PSY Online exam

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PowerPoint Presentations for

Psychology

The Science of Behavior

Seventh Edition

Neil R. Carlson,

Harold Miller, C. Donald Heth,

John W. Donahoe, and

G. Neil Martin

Prepared by Linda Fayard

Mississippi Gulf Coast Community College

Chapter 2

The Ways and Means of Psychology

The Scientific Method in Psychology

Ethics

Understanding Research Results

The Scientific Method in
Psychology

Scientific Method:

Set of procedural research rules scientists should follow

Three major types of research:

Naturalistic or clinical observation
Correlation study
Experiment

The Scientific Method in
Psychology

The five steps in an experiment:

Identifying the problem
Designing an experiment
Performing the experiment
Examining the data
Communicating the results

Identifying the Problem: Getting an Idea for Research

What question do you want to study?

Go to the library and read what other people have found
Make your own observations
Talk to other researchers
Psyclit © or PsycINFO © are good places to start your search for new research ideas

Identifying the Problem: Getting an Idea for Research

Research questions are translated into testable hypotheses

A hypothesis is a statement of what you think should happen in your experiment
A theory is a set of statements designed to explain a set of results and is more elaborate than a hypothesis

Identifying the Problem: Getting an Idea for Research

Naturalistic observations

Observing animals in their natural environment
Remain in the background

Clinical observations

In the form of case studies

Survey studies

Asking people questions

Designing an Experiment

Independent variables
Dependent variables
Experimental group
Control group
Operational definitions
Confounding of Variables

Figure 2.1: Basic Design of the Driving and Cell Phone Distraction Experiment

Figure 2.2: Independent and Dependent Variables

Confounding of Variables

We must control our independent variable
Sometimes an unexpected variable is also introduced during an experiment; this is called a confound

Figure 2.5: A Schematic Representation of the
Flawed Predator Experiment

Figure 2.6: Counterbalancing in the Predator Experiment

In the previous experiment, the order of the stimuli was always the same, and confounded the results
Counterbalancing the order of the stimuli prevents confounding

Performing an Experiment

Reliability of Measurements

Are the measurements repeatable?
Subjectivity affects reliability
Inter-rater reliability

Performing an Experiment

Selecting the participants

How do you select the participants?
Random assignment reduces confounding

Figure 2.7: A Possible Problem with the Anger and Concentration Experiment

Performing an Experiment

Expectancy effects

Participant expectations
Single blind experiments
Experimenter expectations
Double blind experiments

Correlational vs. Experimental Studies

Correlational studies
cannot infer causation
can only state that there is a relationship between the variables of interest
may be due to a third unknown variable

Experimental studies
can infer a causal relationship between the variables of interest

Performing a Correlational Study

Reporting and Generalizing
a Study

What does your experiment mean in the real world? (e.g. Haddock & Zanna, 1997)

Generalization:

Can you apply your results to the population from which you took your sample?

Ethics

Research with Human Participants

Research with Animals

Research with Human Participants

Requires compliance with the following principles:
Minimize risk and maximize benefits
Informed consent
Deception generally unacceptable
Private lives generally off limits
Confidentiality
Vulnerable populations
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
Ensures compliance with ethics principles

Research with Animals

As animals cannot give informed consent, researchers must respond to the following questions:
Is the research important and worth doing?
Have we minimized harm to the animals?
Are the animals getting the best possible care?
Are the animals being treated humanely?

Understanding Research Results

Descriptive Statistics: What Are the Results?

Inferential Statistics: Distinguishing Chance from Significance

Descriptive Statistics:
What are the Results?

Descriptive statistics

Numeric descriptors
Central tendency (mean, median, and mode)
Dispersion (range, variance, and standard deviation)
Measurement of relations
Correlation coefficients range from 0 to 1
Can be positive or negative; indicates direction or relationship

Descriptive Statistics:
What are the Results

Graphing the data in a scatterplot

Linear relationships
Nonlinear relationships

Figure 2.9: A Scatterplot of the Test Scores and Average Grades of 10 Students

Figure 2.10: Scatterplots of Variables Having Several Different Levels of Correlation

Inferential Statistics: Distinguishing Chance from Significance

Calculates the probability that results are due to chance
Statistical significance is determined by statistical analyses performed on the data and found when an observed relation or difference between two variables is not due to chance

Figure 2.11: A Frequency Distribution