corrections on a 2000 word lab report for psychology

School of Applied Psychology – Mt Gravatt

Griffith Health

2014

Writing for Psychology

Table of Contents Writing for Psychology………………………………………………………………………………………………...1

Research Reports in Psychology

The Research Report…………………………………………………………………………………………………..3

Title Page………………………………………………………………………………………………………………3

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...4

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………………5

Method…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………6

Results…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………7

Discussion…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….12

References…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….13

Appendices……………………………………………………………………………………………………………13

Example Research Report……………………………………………………………………………………………14

Essay Writing in Psychology

Essays for Psychology………………………………………………………………………………………………24

What does this essay mean?.........................................................................................................................................27

Example Essay for Psychology………………………………………………………………………………………29

Referencing in Psychology

Referencing in research reports and essays…………………………………………………......................................58

Referencing quotations correctly……………………………………………………………………………………61

General reference list principles……………………………………………………………………………………....62

Referencing in your reference list…………………………………………………………………………………….63

Example reference list……………………………………………………………………………………………...…63

Electronic sources…………………………………………………………………………………………………….68

Audiovisual sources......................................................................................................................................................72

Additional Points

Appendices……………………………………………………………………………………………………………76

Headings………………………………………………………………………………………………………………77

Other APA issues…………………………………………………………………………………………………..…78

Marker’s shorthand………………………………………………………………………………………………...…80

More tips for writing in Psychology……………………………………………………………………………….…82

Submitting your assignment………………………………………………………………………………………...85

Plagiarism

Plagiarism......................................................................................................................................................................92

References cited in this guide………………………………………………………………………………………...96

Useful books writing for psychology.................…………………………………………………………………...…96

Chapter by chapter changes from APA 5 to APA 6………………………………………………………………..…97

1

Writing for Psychology

Writing for Psychology will require you to develop skills in two different formats;

research reports and essays. You will also be required to have knowledge of the American

Psychological Association (APA) 6th edition referencing system. Whilst you may have previous

experience in writing an essay, it is unlikely that you will have composed a psychological

research report before coming to university. This booklet provides information on how to write

in both formats, as well as how to reference your work correctly. Some of the terms used in this

booklet may be unfamiliar to you, therefore allow yourself time to grasp these new concepts as

you progress through your studies. When in doubt, always check with your tutors and/or course

convenors.

The information has been compiled from the experience of many academic staff. Some

sections are based on another document prepared by staff in the School of Applied Psychology

(Gold Coast) and modified by Dr Mark Chappell. Credit is due to the many people who assisted

the development of this manual, including academic staff, tutors, and students – in particular,

credit is due to Andrea Quinn and Maddy Phillips who originally composed this document. We

extend our thanks as well to Wendy Muller who made the 2012 changes, to Tara Stokes and

Kylee Forrest who made comments on the example lab report, to Prof Sharon Dawe for

comments on the essay, and to Denise Hatzis, Jennifer Cheung & Tatjana Dordic for overall

feedback.

This handbook is a useful guide for all psychology undergraduate courses. And is

strongly recommended for students studying the following courses: 1001PSY, 1002PSY,

1003PSY,1008PSY, 1009PSY.



2

Research Reports in

Psychology

3

The Research Report

A research report in psychology follows a standard format, which includes the following sections

and in the order listed:

Title page

Abstract

Introduction

Method

- Participants - Design - Materials - Procedure Results

Discussion

References

Appendix/ces

An example research report is provided at the end of this section on page 14.

Title Page

The title page consists of:

 Running Head: ABBRIVATED TITLE

 The full title of the report

 Your student name

 Your student number

 The course code

 Your tutor’s name

 Your tutorial time

 The date the report is due

 The date the report is submitted

 The actual word count

The title provides your reader with initial cues regarding the content of the report. It needs to be

succinct and specific. The title is centred at the top of the first page with the first letter of each

major word in capitals. The word count includes the number of words in your report, excluding

the title page, reference list and appendices).

Running Head: SLEEP DEPRIVATION 1

The Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Memory

Recall

Student A. Name

Student Number: 1234567

Course: 1001PSY

Tutor: Apple Berry

Tutorial: Friday; 2-4pm

Due Date: 9 th

May, 2013

Date Submitted: 9 th

May, 2013

Word Count: 1655 words

4

Abstract

The purpose of an abstract is to provide a clear and succinct summary of the report, in less than

120 words. When writing your abstract you need to state the problem, briefly outline the

method, provide the main findings and state your conclusions. The abstract is often one of the

most difficult parts to write as it draws from each section of the report – so it makes sense to

write it last. You begin the abstract on the top of a new page with a centred heading. Use double

spacing and note that there is no paragraph indent. The most common mistakes in abstract

writing are making them too long or using redundant information. Sentences need to be precise

and meaningful.

The Running Head is an abbreviated title of your report that is presented at the top of the each

page of your report, on the same line of the page number. The words ‘Running Head’ are also

now omitted for the rest of the report.

An Example of an Abstract for a Research Report

Adapted from “Extraversion and the EEG:II. A Test of Gale’s Hypothesis” by J.G. O’Gorman and L.R. Mallise,

1984, Biological Psychology, 19, p.113. Copyright 1984 by Elsevier Science Publishers.

SLEEP DEPRIVATION 2

Abstract

The study sought to test Gale’s (1978) hypothesis that only under

moderately arousing conditions will introverts be shown to differ

from extraverts in EEG-defined arousal. Alpha activity was

recorded from 45 participants under each of six conditions, and

extravert and introvert groups formed on the basis of participants' scores on the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire.

Contrary to the hypothesis, extraverts showed more alpha

activity than introverts under all conditions except for the eyes opening and closing condition. A simple relationship between

arousal and extraversion is argued to be more likely on the basis

of these findings than the interactive relationship proposed by

Gale.

5

Introduction

The introduction begins on a new page, with the paper’s title at the top, centred, but do not write

‘Introduction’ at the top. Begin with a clear statement of your research aims and a brief

justification of the study’s relevance and/or importance. The aims are followed by a review of

theory relevant to the experiment/s and any related studies; this forms the ‘literature review’. As

author, it is your task to outline the background to your experiment, and explain to the reader

why the study was undertaken and what outcomes were expected. Typically a ‘funnelling’

approach is used; essentially, this means that you begin broadly, and narrow your focus as you

progress towards the hypothesis/es. Finally, the section ends with a statement of the hypothesis

or hypotheses to be tested.

Where appropriate, the direction of any expected association between variables will also be

stated in the hypothesis/es, and expressed in the future tense. All other paragraphs in this section

should be indented, with no spaces between paragraphs, and written in past tense or in ‘present

perfect tense’ and the active voice. An example of past tense, active voice, is “Smith (2001)

conducted the experiment…” or “Smith (2001) showed that…”. A ‘present perfect tense’

example is “researchers have shown…”. As you develop the introduction, you build a ‘picture’

for your reader, and provide the context for your study.

Common mistakes in writing an Introduction:

1. Not presenting the research aims and initial justification at the beginning of the introduction.

2. Not presenting a coherent review of relevant literature that links directly to the hypothesis/es.

3. Not defining terms appropriate to your research topic.

4. Not stating clearly what the hypotheses are. You need to tell the reader what it is that you predict will happen, based on the research and theory you have reviewed. The hypotheses

need to be stated at the end of the introduction section.

5. Not stating the direction of association between the variables to be tested. For example, when a difference between groups is predicted, you need to state what differences you anticipate.

For example, will the change in one variable have a positive or negative effect on another

variable?

6

Method

The introduction is followed immediately by the method section. This section consists of a

description of what was done in the experiment in enough detail for the reader to replicate your

study. The heading “Method” is centred and bold and sub-headings (flush against the left-hand

side, bold) guide the reader through the experiment. Paragraphs are indented.

Method

Participants

The number of participants and any particulars (e.g., age, gender, ethnicity, socio- economic

status, sexual orientation) relevant to the experiment need to be included here. For example,

details such as how your participants were recruited (e.g., volunteers, first year university

students), how they were assigned to each condition (e.g., random versus non-random

allocation), and how they were rewarded for participation (e.g., credit points, chocolates, money)

should be included here.

Design

In the design section you describe what type of research design was employed (e.g., independent

groups, repeated measures, quasi-experimental, survey). You need to state the number of

independent variables and how they were combined and the dependent variable. With each

independent variable you will need to list its name, whether it was varied within or between

participants, how many levels it had, and the label for each level. For example:

The experiment involved a 2 x 3 independent groups design, with two

types of cognitive reframing exercises (finding the silver lining, generating

alternative explanations) given to each of three age groups (20 to 50 years, 51 to

70 years, 71 years and over).

Materials

Here you describe any equipment or measures used in sufficient detail to enable the reader to

purchase or construct the same or similar, in order to repeat the experiment. If you have used a

questionnaire you should provide its name and author/s, an example of the questions, and attach

the complete questionnaire as an appendix (where you are permitted to do so under copyright

law). Do not forget to cite your source in your reference list as well. You should also include

the minimum and maximum scores achievable for your measures, and what such scores might

indicate. For example, “…a maximum score of 10 indicates high job satisfaction”. In addition,

the psychometric properties of your chosen measures should also be cited, such as any data you

have on reliability and validity. This ensures that your choice of measure can be quickly

assessed as adequate for the task.

7

Procedure

This section includes a description of what was done, in what order, and with what instructions,

again in sufficient detail to allow the experiment to be repeated. If you have controlled for a

potentially confounding variable you need to also mention this (e.g., use of randomisation,

counterbalancing). You may also need to include issues such as the use of

confederates/experimenters being blind to the hypothesis, use of control groups, deception used

by experimenters and debriefing procedures. Do not start a fresh page for this section, or the

results and discussion sections.

Results

The results section follows directly after the method section, and has a centred bold heading (no

underline). It involves specifying what data were collected and the statistics used to analyse

them. Presentation of the data is often in summary form to display essential findings for your

reader. Begin with descriptive statistics (e.g., demographics, means and standard deviations) and

then present inferential statistics (e.g., t tests, ANOVAS, correlations). The outcomes of

statistical analyses may be presented in a table or a figure with a sentence or two in text

describing the findings, for example, whether the finding was significant or not, the relevant

statistic, degrees of freedom, and the significance level adopted. You may need to refer to

statistics textbooks to ensure correct expression of statistical results according to the analysis

used – this will become increasingly important as you progress through your degree program.

An example of an appropriate results section follows:

Results

….A repeated measures t test was used to test the significance of the

difference between mean depression scores of the therapy (M = 10) and control

groups (M = 17.5). Results of the t test indicated the difference to be significant,

t(10) = 4.61, p = 009, one-tailed, meaning that participants in the therapy group

reported significantly less depression.

In the above example, a non-significant result would be presented as: t(10) = 0.72, ns, one-

tailed. It is important to note that limited interpretation of the data is offered at this stage. In

addition, EITHER a table or figure may be used to display your results, but not both. Choose the

one that best presents your findings. Please note, the above example did not report effect sizes

and confidence intervals which is a requirement of APA6, but this is considered too complex for

first year students and will be taught in your later years of study. Check with your tutor and the

marking criteria for specific details on what and how results should be presented in the report.

8

Tables

When presenting tables the table number is listed above the table title. The title itself is italicised

with the first letter of each major word Capitalized, does NOT end with a full stop, and is placed

ABOVE the table. Double line spacing is continued within tables and only horizontal lines are

used to differentiate table sections. Make sure to refer to the table in text BEFORE it appears on

the page. When labelling a table the title should be able to be understood on its own.

Generally, in text you use Times New Roman 12 point font, but, when compiling a table you can

use from 8 to 12 point font to ensure your work fits on the page. A note directly below the table

is used to explain abbreviations or symbols listed in the table. General notes are denoted by

writing the word “Note” in italics followed by a full stop (Note.). Below are examples of tables

for different statistical analyses.

If you would like further information about creating tables using APA format, follow the

guidelines in The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6 th

ed, 2010).

You can find this book in the GU library (BF76.7.P83 2010).

Examples

An Example of a Table Presenting Descriptive Data

Table 1

Descriptive Data for Outcome Variables

Outcome Variable n M SD Percentage in Clinical

Range or At Risk

Depression

124

8.66

9.33

27.95

Anxiety 127 5.09 6.23 24.34

Stress 128 11.80 9.53 31.65

Violent crimes 131 2.13 7.58 19.12

Property crimes 131 1.50 8.84 12.55

9

An Example of a Table Presenting a Sample Correlation Matrix

Table 2

Intercorrelations Among Attitudes Held by GPs Towards Early Diagnosis of Dementia

1 2 3 4 5

1. Major benefits of early diagnosis -

2. Appropriate services to access .04 -

3. Early diagnosis is important .72** .19* -

4. Negative consequences from early diagnosis -.28* .14 -.13 -

5. Negative consequences from no early diagnosis .64** .19* .62** -.14 -

*p < .05. **p < .01.

An Example of a Regression Table (Hierarchical Regression)

Table 3

Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Variables Predicting Child Outcomes for Stepfamilies

________________________________________________________________________________

Variable  SE  

________________________________________________________________________________

Step 1

Parent Warmth -4.23 2.1 -.63*

Step 2

Stepparent Warmth -3.21 1.7 .15

Parent Control 0.47 1.9 .44*

________________________________________________________________________________

Note. R 2 = .31 for Step 1; R

2 change = .21 for Step 2 (p <.05). * p<.05.

10

An Example of an ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) Table

Table 4

Analysis of Variance for Classical Conditioning Experimental Condition

________________________________________________________________________________

Source df F  p

________________________________________________________________________________

Between subjects

Depression (D) 2 0.13 .14 .32

Shock (S) 1 0.79 .08 .45

D x S 2 0.42 .15 .56

D within-group error 30 (16.48)

________________________________________________________________________________

Within groups

Blocks (B) 4 3.16** .62 .01

B x D 8 1.21 .49 .09

B x S 2 2.12* .35 .04

B x D x S 8 0.78 .24 .16

B x S within group error 128 (1.46)

________________________________________________________________________________

Note. Values enclosed in parentheses represent mean square errors.

*p < .05. **p < .01.

Figures

Figures are numbered and the title is placed UNDER the figure. Unlike tables, the figure title is

presented immediately after the figure number. Note that the figure number is italicized and the

title is not. Unlike tables, you may use a Sans Serif font (Helvetica, Futura or Geneva) in the

figure itself to enhance the readers’ understanding. Figures 1 and 2 provide examples of how to

present a figure in APA style. If you would like further information about creating figures,

follow the guidelines in The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association

(6 th

ed, 2010). You can find this book in the GU library (BF76.7.P83 2010).

11

An Example of a Figure Presenting a Causal Relationship Between the Variables

Figure 1. Measures of child and couple factors in families (Phillips, 2002).

An Example of a Figure Presenting Descriptive Data (Means and Standard Errors)

Figure 2. Mean frequency of coping resource use (+SE) for younger (n = 96) and older (n = 106)

adults.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

Physical Psychological Social Financial

M e a n R

e so

u rc

e U

se

Types of Coping Resources

Younger Adults

Older Adults

Relationship

Outcomes

Child Factors

Child Behaviour Checklist

Coopersmith Self Esteem

Inventory

Dyadic Adjustment Score

(individual)

Couple together or not

12

Discussion

This section follows on directly after the results section using a centred bold heading (like for the

Method and Results sections). After presenting the results in the previous section, you are

required to evaluate and interpret the implications with respect to your original hypotheses. You

will examine, interpret, and qualify the results and draw inferences and conclusions from them.

This section should open with a clear statement of the support and non-support. Do not simply

repeat points already made; each new statement should contribute to your interpretation and to

the reader’s understanding of the problem. The discussion should assist the reader to evaluate:

 Whether or not the aim/s of the experiment were achieved;

 The fate of any hypotheses that were tested;

 The implications of the findings for theory, clinical or practical outcomes within the area of research;

 Any limitations of the experiment that need to be considered when evaluating the findings; and

 Directions for further research.

Common mistakes in writing the Discussion:

1. Not adequately linking your discussion to the hypotheses that you have tested. You need to make it clear whether the hypotheses are supported or not, and if not, why. If they are

supported there still may be other explanations for why this occurred.

2. Your discussion needs to link in with the points raised in your introduction and it needs to “hang together” correctly. Make sure to refer to these points in light of your findings.

3. Incorrect use of the word “significant” when discussing findings. Only use “significant” if you have tested a difference between groups using statistics. Never use the word

“insignificant” to describe your results.

4. Do not over claim about findings. It is better to understate your case by reporting exactly

what the data indicate, no more and no less. Remain factual and objective.

5. Repeating the statistic numbers from the results section.

13

References

Next in your report is the reference list. The reference section begins on a separate page

with the title “References” cantered but not bolded (unlike Method, Results and Discussion).

How to reference your source documentation is a crucial part of your writing and will be

explained in-depth in the section, “Referencing in Psychology”.

Appendices

In some research reports you may wish to include an appendix or appendices to provide

additional information that would be distracting to the reader (e.g., sample surveys, large tables)

if it was placed in the body of the report. Information concerning how to cite appendices is

provided in the section “Appendices”.

14

Example First Year

Research Report

Running head: MANIPULATION OF VISUAL PERCEPTION 1

The Manipulation of Visual Perception Through the Use of Language

Rhubarb A. Jueves

Student number: s1234567

Course Code: 1001PSY

Tutor: Domingo Pear

Tutorial time: Monday; 15:00- 16:20

Due Date: May 10 th

, 2013

Date Submitted: May 10 th

, 2013

Word Count: 1552

Check the marking criteria or speak to

your tutor regarding what is included in

your word count

MANIPULATION OF VISUAL PERCEPTION 2

Abstract

The aim of this study was to examine whether false memories can be generated by manipulating

the structure of questions in a questionnaire. Two groups of undergraduate psychology students

(225 females and 88 males) all watched a video of a car accident and answered questionnaires

based on their observations. It was hypothesised that by stating the car as blue for group B and

orange for group A, in one of the questions in a questionnaire, participants in those groups would

then falsely recall the car as being that colour a week later. This hypothesis was supported, and

so it was concluded that memory can be biased via suggestion.

The Abstract must include a sentence about each of

the following;

 the aim of the study, the participants,

 the findings and

 some final statement about the area

Check with your tutor to find out whether an

Abstract is required and if so, if it is included the

final word count.

Remember: Continue

page numbers on the

right for the rest of the

report.

Note that the words

‘Running Head’ only

appear on page 1 and are

omitted for the rest of

the report.

MANIPULATION OF VISUAL PERCEPTION 3

The Manipulation of Visual Perception Through the Use of Language

The fabrication of false memories by suggestion is well documented, though the methods

and levels of suggestion differentiate considerably (Loftus, 2004). Zaragoza and Mitchell (1996)

examined the effect of repeated exposure to suggestion on false memories. They predicted that

frequent exposure to suggestions based on a video of a burglary, where the false presence of

items such as gloves and a gun were reinforced, would induce high incidences of participants

recollecting the items actual presence. Their results supported their claim, and further showed

that the more participants were exposed to misleading suggestions, the more descriptive and

convoluted their recollections became. According to Loftus (2004), this notion of a false

memory being real is attributed in some cases to the extent of the sensory detail involved.

Zaragoza and Mitchell (1996) interpret these results further as being the product of participants

integrating the suggestive elements with their own perception of events that transpired in the

video.

Lindsay, Hagan, Read, Wade and Garry (2004) further explored false memories by

performing an experiment based on the manipulation of childhood memories via the inclusion of

a photograph. Subjects were told three stories from their early childhood, two of which were

factual, and a third which was not. Supplementing the suggestive information with the visual

attribute of relative class photographs, was found to double the instances of participant’s false

memories. Lindsay et al. credited their findings to people’s faith in the validity of pictorial

evidence creating an authoritative influence on their confidence of the occurrence of events.

Single exposure to suggestion is also indicated to create considerable false recollections

(Zaragoza & Mitchell, 1996). This method of suggestion is demonstrated in the Loftus and

Palmer (1974) experiment in which participant’s perception of speed in response to the

Define ‘false

memories’

Provide details about how they know this;

who did what?

Link to Loftus’ concept

MANIPULATION OF VISUAL PERCEPTION 4

manipulation of verb use in a questionnaire, and the false recollection of the presence of broken

glass after viewing a video of an accident was investigated. As predicted, the use of stronger

verbs to depict the accident such as “smashed” and “collided” consequently caused the

participants perceived speed of the vehicle to be higher. Moreover, participants were more likely

to recall the presence of broken glass in the video, when stronger verbs were used, in comparison

to the use of less forceful verbs such as “bumped” and “contacted”.

The present study was designed to expand on previous studies of false memories by

testing the influence of specific word structure in questionnaires on the recall of observed events.

In Loftus and Palmer (1974), verb use was varied, where as the present experiment altered the

adjective used. It was hypothesized that a week after viewing a video of an automobile accident,

participants would falsely recall the colour of a car as blue or orange, after being exposed to

questions in a questionnaire in the previous week which either asked “Was the young man’s blue

car parked nose in or nose out?” or “Was the young man’s orange car parked nose in or nose

out?”.

Method

Participants

Two-hundred and twenty-five female and 88 male undergraduate students at Griffith

University, Mount Gravatt campus participated in this experiment during their 1001PSY

Introduction to Cognitive and Biological Psychology tutorials. The mean age of participants was

19.79 years.

What did

they

conclude?

Finish with a specific hypothesis that predicts who (or

which condition) will be faster/slower, bigger/smaller, etc.

MANIPULATION OF VISUAL PERCEPTION 5

Design

The experiment was a between subjects design, where participants were assigned to

either Group A or Group B. The independent variable was the use of either the question “Was

the young man’s orange car parked nose in or nose out?”, or “Was the young man’s blue car

parked nose in or nose out?” The dependent variable was the participant’s recollection of the

colour of the car.

Materials

A You Tube video of an automobile accident was used in this experiment in addition to 2

separate sets of questionnaires, with specifically the key questions “Was the blue (or

alternatively “orange”) car parked nose in or nose out?” and “What color was the young man’s

car?”

Procedure

This experiment was a 2 week process in which tutorial classes were labelled either as

Group A or Group B. In each group participants were asked to watch the You Tube video

“Stupid Old Man Wrecks Ferrari” (Bagleboy550, 2007). This video was watch only once and

participants were instructed to pay careful attention as they were to be asked questions on their

observations afterwards. Once viewing was complete, participants were then given a

questionnaire to fill in based on their perception of the incident. Participants of Group A were

asked the critical question “Was the young man’s orange car parked nose in or nose out?”, whilst

the participants of Group B were asked “Was the young man’s blue car parked nose in or nose

out?” These answers were then collected by the experimenter. A week later, during the same

tutorial class, at the same time of day, participants were presented with a set of different

More detail

MANIPULATION OF VISUAL PERCEPTION 6

questions based on the video. The video was not re-watched. Participants of both groups were

asked the question “What colour was the young man’s car?”

Results

Table 1 displays the results of false car colour recollections for both subject pools. These

results indicate that stating the colour of the car as orange in the questionnaire in the first week

increases the likelihood of participants of that subject pool to recall the car as actually being

orange a week later; similarly for stating the car colour as blue.

Table 1

Distribution of Subjects Recollection of the Colour of the Car

Group Orange Blue Other

A 22 18 124

B 2 50 97

Discussion

The results of this experiment suggest that memory can be biased by suggestion. This

therefore supports the hypothesis that utilising the question “Was the young man’s orange car

parked nose in or nose out” or alternatively substituting the adjective “orange” for “blue”, would

lead to the creation of a significant number of false memories when prompted “what colour was

the young man’s car?”.

This experiment also supports the findings of Loftus and Palmer (1974), where the

manipulation of the language in a questionnaire resulted in the creation of false memories of

Centre the numbers in the

table and the table should

occupy the width of the

page

The first sentence states

whether the hypothesis

was/was not supported

MANIPULATION OF VISUAL PERCEPTION 7

videos previously viewed. Both experiments were also performed for the same duration of time,

with similar numbers of participants. The findings of Lindsay, Hagan, Read, Wade and Garry

(2004) are also supported by the findings of this experiment as both were performed over a two

week period, and both incorporated visual stimuli to induce false memories.

One methodological concern is that the experiment was conducted during a period of

time when participants may have been switching tutorials and therefore there may have been an

exchange between group participants. There was also no way to prevent participants from

viewing the You Tube video again in their own time, outside of the experiment. However, due to

the low probability of occurrence, the overall results of the experiment indicate that the

hypothesis was not invalidated by this.

The results suggest that there is a certain degree of susceptibility of our minds to input

information as witnessed truths when it is in fact not. This is particularly dangerous in judicial

situations where eye-witness testimony is needed. According to Zaragoza and Mitchell (1996),

frequent exposure to misinformation during the interrogation of eye-witnesses is not an

uncommon occurrence. Faulty memories in this case could lead to innocent people being

wrongfully convicted (Loftus, 2004), thus highlighting the importance of further understanding

the creation of false memories.

In conclusion, false memories can be produced by the manipulation of language in a

questionnaire, by altering our perceptions of objects and situations which are previously viewed.

This as reflected by the results of the current experiment which shows a significant number of

participants falsely recalling the car colour as either blue or orange.

No conclusion

in lab reports

Lindsay et al. (2004) …

How could you fix this?

Relate how your results were

similar and different to previous

research

MANIPULATION OF VISUAL PERCEPTION 8

Further suggested study is a comparison between the susceptibility of the implantation of

false memories of men in contrast to women.

Put methodology and limitations

as second last paragraph;

Followed by future directions

Expand

MANIPULATION OF VISUAL PERCEPTION 9

References

Bagleboy550. (Producer). (2007, September 23). Stupid old man wrecks Ferrari [You Tube

video]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gQnxGFYThKI

Lindsay, S. D., Hagen, L., Read, J. D., Wade, K. A., & Garry, M. (2004). True photographs and

false memories. American Psychological Society. 15, 149-154. doi: 10.1111/j.0956-

7976.2004.01503002.x

Loftus, E. F. (2004). Memories of things unseen. American Psychological Society. 13, 145-147.

doi: 10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00294.x

Loftus, E. F., & Palmer, J. C. (1974). Reconstruction of automobile destruction: An

example of the interaction between language and memory. Journal of Verbal

Learning and Verbal Behaviour. 13, 585-589. doi:10.1016/S0022-5371(74)80011-3

Zaragoza, M. S., & Mitchell, K. J. (1996). Repeated exposure to suggestion and the creation of

false memory. American Psychological Society. 7, 294-300. Retrieved from

http://hy8fy9jj4b.scholar.serialssolutions.com/?sid=google&auinit=MS&aulast=Zarago

za&atitle=Repeated+exposure+to+suggestion+and+the+creation+of+false+memories&i

d=doi:10.1111/j.14679280.1996.tb00377.x&title=Psychological+science&volume=7&i

ssue=5&date=1996&spage=294

References are listed in ALPHABETICAL order by first Author.

The first line is hanging and the others are indented.

Provide Author, Year, Title, Journal, Issue details as outlined in the

APA 6 th

Ed manual and the Loftus reference above.

23

Essay Writing

In Psychology

24

Essays for Psychology

The basics The following paragraphs offer some general information on how to write essays in psychology.

Firstly, the presentation of your essay begins with a title page and an abstract; refer to the

sections under ‘Psychology Research Papers’ for examples of each section. Your essay also

requires a structure that includes an introduction, body, and a conclusion (although headings are

not used). In a good essay, each section flows logically from the section before, and links

together to establish a coherent composition. Many authors advocate the use of topic sentences

to introduce each new paragraph. The topic sentence is then followed by several related

supporting statements, and a concluding statement that links to the next paragraph. For example,

the first sentence of this section ‘introduces’ the paragraph content that you have just read.

Introduction The introduction provides the framework for your essay, and may consist of two to three

paragraphs. In the introduction you orient your reader to the essay topic and provide a summary

of what you will discuss. You need to tell the reader what you are going to argue, outline any

limits to your approach to the topic, define any important words from the question, and tell the

reader what general conclusions you will arrive at. Not surprisingly, this section can

immediately influence a reader, and determine how well he or she grasps your argument later.

As a result, the importance of this section should not be underestimated.

Body The body of the essay is where you answer the question by developing your argument or analysis

in a logical manner. You may choose to use relevant definitions, quotes, examples, theory, and

research, to support your argument or analysis. Your choice of material will largely depend on

the topic, and whether you are required to ‘critically analyse’ the topic, or develop an argument –

these approaches are discussed in more detail below.

Conclusion Your conclusion should refer back to your introduction and show that you have answered the

question. Summarise your main points and indicate what the essay has succeeded in

demonstrating. This will give the reader a sense of completeness or closure. Make sure not to

introduce any new material at this stage, and do not include references in your conclusion.

A sample essay is attached at the end of this section.

25

What is ‘critical analysis’?

Critical analysis has very little to do with being critical in your writing. In fact, being

critical can bring you completely undone! What you need to do for academic papers is read

widely, compare theories with theories, and theorists with theorists. Different writers may – and

often do – have quite different ways of looking at the same problem. The nature versus nurture

debate is an excellent example. If one theorist proposed that biology was the only, or

determining factor in human development, then a large part of the picture would be missing –

that is, environmental, or learned, influences.

Your job, as a writer, is to identify the different theories pertinent to your question, and to

evaluate these in light of research evidence. For example, there may be a number of prominent

theorists who hold to a particular viewpoint. Their view may differ markedly from other

theorists who have developed their own models to explain the question or concept under review.

In addition, each ‘side’ of the argument may be supported OR discounted by research evidence.

You will need to explore the literature, and weigh up the research evidence, from which you

draw informed conclusions. Essentially, the process is an “… objective assessment of the

strengths and weaknesses of the theories and research findings involved” (Germov, 1996, p. 33).

While you come to terms with learning how to critically analyse your research material – not

simply describe it – there are some questions worth asking as you proceed. Bear in mind that a

theory is nothing more than one person’s explanation of a particular phenomenon. Ask yourself:

 How much confidence do I have in the study I have just read?  What aspects impressed me?  What aspects bothered me?  Do other studies come to different conclusions?  How does the theory/study/concept fit with what I already know? (Germov, 1996)

If you can address these questions to yourself during the writing process, you will be well on the

way to developing and, most importantly, demonstrating your skill at critical analysis.

Developing an argument

Your choice of words when constructing a sentence can add a great deal to how your

work is presented. For example, if your task is to develop an argument, then you will be looking

at two or more perspectives on your subject matter. Making the different elements of your

argument clear (more difficult than it sounds) to your reader can be as simple as starting a topic

sentence or a supporting sentence thus:

26

 In contrast…  On the other hand…  Joe Bloggs disagrees, stating that…  Notwithstanding the above…

Building your essay further – using ‘connectives’

If your task is to ‘discuss’ or ‘explain’ a particular topic (as sometimes occurs in an

exam), you may feel unsure of exactly how to link meaningfully related supporting statements.

One way to attack this is to use opening phrases like:

 Further to the above…  In addition, …  Nonetheless, it can be seen that…  Following from Blogg’s ideas about blah blah, …

‘Connectives’ are used to give logical order to your work. They are usually used at the

beginning of a paragraph to help the flow of the report/essay.

Time Then, next, after, while, since, at the same time, before,

now, later

Cause-effect Therefore, consequently, as a result, hence, accordingly,

because, thus

Addition In addition, furthermore, similarly, moreover, also, next,

firstly, secondly

Summarising In summary, in conclusion, to sum up, finally

Illustration

For example, for instance, specifically, in particular

Contrast Conversely, nevertheless, however, although, whereas, on

the other hand, likewise, similarly, in comparison, in

contrast, yet, while, equally

(Learning Centre, UNSW, 1994)

27

What Does This Essay Question Mean?

Before you start researching your essay you need to ask yourself “what does this topic mean?” It can be very useful to identify key words and clarify what is expected of you. Essay

questions are generally made up of three important elements:

1. INSTRUCTIONAL word/s, that tell you what to do,

2. TOPIC word/s, that tell you about your subject, and –

3. LIMITING word/s, that defines the task boundaries. (Germov, 1996)

For example, the following essay question –

“Discuss the effects of colonisation on Indigenous Australians since

1788”.

- can be understood (dissected) in the following manner….

INSTRUCTIONAL WORD  Discuss

TOPIC WORD/S  colonisation, Indigenous Australians

LIMITING WORD/S  since 1788

Other instructional words

Analyse Find the main ideas, how they are related and why they are important.

Compare To show the similarities or differences between two or more things,

with particular emphasis on the similarities.

Contrast To show the similarities or differences between two or more things,

with particular emphasis on the differences.

Criticise To give your judgement of something, showing its good and bad points.

It is not necessary to attack it.

28

Instructional words (continued)

Define Give the meaning of a term or word by distinguishing it from other

related terms (may use examples to do this).

Describe To give a detailed account of a subject in a logical sequence.

Discuss To investigate a subject by giving the details and explaining the positive

and negative aspects of it.

Evaluate To give your opinion on a subject by showing the advantages and

disadvantages.

Illustrate To explain by using concrete examples, comparisons or analogies.

Justify Give a statement of why you think something is so. Give reasons for

your beliefs.

Outline To give a general summary by using main points and subheadings.

Review To summarise a subject and critically analyse it as well.

Summarise To give a concise account of the main ideas of a subject.

(Learning Centre, UNSW, 1994)

29

Example

Essays for Psychology

Note from Course Convenor: THIS WAS THE ESSAY TOPIC. Title 1: Treating Schizophrenia: The role of psychological therapies (1500 -2000 words) This essay should include: i. a brief overview of the symptoms and diagnosis of schizophrenia (approx 200-300 words) ii. a brief description of the current pharmacological (drug) approach to the treatment of schizophrenia (approximately 200- 300words) iii. the key body of work in your essay should then discuss the role of psychological therapies in managing schizophrenia (approximately 700-900 words) iv. a final conclusion summarising the essay (approximately 200-300 words)

3 Starting references were provided and students asked to find a further 5 – 8 related references.

This is an example of a good to excellent first year essay. I have annotated it to highlight the strengths and also to point to areas where the essay could have been improved. We are extremely grateful to the student who allowed us to place this into the Red Book. Thanks!!

Running head: TREATING SCHIZOPHRENIA

1

Treating Schizophrenia: The Role of Psychological Therapies

Rhubarb A. Jueves

Student Number: 23092929

Course: 1009PSY

Tutor: Domingo Pear

Tutorial time: Tuesday; 2-4pm

Due Date: 21 st November, 2013

Date Submitted: 21 st November 2013

Word Count: 1520

Check the marking criteria or speak to

your tutor regarding what is included in

your word count

TREATING SCHIZOPHRENIA

2

Abstract

Schizophrenia is a disabling and complex disorder often presenting during adolescence and early

adulthood and is distinguished by three broad categories of symptoms; positive symptoms,

negative symptoms, and cognitive impairment. Treatment of schizophrenia involves the use of

antipsychotic medications that block abnormal dopamine pathways. Despite improvements in

pharmacological treatments, many of the symptoms prove difficult to manage. Psychological

therapies such as cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) have improved outcomes in the treatment

of affective disorders which led to the specific use of CBT for psychosis (CBTp). Variability of

results range from a number of factors including the type of CBT used, to the way therapy is

delivered. Research indicates that a multifaceted approach is necessary for achieving better

outcomes.

This is a very good abstract. The

language is clear, the sentences short

and sharp and it provides an excellent

outline of the essay.

TREATING SCHIZOPHRENIA

3

Treating Schizophrenia: The Role of Psychological Therapies

Schizophrenia is a complex and debilitating disorder affecting approximately one percent

of the population (Tarrier & Wykes, 2004). Symptoms of schizophrenia emerge during

adolescence and early adulthood and mostly persist throughout life. The high economic, social

and psychological costs of schizophrenia place it among the top ten causes of long-term

disability in the world today. Research has led to both pharmacological and psychological

advances in the treatment and management of schizophrenia allowing many diagnosed with the

disorder to live a more rewarding and meaningful life within their community (Mueser &

McGurk, 2004).

Schizophrenia is distinguished by three broad categories of symptoms; psychotic

(positive) symptoms involving false beliefs, false perceptions and/or bizarre behaviours; negative

symptoms, where basic emotional and behavioural processes are diminished or absent; and

cognitive impairment, relating to attention and concentration, learning and memory, abstract

thinking and problem solving, and psychomotor speed (Mueser et al., 2004). For a diagnosis of

schizophrenia to be made two or more of the following symptoms must be present for the

duration of one month. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth

Edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR) lists diagnostic symptoms as; delusions, hallucinations,

disorganised speech - such as incoherence, frequent derailment, grossly disorganised or catatonic

behaviour, (First & Tasman 2000, p. 640), alogia - an inability to generate spontaneous speech

(Matsumoto 2009, p.29), avolition - an inability or lack of desire to engage in motivated

activities (Matsumoto 2009, p. 73), and affective flattening (First et al., 2000, p. 640). However,

psychosis involving delusions and hallucinations is not exclusive to schizophrenia which makes

diagnosis very difficult. Criteria based on duration, dysfunction, associated substance use,

A statement about the purpose of the essay

would have been good here. Perhaps

something like “This paper will provide a

review of the current treatment approaches

to schizophrenia drawing from both

pharmacological and psychological

treatment studies.”

This is an excellent description of the

symptoms. The student understands the

concept of diagnosis and is using the current

diagnostic nomenclature from DSM IV TR

TREATING SCHIZOPHRENIA

4

bizarreness of delusions, and the presence of depression or mania are used to distinguish between

the different categories of psychotic disorders (van Os & Kapur, 2009).

Clinical management after a diagnosis of schizophrenia begins with a pharmacological

approach of antipsychotic drugs which block dopamine transmission. First generation

antipsychotics, discovered in the 1950’s such as haloperidol and chlorpromazine are effective in

the treatment of psychotic symptoms but frequently cause side-effects such as muscle stiffness,

tremors, and the neurological syndrome tardive dyskinesia which causes involuntary movements

in the body’s extremities. Evidence suggests that second–generation or atypical antipsychotic

drugs such as clozapine and aripiprazole are more clinically effective and have a better effect on

cognitive functioning then first-generation drugs. Although the side-effects of second-generation

antipsychotics have a more favourable profile they still have some potentially life threatening

drawbacks such as a dramatic lowering of the white blood-cell count (Mueser et al., 2004),

weight gain, increased triglycerides, and high cholesterol (van Os et al., 2009). However, despite

the effectiveness of anti-psychotic pharmacotherapy, a substantial number of patients experience

medication-resistant positive schizophrenia (Lindenmayer, 2000).

Research evidence supports the effectiveness of adjunct psychological therapies such as

cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) in the treatment of both negative and positive symptoms in

drug refractory schizophrenia (Sensky et al., 2000). While other medications such as

antidepressants and mood stabilisers are frequently used in the management of schizophrenia

there is limited evidence to the benefits of polypharmacy (Mueser et al., 2004). The need for a

more effective treatment of schizophrenia has led to the use of psychological interventions such

as CBT, which has been used to treat affective disorders over the last 30 years. Cognitive

behavioural techniques in psychosis were first used by Aaron T. Beck in 1952. CBT is based on

The student could have provided some

examples of what symptoms are reduced eg

positive symptoms such as hallucinations

and delusions

Again … how are they

clinically effective?

This is a nice summary and

provides a good reason for

looking for better ways of

managing schizophrenia. A

linking sentence could have

been used here.

Not entirely correct but small errors

of fact are not fatal in a first year

essay.

TREATING SCHIZOPHRENIA

5

the general principles Beck developed for treating depression and has since been adapted for the

treatment of schizophrenia. Beck’s early theory was built on behavioural theories and the

assumption that early life experiences and social environment contributed to the forming of

schemas about the self, other people and the world, which led to distortions in cognition and

negative ways of thinking. Beck believed that by evaluating their accuracy, inaccurate negative

emotional reactions resulting from thought distortion could be reduced or extinguished (Tai &

Turkington, 2009). Although Beck started this work in 1952, which was the first evidence of the

use of psychotherapy for the treatment of delusions, his main work was with depression and

anxiety. This was a shift away from the institutional and biological dominance in psychiatric

thinking generally and schizophrenia specifically (Tarrier et al., 2004).

In the 1980’s the consistent findings on family environment prompted family

interventions to be used. These interventions were strongly behavioural and were developed to

assist in reducing relapses and to facilitate the reduction of stress to family members. The key

elements of effective family interventions include; emotional support, crisis intervention, and

training and education on dealing with the illness. Early intervention proved pivotal to better

outcomes (Dixon et al., 2010). The need to address social skills which are known to be deficient

in schizophrenia led to the development of social skills training (SST). SST incorporated three

elements of social competence and interactions such as receiving skills (social perception),

processing skills (social cognition) and how the individual responds (behavioural responding or

expression). SST targeted such elements through modelling, goal setting, positive reinforcement,

role playing, community-based homework assignments, and corrective feedback. Research

indicates that SST has a moderate to average effect on negative symptoms in schizophrenia

(Kurtz & Mueser, 2008). Schizophrenia has a major impact on education and vocational

When you use a term it is often good to

provide an example so that your reader (or

marker) is clear what you mean (and your

marker knows that you know what it

means).

Expand – how early? With

whom?

TREATING SCHIZOPHRENIA

6

development, which led to the need for a supported employment program. Evidence suggests

that employment plays a critical part in the process of recovery, improvement of social skills,

and economic functioning. Supported employment combined with training in skills development

is an empirically validated approach to vocational rehabilitation based on a “place and train”

philosophy (Mueser et al., 2004). A number of recent concepts that expand the range of CBT

strategies for use in schizophrenia are; mindfulness training - training of the mind to disengage

from unhelpful thinking, meta-cognitive approaches - based on changing the way in which

thoughts are experienced and regulated, and compassionate mind training – where emphasis is

placed on increasing awareness of negative internal hostile signals, as useful adjuncts in CBT for

psychosis (Tai et al., 2009).

As the benefits of CBT were expanded to other affective disorders it became the

treatment of choice for non-psychotic conditions. This led to the development of specialised

CBT treatments for the management of psychosis in schizophrenia. CBT was not considered as a

stand-alone therapy but an addition to already established management practices. Random

control trials, specifically in the United Kingdom Mental Health Services, have shown CBT to be

effective in the treatment of positive psychotic symptoms. The research also indicates that the

specific use of cognitive behaviour therapy for psychosis (CBTp) must be evaluated on

individual needs and effectiveness. One size does not fit all and must be considered carefully in

acute psychotic phases of the disorder as compared to its use in the chronic phases (Tarrier et al.,

2004). An example of this is the effect of CBTp on hopelessness studies which indicate that this

type of therapy may not be beneficial and perhaps even detrimental on this particular symptom

(Wykes, Steel, Everitt & Tarrier, 2008). Most studies concentrate on the chronic phase of

schizophrenia as maintenance medication does not always control the symptoms of

This is clearly demonstrating that the

student has read and understood the

importance of evaluating treatments within

the context of clinical trials: the science of

psychological treatment is key here.

TREATING SCHIZOPHRENIA

7

hallucinations and delusions (Tarrier et al., 2004). A study conducted by Zimmermann, Favrod,

Trieu and Pomini (2005), showed that CBTp had a better effect on the acute psychotic phase of

the disorder then on stabilized chronic psychotic symptoms.

Variability of results may be influenced by a number of variables such as; the type of

CBT used, the timing of the intervention, family involvement in learning CBT techniques,

individualisation of therapy, the level of therapist competence, patient therapist relationship, and

the way in which the outcome was assessed. However, all studies do indicate the usefulness of

all types of CBT in a variety of settings, interactions, and symptoms targeted (Tarrier et al.,

2004). To this end a cognitive therapy scale has been developed to measure the therapist skills in

offering CBTp. A cognitive therapy scale for psychosis CTS-PSY and the cognitive therapy for

psychosis: adherence scale, have been developed to standardise outcomes from these therapies.

The need for such scales is to quantify essential nonspecific interpersonal relationships,

adherence to treatment procedures, and individual treatments, with further scale modification

required as more specific CBTp is developed. This gives a background upon which individual

therapists can empirically measure outcomes for themselves and their clients. For evidence based

psychological treatments to be recognised within mental health services, quality evaluation

methods of precise and accurate assessment of treatment benefits must be maintained (Tarrier et

al., 2004).

As can be seen from the ongoing research, a multifaceted approach is required in the

management of schizophrenia, as no individual treatment, whether it be pharmacological,

psychological or social, can control all of the symptoms. While the use of antipsychotic drugs

may dampen the symptoms of psychosis, psychological therapy holds out hope of improved

outcomes and should be viewed as a range of therapies in the management of this complex

This is good, an area for improvement

would once again have been to include

some examples of the terms to once again

demonstrate that you the student, know

what you are talking about.

TREATING SCHIZOPHRENIA

8

disorder. Variability of results indicate that individualisation of adjunct therapy may be the

cornerstone of improved outcomes in the future treatment and management of schizophrenia.

A nice conclusion. Clear, short and well

written.

TREATING SCHIZOPHRENIA

9

References

Dixon, L. B., Dickerson, F., Bellack, A. S., Bennett, M., Dickenson, D., Goldbery, R.

W., ... Kreyenbuhl, J. (2009). The 2009 schizophrenia PORT psychosocial treatment

recommendations and summary statements. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 36, 48-70. doi:

10.1093/schbul/sbp115

First, M. B., & Tasman, A. (Ed.). (2004). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental

disorders (4 th

ed.). West Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Kurtz, M. M., & Mueser, K. T. (2008). A meta-analysis of controlled research on

social skills training for schizophrenia. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,

76, 491-504. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.76.3.491

Matsumoto, D. (Ed.). (2009). The Cambridge dictionary of psychology. New York,

USA: Cambridge University Press.

Mueser, K. T., & McGurk, S. R. (2004). Schizophrenia. The Lancet, 363, 2063-2072.

Sensky, T., Turkington, D., Kingdon, D., Scott, J. I., Scott, J., Siddle, R., ... Barnes, T.

R. E. (2000). A randomized controlled trial of cognitive-behavioral therapy for

persistent symptoms in schizophrenia resistant to medication. Arch Gen

Psychiatry, 57, 165-169. doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.786.

Tai, S., & Turkington, D. (2009). The evolution of cognitive behaviour therapy for

schizophrenia: Current practice and recent developments. Schizophrenia

Bulletin, 35, 865-873. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbp080

Tarrier, N., & Wykes, T. (2004). Is there evidence that cognitive behaviour therapy is an

effective treatment for schizophrenia? A cautious or cautionary tale?

Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 1377-1401. doi:

Although it is important to make sure that your

reference list is accurate. The “authors” of the

DSM is the American Psychiatric Association.

TREATING SCHIZOPHRENIA

10

van Os, J., & Kapur, S. (2009). Schizophrenia. The Lancet, 374, 635-645.

Wykes, T., Steel, C., Everitt, B., & Tarrier, N. (2008). Cognitive behaviour therapy

for schizophrenia: Effect sizes, clinical models, and methodological rigor.

Schizophrenia Bulletin, 34, 523-537. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbm114

Zimmermann, G., Favrod, J., Trieu, V. H., & Pomini, V. (2005). The effect of

cognitive behavioural treatment of the positive symptoms of schizophrenia

spectrum disorders: A meta-analysis. Schizophrenia Research, 77, 1-9. doi:

10.1016/j.schres.2005.02.018

A good reference list, the student has

demonstrated that these have been read

by using them within the body of the

essay to support an argument or point.

1

Case-Scenario of Anne and Jude: A Practical Approach to Child-Care Placement

Rhubarb A. Jueves

Student Number: s8765432

Course Code: 3011PSY

Tutor: Domingo Pear

Tutorial time: Monday; 8 – 10am

Due Date: 6 th

May 2010

Date Submitted: 6 th

May 2010

Word Count: 2587 words

NOTE: This a third year level

essay, intended as a guide as your

studies progress.

Remember:

Running Head: CHILD-CARE

PLACEMENT (should be

included)

2

Case-Scenario of Anne and Jude: A Practical Approach to Child-Care Placement

The decision to consign one’s child into a child-care (CC) facility is often a difficult and

complicated stage affecting many parents (Gonzalez & Eyer, 1997). Simply put, whether CC is

“good” or “bad” for a child’s overall development is often confounded by a host of conflicting

literature (Brooks-Gunn, Han & Waldfogel, 2002). When taken together such literature presents

an array of interacting factors which may further complicate the decision making process

(Peterson & Seligman, 2004). Therefore, the aim of this essay is to assess the particular

challenges inherent in provided scenario (see Appendix) and suggest strategies for optimising the

CC experience and developmental outcome of the child. Deliberation will be made in regards to

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory of Development (EST; Bronfenbrenner, 1994)

and modern literature. In order to minimise ambivalence, several assumptions will be made in

reference to the scenario: The child will be subsequently referred to as Jude; Anne and Jude are

currently residing in the United States; both are of African American ethnicity and are

categorised as low socioeconomic status (SES); high-quality CC is available in Anne’s area

thereby eliminating the need to discuss the effects of low-quality CC in general; Anne is

considering seeking full-time (over 30 hours per week) employment. The precise details of

Anne’s working arrangements, relationship status or other potentially influential factors will not

be assumed; no other assumptions regarding Anne or Jude’s biological or environmentally

shaped characteristics will be made. All literature referred to will pertain to the United States

unless otherwise stated.

Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) is credited with establishing a complete theory of

lifespan development due to its emphasis on diversity, completeness and contextual influences

(Berk, 2010). EST portrays human development as evolving through bi-directional interactions

Remember:

Abbreviated title: CHILD-CARE

PLACEMENT (should be

included)

3

between the biological organism and the ecological environment, that is, the actual environments

in which human beings live their lives (Bronfenbrenner, 1994). The ecological environment is

represented as a set of interrelated rings including the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem,

macrosystem and chronosystem from the innermost level to the outermost respectively

(Bronfenbrenner).

The microsystem contains face to face activities and interpersonal relations in immediate

settings (Bronfenbrenner, 1994). Bronfenbrenner referred to these interactions as proximal

processes and considered them to be more influential than the environmental contexts in which

they transpire. The mesosystem contains linkages between two or more microsystems containing

the person, for example in relation to the child: The link between CC and the family

(Bronfenbrenner). The exosystem is comprised of linkages between two or more settings in

which at least one setting does not contain the developing person, for example in relation to the

child: The home setting and the mother’s workplace (Bronfenbrenner). The macrosystem can be

viewed as a particular culture’s blueprint for society and contains: Beliefs, material resources and

laws (Bronfenbrenner). The chronosystem is the time in which development takes place

including chronological development across the lifespan but also across historical time

(Bronfenbrenner). Bronfenbrenner (1974) maintained that development should be examined

within its ecological context, with the results of research directly influencing public policy. Due

to the impracticability for Anne to alter Jude’s macrosystem, and the chronosystem simply being

Jude’s current age at the present historical time, neither the macrosystem nor chronosystem will

be discussed subsequently.

Over the last 25 years the early experiences of young children have undergone a

considerable transformation (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early

Remember:

NO spaces between paragraphs

(as is demonstrated in this essay)

4

Child Care Research Network [NICHD ECCRN], 2006). The percentage of children that receive

regular CC prior to formal schooling has now escalated from below 25% to above 80%; with a

substantial portion of the later experiencing CC within their first two years of life (West, Denton,

& Germino-Hausken, 2000). The increasing utilisation of CC can in part be attributed to a rise

in numbers of working mothers in modern westernised society (Berk, 2010). Currently, over

60% of mothers with a child below age two are employed (Berk). Berk suggests that even

though the use of CC for infants and toddlers has become common practise, many parents are

unsure of the quality and standards of CC experiences.

An abundance of literature has examined the links between the quality of CC and the

cognitive, behavioural, language and socioemotional outcomes of children’s development

(Brooks-Gunn et al., 2002; Field 1991; Geoffroy et al., 2007; NICHD ECCRN, 2006; Vermeer,

van Ijzendoorn, De Kruif, Fukkink & Tavecchio, 2008). Typically early research highlighted

poor carer ratios, large group size, inadequate carer training; and the associated negative

outcomes in children’s immediate well-being (Belsky, 1990). In spite such findings, the NICHD

ECCRN cautions that the validity of early research may be questionable due to a lack of control

for confounds such as selection bias. The NICHD ECCRN suggests that differences in family

genetics, education and income influence the home environment and CC decisions, which in turn

are associated with CC outcomes. Consistent with this idea, Bronfenbrenner’s (1994) notion that

an individual’s genotype (genetic constitution), phenotype (observable constitution) and

microsystem structures are all influential in children’s development, may indicate that the benefit

or harm of CC is already partially determined before enrolment.

To address this issue Brooks-Gunn et al. (2002) conducted a longitudinal study in which

they examined the association between CC placement due to maternal employment within the

5

first 12 months and cognitive outcomes of children as measured within the first three years of a

child’s life. The researchers predicted that certain subgroups of the population would be

particularly at risk for poorer outcomes and that any effects may be mediated by the type of

home environment experiences. Using data from NICHD ECCRN (1999; 2000) the researchers

measured the quality of the home environment with the Home Observation of the Measurement

of the Environment Scale (HOME); and cognitive development with the Bracken School

Readiness Scale. They found that negative effects observed in children with working mothers

were pronounced in instances where mothers worked more than 30 hours per week. Moreover,

children with mothers rated as low on maternal sensitivity by the NICHD ECCRN (2006) were

categorised as being susceptible to negative outcomes. In support of this, Bradley and Vandell

(2007) noted that in instances where longer working hours were associated with low maternal

sensitivity, a reduction in positive engagement between mother and child was also observed.

In light of previous research (Bradley & Vandell, 2007; Brooks-Gunn et al., 2002) on

subgroup susceptibility, Bronfenbrenner’s (1994) emphasis on context and bi-directional

proximal processes within the microsystem seems particularly relevant. Bronfenbrenner’s view

of the ecological environment as an ever-changing and unique structure may be beneficial in

accounting for subgroup susceptibilities to maternal employment. Papero (2005) endorses this

viewpoint contending that one of the factors which substantially impacts on proximal processes

between mother and child is maternal depression. Depressed mothers typically view their

parenting style negatively; doubt their ability to have a positive impact on their child’s

development; and are reluctant to challenge their child’s opposition (Radke-Yarrow, Cummings,

Kuczynski & Chapman, 1985).

6

Although it could be argued that depression is a complex and multi-faceted phenomenon,

Papero (2005) suggests that regardless of causal diagnosis, a mother’s ability to maintain

sensitive and responsive parenting is the most crucial aspect of a child’s development and is

compromised by all forms of depressive symptomology. In contrast to this, Field (1991) claims

that the cause of maternal depression should not be discounted, and suggests that mothers under

financial strain may desire to work, and as a result become depressed while waiting for CC

openings. Moreover, financial pressure is often associated with maternal depression in instances

where mothers feel forced into employment due to desire to provide full-time maternal care

(Papero). Anne’s previous decision to leave work and provide full-time primary care for Jude

indicates that she may believe full-time maternal care is important for Jude’s development.

Therefore, Anne’s belief and financial position may place her at risk for maternal depression. In

addition, upon securing employment, excess stress resulting from working and parenting could

limit Anne’s ability to provide sensitive care (NICHD ECCRN, 2006). Consequently, it may be

reasonable to assume that Anne could benefit from regular medical examinations.

Bronfenbrenner and Morris (1998) maintain that multiple unstable characteristics of

connected systems, such as maternal depression, low income, and irregular childcare can have a

synergistic effect by reinforcing each other and producing cumulative effects that are likely to

jeopardise a child’s development. In such instances developmental benefits of regular CC may

be observed, and in which case may be explained via the compensatory/protective hypothesis

(Geoffroy et al., 2007). Geoffroy et al. elucidates that CC may act as a protective factor by

compensating for limited resources in the home environment, particularly in low SES families.

Consistent with this, Lamb and Ahnert (2006) assert that children from low SES families are

frequently enrolled in community-based CC which has superior carer-child ratios and smaller

7

group sizes than the majority of CC centres attended by children from middle SES families. In

this way, the opportunity to attend community-based CC afforded by Anne’s low SES status may

inadvertently provide a positive impact on Jude’s development. Perhaps this may be interpreted

as evidence that high quality CC can counter the reinforcing properties of synergestic effects

proposed by Bronfenbrenner and Morris (1998).

Burchinal et al. (2000) conducted a longitudinal study which examined the relationship

between the quality of CC and the associated cognitive, language and communication

development in children aged between 6 and 36 months. The researchers were particularly

interested in children deemed to be vulnerable in relation to ethnicity, CC quantity and SES. For

this reason they restricted recruitment to African American children attending at least 30 hours

per week of community based CC in low SES environments. Developmental assessments were

made using Bayley Scales of Infant Development (cognitive), Sequenced Inventory of

Communication Development (language) and Communication and Symbolic Behaviour Scales

(communication skills). The researchers found that when controlling for selection bias and

family characteristics, higher quality CC was associated with increased cognitive, language and

communication skills over time. In addition they determined that the quality of CC in infancy

tended to be poor on average, and improve linearly towards the pre-school years. Therefore, in

an effort to optimise Jude’s CC experience, it may be beneficial for Anne to utilise the three

months before Jude’s possible enrolment to compare and contrast the particular age-specific care

provided by CC centres in her area. Moreover, it may be beneficial to determine the specific

characteristics of CC which contribute to its quality and hence, its developmental outcomes

(NICHD ECCRN, 2006).

Consider:

Writing ‘and colleagues’ instead

of ‘et al’ in a sentence. Makes the

sentence more coherent. Write as

you would speak.

8

The NICHD ECCRN (2006) insists that when making predictions for a child’s

development that multiple characteristics of CC experience must be considered. The NICHD

ECCRN examined developmental outcomes at ages 15, 24, 36 and 54 months in over 1300

children that had received prior regular CC. They observed that higher quality CC (as

operationalised by cognitive and language stimulation as well as responsive and sensitive

caregiving) was associated with almost all cognitive, language, preacademic and socioemotional

developmental outcomes. In addition, they noted that children in high-quality CC were

frequently rated by caregivers as displaying more prosocial behaviours. In consideration of the

NICHD ECCRN’s stance on the importance of CC quality, Anne’s search for optimal CC may

be enhanced by comparing and contrasting the characteristics of CC quality as operationalised by

the NICHD ECCRN. In this way she may be able to refine her choices by eliminating those CC

centres that are indicative of providing lower quality experiences in regards to the operational

dimensions.

Anne’s choice of a CC centre may have direct implications for Jude according to

Bronfenbrenner’s (2006) notion of the means by which ecological environments change.

Bronfenbrenner reasons that whenever individuals add or change roles in their environment an

ecological transition results: That is, a change in the breadth of one’s microsystem.

Consequently, Anne’s decision to expand Jude’s microsystem with the addition of a new

structure (CC) would also inadvertently create an additional mesosystem (CC to family). In this

way, the caregiver-parent relationship would become an important dimension of the ecology of

children within CC (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Consistent with this notion, Shpancer (2002)

indicates that CC outcomes are influenced by caregiver-parent relationships, which in turn are

dependent on caregivers’ perceptions of parents.

9

Shpancer (2002) suggests that caregivers’ negative evaluations of parents may stem from

their attitude towards working mothers. In support of this, Galinsky (1990) reported that 24% of

caregivers participating in the National Child Care Staffing Study had negative attitudes towards

maternal employment. Moreover, Galinsky (1990) advised that mothers are often unfavourably

perceived due to their general lack of desire for extensive communication with the caregiver.

This may partially explain Kontos and Dunn’s (1989) findings that mothers displaying a limited

knowledge of CC services and a reluctance to interact, or request advice were valued less by

caregivers. In consideration of previous research (Galinsky, 1990; Shpancer, 2002) on

perceptions of caregivers, Anne’s status as a working mother may attract negative evaluations

from CC staff. In attempting to counter such evaluations and ensure a beneficial mesosystem for

Jude, Anne may have to display enthusiasm for communication and be available for interaction

with caregivers (Kontos & Dunn, 1989).

Berk (2010) suggests that the ability to maintain developmentally favourable

mesosystems is partially dependant on the degree to which an individual’s exosystem is

conducive. Berk contends that adequate leave for parents with sick children and flexible

working schedules can enhance children’s development. In support of this, results of the data

analysis conducted by the NICHD ECCRN (2006) were directed towards the need for specific

policy changes including: Extended welfare benefits, flexible working schedules and paid

parental leave at any time within the first five years following child birth. Although directly

changing exosystem policy may be an impractical objective for Anne; the work conducted by the

NICHD ECCRN indicates that it may be beneficial for Anne to examine prospective workplace

policies, specifically in regards to employer flexibility. In this way Anne may be able to

negotiate a position within a company that is considerate of her status as a mother.

10

Subsequently, extra flexibility in the workplace may assist Anne in retaining her position, which

according to Brooks-Gunn et al. (2002) can impact positively on child development by ensuring

adequate resources in the home environment. Another method for increasing home resources is

highlighted by Brooks-Gunn (2004), who suggests that low SES families may have access to

community or home based interventions; which provide health services, social support and

parental education aimed at enhancing children’s development. In particular Anne could

consider applying for the Early Head Start program, which ensures high-quality CC for children

from low SES families (NICHD ECCRN).

Overall, CC is a complex multidimensional phenomenon (Vandell, 2004).

Developmental outcomes tend to be determined not only through multiple dimensions but also

through the subtle and dynamic interactions of their underlying components (Shpancer, 2006).

In light of this, it could be argued that the multiple systems incorporated within EST placed it in

a unique position for analysing developmental outcomes specific to Anne and Jude’s situation.

However, the multiple systems which comprise EST are often considered to be its greatest

strength and its greatest downfall (Ungar, 2002). More specifically, EST has been criticised for

neglecting to explain why connections exist and why situations occur (Ungar). Nevertheless,

Bronfenbrenner (1994) asserts that the principal goal of EST is not to validate hypotheses or

obtain answers. Bronfenbrenner maintains that the primary scientific aim of EST is to provide a

theoretical framework that when applied, will lead to advances in discovery of the processes, and

circumstances that shape the course of human development. Therefore, the main benefits of EST

may be its suitability as a complementary theory to other developmental theories, or its

usefulness in highlighting areas of importance for future developmental research.

11

By using an EST framework, modern research has been utilised to highlight Anne and

Jude’s probable challenges and formulate strategies for optimising Jude’s CC experience and

developmental outcomes. It was determined that Anne’s ethnicity, low SES, and intention to

work for 30 hours or more per week placed Jude at risk for poor developmental outcomes. This

highlighted the importance of protecting Jude from negative outcomes by providing high-quality

CC as measured by cognitive and language stimulation, and sensitive and responsive caregiving.

In addition, strategies that Anne could employ to improve the parent-caregiver relationship and

to secure flexible employment were discussed. In this way a practical or problem-solving

approach has been implemented. As a result any ambivalence regarding whether or not CC

placement is best for Anne and Jude has been reduced, and alternatively, the issue of how Anne

and Jude can make the best of CC has been presented.

12

References

Belsky, J. (1990). Parental and nonparental child care and children’s socioemotional

development: A decade in review. Journal of Marriage and Family, 54, 885-903.

Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.libraryproxy.griffith.edu.au/stable/353308

Berk, L. E. (2010) Development through the lifespan (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Bradley, R. H., & Vandell, D. L. (2007). Child care and the well-being of children. Archives of

Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 161, 669-676. doi: 10.1001/archpedi.161.7.669

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1974). Ecology of childhood. Child Development, 45, 1–5.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and

design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human development. In M. Gauvain, & M.

Cole (Eds.), Readings on the development of children (3rd ed., pp. 3-8). New York:

Freeman.

Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (1998). The ecology of developmental processes. In W.

Damon, & R. M. Learner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: (5th ed., pp. 993–1028).

New York: Wiley.

Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (2006). The bio-ecological model of human development.

In R.M. Learner (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (6th ed., pp. 297-342). Hoboken, NJ:

Wiley.

Brooks-Gunn, J. (2004). Intervention and policy as change agents for young children. In P.L.

Chase Lansdale, K. Kiernan, & R.J. Friedman (Eds.), Human development across lives and

generations: The potential for change (pp. 293-340). New York, NY: Cambridge

University Press.

Remember:

Centre and NO bold (as

demonstrated here).

13

Brooks-Gunn, J., Han, W. J., & Waldfogel, J. (2002). Maternal employment and child cognitive

outcomes in the first three years of life: The NICHD ECCRN study of early child care.

Child Development, 73, 1052-1072. doi: 10.1111/1467-8624.00457

Burchinal, M. R., Roberts, J. E., Riggins, R., Zeisel, S. A., Neebe, E., & Bryant, D. (2000).

Relating quality of center-based child care to early cognitive and language development

longitudinally. Child Development, 71, 339-357. doi: 10.1111/1467-8624.00149

Field, T. (1991). Quality infant day-care and grade school behaviour and performance. Child

Development, 62, 863-870. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.libraryproxy.griffith.

edu.au/stable/1131183

Galinsky, E. (1990). Why are some parent/teacher partnerships clouded with difficulties? Young

Children, 45(1), 38–39.

Geoffroy, G., Cote, S. M., Borge, A. I. H, Larouche, F., Seguin, J. R., & Rutter, M. (2007).

Association between nonmaternal care in the first year of life and children’s receptive

language skills prior to school entry: The moderating role of socioeconomic status Journal

of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 490–497. doi 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01704.x

Gonzalez-Mena, J. & Eyer, D. W. (1997). Infants, toddlers and caregivers. Mountain View, CA:

Mayfield.

Kontos, S., & Dunn, L. (1989). Attitudes of caregivers, maternal experiences with day care, and

children’s development. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 10 (1), 37–51.

doi:10.1016/0193-3973(89)90013-0

Lamb, M. E., & Ahnert, L. (2006). Nonparental child care: Context, concepts, correlates, and

consequences. In K. A. Renninger, & I.E. Sigel (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology (6th

ed., pp. 700-778). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Remember:

The addition of ‘doi’ reference, if

journal articles are obtained

online. This complies with APA

6.

14

NICHD (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development) Early Child Care Research

Network. (2006). Child-care effect sizes for the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and

Youth Development. American Psychologist, 61, 99-116. doi: 10.1037/0003-

066X.63.3.146

Papero, A. L. (2005). Is early, high-quality daycare an asset for the children of low-income,

depressed mothers? Developmental Review, 25(2), 181-211. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2004.10.001

Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. (2004). Character strengths and virtues. New York: Oxford

University Press.

Radke-Yarrow, M., Cummings, E. M., Kuczynski, L., & Chapman, M. (1985). Patterns of

attachment in two- and three-year-olds in normal families and families with parental

depression. Child Development, 56, 884–893. Retrieved from

http://www.jstor.org.libraryproxy.griffith.edu.au/stable/1130100

Shpancer, N. (2006). The effects of daycare: Persistent questions, elusive answers. Early

childhood research quarterly, 21, 227-237. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2006.04.006

Ungar, M. (2002). A deeper, more social ecological social work practice. The Social Service

Review, 76(3), 480-497. doi: 10.1086/341185

Vandell, D. L. (2004). Early child care: The known and the unknown. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly,

50, 387–414. doi: 10.1353/mpq.2004.0027

Vermeer, H. J., van Izjendoorn, M. H., De Kruif, R. E. L., Fukkink, R. G., & Tavecchio, L. W.

C. (2008). Child care in the Netherlands: Trends in quality over the years 1995-2005. The

Journal of Genetic Psychology, 169, 360-385. doi: 10.3200/GNTP.169.4.360-385

West, J., Denton, K., & Germino-Hausken, E. (2000). America’s kindergartens. Washington,

DC: National Center for Education Statistics.

15

Appendix

1) Anne is the parent of a 9-month-old child. When her child was born, she decided to give up

work to become a full-time parent and primary caregiver. Due to financial difficulties, however,

she is now considering going back to work in 3 months time and placing her child in a day-care

nursery. Discuss the pros and cons of doing this with reference to developmental research and

theories.

57

Referencing

In Psychology

APA 6

58

Referencing in Research Reports and Essays

‘In-text’ referencing is the means by which you acknowledge the source documentation used in

your written work. Like other academic disciplines, psychology requires you to apply a

consistent style of referencing throughout your work.

One work by a single author

Erikson (1963) introduced a lifespan perspective to the developmental progression of

human beings.

OR

The developmental progression of human beings is often viewed according to a lifespan

perspective (Erikson, 1963).

One work by two authors

Too much parental control may lead to a child’s inhibition of self-expression (Papalia &

Olds, 1995).

OR

According to Papalia and Olds (1995), too much parental control may lead to a child’s

inhibition of self-expression.

One work by three to five authors (you only need to cite the names of all the authors the first time you use them)

In their seminal work on childhood attachment, Smith, Smith, and Bloggs (1997) asserted

that… (first citation)

In a later study, Smith et al. (1997) replicated their original results with one major

difference… (second citation)

One work by six or more authors (you only cite the name of the first author with et al. each time you cite the reference)

According to Jones et al. (2000), emotional expression in the families of people with

schizophrenia is … (every citation)

OR

The research to date on marital happiness in stepfamilies is problematic because it is based on a

comparison with the marital happiness of first marriage families (Gray et al., 1998).

59

Authors with the same surname

Use the authors’ initials in all citations to avoid confusion. For example:

S. Freud and A. Freud (1929) both averred the significance of early childhood

experience.

Citing two or more sources for the same concept

1. List your sources in alphabetical order of authors’ names.

Recent theorists have contributed substantially to our understanding of Post

Traumatic Stress Disorder as a product of family dysfunction (Herman, 1994;

Terr, 1995; Van Der Kolk, 1996).

2. If the publications are by the same author, order them according to year of publication.

Later writers acknowledged the possibility that family dysfunction may affect the

emergence of PTSD symptoms (Terr, 1993, 1994, 1995).

3. If the publications are by the same author AND are in the same year, add suffixes to your references to distinguish one from another.

Terr acknowledged the possibility that family dysfunction may affect the

emergence of PTSD symptoms in children (1994a, 1994b).

Citing an author’s ideas that are listed in another

person’s book/article

First avoid using secondary sources; it is always better to seek out the original source. When you

reference an author’s idea that is listed in another person’s book/article you need to include the

name of the original author/s (e.g., Kohut) together with the author and date of the book/article

from which you have cited the information/idea (e.g., as cited in Goldstein, 1990). For example:

According to Kohut (as cited in Goldstein, 1990), broader insight, greater

autonomy of ego functions, and increased control over impulsiveness may

accompany these gains.

In the reference list you only include the details of the journal/book which you have read

yourself (e.g., Goldstein, 1990).

60

Citing electronic material in text

To cite a specific part of an electronic source, indicate the page, chapter, figure, table, or

equations in text, as shown in the example below.

(Cheek & Buss, 1981, p. 332) or (Shimamura, 1989, chap. 3)

Note: For internet articles which do not provide page numbers, use the paragraph number,

preceded by the paragraph symbol ¶ or the abbreviation para (e.g., Myers, 20000, ¶ 5). If neither

paragraph nor page number are visible, cite the heading and the number of the paragraph

following it to direct the reader to the location of the material (e.g., Beutler, 2000, Conclusion

section, para. 1).

Referencing within a paragraph

Once you have referenced to a study in a paragraph, you do not need to include the year of

the citation again (in subsequent references to the same study) as long as the study cannot be

confused with other studies.

In a recent study of reaction times, Walker (2000) described the method… Walker also

found…

Personal communications

Personal communications including email messages, private conversations or interviews

that you conducted with another person, should be cited in-text but because they do not contain

recoverable data, do NOT cite them in your reference list. To cite a personal communication in-

text, provide initials and last name of the communicator, the personal communication, and an

approximate date in your essay. For example:

P. Smith also claimed that many of her students had difficulties with APA style (personal

communication, November 3, 2002).

Lecture material

Similar to personal communications material presented during a lecture should be cited in-

text but NOT in your reference list, unless it is ‘recoverable’ material (i.e., posted on a public

website). An example of how to reference a lecture in-text is provided below:

In an Introduction to Literature lecture at Capital Community College on April 14, 2004,

Professor Charles Darling described William Carlos Williams’ poem as a barnyard snapshot (C.

W. Darling, ENG 102 lecture, April 14, 2004).

61

Referencing Quotations Correctly

Quotes should be used sparingly; it is better to show the reader that you understand the material

by writing it in your own words. However, there are times when a succinct and clear quotation

can enhance the readability of your essay. Quotes should be clearly indicated by double

quotation marks if less than 40 words, and by indenting them five to seven spaces (or ½ an inch)

if 40 or more words. Quotes and other key items of information need to be appropriately

referenced, indicating the author, date of publication and page number.

Examples of short quotes in text (less than 40 words)

Example 1:

This is not to say that borderline personality organisation is transitory or fluctuating, but

rather a stable pathological structure that becomes “entrenched and fixed, and affects all later

personality functioning” (Goldstein, 1990, p. 19).

Example 2:

According to Goldstein, Kernberg “hypothesises too much aggression as

etiologic, [but] he does not say what causes this overabundance of aggression” (1995, p.

330).

Example of a large quote (40 or more words)

According to Kernberg (1989) people with borderline personality disorder are:

…those who present serious difficulties in their interpersonal relationships and

some alteration of their experience of reality but with essential preservation of

reality testing. Such patients also present contradictory character traits, chaotic

coexistence of defences against and direct expression of primitive “id contents”

in consciousness (p. 130).

62

Omission of words in a quote

If you have a long direct quote that has words which are redundant to your point you can

omit a section. To do this you need to use three full stops (…) to highlight your omission.

General Reference List Principles

Authors’ names Invert authors’ names (i.e., give the surname first, then the initials). Separate surnames from

initials with a comma. Separate initials with a full stop and a space. Separate different names

with a comma. For two or more authors, separate the last name from the rest with a comma, then

an ampersand (“&”). Do not use ‘et al.’ in the reference list. Always give all the authors’

names. When referencing the editors of a book you need to list the author’s initials first,

followed by their surname. See the book chapter example on the previous page.

Date Provide the year of publication of the reference in brackets followed by a full stop. For books,

this is the most recent copyright date, and is usually found on the page after the title page. For

journals the year is the publication date of the journal. For translations, give the date of the

translation, and add the date of the original work in parentheses after the end of the reference.

Title Provide the title of the reference exactly as it appears in the original, including the original

spelling. Capitalise the first letter only of book, journal article, and book chapter titles and the

first letter of a word appearing after a colon ‘:’ in the title. Capitalise all major words in journal

titles. Italicise book titles and journal titles.

Format Use a hanging indent of five to seven spaces (½ an inch) and double space each reference.

Order References must be in alphabetical order of first author’s surname. Do not number references.

 One-author references precede multiple-author references beginning with the same surname {e.g., Alleyne, R. L. (2001) precedes Alleyne, R. L., & Evans, A. J. (1999)}

 References with the same first author and different second or third authors are arranged alphabetically based on surname of the second or third author. (e.g., Gosling, J. R., & Jerald,

K. (2000) precedes Gosling, J. R. & Telvin, D. F. (1996)}.

63

 References with the same author(s) in the same order are arranged by year of publication, the earliest first (e.g., Cabading, J. R., & Wright, K. (2000) precedes Cabading, J. R., & Wright,

K. (2001)}.

 References with the same author(s) and year, are arranged alphabetically by the first word of the title, and distinguish references by single lower case letters immediately after the year

(e.g., Smith, 1997a).

Referencing in your Reference List

The reference section begins on a new page with a centred heading (no bold or underline). The

reference list is only to include those references you have cited in your assignment. Below are

some examples of how to reference the more common items. (You may need to check the APA

Publication Manual (6 th

ed.) for those not covered here).

An Example of a Reference List

Basic Forms for Sources in Print

Journal Article (print copy)

APA COMPONENTS

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Article title. Journal Title Italicized and

Capitalised, volume number also italicized, (issue number if applicable, but not

italicized), start page-finish page.

Example:

Lindsay, S. D., Hagen, L., Read, J. D., Wade, K. A., & Garry, M. (2004). True photographs and

false memories. American Psychological Society. 15, 149-154.

Journal Article (electronic copy/ retrieved electronically) (For articles received from online publications that are exact duplicates of those in print versions – see later section

on ‘Referencing Internet Periodicals’ for more information)

APA COMPONENTS

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Article title. Journal Title Italicized and

Capitalised, volume number also italicized, (issue number if applicable, but not

italicized), start page-finish page. doi:

64

Example:

Lindsay, S. D., Hagen, L., Read, J. D., Wade, K. A., & Garry, M. (2004). True photographs and

false memories. American Psychological Society, 15, 149-154. doi: 10.1111/j.0956-

7976.2004.01503002.x

Journal Article in Press (posted online in a pre-print archive)

APA COMPONENTS

Author, A. A. (in press). Article title. Journal Title Italicized and Capitalised. Retrieved from

URL

Example:

Briscoe, R. (in press). Egocentric spatial representation in action and perception. Philosophy

and Phenomenological Research. Retrieved from http://cogprints.org/5780/1/ECSRAP.

F07.pdf

Books

APA COMPONENTS

Author, A. A. (year). Book title italicized. Place of publication: Publisher.

Example: Bacal, H. A., & Newman, K. M. (1990). Theories of object relations: Bridges to self psychology.

New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

E-Books (Electronic version of a print book)

APA COMPONENTS

Author, A. A. (year). Book title italicized [Adobe Digital Editions version]. doi:

Example: Schiraldi, G. R. (2001). The post-traumatic stress disorder sourcebook: A guide to healing,

recovery, and growth [Adobe Digital Editions version]. doi:10.1036/00713937722

E-Books (where there is no print version)

65

APA COMPONENTS

Author, A. A. (n.d.). Book title italicized. Retrieved from http

Example: O’Keefe, E. (n.d.). Egoism & the crisis in Western values. Retrieved from http://www.

onlineoriginals.com/showitem.asp?itemID=135

Book Chapters

APA COMPONENTS

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (year). Chapter title. In A. Editor & B. Editor (Eds.), Book title

italicized (pp. start page-finish page). Place of publication: Publisher.

Example:

Cooper, S. H. (1993). The self construct in psychoanalytic theory: A comparative view. In Z. V.

Segal & S. J. Bladd (Eds.), The self in emotional distress: Cognitive and psychodynamic

perspectives (pp. 41-67). New York, NY: Guilford.

A Book or Article with no Author Named

APA COMPONENTS

Title of article or book italicized. (year). Place of publication: Publisher.

Example:

Merriam-Webster’s collegiate dictionary (10th ed.). (1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam-

Webster.

Newspaper Article

APA COMPONENTS

Author, A. A. (year, month date). Article title. Newspaper Title Italicized and Capitalised, page

number (p.) or page numbers (pp.).

Example:

Schwartz, J. (1993, September 30). Obesity affects economic, social status. The Washington

Post, pp. A1, A4.

66

Brochure

APA COMPONENTS

Government or Corporate Agency. (year). Brochure title italicized [Brochure]. Place of

Publication: Author.

Example:

Research and Training Centre on Independent Living. (1993). Guidelines for reporting and

writing about people with disabilities (4 th

ed.) [Brochure]. Lawrence, KS:Author.

Reports from the Government and Other Organizations

APA COMPONENTS

Government Agency, Group or Authors. (year). Report title italicized (report, contract or

monograph number). Place of publication: Publisher.

Example:

National Institute of Mental Health. (1990). Clinical training in serious mental illness

(DHHS Publication No. ADM 90-1679). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing

Office.

Published Doctoral Thesis

APA COMPONENTS

Author, A. A. (year). Title of thesis (Doctoral thesis, Name of University, City, Country).

Retrieved from http

Example:

Horrigan, L. M. (2006). A prardox-based approach to the study and practice of organizational

change (Doctoral thesis, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia). Retrieved from

http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/uploads/approved/adt-QGU20061023.132401/

public/02Whole.pdf

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Published Conference Papers

APA COMPONENTS

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (year). Paper title. Proceedings of the Name of

Conference, Place of conference, volume number italicized, start page-finish page.

Example:

Cynx, J., Williams, H., & Nottebohm, F. (1992). Hemispheric differences in avian song

discrimination. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 89, 1372-1375.

Unpublished Conference Papers

APA COMPONENTS

Chairperson, A. A. (Chair), Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (year, month). Title of talk

itaclicized. Symposium conducted at the meeting of the Title of Organisation, Place of

symposium.

Example:

Rosenthal, T. L. (Chair), Lichstein, K. L., Johnson, R. S., Womack, T. D., Dean, J. E., &

Childers, C. K. (1990, June). Relaxation therapy for poly-pharmacy use in elderly

insomniacs and noninsomniacs. Symposium conducted at the meeting of the First

International Congress of Behavioral Medicine, Uppersala, Sweden.

Magazine Article (print copy)

APA COMPONENTS

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year, month date). Article title. Magazine title

italicized, volume number also italicized, (issue number if applicable, but not italicized),

start page-finish page.

Example:

Henry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in today’s schools. Time, 135, 28-31.

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Journal Article with eight or more authors

For references with six or seven authors, list all the names in the reference. However, if there

are more than seven authors then list the first six then insert ellipses and add the last author’s

name.

APA COMPONENTS

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C., Author, D. D., Author, E. E., Author, F.

F.,…Author, Z. Z. (year). Article title. Journal title italicized, volume number also

italicized, (issue number if applicable, but not italicized), start page-finish page. doi:

Example:

Spector, P. E., Allen, T. D., Poelmans, S. A. Y. Lapierre, L. M., Cooper, C. L., O’Driscoll,

M.,…Widerszal-Bazyl, M. (2007). Cross national differences in relationships of work

demands, job satisfaction, and turnover intentions with work-family conflict. Personnel

Psychology, 60, 805-835. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-6570.2007.00092.x

Electronic Sources

There are two major guidelines for citing Internet sources:

1. Whenever possible reference specific documents rather than home or menu pages; 2. Provide addresses that work.

The 6th edition of the APA guide recommends using ‘DOI’ numbers over web addresses,

because DOIs are designed to be more stable, whereas web addresses (URLs) quite often change.

The minimum requirement for citing Internet references includes the document title or

description, the date of publication AND/OR retrieval, and the Digital Object Identifiers (DOI),

or failing that, an Internet address (the universal retrieval link referred to as the URL). Wherever

possible, the author/s of the document should also be included. If the author/s is/are not

identified, the document title may be used instead. Use (n.d.)., when a publication date is not

available. It is crucial that the DOI or the URL is transcribed to your document as faithfully as

possible, as the smallest error may render the DOI or the URL inaccessible. We suggest you

copy and paste the DOI or URL so that the alphanumeric string is exact.

 Please provide the DOI if one has been assigned to the content. Publishers who follow best practice publish the DOI clearly on the first page of an article.

 Use this format in references: doi:xxxxxxxxx

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 When a DOI is used, no additional retrieval information is required to identify or find the content.

 If no DOI has been assigned to the material, provide the URL (web address).

The components of a URL are as follows:

Protocol Host Name Path to Document File name of specific

document

http: // www.apa.org / monitor/oct00 / workplace.html

The protocols recognized by most browsers are hypertext transfer protocol (http), hypertext

transfer protocol secure (https), and file transfer protocol (ftp). All protocols should be followed

by a colon and two forward slashes (e.g., http://). The host name identifies the server on which

the files reside, which is often the address for an organization’s home page (e.g.,

http://www.apa.org is the address for APA’s home page). Although many host names start with

‘www’ not all do. The rest of the address indicates the directory path leading to the document.

Ensure that you reproduce this part of the URL exactly as it appears (with uppercase and

lowercase letters and all punctuation). Note also that Internet-only citations appearing in your

reference list DO NOT end with a period or full-stop (.), because punctuation marks have a

different meaning in the context of URLs.

Referencing Internet Periodicals

Journal Article (retrieved electronically over the internet –

based on a print source)

APA COMPONENTS

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Article title. Journal Title Italicized and

Capitalised, volume number also italicized, (issue number if applicable, but not

italicized), start page-finish page. doi:

Example:

Lindsay, S. D., Hagen, L., Read, J. D., Wade, K. A., & Garry, M. (2004). True photographs and

false memories. American Psychological Society. 15, 149-154. doi: 10.1111/j.0956-

7976.2004.01503002.x

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Article in an Internet-Only Journal

APA COMPONENTS

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of journal,volume

number italicized. Retrieved from http://hostname/pathtodocument/filename

Example:

Fredrickson, B. L. (2000, March). Cultivating positive emotions to optimize health and well

being. Prevention and Treatment, 3. Retrieved from http://journals.apa.org/

prevention/volume3/pre0030001a.html

Referencing Internet Non-periodicals

Stand-Alone Internet Document

APA COMPONENTS

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Document title italicized. Retrieved

from http://hostname/pathtodocument/filename

Example:

Dewey, R. A. (2002). Psych web by Russ Dewey. Retrieved from http://www.psywww.com

Multi-page Internet Document by an Organization

APA COMPONENTS

Name of Organization (Date of publication). Document title italicized. Retrieved from

http://hostname/pathtodocument/filename

Example:

Greater New Milford (Ct) Area Healthy Community 2000, Task Force on Teen and Adolescent

Issues. (2000). Who has time for a family meal? You do! Retrieved from

http://www.familymealtime.org

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Section or Chapter of an Internet Document

APA COMPONENTS

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of chapter or section. In Title of book

or larger document italicized (chapter or section number). Retrieved from

http://hostname/pathtodocument/filename

Example:

The Foundation for a Better World. (2000). Pollution and banana cream pie. In Great chefs cook

with chlorofluorocarbons and carbon monoxide (Chap. 3). Retrieved from

http://www.bam.com/cream/pollution/bananas.html

The above examples do not cover all the possibilities for referencing Internet sources.

Therefore, it will be important to check the APA Publication Manual if your citation type is not

included above. One of the problems often encountered by markers is that Internet sources cited

by students are not considered sound for academic purposes. Try to avoid this by ensuring your

references are appropriate scientific sources.

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Audiovisual Sources

A Podcast

APA COMPONENTS

Producer, P. P. (Producer). (Year posted, date posted). Title of podcast italicized [Audio

podcast]. Retrieved from web address.

Example:

Chappell, M. (Producer). (2013, March 14). 14 Mar 2013 – 14:00 [Audio podcast]. Retrieved

from https://learning.secure.griffith.edu.au/webapps/portal/frameset.jsp?tab=courses&url

=/bin/common/course.pl?course_id=_93665_1&frame=top

A You Tube video

APA COMPONENTS

Producer, P. P. (Producer). (Year posted, date posted). Title of You Tube video italicized [You

Tube video]. Retrieved from web address.

Example:

Bagleboy550. (Producer). (2007, September 23). Stupid old man wrecks Ferrari [You Tube

video]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gQnxGFYThKI

A Motion Picture

APA COMPONENTS

Producer, P. P. (Producer), & Director, D.D. (Director). (Date of publication). Title of motion

picture italicized [Motion picture]. Country of origin: Studio or distributor.

Example:

Smith, J.D. (Producer), & Smithee, A.F. (Director). (2001). Really big disaster movie [Motion

picture]. United States: Paramount Pictures.

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A Television Broadcast or Television Series

APA COMPONENTS

Producer, P. P. (Producer). (Date of broadcast or copyright). Title of broadcast italicized

[Television broadcast or Television series]. City of origin, State [or country if outside

USA]: Studio or distributor.

Example:

Important, I.M. (Producer). (1990, November 1). The nightly news hour. [Television broadcast].

New York, NY: Central Broadcasting Service.

A Music Recording

APA COMPONENTS

Songwriter, W. W. (Date of copyright). Title of song [Recorded by artist if different from song

writer]. On Title of album italicized [Medium of recording: CD, record, cassette, etc.].

Location: Label. (Recording date if different from copyright date).

Example:

Taupin, B. (1975). Someone saved my life tonight [Recorded by Elton John]. On Captain

fantastic and the brown dirt cowboy [CD]. London, England: Big Pig Music Limited.

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Referencing driving you nuts? Check out the interactive referencing tool available from the library website

– you just click what components your reference has and it tells you what

format you need – very sweet for those ‘experiential’ learners (i.e., those of

us who hate to read manuals but prefer to jump right in) and also brilliant for double degree

students who may need to use a different style for their other major.

http://www.griffith.edu.au/library/workshops-training/self-help-resources/referencing

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Additional

Points

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Appendices

Appendices can be used in both lab reports and essays, and are used to provide the reader

with specific information that would be distracting if it was placed in the body of your work.

Appendixes should be placed after your reference list.

Common Types of Appendices

Common types of appendices include (but are not limited to) the following:

 A sample of questionnaire items or other survey instruments used in the research;  A figure or table of stimuli or other apparatus used during the research;  Important information that you cannot fit within your essay due to the word count;  Additional statistical tables or figures.

Labelling Appendices

 If you only have one appendix in your paper, simply label it “Appendix”  If you have two or more appendices, label each one with a capital letter (e.g., Appendix A,

Appendix B etc.). Appendices MUST be labelled in the order in which they are mentioned in

your paper.

 In your paper be sure to refer to each appendix by their labels, for example “…. as shown in Appendix A.”

APA Format for Appendices

 The APA guidelines concerning how to format your essay or lab report also apply to appendices.

Headings

 When it comes to headings, treat your appendices as a separate document to the rest of your paper. For example, the body of your paper can have four levels of heading, but your appendix

may only have two levels (therefore treat your appendix as a two-level heading paper).

Table and Figure Numbers

 Number each appendix table and figure as separate from the rest of your paper.  Precede the number with the letter of the appendix it is included within. For example if you

have two appendices with two tables in each you would label them Table A1, Table A2,

Table B1, Table B2 etc.

 If you only have one appendix precede all table and figure numbers with an “A” to distinguish them from those in the main text.

Copyright Issues

 Be sure to determine whether permission is required from the copyright holder before including another author’s test or questionnaire within an appendix.

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Headings

Levels of headings There are a number of levels of headings recommended by the APA. In most

psychological reports, you will probably only use a few of these, and the same will be true of

essays.

Level 1  Centred, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading

Level 2  Flush Left Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading

Level 3  Indented, boldface, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period.

Level 4  Indented, boldface, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading ending

with a period.

Level 5  Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a

period.

When writing psychological laboratory reports, you will generally use Levels 1, 2 and 3

for your headings.

Method  Level 1

Materials  Level 2

Auditory stimuli  Level 3

The weird thing is, however, that ‘Abstract’ and the title of your report (which appears in place

of a title for the introduction) are centred just as a level 1 heading are, but they are not

boldface… just another of APA’s quirks.

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Other APA Issues

Abbreviations Abbreviations should be avoided. Do not use the following abbreviations in text instead write

their meaning in full. For instance, instead of writing etc., use "et cetera" or “and so forth”;

instead of vs., use “versus”; instead of i.e. use “that is”, and write “for example” instead of e.g.

Acronyms Acronyms can be employed but only after the term is expressed fully the first time it is used, and

then followed by the abbreviation in parentheses. For example:

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has been described ...

“Affect” versus “effect” Many people get these two words confused. “Affect” is usually used as a verb and “effect” can

be a noun or verb. See the example below.

The effect [result] of the medication was substantial.

Parenting behaviours were found to affect [influence] the child’s behaviour.

Bias in writing The following are some guidelines for writing about participants with respect.

1. Avoid ambiguity in gender identity by choosing nouns or pronouns that describe your participants. For example, the word policemen suggests male police officers whereas the

word police officers suggests male and female officers.

2. Sexual orientation is a preferable to sexual preference. “Preference” suggests a level of voluntary choice that is not necessarily reported by lesbians and gay men. The terms lesbians

and gay men are preferable to homosexuals when referring to specific groups.

3. Avoid labeling people. When referring to someone who has a disability or illness then use the terminology “person with a disability”, “person with HIV”, “person with a mental

illness”.

4. When referring to the age of participants the following terminology is appropriate. For children up to high school age use “boys and girls”; for adolescents use “young men and

young women”; for over 18s use “men and women”; and when referring to people who are

older do not use the “elderly” but “older person”.

5. Do not contrast one group of participants with another group called “normal”. Instead write “we compared people with dementia to people without dementia”.

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Problematic Example Preferred Example

Sexual preference Sexual orientation

The sample consisted of 200 adolescent

homosexuals.

The sample consisted of 100 gay male and

100 lesbian adolescents.

Disabled person Person with a disability; person who is

differently abled

Mentally ill person Person with a mental illness or psychiatric

disability

Schizophrenics People who have schizophrenia

Epileptics Individuals with epilepsy

Confined to a wheelchair Uses a wheelchair

Cripple Person with a limp

Crazy, paranoid Person with symptoms of mental illness

Forming the plural The plural of many words in English is formed simply by adding “s”. This simple rule should be

applied when forming the plural of abbreviations and numerals. For example, GPs as the plural

of GP, the 1960s to indicate the years of that decade. Do not use the apostrophe for this purpose.

Note that some words of Latin origin form the plural in a different way. For example, datum, the

singular, gives rise to the plural data; criterion, the singular, has criteria as the plural;

phenomenon, the singular, has phenomena as the plural. For example:

The data were analysed using the t test.

The several phenomena are termed parameters of habituation.

The criterion adopted was one trial without error.

Other criteria have been used by researchers elsewhere.

Page numbering The page numbers of your own work are always placed in the TOP RIGHT CORNER of your

essay or assignment in the header.

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Punctuation Punctuation is about where to pause (comma, semi-colon, and colon), stop (full stop and

question mark) or take a detour (dashes, brackets). To read about how to use punctuation

correctly please see page 78 in the APA Publication Manual (5th edition).

Use of “and” or “&” when referencing Use an ampersand, “&”, when listing authors in your reference list and in-text citations. Use

“and” when writing about an author’s point in the body of your report or essay. See examples

below:

EXAMPLE 1

They have also been invaluable for understanding and treating clients that were

previously thought to be untreatable (Westen & Cohen, 1993).

EXAMPLE 2

Westen and Cohen (1993) pointed out that empirical evidence linking personality

disorders with problems in the child’s developmental stages is weak or unsupported.

Use of numbers Generally, numbers less than and including ten are expressed as words (e.g. “five participants”),

and numbers above ten are expressed as numerics (e.g., “100 participants”).

Marking Criteria Prior to starting your written work read through the marking criteria for your assessment item.

Be clear about what you need to cover and see if there are any weightings on the sections. When

you finish your work make sure to check through the criteria again ensuring you have addressed

all major points. If you are uncertain at all about criteria please check with the convenor.

Marker’s Shorthand

When your work is marked by the tutors they will use marking abbreviations. These cover the

most common errors made by students. A copy of the abbreviations is on the next page. When

you receive your work back from tutors please make sure to check your tutor’s comments.

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MARKER’S SHORTHAND

The following abbreviations have been used with respect to marking your work.

AA List references in alphabetical order (Barnes, 1992; Crocker & Smith, 1945)

APA This is not APA style – see APA handbook for correct format

CA Good critical analysis

CW Clear and concise writing

DEF You need to define specialist terms to the reader

DS Double space your writing

FE Further explanation is needed here.

INQ Indent quote if more than 40 words

GP Good point raised

IP Indent paragraph

LS Long sentence and could be better rewritten as two or more short sentences

MW Missing words

NA Do not use contractions of words eg. “don’t” – write them in full – “do not”

NAL Non-academic language e.g jargon, slang, dramatic language or colloquialism

NGAP No gap between paragraphs

NP New paragraph

NS Not a proper sentence

OT Off topic in answering the question

PL On the edge of plagiarism. Ensure adequate acknowledgement is made to sources. If it is not your words

you need to reference it.

PN Page number needed for direct quote

PR Needs serious proof-reading

PS Paragraph structure needs attention

REF Reference needed to acknowledge the source of this information or idea

REP Repetition of words / ideas

SP Spelling mistake

SS Sentence structure needs improvement

TLP Too long for a paragraph

TSP Too short for a paragraph.

YB Need year of publication in brackets after this.

ADDITIONAL LAB REPORT CODES

DV What are your dependent variables? HYP Need to state specific hypothesis

IV What are your independent variables? OP Need to operationalise your constructs

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More Tips for Writing in Psychology

 Use 12 point Times New Roman font.

 Type double-spaced on one side only of A4 bond paper.

 Leave a uniform margin of 25mm all around.

 Fasten all pages firmly (e.g., staple) in the left-hand corner.

 Check spelling and punctuation before submission.

 Do not submit work in plastic covers.

 Do not use contractions; i.e., don’t, can’t, shouldn’t – write them in full, e.g., do not.

 When using the possessive form of “its” (e.g., the computer should be left on its desk) do not use an apostrophe. The apostrophe form of “it’s” is only used for the contraction of

“it is” (which is not to be used in academic writing – see above).

 Do not use clichés such as “solid as a rock” or colloquial expressions such as “figured out” or “lab report”.

 Do not use sexist language (he or she). To be safer use the plural form (they).

 If using the first person do not use the royal plural (“we”) when in fact you mean “I”.

 Generally, use of an ‘active voice’ rather than a ‘passive voice’ is preferred i.e., “We conducted the survey in a controlled setting” rather than “The survey was conducted in a

controlled setting”. The exception here, however, is when you want the focus on the

object or recipient of the action over the actor. For example, “The camera was placed

behind the one-way glass’ emphasises the placement of the camera, not who placed it

there.

 Apostrophes should be used to show possession. For example, “A participant’s score was …” “All of the participants’ scores were …”

 Assume the reader knows little about the issues being discussed. Define all important terms.

 Avoid using jargon. For example, “Like many clients with PDs, Mr S also has a comorbid Axis 1 problem”. Be specific and clear, for example, “While Mr S’s primary

83

diagnosis is paranoid personality disorder, the evidence also suggests a comorbid mood

disorder”.

 Use short words and short sentences as they are easier to comprehend.

 Check your grammar. Make sure your sentences have verbs and that the verb agrees in number with the subject. For more information on using correct grammar, refer to the

APA Publication Manual (6 th

Ed).

 Write a draft of your work and revise it several times before handing it in. Proof read your work to ensure that your grammar, spelling, structure, referencing, and logic are all

in order. Read your work aloud to yourself. Try asking someone else to read it and give

feedback on how to improve it. The effort taken to do this will pay off for you.

 Do not exceed the word or page limit. These have been set for a reason. In order not to be penalised make sure to remain within 10% over or under the word limit. For example,

if it is a 2,000 word essay you need to write between 1,800 to 2,200 words.

 The word count does not include title page, reference list, or appendices but does generally include all other sections of the report or essay (check with your tutor or

convenor for course specific guidelines).

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Submitting your

assignment

85

Submitting your assignment

Assignments need to be submitted by the due date and time according to the course convener's

instructions. Check the course profile for submission instructions for each assignment.

Assignments received by fax or e-mail will NOT be accepted. Students must be able to produce

a copy of all work submitted if so requested. Please, oh please DO NOT RELY UPON

MERELY SAVING YOUR WORK ON A COMPUTER - HAVE A COPY ON DISK/USB, AS

WELL AS A PRINTED OUT COPY OF YOUR WORK.

Hard copy submission All written assignments should include a cover sheet (available from appropriate assignment

submission locations, or from; https://intranet.secure.griffith.edu.au/student/exams-

assessment/submitting-assignments.) with the title of the assignment, student name,

identification number, course code, tutor's name, and day and time of the student's usual tutorial

class. Assignment submission information will be recorded in a database.

Submission locations for the Mt Gravatt campus:

A. The Lending Desk of the Library. A designated area has been set aside inside the Library for

students to complete their assignment coversheets and place in the Assignment Submission

Box provided, or hand to Library Lending Staff if they require an assignment receipt (highly

recommended!).

B. If the Library is closed, assignments can still be submitted at the 24 hour assignment box

outside Student Administration.

- Both the library submission box and the student administration submission boxes are cleared

hourly between 9am and 5pm, Monday to Friday.

- Assignments submitted after 5pm are date stamped 9am the subsequent working day.

You are more than welcome to submit your assignment at any of the Griffith

University submission points if this is easier for you personally (i.e., your

closest campus is the Logan campus rather than Mt Gravatt). Please check

your campus details for submission locations.

Electronic submission Some courses may enable you to submit your assignment electronically. When

courses allow you to submit your assignment electronically then you can choose between

submitting a hard copy or an electronic copy. For submission instructions, check out the

‘Assignment’ section of the specific course on Learning@Griffith – along with

information about the essay, there will also be a link for submitting your assignment.

HOWEVER, please don’t get confused between submitting an electronic copy and

submitting your assignment to Safe Assign – these are two separate things. Please don’t

86

wait until the last hour to submit your assignment electronically just in case everyone else

waits until the last hour and the system gets flooded with submissions.

*Remember* Some courses will allow for hard copy submission OR an electronic copy submission.

Some courses will also require a Turnitin or Safe Assign Submission

in addition to one of the options above.

Check the course outline for specific instructions for each course.

Check out the “Assessment” section

for electronic submission

87

Turnitin and Safe Assign The following information is taken from Information Services handout on SafeAssign.

Turnitin and SafeAssign are tools within Learning@Griffith that enable you to submit electronic

versions of your assignments via the internet, and generate a text-matching report. Griffith

University is introducing text-matching software into the assignment submission process in order

to achieve the following:

 Allowing students to check their assignments to ensure correct referencing of quotes and ideas, and thus develop skills in correct academic writing;

 Allowing academic staff to better identify students who may need further assistance with their academic writing skills and in developing their own ideas in written assignments.

How Turnitin and SafeAssign work

Turnitin and SafeAssign take the assignments you submit, and checks for text matches against

the following sources:

 Internet

 ProQuest ABI/Inform database

 Institutional document archives containing all papers submitted to SafeAssign by staff and students at Griffith University

 Global Reference Database, a database shared across all the institutions that use SafeAssign who have chosen to give their students this option. Each student decides whether they

wish to submit each assignment to the Global Reference Database – a check box is

available at final submission time. Choosing to submit a file to the Global Reference

Database means your assignment is stored by SafeAssign and used to check for text

matches in other assignments submitted by students at other universities and institutions

around the world.

After you submit your file, SafeAssign will return a report showing which, if any, text in the

submitted document matches text from other documents. Please note that SafeAssign cannot tell

you if text that you have quoted in your assignment is correctly cited, or if your reference list is

correct. It will simply highlight those sections of text that have been found in other sources, and

assign an overall percentage score. The average score will vary depending on the topic of the

assignment; for example, in one course the average range might be 10%-30%, and in another

course, 20%-40%. (You do not need to aim for a score of 0%.) You can learn about interpreting

this report by referring to the tipsheet “Accessing and Interpreting SafeAssign Reports For

Students”, which is available online from: http://intranet.griffith.edu.au/blended-learning-support

How to submit your assignment through Safe Assign

A link for each assignment will be set up in your Learning@Griffith course site. To submit your

assignment, click this link, and follow the prompts to attach the file and submit. Tips on

preventing technical issues are at the end of this tipsheet – please refer to this information before

you submit. You will also have access to a draft submission point: this allows you to submit your

88

assignment as a draft. Please note that draft submissions are stored in Learning@Griffith (but

not in SafeAssign), and can be viewed by your course convenor.

Please note that if you are submitting your file whilst on campus, or connected using

Griffith@Home or VLink VPN, you must be logged into NetCheck to submit your assignment.

Your file will need to be one of the following file types:

• Microsoft Word document: .doc*

• Rich Text Format: .rtf

• HTML: .htm or .html

• Text: .txt

• PDF: .pdf

* Please note that if you are using Microsoft Office 2007, documents saved in .docx format

cannot be submitted via SafeAssign. You need to open the document in Microsoft Word, choose

'Save As', then select Word 97-2003 Document in the' Save as type' dropdown list to save your

file in a format that you can submit.

*Remember* Please remember to include your title page at the front of your assignment (i.e., see “Title Page” section on page 3)

Important information about SafeAssign and Endnote

If you are using Endnote to manage citations in your essays, it is important to note that

SafeAssign does not support Endnote. When you view or print a document in Word, the field

codes for the Endnote citation are properly converted into the expected formatting because you

have the Endnote plug-in installed. However, SafeAssign cannot interpret the field codes for the

Endnote citation. So when the submitted Word paper is converted into text for processing by

SafeAssign the Endnote citation field codes cannot be interpreted - they are treated as plain text.

In plain text, the field codes look like {ADDIN EN.CITE ... } with all the citation information

inside the curly brackets. Students using Endnote should save the final version of their

assignment for submission without the field codes. To do this, go to the Tools menu and select

Endnote X1-> Remove field codes. We recommend that you keep a backup copy of your file

with the field codes included, as once you have removed the field codes, you cannot reconnect

them.

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Submitting your Assignment (Turnitin)

1. Log into Learning@Griffith using your student ID (s-number) and password. 2. Navigate to the course where you need to submit your assignment (e.g., the 1008PSY

section).

3. Your course convenor or tutor will advise you where in the course the link to submit your assignments is located but typically it is under the “Assignment” section. Navigate to

this location. If you cannot find the link, please contact your course convenor.

4. Click the View Assignment link which appears under the name of the assignment that you are submitting. Links to both draft (if available) and final submission points will be

available.

5. Click on ‘Submit’

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6. The submission type will be ‘file upload’. 7. Provide a title for your submission. 8. Click ‘choose file’ to browse for the file 9. Click Submit.

You can then return to the submissions inbox screen, and verify that your assignment was

attached successfully. We recommend you open the file and look it over, and if you notice any

problems, contact your course convenor.

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Tips on successful file submission If you are working on campus or using Griffith@Home or logged into Griffith via VPN (VLink),

please confirm that you are logged into NetCheck. It is best to do this before you begin. If you

encounter an error during submission that is related to the internet connection, open a new

browser window and visit:

http://www.griffith.edu.au/netcheck

If the screen indicates that you are not logged in to NetCheck, login now. A file in the process of

being submitted in another window should then be processed successfully.

To minimise the risk of problems with your file submission

 Ensure that your file/s work correctly before you attempt to submit. Open your files and check everything looks OK before you begin.

 Make sure your computer is attaching the file extension to the filename, and that the file extension is correct (.doc, .pdf). SafeAssign does not support .docx files. If you are using

Word 2007 make sure you save your file in .doc format. Turnitin does support .docx files.

 If you are using Endnote, save your file without the field codes.

 Consider whether your home internet connection is fast enough to submit the assignment for you. For example, if you have dialup Internet at home, and an assignment file larger than

1MB, you should try to use a computer with a faster Internet connection, to minimise

issues with timeouts.

 Make sure you are using a supported browser. Internet Explorer, Firefox and Safari are best. (If you are using a non-standard browser, we cannot guarantee that the assignment

submission tool will function correctly.)

Help and Support

If you experience any technical difficulties:

 Notify your course convenor. Even if they are unable to assist they should be made aware of any issues that may affect the submission of your assignment.

 For urgent queries, you can contact InfoServices by phone: Brisbane +61 (07) 373 55 555. Please let the staff on the phone know that you are having trouble with assignment

submission via SafeAssign in Learning@Griffith. InfoServices can escalate your query

to appropriate higher level support if necessary.

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Plagiarism

Academic Integrity student tutorial available on Learning@Griffith

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Plagiarism

Deliberate plagiarism is knowingly presenting the work or property of another person as if

it were one's own. It is the most serious offence that can be committed in the academic

world.

Examples of plagiarism include:

a. Verbatim copying: word for word copying of sentences or paragraphs from one or more

sources which are the work or data of other persons (including books, articles, thesis,

unpublished works, working papers, seminar and conference papers, internal reports,

lecture notes or tapes) without clearly identifying their origin by appropriate referencing;

b. Incorrect/ inadequate acknowledgement: closely paraphrasing sentences or paragraphs

from one or more sources without appropriate acknowledgment in the form of a reference

to the original work or works. This is the most common form of unintentional

plagiarism.

c. Ghost writing: submitting work which has been produced by someone else on the

student's behalf as if it were the work of the student;

d. Collusion: submitting work which has been wholly or partially derived from another

student's work with his/her knowledge.

e. Purloining or appropriation: Copying material from another’s assignment without his/her

knowledge.

Why do some students plagiarise?

Kilsby and Alexander (nd, p.1) provide an enlightening summary of the different motivations

behind plagiarism, please see their fact sheet (available on the GU website for more details):

What motivates students to plagiarise?

Academics indicate that they perceive the reasons for intentional plagiarism to

include: laziness, greed for grades, deceitfulness, competitiveness, lack of time

and apathy. However the list of reasons given by students themselves is more

extensive and includes: helping a friend, extenuating circumstances, peer

pressure, fear of failure, “everybody does it”, laziness and cost of education

(Franklin-Stokes & Newstead, 1995).

Further research by Park (2003) into this area suggests the following reasons

for plagiarising, amongst Australian students:

1. Efficiency gain – a better grade in less time;

2. Time management issues;

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3. Students’ personal values that may be influenced by social pressure – ‘it’s

okay to plagiarise’;

4. Defiance – a deliberate sign of dissent and/or objection to assessment tasks;

5. Negative student attitudes towards teachers and/or assessment tasks;

6. Denial or neutralisation of plagiarism-related behaviour;

7. Temptation and opportunity via the digitisation of information; and

8. Lack of deterrence –low chance of being caught/effectively punished.

What influences unintentional plagiarism?

In a DEST funded project (2002), James outlines factors that influenced

unintentional plagiarism:

Students’ lack of understanding of the concept of plagiarism and what it means

in practice;

 Students’ lack of understanding of citation and referencing conventions;

 Students’ limited skill base in academic skills (such as critical analysis, constructing an argument and paraphrasing) and in learning skills

(such as time, group, workload and stress management); and

 Student misunderstanding and ignorance about why and how they should avoid plagiarism.

Cultural factors that may also influence either intentional or unintentional

plagiarism include:

 A norm of learning by rote where it is acceptable not to acknowledge the source;

 Inadequate skills in paraphrasing because English is the student’s second language;

 Belonging to a ‘culture of pleasing’, so desiring to submit first class work to a respected teacher (Mathews, 2007); and

 Fear of bringing dishonour to one’s family by failing.

University penalties for plagiarism

Penalties for plagiarism will be enforced. Please refer to the school website for further details.

http://www.griffith.edu.au/academic-integrity

Avoiding plagiarism To avoid accusations of plagiarism:

 take notes carefully when conducting your background readings for assignments.

 Make sure to distinguish your direct quotes from paraphrases

 In your assignment work, try to avoid quoting more than needed

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 Use direct quotations only when the author’s statement adds to your argument and when their wording is difficult to replace

 Avoid giving your colleagues copies of your assignment drafts – discuss your approach to your assignment in your study groups but try to get someone who is not studying

the same subject as you to proof read your assignment.

Below is an example of what plagiarism looks like. It will help you see the difference

between acceptable paraphrasing and plagiarism.

Original Text

If the existence of a signing ape was unsettling for linguists, it was also startling news for animal

behaviourists (Davis, 1993; p. 26).

Plagiarised Text

a) If the existence of a signing ape was unsettling for linguists, it was also startling news for animal behaviourists.

Note: This is plagiarism as the writer has used exactly the same words and not acknowledged the

source. To use this text word for word you have to acknowledge the source by placing in

brackets the author’s name, date of publication, and page number. You would also need to put it

in double quotation marks (“ ”). If you listed the author and the date but failed to identify it as a

quote this would still be plagiarism.

b) The existence of a signing ape unsettled linguists and was also startling news for animal behaviourists (Davis, 1993; p. 26).

Note: Even though the writer has acknowledged the source and changed one or two words, they

have not used quotation marks around the direct quotes “the existence of a signing ape” and “was

also startling news for animal behaviourists”. Therefore it is still plagiarism.

No Plagiarism

a) According to Davis (1993), linguists and animal behaviourists were unprepared for the news that a chimp could communicate with its trainers through sign language.

Note: This is paraphrasing of the original text. The words used are different to the original and

the sentence structure is changed. No page number is needed in this case.

If you do not want to be accused of plagiarism make sure to reference all quotations and

paraphrases, any ideas that are not your own, and facts that are not general knowledge.

Other great resources: Academic integrity student tutorial available through Learning@Griffith

– under the “students” tab

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References cited in this guide

American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual (6th ed.). Washington, DC:

Author. (Library reference: BF76.7 .P83 2010)

Germov, J. (1996). Get great marks for your essays. St Leonards, NSW: Allen & Unwin.

Kilsby, E. & Alexander H. (n.d.). Good practice on issues of academic integrity – plagiarism.

[Brochure] Brisbane, Australia: Griffith Institute for Higher Education. Retrieved from

http://www.griffith.edu.au/gihe/teaching-learning-curriculum/resources/GPG-IAI.pdf

Learning Centre (1994). Common terms used in essay questions. [Brochure]. Sydney,

Australia: University of New South Wales.

Useful books on writing for psychology

American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American

Psychological Association. Washington, DC: Author. (Library reference: BF76.7 .P83 2010)

Beech, J. (2009). How to write in psychology: A student guide. Malden, MA: Oxford: Wiley-

Blackwell Publishing. (Library reference: BF76.8 .B425 2009)

Perrin, R. (2009). Pocket guide to APA style. Boston, Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. (Library

reference: BF76.7 .P47 2009)

Szuchman, L. T. (2011). Writing with style: APA style made easy. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

(Library reference: BF76.8 .S98 2011)

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Chapter-by-Chapter changes from APA 5 to APA 6 Taken from http://www.apastyle.org/manual/whats-new.aspx with additions added

Chapter 1: Writing for the Behavioural and Social Sciences

 Ethics discussion significantly expanded:

 New section on data retention and sharing

 New section on self-plagiarism

 Expanded section on duplicate and piecemeal publication

 New discussion of determining authorship, focusing on student contributions

 Expanded section, “Protecting Rights of Research Participants” additional expanded guidance on assuring confidentiality

 Expanded guidance on conflict of interest

 New “planning for compliance” checklist

Chapter 2: Manuscript Structure and Content

 New section on uniform standards for reporting research.

 Journal article reporting standards incorporated into new discussions of abstract, methods, statistical results, and discussion.

 Three modules added with standards for describing experimental manipulations.

 Flow chart added to describe how subjects move through study.

 New section on meta-analyses.

 New section on supplemental material.

 New sample papers featured that illustrate key new rules of APA style.

Chapter 3: Writing Clearly and Concisely

 New heading structure established to simplify retrieval and ease reading comprehension.

 Fully revised guidelines on reducing bias in language.

 New section on historical and interpretive inaccuracies in language.

 Use of “subjects” vs. “participants” revisited, with “subjects” fully accepted for use.

 Gender—guidelines for avoiding bias updated (e.g., question the use of such constructions as “opposite” sex).

 Definitions and preferred usage for terms “transsexual” and “transgender” updated.

 Race—avoid language that reifies race, avoid use of “minority” for “non-White”.

 New sentence added for those of Middle Eastern descent.

Chapter 4: The Mechanics of Style

 Punctuation—return to two spaces after the period at the end of the sentence recommended for ease of reading comprehension.

 Numbers—requirement to use numerals for numbers below 10 grouped with those above 10 has been dropped.

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 Numerals vs. words—exception has been added for using words when discussing approximations of days and months (about five days).

 Decimal fractions—new guidelines for reporting of p values to two or three decimal places. (However, p values less than p<.001 should be reported as p<.001).

 Statistics in text—new guideline added to include not only statistics but also associated effect sizes and confidence intervals.

 Form for reporting confidence intervals delineated.

Chapter 5: Displaying Results

 Expanded general guidance on determining the purpose of data displays and designing to achieve that purpose.

 New section on confidence intervals in tables—guidance on reporting results of statistical significance in tables.

 All new tables, focused on kinds of data being displayed.

 New table examples added (hierarchical multiple regression, multilevel model); ANOVA table removed.

 New section on principles of figure use and construction.

 New section on presenting electrophysiological, radiological, and biological data.

 New cautions about ethical ramifications of manipulating data in photographic images.

Chapter 6: Crediting Sources

 Chapter now groups rules for quoting and guidance on getting permissions with standards for citation.

 Citations—new passage added on what to cite and recommended level of citation.

 New guidance on in-text citations of material quoted from electronic sources with no page numbers.

 Reference list

 New discussion on citing the archival version or version of record.

 New expanded information on electronic sources and locator information, with an emphasis on the DOI. No retrieval date required.

 New guidance on what to include for publication information, with focus on electronic sources.

Chapter 7: Reference Examples

 All new reference examples—electronic formats incorporated with print formats for each form.

 Examples drawn from wider range of journals in social and behavioral sciences.

 New examples for new media, including data sets and software, internet message boards, archival documents and collections, wikis, and podcasts.

 When citing editions of work, use a small ‘e’ (e.g., 2nd ed.)

 No longer can leave out the state/ country for famous publishing locations. Write the abbreviation for the state if US or write the country if outside of US (e.g., London, England)