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PAT24Chapter 4 Naming: Theories and Program Design 163
Chapter 4 Naming: Theories and Program Design 163
(fewer than 10 words) apology, only after the customer has stopped talking [criteria] and no matter how upset the customer is [conditions]." Table 4.8 shows the characteristics of good training objectives.
Employees Need Meaningful Training Content
Employees are most likely to learn when the training is linked to their current job experiences and tasks—that is, when it is meaningful to them.34 To enhance the meaningfulness of training content, the message should be presented using concepts, terms, and examples familiar to trainees. Also, the training context should mirror the work environment. The training context refers to the physical, intellectual, and emotional environment in which training occurs. For example, in a retail salesperson customer-service program, the meaningfulness of the material will be increased by using scenarios of unhappy customers actually encountered by salespersons in stores. Some useful techniques for convincing trainees that the training program content is meaningful include:35
· Telling stories about others' success in applying training content, especially former trainees.
· Showing how training relates to company goals and strategy.
· Showing how trainees can use training content ideas at work.
· Discussing examples or cases that remind trainees of the good and poor work they have seen.
· Repeating the application of ideas in different contexts.
· Presenting evidence of the effectiveness of knowledge, skills, and behaviors.
· Showing how the conditions that trainees face in training are similar to those on the job.
· Providing practice or application activities that can be used on the job.
· Providing hard copies or electronic access to well-organized materials so trainees can refer to them on the job or use them to teach others.
· Allowing trainees to choose their practice strategy and how they want training content presented (e.g., verbally, visually, problem-based, a combination of approaches).
Employees Need Opportunities to Practice
Practice refers to the physical or mental rehearsal of a task, knowledge, or skill to achieve proficiency in performing the task or skill or demonstrating the knowledge. Practice involves having the employee demonstrate the learned capability (e.g., cognitive strategy,
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TABLE 4.8
Characteristics of Good Training Objectives
· Provide a clear idea of what the trainee is expected to be able to do at the end of training.
· Include standards of performance that can be measured or evaluated.
· State the specific resources (e.g., tools, equipment) that the trainee needs to perform the action or behavior specified.
· Describe the conditions under which performance of the objective is expected to occur (e.g., the physical work environment, such as at night or in high temperatures; mental stresses, such as angry customers; equipment failure, such as malfunctioning computer equipment).
·
verbal information) emphasized in the training objectives under conditions and performance standards specified by the objectives. For practice to be effective, it needs to actively involve the trainee, include overlearning (repeated practice), take the appropriate amount of time, and include the appropriate unit of learning (amount of material). Practice also needs to be relevant to the training objectives. It is best to include a combination of examples and practice rather than all practice.36 This helps to avoid overloading trainees' memory so they can engage in the cognitive processes needed for learning to occur (selecting, organizing, and integrating content). Viewing examples helps learners develop a new mental model of skills which they can then use in practice. Some examples of ways to practice include case studies, simulations, role plays, games, and oral and written questions.
Pre-practice Conditions Trainers need to focus not just on training content but also on how to enable trainees to process information in a way that will facilitate learning and the use of training on the job. There are several steps trainers can take within the training course prior to practice to enhance trainees' motivation to learn and facilitate retention of training content. Before practice, trainers can37
1. Provide information about the process or strategy that will result in the greatest learning. For example, let trainees in a customer service class know about the types of calls they will receive (irate customer, request for information on a product, challenge of a bill), how to recognize such calls, and how to complete the calls.
2. Encourage trainees to develop a strategy (metacognition) to reflect on their own learning process. Metacognition refers to individual control over one's thinking. Two ways that individuals engage in metacognition are monitoring and control.38 Monitoring includes identifying the problem or task, evaluating one's own learning progress, and predicting what will occur as a result of learning. Control includes identifying the specific steps for completing a task or solving a problem, deciding how quickly or how much attention to devote to the task, and deciding how to prioritize learning. Trainees who engage in metacognition ask themselves questions such as, Why am I choosing this type of action? Do I understand the relationship between this material and my job? What is the next step in the task? Metacognition helps trainees monitor learning and decide what content needs more energy and attention.
3. Provide advance organizers—outlines, texts, diagrams, and graphs that help trainees organize the information that will be presented and practiced.
4. Help trainees set challenging mastery or learning goals.
5. Create realistic expectations for the trainees by communicating what will occur in training.
6. When training employees in teams, communicate performance expectations and clarify roles and responsibilities of team members.
Practice Involves Experience Learning will not occur if employees practice only by talking about what they are expected to do. For example, using the objective for the customer service course previously discussed, practice would involve having trainees participate in role playing with unhappy customers (customers upset with poor service, poor merchandise, or unsatisfactory exchange policies). Training should involve an active learning approach in which trainees must explore and experiment to determine the rules, principles, and strategies for effective performance.39 Trainees need to continue to practice
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even if they have been able to perform the objective several times (overlearning). Overlearning helps the trainee become more comfortable using new knowledge and skills and increases the length of time the trainee will retain the knowledge, skill, or behavior.
Conventional wisdom is that we all learn the most from our errors. However, most people feel that errors are frustrating and lead to anger and despair. Research suggests that from a training perspective, errors can be useful.40 Error management training refers to giving trainees opportunities to make errors during training. In error management training, trainees are instructed that errors can help learning, and they are encouraged to make errors and learn from them. Trainees may actually commit more errors and may take longer to complete training that incorporates error management training. However, error management training helps improve employee performance on the job (a concept known as transfer of training, which is discussed in Chapter 5).
Error management training is effective because it provides the opportunity for trainees to engage in metacognition, that is, to plan how to use training content, to monitor use of training content, and to evaluate how training content was used. This results in a deeper level of cognitive processing, leading to better memory and recall of training. Trainers should consider using error management training in the training program along with traditional approaches by giving trainees the opportunity to make errors when they work alone on difficult problems and tasks while encouraging them to use errors as a way to learn.
It is important to note that allowing trainees simply to make errors does not help learning. For errors to have a positive influence on learning, trainees need to be taught to use errors as a chance to learn. Error management training may be particularly useful whenever the training content to be learned cannot be completely covered during a training session. As a result, trainees have to discover on their own what to do when confronted with new tasks or problems.
Massed versus Spaced Practice The frequency of practice has been shown to influence learning, depending on the type of task being trained.41 Massed practice conditions are those in which individuals practice a task continuously without rest. Massed practice also involves having trainees complete practice exercises at one time within a lesson or class versus distributing the exercises within the lesson. In spaced practice conditions, individuals are given rest intervals within the practice session. Spaced practice is superior to massed practice. However, the effectiveness of massed versus spaced practice varies by the characteristics of the task. Task characteristics include overall task complexity, mental requirements, and physical requirements. Overall task complexity refers to the degree to which a task requires a number of distinct behaviors, the number of choices involved in performing the task, and the degree of uncertainty in performing the task. Mental requirements refers to the degree to which the task requires the subject to use or demonstrate mental skills or cognitive skills or abilities to perform the task. Physical requirements refers to the degree to which the task requires the person to use or demonstrate physical skills and abilities to perform and complete the task. Table 4.9 shows how tasks can differ.
For more complex tasks (including those that are representative of training settings such as Web-based instruction, lecture, and distance learning), relatively long rest periods appear to be beneficial for task learning.
After practice, trainees need specific feedback to enhance learning. This includes feedback from the task or job itself, trainers, managers, and peers.
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Mental Overall Requirements Complexity
Low Low
Physical Requirements
High Low
TABLE 4.9 Mental and Physical Requirements and Overall Complexity for Tasks
Tasks
High
Average
High High
Low High
High High
Rotary pursuit, typing, ball toss, ladder climb, peg reversal, bilateral transfer, crank turning Free recall task, video games, foreign language, slide bar task, voice recognition, classroom lecture, sound localization, word processing, stoop task, verbal discrimination, maze learning, connecting numbers, upside down alphabet printing, distance learning, Web training Gymnastic skills, balancing task Air traffic controller simulation, milk pasteurization simulation, airplane control simulation, hand movement memorization, puzzle box task, music memorization and performance
Source: J. Donovan and D. Radosevich, "A Meta-analytic Review of the Distribution of Practice Effect: Now You See It, Now You Don't," Journal of Applied Psychology 84 (1999):795-805.
Whole versus Part Practice A final issue related to practice is how much of the training should be practiced at one time. One option is that all tasks or objectives should be practiced at the same time (whole practice). Another option is that an objective or task should be practiced individually as soon as each is introduced in the training program (part practice). It is probably best to employ both whole and part practice in a training session. Trainees should have the opportunity to practice individual skills or behaviors. If the skills or behaviors introduced in training are related to one another, the trainee should demonstrate all of them in a practice session after they have been practiced individually.
For example, one objective of the customer service training for retail salespeople is learning how to deal with an unhappy customer. Salespeople are likely to have to learn three key behaviors: (1) greeting disgruntled customers, (2) understanding their complaints, and then (3) identifying and taking appropriate action. Practice sessions should be held for each of the three behaviors (part practice). Then another practice session should be held so that trainees can practice all three skills together (whole practice). If trainees are only given the opportunity to practice the behaviors individually, it is unlikely that they will be able to deal with an unhappy customer.
Effective Practice Conditions For practice to be relevant to the training objectives, several conditions must be met.42 Practice must involve the actions emphasized in the training objectives, be completed under the conditions specified in the training objectives, help trainees perform to meet the criteria or standard that was set, provide some means to evaluate the extent to which trainees' performance meets the standards, and allow trainees to correct their mistakes.
Practice must be related to the training objectives. The trainer should identify what trainees will be doing when practicing the objectives (performance), the criteria for attainment of the objective, and the conditions under which they may perform. These conditions should be present in the practice session. Next, the trainer needs to consider the adequacy of the trainees' performance. That is, how will trainees know whether their performance
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meets performance standards? Will they see a model of desired performance? Will they be provided with a checklist or description of desired performance? Can the trainees decide if their performance meets standards, or will the trainer or a piece of equipment compare their performance with standards?
The trainer must also decide—if trainees' performance does not meet standards— whether trainees will be able to understand what is wrong and how to fix it. That is, trainers need to consider whether trainees will be able to diagnose their performance and take corrective action or if they will need help from the trainer or a fellow trainee.
Employees Need to Commit Training Content to Memory
Memory works by processing stimuli we perceive through our senses into short-term memory. If the information is determined to be "important," it moves to long-term memory, where new interconnections are made between neurons or electrical connections in the brain. There are several ways that trainers can help employees store knowledge, skills, behavior, and other training in long-term memory.43 One way is to make trainees aware of how they are creating, processing, and accessing memory. It is important for trainees to understand how they learn. A presentation of learning styles (discussed earlier in this chapter) can be a useful way to determine how trainees prefer to learn.
To create long-term memory, training programs must be explicit on content and elaborate on details. There are several ways to create long-term memory. One approach trainers use is to create a concept map to show relationships among ideas. Another is to use multiple forms of review including writing, drawings, and role plays to access memory through multiple methods. Teaching key words, a procedure, or a sequence, or providing a visual image gives trainees another way to retrieve information. Reminding trainees of knowledge, behavior, and skills that they already know that are relevant to the current training content creates a link to long-term memory that provides a framework for recalling the new training content. External retrieval cues can also be useful. Consider a time when you misplaced your keys or wallet. In trying to remember, we often review all the information we can recall that was close in time to the event or preceded the loss. We often go to the place where we were when we last saw the item because the environment can provide cues that aid in recall.
Research suggests that no more than four or five items can be attended to at one time. If a lengthy process or procedure is to be taught, instruction needs to be delivered in relatively small chunks or short sessions in order to not exceed memory limits.44 Long-term memory is also enhanced by going beyond one-trial learning. That is, once trainees correctly demonstrate a behavior or skill or correctly recall knowledge, it is often assumed that they have learned it, but this is not always true. Making trainees review and practice over multiple days (overlearning) can help them retain information in long-term memory. Overlearning also helps to automize a task.
Automatization refers to making performance of a task, recall of knowledge, or demonstration of a skill so automatic that it requires little thought or attention. Automatization also helps reduce memory demands. The more that automatization occurs, the more that memory is freed up to concentrate on other learning and thinking. The more active a trainee is in rehearsal and practice, the greater the amount of information retained in long-term memory and the less memory decay occurs over time.
Another way to avoid overwhelming trainees with complex material is to give them pre-training work that can be completed online or using workbooks.45 For example, trainees can become familiar with the "basics" such as names, definitions, principles, and characteristics
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of components before they are trained in how the principles are applied (e.g., dealing with angry customers) or how a process works (e.g., testing for pathogens in a blood sample, changing a car's water pump).
Employees Need Feedback
Feedback is information about how well people are meeting the training objectives. To be effective, feedback should focus on specific behaviors and be provided as soon as possible afterthe trainees' behavior.46 Also, positive trainee behavior should be verbally praised or reinforced. Videotape is a powerful tool for giving feedback. Trainers should view the videotape with trainees, provide specific information about how behaviors need to be modified, and praise trainee behaviors that meet objectives. Feedback can also come from tests and quizzes, on-the-job observation, performance data, a mentor or coach, written communications, or interpersonal interactions.
The specificity of the level of feedback provided to trainees needs to vary if trainees are expected to understand what leads to poor performance as well as good performance.47 For example, employees may need to learn how to respond when equipment is malfunctioning as well as when it is working properly; therefore, feedback provided during training should not be so specific that it leads only to employee knowledge about equipment that is working properly. Less specific feedback can cause trainees to make errors that lead to equipment problems, providing trainees with opportunities to learn which behaviors lead to equipment problems and how to fix those problems. Difficulties encountered during practice as a result of errors or reduced frequency of feedback can help trainees engage more in exploration and information processing to identify correct responses.
Employees Learn through Observation, Experience, and Social Interaction
As mentioned earlier in the chapter, one way employees learn is through observing and imitating the actions of models. For the model to be effective, the desired behaviors or skills need to be clearly specified and the model should have characteristics (e.g., age or position) similar to the target audience.48 After observing the model, trainees should have the opportunity in practice sessions to reproduce the skills or behavior shown by the model. According to adult learning theory, employees also learn best if they learn by doing 49 This involves giving employees hands-on experiences or putting them with more experienced employees and providing them with the tools and materials needed to manage their knowledge gaps.
Learning also occurs through interacting with other trainees in small groups during the training session as well as back at work. By working in small groups, trainees can obtain diverse perspectives on problems and issues, perspectives they would never hear if they learned alone. Problem-based learning may be useful for stimulating and holding trainees' attention.50 In problem-based learning, trainees are divided into small groups. (Action learning, a type of problem-based learning, will be discussed in Chapter 7.) The groups are presented with a problem such as a real problem the company is facing or a case study. In each group, trainees are asked to identify the problem and to identify what they know and do not know (learning issues). Each group has to decide how it will better understand the learning issues. Part of the training program is designed to allow trainees to access the Web, experts in the field, and company records and documents to solve the learning issues. After trainees gather information, they discuss what they have learned and how to use that
information to solve the problem. Table 4.10 shows the types of situations, with examples, in which learning through observation, experience, and interacting with others may be most valuable.
Communities of practice refers to groups of employees who work together, learn from each other, and develop a common understanding of how to get work accomplished.51 The idea of communities of practice suggests that learning occurs on the job as a result of social interaction. Every company has naturally occurring communities of practice that arise as a result of relationships employees develop to accomplish work and as a result of the design of the work environment. For example, at Siemens Power Transmission in Wendell, North Carolina, managers were wondering how to stop employees from gathering in the employee cafeteria for informal discussions.52 But that was before the managers discovered that the informal discussions actually encouraged learning. In the discussions, employees were developing problem-solving strategies, sharing product and procedural information, and providing career counseling to each other. Now Siemens is placing pads of paper and overhead projectors in the lunchroom as aids for informal meetings. Managers who were previously focused on keeping workers on the job are now encouraging employees by providing essential tools and information and giving employees the freedom to meet.
Communities of practice also take the form of discussion boards, list servers, or other forms of computer-mediated communication in which employees communicate electronically. In doing so, each employee's knowledge can be accessed in a relatively quick manner. It is as if employees are having a conversation with a group of experts. Wyeth Pharmaceuticals has 11 communities of practice (COP) focusing on maintenance, shop floor excellence.53 The COP's make it easy for employees to share best practices, learn from one another, and improve business processes. The maintenance function used its COP to deliver more than 600 hours of training on new technology and maintenance processes. This has resulted in more reliable equipment and higher productivity, such as increasing equipment use in one manufacturing plant from 72 to 92 percent.
Despite the benefits of improved communication, a drawback to these communities is that participation is often voluntary, so some employees may not share their knowledge unless the organizational culture supports participation. That is, employees may be reluctant to participate without an incentive or may be fearful that if they share their knowledge with others, they will give away their personal advantage in salary and promotion
TABLE 4.10 Situations, Skills, and Knowledge Best Learned through Observation, Experience, and Interacting with Others
Situations/Knowledge Examples
Interpersonal Skills Negotiating a merger, handling a problem employee
Personal Knowledge Based on Closing a sale, creating a new candy bar, reducing
Experience tension between employees
Context-Specific Knowledge Managing in an international location, handling union
grievances, manufacturing with special equipment
Uncertainty or New Situations Marketing a new product or service, using a new
technology for service or manufacturing
Source: Based on D. Leonard and W. Swap, "Deep Smarts," Harvard Business Review (September 2004): 88-97.
decisions.54 (The role of organizational culture in learning is discussed in Chapter 5.) Another potential drawback is information overload. Employees may receive so much information that they fail to process it. This may cause them to withdraw from the community of practice.
Employees Need the Training Program to Be Properly Coordinated and Arranged
Training coordination is one of several aspects of training administration. Training administration refers to coordinating activities before, during, and after the program.55 Training administration involves:
1. Communicating courses and programs to employees.
2. Enrolling employees in courses and programs.
3. Preparing and processing any pretraining materials such as readings or tests.
4. Preparing materials that will be used in instruction (e.g., copies of overheads, cases).
5. Arranging for the training facility and room.
6. Testing equipment that will be used in instruction.
7. Having backup equipment (e.g., paper copy of slides, an extra overhead projector bulb) should equipment fail.
8. Providing support during instruction.
9. Distributing evaluation materials (e.g., tests, reaction measures, surveys).
10. Facilitating communications between trainer and trainees during and after training (e.g., coordinating exchange of e-mail addresses).
11. Recording course completion in the trainees' training records or personnel files.
Good coordination ensures that trainees are not distracted by events (such as an uncomfortable room or poorly organized materials) that could interfere with learning. Activities before the program include communicating to trainees the purpose of the program, the place it will be held, the name of a person to contact if they have questions, and any preprogram work they are supposed to complete. Books, speakers, handouts, and videotapes need to be prepared. Any necessary arrangements to secure rooms and equipment (such as DVD players) should be made. The physical arrangement of the training room should complement the training technique. For example, it would be difficult for a team-building session to be effective if the seats could not be moved for group activities. If visual aids will be used, all trainees should be able to see them. Make sure that the room is physically comfortable with adequate lighting and ventilation. Trainees should be informed of starting and finishing times, break times, and location of bathrooms. Minimize distractions such as phone messages; request that trainees turn off cell phones and pagers. If trainees will be asked to evaluate the program or take tests to determine what they have learned, allot time for this activity at the end of the program. Following the program, any credits or recording of the names of trainees who completed the program should be done. Handouts and other training materials should be stored or returned to the consultant. The end of the program is also a good time to consider how the program could be improved if it will be offered again. Practical issues in selecting and preparing a training site and designing a program are discussed later in the chapter.