Research Methodology & Policy Analysis IP1

Presentation

Research in the Social Sciences

Social science, including academic subjects such as criminal justice and homeland security, focuses on studying human interaction between individuals, groups, or societies. Social science is about questioning the world around you by examining cultures, societies, economies, politics, behaviors, and any assortment of social interaction. This range in scope is emphasized by a number of academic disciplines such as anthropology, political science, and sociology. Researchers within social science fields consider how individual or group actions impact their society.

Compare, for a moment, social sciences to the physical sciences such as physics or biology. In studying physics, one can grasp how an aircraft can stay in the air. A physicist recognizes the physical forces that impact the aircraft’s flight and can predict what impact these elements will have on the aircraft's continued operation. In understanding the science behind flight, physicists can also estimate or predict what conditions will negatively impact a journey. The aircraft’s design, improvements, and success are all founded on proven mathematical principles. There are also mechanical principles that determine how it must be maintained, fueled, and operated. There are engineering designs with elements that can be measured, tested, and proven reliable. With the knowledge and information these hard sciences provide, practitioners and researchers alike can make better predictions about what designs, models, or activities will be successful.

Meanwhile, society has no rules to explain why things may or may not happen. All who are a part of a society represent living, dynamic organisms. There is form and function in a society to a degree, yet the whole can theoretically be impacted by any single element. Societies and social relationships maintain customs, accepted norms, traditions, economic exchanges, and communications within various social constructs. Social sciences examine countless activities occurring in an ever-changing environment.

By extension, factors that impact an individual’s response to phenomena may be infinite. For example, in studying homeland security, you might consider the elements of prevention, preparation, mitigation, and response in regard to natural disasters. Researchers consider why individuals choose not to evacuate in advance of a known and deadly hurricane. In asking people about their reasons, researchers select individuals who refused to evacuate before a hurricane arrived. In doing so, they might find that there are dozens of possible answers or combinations of answers. Potential answers such as the following are among the answers a survey might reveal:

· Having no transportation

· Fearing their homes will be looted

· Believing the storm’s intensity was exaggerated

· Not comprehending what a hurricane can potentially do to them

· Dealing with many storms in the past

· Unwilling to leave pets or livestock

Consider the rationale or philosophy behind one of the answers. Why would someone fear looters? The answers to this question may vary but may include the following: 

· An individual has been looted before.

· This is the first home anyone in the family has ever owned.

· They know of looting that has happened to others.

· They answered looting, but they consider National Guard members checking on residents to fall into this category.

· They watched a news report the evening prior regarding looting.

Reading these answers and focusing on individual reasons people have for doing what they do, the researcher understands that a scientific method is needed to effectively study why people behave as they do. Understanding individual or group behavior can also help a community and its leadership develop policies and procedures intended to overcome problematic situations. Understanding that a fear of looters exists—which impedes evacuation—might help community leaders communicate an active plan to thwart and punish looting. The end result is to encourage people to take measures to protect their own lives. In this instance, a policy based upon social science research can establish open communications with citizens, save money by reducing resource expenditure, and save lives.

Article

Purpose and Value of Research

What is the purpose of good research?

Considering a disaster evacuation example without a survey, the subsequent analysis of the results, and the follow-up questions, leaders could have trouble predicting what conditions are required to encourage people to evacuate. Understanding people’s motivations in these conditions is essential for homeland security planners and crisis responders. To gain better understanding and translate this insight into practical applications, researchers must employ the scientific method and study a problem and its potential causes systematically.

Social science research has the following four primary purposes:

· Exploratory research includes studies and projects its focus on a new field, theory, topic, or area of examination; it explores the potential for additional research. A researcher could ask, "Why don’t some people evacuate before a hurricane?"

· Descriptive research describes conditions, situations, or observable phenomena and then reports the information. A researcher may report that "45% of those who did not evacuate before Hurricane Katrina lived in the 9th district."

· Explanatory research takes the descriptive elements and searches for causes and explanations. The researcher may report that "of those who did not evacuate, 28% stated that they feared looting."

· Evaluation research includes examinations that look at the merits, value, and success of programs and policies designed to intervene in social circumstances. An example could be the study of a public information program designed to inform citizens of what local law enforcement is actively planning or doing to deter looting.

What is the value of good research?

Research that is relevant and valid aids policy makers in predicting behaviors and then prescribing initiatives that can accommodate or overcome problematic conduct. Research provides an enormous benefit to these policy makers who desire to develop programs that help people. Refer back to the example of encouraging people to evacuate in advance of a storm. The knowledge that some people, especially elderly citizens, may refuse to evacuate if their pets cannot be safely moved as well has resulted in governmental leaders, interested in saving lives or lessening costs of rescues, implementing a policy that compels communities to plan for pet evacuation and housing during crises. In this instance, the findings of a social science research project led to a real-world strategy intended to save lives. Therein lies the connection between social research and policy development.

At the same time, the value of research is also important in academia because it makes contributions to the collective knowledge and understanding of what happens, why it happens, and what interventions might or might not be appropriate. Asking why people will not evacuate is a question that will produce answers of potential interest to psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists, homeland security specialists, political scientists, and management theorists. When researchers carefully conduct their studies and report the findings through academic avenues, a vast amount of information is shared, which can lead to an additional study that provides added insight.

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Research and Theory

Social research looks for relationships between various phenomena. Whether conducted in the physical or social realm, scientists seek to understand the causality behind what seem to be related components and a given outcome. Questions ranging from “What causes cancer?” to “What causes crime?” demonstrate the commonalities that the social and physical sciences have. A difference though is that a cancer’s cause or causes may one day be known, but there can never be a definitive answer for social science topics.

Theory

A theory is essentially a concept or notion one has about why something occurs as it does. A theory may be relatively new or young (also called nascent), or it may have been in existence for years. Theory is often the basis for a researcher’s examination of a phenomenon. He or she examines whether the theory is something a researcher is just developing or something that has been repeatedly considered, tested, refined, and enhanced.

One type of theory relating to many disciplines within social science is a conflict theory. A version of conflict theory claims that crime is a natural and necessary phenomena, and crime’s existence and resulting conflict with social norms produces enhanced social evolution as people strive to counter crime by being increasingly moral or by strengthening society’s laws. In this case, conflict theory is used to help explain why particular antisocial actions are so prevalent throughout history and also to help explain why crime is tolerated to some degree. Conflict theories examine the competing interests within and between groups and contend it is the resultant conflict that compels social change. This is a simplified view of this specific set of theories, yet conflict theories are the basis for a number of programs, policies, and initiatives associated with criminal justice.

Therefore, a theory can be used to support or justify a certain belief system, a formal program, an official policy, and more. As mentioned before, ever-changing social conditions mean a social theory can never be proven; instead, researchers seek to support, refute, or even reject theory. Regardless of the type of science, it might be argued that if a theory can be proven, it graduates from theory to fact.

What should the researcher hope to accomplish?

Because of this imprecise nature of the world that social scientists study, it is never possible to prove a theory about why certain things happen as they do. The researcher seeks to support or refute a theory or a hypothesis. Furthermore, when research is specific and well-documented, others should be able to repeat or build upon it. The ultimate goal is to deliver findings that inform people about the world in which they live.

Article

Overview of the Hypothesis

Hypothesis

A hypothesis is sometimes referred to as an educated guess; it is developed with the intention of explaining or understanding a phenomenon or observation and is the element that social scientists will test to support or refute a theory. It includes variables that are considered (and eventually tested) to be related in some way. In looking at the relationship between two variables, the hypothesis considers causality; that is, if there appears to be a relationship between at least two variables, which variable causes the other? An example of a hypothesis might be the following:

· A teenager who drops out of school is more likely to commit a crime. 

This hypothesis supposes that there is a relationship between teens dropping out of school and their willingness or compulsion to commit a crime.

In this example, there are two variables: the independent variable (dropping out of school) and the dependent variable to which it leads (committing crimes). Variables are entities or conditions that represent a value of some sort. The independent variable affects the dependent variable in some way and can be modified to see if there is an effect on the dependent variable. The dependent variable is the phenomena the researcher will measure. The hypothesis above suggests that there is a relationship between dropping out of school and criminal activity. The researcher is left to consider why this might be. In testing the hypothesis, the first step is to see if real-world data—otherwise called empirical evidence—supports the claim. The researcher might randomly select 200 cases of juveniles who have committed crimes and see what percentage dropped out of school. If the answer is 88%, the hypothesis arguing that there is a relationship may be strongly supported; however, this test does not explain why dropping out of school may be related to committing crimes. 

In the scientific method and in developing hypotheses, the dependent variable is not changed, but the independent variable can change countless times. A research question is the fundamental motivation for a study and is formally presented as such. For the example above, the research question might be “What do teenage boys do with their time when they drop out of high school?” Boys dropping out of high school is the independent variable. The dependent variable could include a number of possibilities, including get a job, watch a great deal of television, spend time with friends, play basketball at the park, or commit crimes. At the same time, the researcher might modify the independent variable to be boys who do not drop out of school and find they spend their time in much the same ways as the dropouts do. Researchers cannot guess what the results will be for testing either hypothesis; they use the scientific method to methodically study what happens and why. 

It is most important to remember that hypotheses focus on relationships between variables. Hypotheses are tested, and if the evidence reveals a relationship to be strong, an overarching theory may potentially be supported.

One tip for determining whether the variable is independent or dependent or for articulating a hypothesis is to employ an if-then statement. An example might be as follows: if the sun shines, then the grass will grow. It would be absurd to invert these two variables. For the purposes here, a researcher might hypothesize the following:

1. If people are warned about an approaching storm, then they will protect themselves and take adequate cover or evacuate the area.

2. If people protect themselves (by cover or evacuation), then they will survive the storm.

3. If people survive the storm safely, they will not burden overtaxed, critical response capabilities.

These hypotheses show the connection between research used to explore an interesting phenomena and research as the basis for emergency planning, policies, and programs.

Activity

CHDS: Research Process and Methods – Defining a Problem

This lecture, provided by the Center of Homeland Defense and Security (CHDS), contains information on various issues and concepts with regard to the research design process.

Center for Homeland Defense and Security Research Process and Methods Lecture: Defining a Problem

Click on the following link to view Defining a Problem:

Click Here to View Lecture

Activity

CHDS: Research Process and Methods – Asking a Question

This lecture, provided by the Center of Homeland Defense and Security (CHDS), contains information on various issues and concepts with regard to the research design process.

Center for Homeland Defense and Security Research Process and Methods Lecture: Asking a Question

Click on the following link to view Asking a Question.

Click Here to View Lecture

Activity

CHDS: Research Process and Methods – Formulating and Substantiating an Argument

This lecture, provided by the Center of Homeland Defense and Security (CHDS), contains information on various issues and concepts with regard to the research design process.

Center for Homeland Defense and Security Research Process and Methods Lecture: Formulating and Substantiating an Argument

Click on the following link to view Formulating and Substantiating an Argument.

Click Here to View Lecture

Activity

Volunteering and Training for Emergency Management

As a future emergency management professional, higher education is one of the most important credentials that you can attain in order to jumpstart your career. Your educational experiences are where you learn the concepts, theories, and best practices that will support your endeavors for the rest of your life.

However, it is important to ensure that you have a significant advantage over your competitors who are also looking to begin their careers in emergency management. Current professionals in emergency management highly recommend that you take a proactive approach and seek out valuable experience or certifications from various emergency management volunteer and training opportunities.

Fortunately, these opportunities are widely available and highly valued by both government agencies and employers alike. In this activity, a wide variety of volunteer and training resources are available for you to explore, which will allow you to develop a more refined idea of which emergency management path you would like to take. Once you have narrowed the options and made a decision of which concentrations you wish to pursue, begin applying for the various opportunities available by using this activity as a resource portal. By volunteering and receiving training certifications you will:

· Receive valuable field experience and certifications

· Network with emergency management professionals

· And serve your community

You are highly encouraged to participate in as many volunteer and training opportunities as time will allow. As you complete a growing number of these volunteer and training tasks, you will begin to develop an extensive emergency management background that will allow you to apply for emergency management and homeland security positions with the utmost confidence.

Following is a list of Web sites of various organizations, agencies, and training materials that you are encouraged to utilize throughout the course of this program. Keep in mind, that the resources provided here are not the only volunteer and training opportunities available. Always be sure to ask your local law enforcement and fire service agencies for opportunities tailored to your own community.

For each Web site, a brief description and instructions are provided on how to volunteer, participate, and get involved.

Training

FEMA Training: Independent Study Program

Click on the above link. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) offers 106 independent study courses that are free of charge for U.S. citizens. These courses are geared towards the following nine mission areas identified by the U.S. National Preparedness Goal:

· Incident Management

· Operational Planning

· Disaster Logistics

· Emergency Communications

· Continuity Programs

· Public Disaster Communications

· Integrated Preparedness

· Hazard Mitigation

Upon completion of each course’s final exam, you will receive an official certification of completion from FEMA. You may also request complete official transcripts from FEMA when you have completed multiple courses within the Independent Study Program (ISP). Once you have attained any number of certifications, you can then place them within your resume. These courses can be completed at any time and at your own pace.

Volunteer Opportunities

Citizen Corps

Click on the above link. CitizenCorps is strategy developed by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) in order to coordinate emergency management volunteer efforts with a mission of making communities safer and more efficient with regard to emergency mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery. It provides U.S. citizens with opportunities to get involved and protect their families, homes, and communities.

To obtain volunteer information, type you U.S. Zip Code into the field under the Get Involved section on the left side of the page. Select your maximum desired travel distance and click on Locate. Scroll down the list in order to see all available state, county, and local councils as well as any affiliate organizations. Click on any links of interest and use the contact information to inquire about potential volunteer opportunities.

Citizen Corps: Community Emergency Response Teams (CERT)

Click on the above link. Volunteering with a local Community Emergency Response Team (CERT) will not only add to one’s professional credibility, but can also enable one to provide a valuable service to his or her community in a time of significant need. 

The CERT Program is used to educate and train members of communities on how to be effective disaster workers. In order to become a certified CERT member, several training sessions must first be completed.

Click on the Find Nearby CERTs link within the left page menu in order to obtain local CERT contact information. Call or e-mail the agency or endorsing organization to inquire about the next CERT training sessions.

American Red Cross

Click on the above link. The American Red Cross is considered by many to be one of the most respected response and relief organizations in the world. A large number of first responders have high praise for the Reds Cross and the work that the organization does in disaster affected communities. The organization has affected millions of lives in a positive manner.

To begin you volunteer career at the American Red Cross, it is important to first view the organization’s online orientation. Click on the Volunteer link located in the top menu and then click on Online Orientation link after the Get Started Now! heading in the page text.

When you have finished watching the Online Orientation, click on the Introduction to Disaster Services link directly below the orientation link to view a video that shows you some of the work disaster volunteers perform on-site and behind the scenes.

Next, use the two above links Find your Local Red Cross or VolunteerMatch to obtain Red Cross contact information and volunteer opportunities available in your area.

Medical Reserve Corps

Click on the above link. The Medical Reserve Corps (MRC) is a government agency devoted to promoted efficient health and safety measures in communities nation-wide through the organization of professional and non-professional volunteers.

To volunteer, click on About Volunteering under the Volunteers section of the MRC Home page. Click on the MRC Unit link directly beneath the text “Find out how to become part of your community's team” towards the bottom of the page. Select the Zip Code tab and type a U.S. Zip Code in the field provided. Click on Search to find the nearest MRC Units and then click on any of the Unit links for contact information. E-mail or call the Unit for information on volunteer opportunities.

Serve.gov

Click on the above link. Serve.gov is managed by the Corporation for National and Community Service and its purpose is to provide current volunteer opportunities available as well as allow for the ability to develop, register, and coordinate new community projects.

For volunteer and project information, scroll down to the section titled Find a Volunteer Opportunity and explore the various subsections.

Public-Private Alliance Foundation (PPAF)

Click on the above link. The mission of the Public-Private Alliance Foundation (PPAF) is to improve social and economic development of poor rural areas in nations worldwide through the collaboration of business, non-profit, and governmental interests.

To inquire about volunteer needs, click on Get Involved on the Home page top menu. Scroll down and use the PPAF contact information to determine whether or not new volunteers are currently needed.

Idealist.org

Click on the above link. This Web site allows users to search for posted volunteer opportunities. Click on the Volunteer opportunities link and enter your search criteria into the field to find matching volunteer positions.

Volunteer Florida Disaster

Click on the above link. This is a Web site provided by The Governor’s Commission of Volunteerism and Community Service of Florida State. It provides information on state-wide volunteer efforts as well as available opportunities.

If you would like to volunteer in the State of Florida, then click on Volunteer! and follow the directions provided.

Article

Fundamentals of Research Design

These are just a few of the methods used by quantitative scientists to gather data. Generally, quantitative data are converted into numbers, and the numbers are then used to draw conclusions. Qualitative data are usually collected using interviews and observations that are then converted into research narratives. Qualitative data in narrative formats are routinely used by scientists to generate a hypothesis and to then draw conclusions.

Quantitative data are analyzed statistically, using numbers, values, and trends. In contrast, the meaning and content in qualitative data are coded specifically for nonnumerical categories and themes.

The following are the three basic data collection methodologies used to gather quantitative or qualitative data:

· Interviews: Interviews are conversations where facts, which are eventually converted to data, are elicited from one or more of the parties involved.

· Observations: Observations are forms of knowledge received by utilizing human senses or scientific instruments of measurement.

· Written surveys and documentation: Written surveys are questionnaires administered to random population samples with the intent to collect data for both quantitative and qualitative research. Documentation can include policies, letters, and photographs.

Evaluating any type of research is a matter of drawing valid inferences from the collected data. The type of inferences you are trying to make will guide your research methodology.

Many people inquire as to which is the quickest and easiest way to perform research. The answer is that the easiest method will be the one with which you are most comfortable. The researcher is asking the question, and the researcher is trying to prove or improve an area in his or her professional life. He or she will generally know potential information sources and professional references better than anyone else.

Any research advisor should be a professional in the field that is being observed. However, it is up to the researcher to develop the research hypothesis. As time and research move on, the researcher will begin to get a better understanding of what direction will be taken. Sometimes, the data analysis methods, or even the hypothesis, can change and lead the research in another direction. As the developer of the research hypothesis, it is important to remember to always take external input from other professional members with caution. The effective researcher must remain diligent and only alter the research process if absolutely necessary.

For example, one thesis by a homeland security and emergency management professional addressed recruiting and retention in the Air National Guard because the numbers for recruiting and retention had decreased dramatically. The researcher wanted to illustrate the differences between the different military services in their recruiting and retention methods. It was found through observation that the methods used by the different services and their chains of command were major factors in recruitment and retention numbers.

When the results were shared with thesis advisors, one of whom was an Air Force general, they only wanted to address the Air Force recruiting and retention practices. Politics became involved, to some extent, and the advisors would not sign off on the thesis unless the Army recruiting and retention data was dropped from the research. It is likely that the research, if allowed to contain the additional data, would have been more valid and meaningful to the professionals and fields affected.

It is important to understand that there are alternatives for presenting research. Although the previous research example was not approved by the professional research advisors, there were always the options of publishing the research through professional journals or publishing houses instead.

Resource Links

 Assessments (http://www.agelesslearner.com/assess/) Ageless Learner provides a learning style manual self-assessment from Marcia L. Conner that can be printed to score. Visual, auditory, and tactile and kinesthetic learning styles are covered. Learning Styles Assessment is at the top of the list on this page.

 The Vark Questionnaire: How Do I Learn Best? (http://www.vark-learn.com/english/page.asp?p=questionnaire) When the learner completes this brief test, the assessment provides scores for each learning style and preferred style of the learner: visual, aural, reading and writing, and kinesthetic. This Web site provides bulleted lists per preferred learning style describing how to absorb information, how to study, and how to perform well on a test.

 How Your Learning Style Affects Your Use of Mnemonics. (http://www.mindtools.com/mnemlstylo.htm) This explanation of how the different learners use their learning style to remember content focuses on visual learners, auditory learners, and kinesthetic learners. Click "Memory Improvement" in top-right navigation for memory aids.

 Assessment: How Are You Smart? (http://www.literacyworks.org/mi/assessment/index.html) Assessment: How Are You Smart?

 Department of Homeland Security (DHS) (http://www.dhs.gov) Official Web site of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS).

 Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) (http://www.fema.gov/) Official Web site of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). Contains information on types of disasters, planning, recovery, rebuilding, and federal assistance.

 Social Research Methods (http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/) A website for people involved in applied social research and evaluation. You'll find lots of resources and links to other locations on the Web that deal in applied social research methods. The site offers an online statistical advisor that will answer questions and lead you to an appropriate statistical test for your data. It also includes a resource guide for learning about structured conceptual mapping including links to general introductory materials, research and case studies illustrating the use of the method, and information about software. An online hypertext textbook on applied social research methods that covers everything you want to know about defining a research question, sampling, measurement, research design and data analysis is available, and an online workbook about manual (i.e., dice-rolling) and computer simulation exercises of common research designs, for students and researchers to learn how to do simple simulations.

 Types of Research Questions (http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/resques.htm) This site provides an overview of the different types of research questions.

 The Relationship Between the Research Question, Hypotheses, Specific Aims, and Long-Term Goals of the Project (http://www.theresearchassistant.com/tutorial/2-1.asp) Tutorial on formulating research questions.

 Research Methods (http://allpsych.com/researchmethods/researchcontents.html) A virtual course on the fundamentals of research methods.

 Steps of the Scientific Method (http://www.experiment-resources.com/) A Web page that contains information on the various elements of scientific research.