the empire that made Spain.

John T McGrath, The French in Early Florida: In the Eye of the Hurricane (2000). A meticulously researched history of the French Huguenot colony in Florida.

Samuel Eliot Morison, The European Discovery of America: The Northern Voyages,

A.D. 500-1600 (1971) and The Southern Voyages, A.D. 1492-1616 (1974). The most detailed treatment of all the important European explorations of the

Americas.

Karen Vieira Powers, Women in the Crucible of Conquest: The Gendered Genesis of Spanish American Society, 1500-1600 (2005). This new interpretation of the

conquest demonstrates the ways native women adapted to the new order

imposed upon them.

Matthew Restall, Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest (2003). A concise and re- freshing new perspective on Spain's intrusion into the New World.

David Beers Quinn, Set Fair for Roanoke: Voyages and Colonies, 1584-1606 (1985).

The story of Roanoke—the Indian village, the English settlement, and the

Lost Colony.

Carl Ortwin Sauer, Sixteenth Century North America: The Land and the People as Seen

by the Europeans (1971). A classic source for the explorations of the conti-

nent, providing abundant descriptions of the Indians.

Hugh Thomas, Conquest: Montezuma, Cortes, and the Fall of Old Mexico (1993). A

fascinating account, written by a master of historical style, that incorpo-

rates the Aztec view as well as the words of the conquerors.

Gustavo Verdesio, Forgotten Conquests: Rereading New World History from the Margins (2001). An argument that the old master historical narrative represents only

one of many possible histories and a suggestion for finding the colonial sub-

jects who did not produce documents.

m histeylab y Where it's a good time to connect to the past! For study resources for this chapter, go to www.myhistorylab.com and choose Out of Many,

Teaching and Learning Classroom Edition. You will find a wealth of study and review material

for this chapter, including pretests and posttests, customized study plan, key-term review flash cards, interactive map and document activities, and documents for analysis.