The annotated bibliography

Behavior problems in late childhood: the roles of early maternal

attachment and teacher–child relationship trajectories

Erin E. O’Connor a *, Brian A. Collins

b and Lauren Supplee

c

a Department of Teaching and Learning, New York University;

b Department of Teaching and

Curriculum, Hunter College; c Administration for Children, Youth and Families

(Received 11 February 2010; final version received 14 December 2011)

The purposes of the current study were: (1) to examine the roles of early maternal attachment relationships and teacher–child relationships during childhood for externalizing and internalizing behaviors in late childhood, and (2) to investigate teacher–child relationships, as well as externalizing and internalizing behaviors in early childhood as possible mechanisms linking early maternal attachment relationships to behavior problems in late childhood. Longitudinal data from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care Research Network Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (N ¼ 1140 mothers and children) were used in this investigation. There were three main findings. First, insecure/other maternal attachment relationships in early childhood (i.e., 36 months) were associated with externalizing and internalizing behaviors in late childhood (Grade 5). Second, elevated levels of teacher–child conflict during childhood were associated with externalizing behaviors in late childhood whereas low levels of teacher–child closeness were associated with internalizing behaviors. Third, the effects of insecure/other attachment on externalizing and internalizing behaviors in late childhood were mediated through teacher–child relationships during childhood and early externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Implications for attachment theory are discussed.

Keywords: maternal attachment; teacher–child relationships; behavior problems; insecure/other attachment; longitudinal

Introduction

Associations between maternal attachment relationships and children’s externalizing behaviors, including over activity, impulsivity, or aggression, and internalizing behaviors, including depression and social withdrawal, in early childhood are well established (for reviews, see Thompson, 2008; Weinfield, Sroufe, Egeland, & Carlson, 2008). More specifically, children with avoidant and ambivalent attach- ments, compared to those with secure attachments, show higher levels of externaliz- ing and/or internalizing behaviors whereas those with disorganized attachments appear to be at especial risk for elevated levels of externalizing and internalizing behaviors (e.g., Cassidy & Berlin, 1994; NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2001; O’Connor, Bureau, McCartney, & Lyons-Ruth, 2011; Teti, 1999; van IJzendoorn, Schuengel, & Bakermans-Kranenburg, 1999; Weinfield et al., 2008).

*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]

Attachment & Human Development

Vol. 14, No. 3, May 2012, 265–288

ISSN 1461-6734 print/ISSN 1469-2988 online

� 2012 Taylor & Francis http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2012.672280

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At preschool and early school age, different subtypes of disorganized attachment have been identified, including controlling and disorganized strategies (i.e., insecure/ other category in the Cassidy and Marvin system for preschoolers), which vary in the level of disorganization. Controlling children ‘‘actively attempt to control or direct the parent’s attention and behavior, and assume a role which is usually considered more appropriate for a parent with reference to a child’’ (Main & Cassidy, 1988, p. 418). Insecure/other children continue to exhibit anomalous, out-of-context behaviors in relation to the parent, similar to the disorganized behaviors of infancy (Main & Cassidy, 1988; Moss, Cyr, & Dubois-Comtois, 2004; Wartner, Grossman, Fremmer-Bombok, & Suess, 1994). Little research has examined variation in externalizing and internalizing behaviors among children evidencing the controlling and insecure/other subtypes of disorganized attachment; however, a small body of research shows insecure/other children at greatest risk for elevated levels of externalizing and internalizing behaviors (e.g., O’Connor, Bureau, et al., 2011; Teti, 1999).

Our understanding of early maternal attachment relationships and their roles in children’s psychological development is limited, however, as relatively few empirical studies exist on early maternal attachment relationships and children’s externalizing and internalizing behaviors in late childhood. In particular, little research exists on the mechanisms through which early maternal attachment relationships influence children’s later externalizing and internalizing behaviors. In his review of attachment research, Thompson (2008) notes that there will be important further advances in our understanding of the associations between early maternal attachment relation- ships and later psychological development when research is conducted to investigate the intervening processes that connect them. This paucity of research on mediating mechanisms is surprising as Bowlby (1969/1982) framed attachment theory as a pathway model (Weinfield et al., 2008). According to Bowlby, early insecurity is a risk factor for externalizing and internalizing behaviors in later childhood due to the initiation in early childhood of pathways which, only when followed, increase the likelihood of later pathological conditions (Bowlby, 1973; Weinfield et al., 2008).

Theoretical and empirical work suggests that teacher–child relationships may provide an important pathway connecting early maternal attachment relationships to children’s externalizing and internalizing behaviors in late childhood (e.g., Goossens & van IJzendoorn, 1990; Howes & Hamilton, 1992; Ladd & Burgess, 1999; Ladd, Birch, & Buhs, 1999; O’Connor & McCartney, 2006; Sroufe, Fox, & Pancake, 1983; Thijs & Koomen, 2009). No empirical research, however, has been conducted to examine children’s cumulative experiences in their relationships with teachers as a potential intervening mechanism. Thus, the purpose of the current study was to investigate teacher–child relationship trajectories as a mediator in the association between early maternal attachment relationships and children’s externalizing and internalizing behaviors in late childhood.

Internal working models

Most theorists hypothesize that Internal Working Models (IWMs) of the self and relationships developed through experiences in the early maternal attachment relationship are responsible for associations between maternal attachment relation- ships and children’s psychological development (Bowlby, 1969/1982; Bretherton & Munholland, 2008; Moss, Bureau, Beliveau, Zdebik, & Lepine, 2009). These models

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act as filters through which incoming information (e.g., behavior of others) is processed (e.g., Thompson, 2008). Due to sensitive and responsive maternal care, secure children tend to view themselves as worthy of care and others as trustworthy, whereas, due to insensitive and unresponsive care, insecure children are more at risk for seeing themselves as unworthy and others as untrustworthy (see Verschueren, Doumen, & Buyse, 2012). Children use these models to organize behavioral stra- tegies to regulate their emotions, and ensure that some of their attachment needs are met even in the face of inconsistent and/or unresponsive care, as in the case of children with avoidant, ambivalent, and controlling attachments. However, children with insecure/other attachments appear to lack a representational strategy to gain feelings of safety and security (Teti, 1999).

Due to IWMs, children are assumed to apply early attachment-related expecta- tions to future interactions and behave so as to elicit from others responses in line with these expectations (e.g., Bowlby, 1969/1982). Secure models result in positive attribution biases that lead children to interpret others’ behaviors positively and to respond appropriately. On the other hand, insecure models tend to result in negative attribution biases that cause children to act aggressively and/or to withdraw, as well as to negatively interpret even benign behaviors (e.g., Dodge & Newman, 1981). The unorganized and dysregulated models of disorganized children appear to place these children at especial risk for aggressive and potentially withdrawing behaviors (e.g., Bureau & Moss, 2010; Granot & Mayseless, 2001; Verschueren & Marcoen, 1999). With developmental gains in cognitive, linguistic, and behavioral skills, IWMs become more solidified and elaborate, and may exert increasing influence on individual’s behavioral biases and interpretive tendencies (Sroufe, Carlson, Levy, & Egeland, 1999).

The potential pathway of teacher–child relationships

Based on their IWMs, children may attempt to engender interactions from subse- quent caregivers, notably teachers, similar to those of their mothers. Consequently, children tend to develop relationships with teachers consistent with their early maternal attachment relationships (e.g., Sroufe & Fleeson, 1986). These relationships may, in turn, reinforce earlier behavioral tendencies developed within the maternal attachment relationship.

An attachment perspective characterizes the affective quality of teacher–child relationships most often by two relatively independent constructs: closeness, the amount of warmth and positive affect in the relationship; and conflict, the amount of discordance and anger in the relationship (e.g., Baker, 2006; Pianta & Nimetz, 1991; Spilt & Koomen, 2009). A high quality relationship is marked by high levels of closeness and low levels of conflict. In general, secure children evidence higher quality relationships with teachers than insecure children (e.g., Howes & Matheson, 1992; Pianta, Nimetz, & Bennett, 1997; Sroufe et al., 1983). Several studies suggest that avoidant and insecure/other children are at especial risk for low-quality relationships (O’Connor & McCartney, 2006; O’Connor, Bureau, et al., 2011; O’Connor, Dearing, & Collins, 2011; Teti, 1999). Teacher–child relationships are, in turn, relatively robust predictors of externalizing and internalizing behaviors with especially strong associations noted between conflict and externalizing behaviors (e.g., Birch & Ladd, 1998; Henricsson & Rydell, 2004; Howes, 2000; Ladd & Burgess, 1999; Pianta & Nimetz, 1991). Consequently, the teacher–child relationship

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is expected to be a pathway linking early maternal attachment relationships with externalizing and internalizing behaviors in later childhood.

An important consideration in research examining the teacher–child relationship during childhood as a mechanism linking early maternal attachment relationships and later externalizing and internalizing behaviors is the dynamic nature of the relationship. The teacher–child relationship is considered a dynamic system whose quality changes with alterations of the environment in which the relationship exists and the individuals within the relationship (e.g., Kontos, 1992; Mantzicopoulos, 2005; Pianta & Walsh, 1996). For example, in their study of teacher–child relation- ships from kindergarten through sixth grade, Jerome, Hamre, and Pianta (2009) found significant, non-linear decreases in closeness and increases in mean levels of conflict over time. Changes in closeness and conflict during childhood have important consequences for children’s externalizing and internalizing behaviors as children’s cumulative experiences in the relationship are associated with psycholo- gical development.

Recently, researchers have used person-centered analyses, which identify sub- groups of individuals with varying developmental trajectories, to examine associa- tions between developmental trajectories for teacher–child relationships during childhood and children’s externalizing and internalizing behaviors. More specifically, in their examination of overall relationship quality, as rated by combined closeness and conflict, O’Connor, Dearing, and colleagues (2011) identified four groups of children with varying developmental trajectories for overall relationship quality, as rated by combined closeness and conflict, from first through fifth grade: Poor worsening (4%), Poor improving (7%), Strong worsening (16%), and Strong (73%). Members of the Strong group were less likely to evidence externalizing behaviors than their peers in the other groups. In addition, variation was evident in externalizing behaviors among children in each of the groups. Children in the Poor worsening and Strong worsening groups were more likely than their peers in the other groups to evidence levels of externalizing behaviors of clinical significance. A decrease in overall relationship quality was the most detrimental in regards to children’s externalizing behaviors. In relation to internalizing behaviors, children with elevated levels of internalizing behaviors in early childhood, who were in the Strong group, were less likely to evidence elevated levels of these same behaviors in middle childhood than their peers in the other groups.

Individual variation in children’s relational trajectories appears to have impor- tant implications for children’s externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Interest- ingly, in another study (O’Connor & McCartney, 2007) using person-centered analyses to examine overall relationship quality during the first few years of schooling, children with early insecure/other attachments were more likely than their peers to evidence a developmental trajectory marked by a significant decrease in relationship quality between pre-kindergarten and third grade. Variation in children’s cumulative experience in the teacher–child relationship may thus be an important mechanism linking early maternal attachment relationships to later externalizing and internalizing behaviors.

There are no published studies that have used person-centered analyses to examine conflict and closeness in the teacher–child relationship across childhood. The few studies that have used person-centered analyses to investigate relationship quality over the course of childhood have examined overall relationship quality. Previous research, however, indicates that a person-centered approach to studying

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closeness and conflict would enhance our understanding of these aspects of the relationship and their influence on children’s development. For example, Jerome and colleagues (2009) found that significant individual variation remained in closeness and conflict in teacher–child relationships from kindergarten to sixth grade after accounting for average changes in these aspects of the relationship over time, suggesting individual growth trajectories for closeness and conflict vary substantially around group means. Furthermore, research indicates separate, independent effects of closeness and conflict in the relationship on externalizing and internalizing behaviors (Birch & Ladd, 1998; Henricsson & Rydell, 2004; Howes, 2000; Ladd & Burgess, 1999; Pianta & Nimetz, 1991). Consequently, it is important to identify developmental trajectories for these separate aspects of the relationship. Accord- ingly, the first goal of this study was to identify developmental trajectories of conflict and closeness between teachers and their students from pre-kindergarten, when the majority of children in the current study began full-time school, through fifth grade.

The potential pathway of early behavior problems

Teacher–child relationships may be only one of multiple pathways through which early maternal attachment relationships influence externalizing and internalizing behaviors in late childhood. More specifically, previous theoretical and empirical research suggests that externalizing and internalizing behaviors in early childhood also may be important links connecting early maternal attachment relationships and externalizing and internalizing behaviors in late childhood. According to an early starter pathway theory, externalizing and internalizing behaviors in early childhood set children on trajectories for later elevated levels of these same behaviors through continuity of behavior, as well as through recursive cycles that reinforce and escalate early behavioral tendencies (e.g., Dodge, Lansford, Burks, Bates, Pettit, Fontaine, et al., 2003; Patterson & Bank, 1989). Empirical research supports these theories, and links externalizing and internalizing behaviors in early and late childhood (e.g., Patterson, Capaldi, & Bank, 1991; Slemming, Sørensen, Thomsen, Obel, & Linnet, 2010).

Early externalizing and internalizing behaviors may be additional, or possibly alternative, paths linking early maternal attachment relationships to externalizing and internalizing behaviors in late childhood. Furthermore, externalizing and internalizing behaviors in early childhood may be related to teacher–child relational closeness and conflict, as well as behavior problems in late childhood, resulting in endogeneity bias. More specifically, the effects of relational closeness and conflict on externalizing and internalizing behaviors in late childhood may partly reflect the influences of early externalizing and internalizing behaviors as research suggests that early elevated levels of externalizing and internalizing behaviors are related to relationships with teachers marked by lower levels of closeness and higher levels of conflict (e.g., Henricsson & Rydell, 2004). Thus, in order to accurately assess the role of teacher–child relationships as mechanisms linking early maternal attachment relationships to later externalizing and internalizing behaviors, it is necessary to consider an early starter pathway as well.

The present study

In the present study, we investigated closeness and conflict in teacher–child relationships and externalizing and internalizing behaviors in early childhood as

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potential mechanisms through which early maternal attachment relationships relate to externalizing and internalizing behaviors in late childhood. This study extends the literature in three significant ways. First, we empirically tested mediators theorized to explain associations between early maternal attachment relationships and externaliz- ing and internalizing behaviors during late childhood. Second, we considered teacher–child relationships as potential mechanisms linking early maternal attach- ment relationships to externalizing and internalizing behaviors in late childhood. Third, we identified developmental trajectories for closeness and conflict in the teacher–child relationship over the course of childhood, and examined these trajectories as pathways through which early maternal attachment relationships influence externalizing and internalizing behaviors in late childhood.

In our analyses we used data from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care Research Network Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (NICHD SECCYD). This data set enables exami- nation of the implications of early maternal attachment relationships for later externalizing and internalizing behaviors in a large, national sample of children studied longitudinally. The data set is also large enough to provide power to examine potential mediating mechanisms between early maternal attachment relationships and later development (Thompson, 2008). Previous studies using this sample have yielded valuable information about maternal attachment and externalizing and internalizing behaviors (see Thompson, 2008, for a review), and about teacher–child relationships and externalizing and internalizing behaviors (e.g., Jerome et al., 2009; NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2004; O’Connor, 2010; O’Connor & McCartney, 2007; O’Connor, Dearing, et al., 2011). None, however, examined the pathways relating early maternal attachment relationships and children’s externaliz- ing and internalizing behaviors in late childhood.

Methods

Participants

We used data from the first three phases of the NICHD SECCYD (see NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2001, for extensive recruitment and data collection information). A total of 1364 mothers and children were enrolled in the study, with sample demographics of 24% ethnic minority, 11% mothers without a high school education, and 14% single mothers at the child’s birth (NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 1997). Our analyses relied on attachment-related data collected in the lab at 36 months, and included the 1140 children and families with data for this measure.

Measures

Behavior problems

Externalizing and internalizing behaviors were assessed at 36 months and fifth grade (96 months) using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach, 1991, 1992; Achenbach, Edelbrock, & Howell, 1987), which contains items describing a broad range of child behaviors. At 36 months the 99-item Child Behavior Checklist-2/3 (CBCL; Achenbach et al., 1987; Achenbach, 1992) was used, and at fifth grade the 118-item Child Behavior Checklist was used (Achenbach, 1991). The respondent was

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asked how well each item describes the child currently or within the last six months. Higher scores indicate more problems. Raw scores were converted into standard t scores, based on normative data for children of the same age. Scores above 50 demonstrate that the raw score was above the mean in the norming population. The CBCL is one of the most widely used measures of psychological well-being for children and has well established psychometric qualifications, good test-retest reliability, and concurrent and predictive validity (Achenbach, 1991). Because teachers rated one key predictor variable (teacher–child relationship quality), parental ratings of behavior problems were used to avoid problems with shared-rater variance.

Maternal attachment

A modified Strange Situation procedure was used to assess attachment patterns at 36 months (see Cassidy, Marvin, & the MacArthur Working Group on Attachment, 1992, for a complete description of the measure). The mother and child were invited to make themselves comfortable in a room and, after three minutes, the mother left. The first separation lasted three minutes, unless the child was distressed. After a three-minute reunion, the mother left again for five minutes, as more time away from the mother may be needed to induce anxiety in older children. Children’s behaviors were classified according to a system developed by the MacArthur Working Group on Attachment (see Cassidy, Marvin, & the MacArthur Working Group on Attachment, 1992), as secure, ambivalent, avoidant, controlling, or insecure-other. Secure children resume calm, comfortable interactions with their mothers upon reunion. Avoidant children maintain polite neutrality toward their mothers and limit emotional expressions towards them, even after reunion. Ambivalent children are fussy, helpless, whiny, and/or resistant toward their mothers. Controlling children take charge of the reunion. Insecure/other children do not demonstrate a coherent attachment strategy during reunion and/or display disorganization according to infancy criteria. Three coders passed the minimum 75% agreement classifications with Jude Cassidy on a set of 21 test tapes.

Teacher–child conflict and closeness

A shortened version of the Student–Teacher Relationship Scale (STRS; Pianta, 1992) was used to assess teacher perceptions of the quality of the teacher–child relationship at pre-kindergarten, kindergarten, first, second, third, fourth, and fifth grades. Using a five-point Likert scale, teachers rate how applicable statements are to their current relationship with a particular child. The closeness subscale includes eight items, and is an index of the amount of warmth and open communication in the relationship (e.g., ‘‘I share an affectionate, warm relationship with this child’’), with possible scores from 8 to 40. The conflict subscale includes seven items, and measures how much the relationship is marked by antagonistic and disharmonious interactions (e.g., ‘‘This child and I always seem to be struggling with each other’’), with possible scores from 7 to 35. Teachers completed the STRS each Spring. STRS scores evidence convergent and predictive validity (e.g., Birch & Ladd, 1997; Doumen, Verschueren, Buyse, De Munter, Max, & Moens, 2009; Howes & Hamilton, 1992; Howes & Ritchie, 1999; Pianta & Nimetz, 1991). Importantly, research indicates that the conflict subscale taps a different underlying construct of child behavior than assessments of externalizing behaviors (Doumen, Verschueren,

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Buyse, Germeijs, Luyckx, & Soenens, 2008). Cronbach’s a s in the NICHD SECCYD for the STRS ranged from .85 to .94.

Demographic controls

The ratio of family income-to-needs was based on the poverty threshold for the appropriate family size (US Census, 1999). Family income information was collected every six months during the course of the study. An average income-to-needs ratio was computed from 36 months through fifth grade.

Missing data

A total of 1140 children completed the Strange Situation at 36 months. Nagin cluster analysis, the person-centered method of analysis we used to model developmental trajectories for teacher–child relational closeness and conflict, is robust to missing data and can accurately estimate individuals’ trajectories with one or more data points (Nagin, 1999, 2005). Therefore, we were able to include all children who had at least one assessment of closeness and conflict. However, missing values for continuous measures of income-to-needs, externalizing or internalizing behaviors eliminated 378 children from the dataset. To recover these lost subjects and values, we used multiple imputations (Rubin, 1987; Schafer, 1997) applying a Markov chain Monte Carlo method (Schafer, 1997), which uses simulation from a Bayesian prediction distribution. This was appropriate as the data were normally distributed and appeared missing at random (Kellum, Rebok, Ialongo, & Mayer, 1994). Ten imputations were performed with a burn-in period of 500 to prevent starting values from effecting final parameter estimates. We used SAS PROC MIANALYZE, which aggregates analyses results, to calculate final parameter estimates (Schafer, 1997). Descriptive statistics and regression models estimated using only original values were similar to those using imputed values.

Analysis plan

First, we conducted person-centered Nagin cluster analyses to identify prototypic growth curves for closeness and conflict in the teacher–child relationship from pre- kindergarten through fifth grade to account for individuals’ cumulative experiences in these relationships from pre-kindergarten, when most children entered school full time, through fifth grade, when behavior problems were assessed. Nagin cluster analysis uses a multinomial modeling strategy to identify groups of individuals based on developmental trajectories (see Nagin, 1999, for a complete description), under the assumption that the population consists of separate groups of individuals with distinct developmental trajectories and that within-group differences are minimal and non-informative in comparison to between-group differences (Nagin, 1999). Group curves are chosen to represent developmental trajectories that best describe the data (Nagin, 1999). Parameters can vary across groups, allowing for differentially shaped trajectories.

Next, we built a hierarchical multiple regression model to examine associations between the maternal attachment relationship and externalizing and internalizing behaviors at fifth grade. We specified a hierarchical model such that externalizing

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and internalizing behaviors were regressed on three blocks of predictor variables. The three blocks of variables were: (1) demographics and maternal attachment, (2) early externalizing and internalizing behaviors, and (3) teacher–child relationships. The demographics and maternal attachment block included demographic control variables of child gender and family income-to-needs and variables for attachment relationship patterns at 36 months. More specifically, in this block, we included four dummy variables to represent avoidant, ambivalent, insecure/other, or controlling attachment at 36 months. Secure attachment served as the reference group. We included the control variables of child gender and family income-to-needs so as to examine the effects of early maternal attachment relationships on children’s later externalizing and internalizing behaviors over and above the effects of these demographic characteristics, which in previous research were related to externalizing and internalizing behaviors (e.g., Shaw, 2005).

The early externalizing and internalizing behaviors block included externalizing and internalizing behaviors at 36 months—measured concurrent to maternal attachment. The teacher–child relationships block included dummy variables for conflict and closeness group trajectory membership obtained through the Nagin analyses. Multicollinearity was not a problem in any model (tolerance statistics ranged from .80 to .90).

We examined the predictors hierarchically to assess the separate contributions of each of the two blocks of potential mediators. More specifically, we omitted each of the two blocks of variables for teacher–child relationships and early externalizing and internalizing behaviors in turn from the full model so that we could assess the unique contribution of each set. Removing each of the blocks individually allowed us to account for any potential endogeneity bias resulting from associations between early externalizing and internalizing behaviors and teacher–child relational closeness and conflict. Using this modeling strategy, we were able to examine the stability of each of the attachment relationship variables across model specifications and to investigate indications of mediation through a particular mechanism. An increase in the b value for a variable with the removal of a block of variables indicates that the effect of the initial variable on the outcome is mediated through one or more of the removed variables (Baron & Kenney, 1986). Complete mediation is suggested when the coefficient associated with the predictor changes from zero to significance when the mediator is removed from the model. Partial mediation is indicated when the association between the predictor and outcome is significant when the mediator is in the model but increases in magnitude when the mediator is removed from the model.

When mediation was suggested because of an increase in one or more of the b coefficients for the attachment variables, we conducted formal tests of mediation to elucidate relations among the variables. We performed Sobel’s z tests with individual variables. The Sobel’s z test indicates whether the difference between the coefficient associated with the predictor variable of interest excluding and including the mediator is greater than zero. If so, mediation is indicated in that the effect of the predictor on the outcome occurs through the relationship between the predictor and the mediator. We used the Sobel’s z test to test for mediated effects, as this test is less vulnerable to Type I errors than other tests of mediation. Specifically, the error rates for Sobel’s z tests are less than .05. Additionally, Sobel’s z tests have adequate power to identify small effects for sample sizes of 1000 or greater (MacKinnon, Lockwood, Hoffman, West, & Sheets, 2002).

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Table 1. Descriptive statistics for study variables.

M (SD) %

Externalizing behaviors (36 m) 50.27 (7.68) Externalizing behaviors (5th grade) 51.19 (7.93) Internalizing behaviors (36 m) 50.91 (7.53) Internalizing behaviors (5th grade) 50.51 (7.95) Average income-to-needs (36 m–5th grade) 3.87 (2.81) Female 51 Secure attachment 61 Avoidant attachment 5 Ambivalent attachment 17 Controlling attachment 10 Insecure/other attachment 7 Teacher–child closeness (54 m) 33.25 (4.60) Teacher–child closeness (Kindergarten) 34.29 (5.11) Teacher–child closeness (1st grade) 33.99 (4.88) Teacher–child closeness (2nd grade) 33.71 (4.79) Teacher–child closeness (3rd grade) 33.14 (4.84) Teacher–child closeness (4th grade) 32.55 (4.86) Teacher–child closeness (5th grade) 31.93 (5.10) Teacher–child conflict (54 m) 11.09 (3.86) Teacher–child conflict (Kindergarten) 10.60 (5.19) Teacher–child conflict (1st grade) 11.03 (5.11) Teacher–child conflict (2nd grade) 10.94 (5.18) Teacher–child conflict (3rd grade) 11.56 (5.77) Teacher–child conflict (4th grade) 11.20 (5.39) Teacher–child conflict (5th grade) 11.42 (5.35)

Results

Descriptive statistics

Table 1 contains descriptive statistics. Means and standard deviations for continuous variables and percentages for dichotomous variables are presented. The distribution of attachment classifications was similar to those in a meta-analysis of attachment studies (van IJzendoorn, Goldberg, Kroonenberg, & Frenkel, 1992). Average scores for closeness and conflict showed very little change over time. At each age, most teachers reported relatively high levels of closeness and low levels of conflict in their relationships with the study children. However, at each age, the standard deviations for the scores were relatively large indicating a fair amount of individual variation in closeness and conflict at each time point.

Nagin cluster analyses

Results for the Nagin cluster analysis for teacher–child closeness are presented in Figure 1. Fit statistics (available for all models upon request) indicated that a four- group model (BIC: 78724) in which one group was defined by a constant trajectory, one group by a linear trajectory, and two groups by cubic trajectories, was the best fit, and that model fit was good to excellent. The closeness groups were characterized as: Stable low, Moderate incliners, High decliners, and High. Children in the Stable low group demonstrated consistently low levels of closeness in their relationships, as indexed by scores in the lowest quartile for the sample, across time. Children in the

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Moderate incliners group evidenced moderately low levels of closeness in their relationships at pre-kindergarten, as indexed by scores in the second quartile, and a linear increase in closeness in their relationships from pre-kindergarten through fifth grade. Children in the High decliners group demonstrated high levels of closeness in pre-kindergarten, as indexed by values in the highest quartile, and a non-linear decrease in amounts of closeness from pre-kindergarten through fifth grade. Lastly, children in the High group showed high levels of closeness at pre-kindergarten, as indexed by values in the highest quartile, and a slight non-linear oscillation in closeness from pre-kindergarten through fifth grade.

Results for teacher–child conflict are presented in Figure 2. Fit statistics indicated that a six-group model (BIC: 78647) in which all groups were defined by a cubic trajectory was the best fit, with the fit being very good to excellent. The groups were characterized as Low peakers, Low, Low incliners, High incliners, Moderate decliners, and Moderate peakers. Children in the Low peakers group demonstrated relatively low levels of conflict at pre-kindergarten, as evidenced by scores in the lowest quartile, with a relatively sharp increase in conflict at third grade followed by decreases at fourth and fifth grade. Children in the Low group evidenced low levels of conflict, as indexed by scores in the lowest quartile, over time with some slight oscillation in levels across time. Children in the Low incliners group showed low levels of conflict in pre-kindergarten, with scores in the lowest quartile, and non- linear increases in conflict over-time with the largest increases at third and fifth grade. Children in the High incliners group demonstrated high levels of conflict, with scores in the highest quartile, across the years. Children in the Moderate decliners group evidenced moderate levels of conflict at pre-kindergarten, with scores in the second quartile, and a slight increase at kindergarten followed by a decrease over time. Lastly, children in the Moderate peakers group demonstrated moderate levels

Figure 1. Closeness trajectories for teacher–child relationships from pre-kindergarten through fifth grade.

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of conflict, as indexed by scores in the second quartile, in pre-kindergarten followed by increases up until third grade and then decreases in amount of conflict through fifth grade. Group analyses for closeness and conflict were also performed using hierarchical cluster analysis with similar results being obtained. Associations among the closeness and conflict group trajectories were low to moderately low with the strongest correlation between the High closeness and Low conflict groups (r ¼ .22, p 5 .001) (statistics available upon request), which is consistent with previous research (e.g., Pianta, Steinberg, & Rollins, 1995), indicating that conflict and closeness represent relatively independent dimensions of relationship quality (e.g., Spilt & Koomen, 2009).

Regression models

Results for externalizing and internalizing behaviors at fifth grade are presented in Tables 2 and 3. In the teacher–child relationships block, we included three dummy variables to represent membership in the Stable low, Moderate incliners, and High decliners closeness groups. High closeness was the reference group. In regards to conflict, we included five dummy variables to represent membership in the Low peakers, Low incliners, High incliners, Moderate decliners, and Moderate peakers groups. Low served as the reference group.

Table 2 shows the results for externalizing behaviors. In Model 1, the full model, no significant associations were evident between the attachment relationship variables and externalizing behaviors. Of note, in Models 2 and 3, respectively, which included blocks for either early externalizing and internalizing behaviors or teacher–child relationships, insecure/other attachment was a significant predictor of externalizing behaviors. Teacher–child relationships were significant predictors of

Figure 2. Conflict trajectories for teacher–child relationships from pre-kindergarten through fifth grade.

276 E.E. O’Connor et al.

externalizing behaviors. Children in the Low peakers, Low incliners, High incliners, Moderate decliners, and Moderate peakers groups evidenced significantly higher levels of externalizing behaviors than their peers in the Low group. No significant differences, however, in externalizing behaviors were evident between children in each of the closeness groups. Externalizing behaviors at 36 months were also positively related to externalizing behaviors at fifth grade.

Table 3 displays the results for internalizing behaviors. In Model 1, we note that similar to externalizing behaviors, insecure/other was the only attachment style that was significantly associated with internalizing behaviors. Interestingly, as seen in Models 2 and 3, the effect of insecure/other attachment for internalizing behaviors remained significant after including variables for either early externalizing and internalizing behaviors or teacher–child relationships. A slightly different pattern was evident for internalizing than externalizing behavior in regards to teacher–child relationships. More specifically, children in the Stable low group for closeness evidenced significantly higher levels of internalizing behaviors at fifth grade than their peers in the High group. No differences, however, were found in internalizing behaviors among the conflict groups. Early internalizing and externalizing behaviors were significantly associated with internalizing behaviors at fifth grade.

Mediation analyses

Bivariate correlations and variation in the stability of the insecure/other attachment variable across model specifications suggested that teacher–child relationships and

Table 2. Multiple regression models predicting externalizing behavior at fifth grade.

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

Block 1: Demographics & maternal attachment Child gender .01 7.03 7.01 Family income 7.05 7.09** 7.13** Ambivalent (36 m) 7.04 7.02 7.01 Avoidant (36 m) 7.03 7.04 7.03 Insecure/other (36 m) .04 .06* .07* Controlling (36 m) 7.01 .03 .01

Block 2: Early externalizing and internalizing behaviors Externalizing behavior (36 m) .39*** .42*** Internalizing behavior (36 m) .05 .04

Block 3: Teacher–child relationships Stable low closeness

1 7.02 7.02 Moderate incliners closeness 7.04 7.03 High decliners closeness .02 7.02 Low peakers conflict

2 .08** .11**

Low incliners conflict .17*** .21*** High incliners conflict .19*** .22*** Moderate decliners conflict .10*** .15*** Moderate peakers conflict .14*** .20***

R 2

.32*** .22*** .16*** DR2a .10*** .16***

***p 5 .001; **p 5 .01; *p 5 .05. 1 High closeness was used as a reference category for the three closeness predictor variables. 2 Low conflict was used as a reference category for the five conflict predictor variables. a In comparison to Model 1.

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early externalizing and internalizing behaviors were mediators in associations between early maternal attachment relationships and later externalizing and internalizing behaviors. A necessary requirement for tests of mediation is that a significant association exists between the main predictor, mediator variables, and the outcome. Insecure/other attachment was related to externalizing (r ¼ .12, p 5 .01) and internalizing (r ¼ .14, p 5 .001) behaviors at fifth grade. Insecure/other attachment was also associated with membership in the Stable low closeness teacher– child relationship group (r ¼ .18, p 5 .001), as well as membership in the Low conflict group (r ¼ 7 .18, p 5 .001), the Low peakers conflict group (r ¼ .14, p 5 .001), and the Low incliners conflict group (r ¼ .20, p 5 .001). In addition, insecure/other attachment was related to early externalizing (r ¼ .10, p 5 .01) and internalizing (r ¼ .12, p 5 .01) behaviors. Membership in the Stable low closeness group was associated with internalizing behaviors at fifth grade (r ¼ .11, p 5 .01), whereas membership in the Low peakers (r ¼ .09, p 5 .05) and Low incliners (r ¼ .17, p 5 .001) groups were associated with externalizing behaviors at fifth grade. In addition, early externalizing behaviors (r ¼ .48, p 5 .001) were related to externalizing behaviors at fifth grade and early internalizing behaviors were related to internalizing behaviors at fifth grade (r ¼ .38, p 5 .001). Furthermore, in Models 2 and 3, for externalizing and internalizing behaviors the standardized beta-coefficient associated with insecure/other attachment increased with the removal of the blocks for teacher–child relationships and early behavior problems, respectively, and the effect of insecure/other attachment either became significant in the case of externalizing behaviors or increased in significance in the case of internalizing behaviors.

Table 3. Multiple regression models predicting internalizing behavior at fifth grade.

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

Block 1: Demographics & maternal attachment Child gender .06* .05 .05 Family income .02 7.03 7.04 Ambivalent (36 m) 7.03 7.02 .01 Avoidant (36 m) .03 .03 .03 Insecure/other (36 m) .07* .10** .11** Controlling (36 m) .03 .03 .04

Block 2: Early externalizing and internalizing behaviors Externalizing behavior .20*** .21*** Internalizing behavior .21*** .21***

Block 3: Teacher–child relationships Stable low closeness

1 .08** .09**

Moderate incliners closeness 7.04 7.03 High decliners closeness .01 7.01 Low peakers conflict

2 .02 .03

Low incliners conflict .05 .02 High incliners conflict .03 .04 Moderate decliners conflict .01 .03 Moderate peakers conflict .05 .04

R 2

.19*** .16*** .06*** DR2a .03* .13***

***p 5 .001; **p 5 .01; *p 5 .05. 1 High closeness was used as a reference category for the three closeness predictor variables. 2 Low conflict was used as a reference category for the five conflict predictor variables. a In comparison to Model 1.

278 E.E. O’Connor et al.

Sobel’s z-tests confirmed that teacher–child conflict was a mediating mechanism in models predicting fifth grade externalizing behaviors. The effect of insecure/other attachment was mediated by several of the variables for conflict group membership: Low peakers (z ¼ 1.89, p ¼ .05) and Low incliners (z ¼ 2.21, p 5 .05). In addition, Sobel’s z indicated that the effect of an insecure/other attachment on internalizing behaviors was partially mediated through membership in the Stable low closeness group (z ¼ 7 2.05, p 5 .05). In regards to early behavior problems, Sobel’s z demonstrated that the effects of insecure/other attachment on externalizing behaviors in fifth grade were partially mediated through early externalizing beha- viors (z ¼ 2.99, p 5 .05), whereas the effects of insecure/other attachment on internalizing behaviors at fifth grade were partially mediated through early inter- nalizing behaviors (z ¼ 2.01, p 5 .05).

Discussion

Based on attachment theory, as outlined by Bowlby (1969/1982), early maternal attachment relationships tend to shape children’s later psychological development. Few empirical studies of potential mechanisms explaining this effect, however, have been conducted. The NICHD SECCYD provided a much-needed data set for a large-scale investigation of early maternal attachment relationships and externalizing and internalizing behaviors in later childhood that enabled the use of mediation statistics. Findings indicate that teacher–child relationships, as well as early externalizing and internalizing behaviors, are important pathways through which early maternal attachment relationships influence children’s later psycholo- gical development.

Attachment in early childhood and externalizing and internalizing behavior in late childhood

Our study results indicate associations between early maternal attachment relationships and externalizing and internalizing behaviors during late childhood. More specifically, insecure/other children demonstrated elevated levels of both externalizing and internalizing behaviors. These results are generally in accord with past work that has found higher rates of externalizing and internalizing behaviors among children with disorganized attachment patterns (as defined by either a controlling or insecure/other attachment pattern) (e.g., Carlson, 1998; Lyons-Ruth, Easterbrooks, & Cibelli, 1997; van IJzendoorn et al., 1999). Our study extends previous research by examining variation in the psychological development of children evidencing different subtypes of disorganized attachment, and indicates that insecure/other children are most at-risk for multifaceted maladjustment in late childhood. Results are consistent with previous studies indicating a general maladaptive behavioral profile for these children (Cicchetti & Barnett, 1991; Moss et al., 2004; O’Connor, Dearing, et al., 2011; Teti, 1999). The current findings likely reflect insecure/other children’s disjointed IWMs, and subsequent collapse of attentional and behavioral strategies and difficulties self-regulating (e.g., Moss, Rousseau, Parent, St-Laurent, & Saintonge, 1998; Teti, 1999). Furthermore, these findings are in line with Bowlby’s work tracing childhood depression to experiences of separation from or loss of maternal attachment figures, especially if those experiences induced hopelessness and helplessness as is often experienced by

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children with insecure/other maternal attachment relationships (DeKlyen & Greenberg, 2008; Lyons-Ruth et al., 1997).

Interestingly, associations existed between early insecure/other maternal attach- ment relationships and later externalizing and internalizing behaviors in statistical models that controlled for these same behaviors assessed concurrent to maternal attachment in early childhood. These results indicate that insecure/other attachment relationships are also related to changes in externalizing and internalizing behaviors between early and late childhood. These findings are somewhat consistent with recent research, which found a minimal effect of early maternal attachment dis- organization on externalizing behaviors at grade 1 but a steeper rate of growth in externalizing behaviors among disorganized boys than their peers from grades 1 to 6 with relatively large differences in externalizing behaviors evident between dis- organized boys and their peers at sixth grade (Fearon & Belsky, 2011).

It is possible that insecure/other children evidence increases in externalizing and internalizing behaviors in late childhood as during this period IWMs serve more of a self-regulation function than in early childhood (Zimmermann, 1999). By late childhood, when children’s physical proximity to parents in times of stress is diminished, children’s abilities to represent parental availability, via their IWMs, in stressful contexts appear to play increasingly important roles in children’s adaptive functioning (Kerns, Klepac, & Cole, 1996; Kerns, Tomich, Aspelmeier, & Contreras, 2000; Moss et al., 2009). In fact, some scholars theorize that it is during later childhood that IWMs become more of a structure for self-regulation within the person at which point the behavior-regulating function of the attachment system develops into one of evaluation and prediction (Moss et al., 2009; Zimmermann, 1999). Consequently, the behavioral manifestations of these models may increase with age resulting in a continued influence of early maternal attachment relation- ships on children’s psychological development throughout childhood. Insecure/other children’s lack of a coherent model may thus have an increasingly negative effect on their development. Additional research is needed to explore the role of IWMs in associations between early insecure/other attachment relationships and externalizing and internalizing behaviors in later childhood.

It is of note that, in line with other research among relatively low-risk samples, we did not find associations between the other, organized insecure attachment patterns (i.e., avoidant, ambivalent, and controlling) and externalizing and inter- nalizing behaviors in late childhood (e.g., Moss et al., 2009). It is possible that children with other types of insecure attachment relationships are able to use their IWMs to regulate stress well enough to not evidence elevated levels of externalizing and internalizing behaviors, especially in relatively low-risk contexts (Moss et al., 2009).

Teacher–child relationships and behavior problems

We conducted person-centered longitudinal analyses of teacher–child relational closeness and conflict from pre-kindergarten through fifth grade to understand children’s cumulative experiences in the relationship from early through late child- hood. Results indicated four groups for closeness and six groups for conflict. Trajectories for conflict and closeness were important predictors of children’s exter- nalizing and internalizing behaviors in fifth grade. Children in each of the groups evidencing elevated levels of conflict demonstrated higher levels of externalizing

280 E.E. O’Connor et al.

behaviors than their peers in the Low group. Additionally, children in the Stable low group for closeness had higher levels of internalizing behaviors than their peers in the High group. Conflict and closeness trajectory group memberships remained significant predictors of externalizing and internalizing behaviors at fifth grade, respectively, after accounting for the effects of externalizing and internalizing behaviors in early childhood. These results indicate that children’s experiences in relationships with teachers may change externalizing and internalizing behaviors developed in early childhood. Children appear capable of learning new behavioral strategies through relationships with teachers (e.g., Baker, Grant, & Morlock, 2008).

Our results support previous findings of a more consistent association between conflict and externalizing behaviors and between closeness and internalizing beha- viors (e.g., Buyse, Verschueren, Doumen, Van Damme, & Maes, 2008; Hamre & Pianta, 2001; Henricsson & Rydell, 2004; Ladd & Burgess, 2001). Conflict in the relationship may lead children to interpret others’ behaviors negatively and to respond with aggressive behavior (e.g., Dodge et al., 2003). Interestingly, the standardized effects of conflict group membership on externalizing behaviors were greatest for groups in which children evidenced an increase in conflict over-time. The later elementary school years mark important periods in development during which children attempt to renegotiate relationships with adults to gain more independence in the relationship while also relying on the caregiver to provide support and regulation (Blos, 1967). Increasing levels of conflict may be especially detrimental during these time periods as children may act out if they are unable to gain needed support from the teacher–child relationship as they become more independent.

It is also of note that only children who evidenced relationships marked by consistently low levels of closeness were at-risk for higher levels of internalizing behaviors. These results suggest that it may be through repeated distant interactions with teachers that children develop expectations for relationships characterized by rejection, which lead to withdrawal. On the other hand, having close relationships with teachers likely provides children with emotional support and security that encourage positive behaviors and exclude withdrawing behaviors in social contexts, such as at school (Birch & Ladd, 1998; Buyse, Verschueren, Verachtert, & Van Damme, 2009; Ladd et al., 1999). Interestingly, closeness in the therapeutic relation- ship has been found to reduce internalizing behavior problems (Mufson & Dorta, 2003). A close teacher–child relationship may provide similar support for children in the classroom (Baker et al., 2008).

Mediating mechanisms

According to Bowlby’s (1969/1982) formulation of attachment theory, early maternal attachment relationships have special significance for development as these relationships frame the child’s subsequent transactions with the environment, and initiate pathways related to later development (Sroufe et al., 1999; Weinfield et al., 2008). Our findings are in-line with this theoretical framework. More speci- fically, this study suggests that early maternal attachment relationships are related to later externalizing and internalizing behaviors in part through their effects on closeness and conflict in subsequent teacher–child relationships, as well as their initiation of externalizing and internalizing behaviors in early childhood.

Mediational analyses indicated that conflict in the teacher–child relationship was a pathway through which an early insecure/other maternal attachment relationship

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influenced externalizing behaviors in late childhood. Children with insecure/other attachments were more likely than their secure peers to be in a group that experi- enced increased conflict from pre-kindergarten through fifth grade, and consequently to evidence elevated levels of externalizing behaviors at fifth grade. On the other hand, closeness in the teacher–child relationship served as a pathway for an early insecure/other maternal attachment relationship to affect later internalizing beha- viors. Insecure/other children were more likely to experience low levels of relational closeness with teachers during elementary school and in turn to demonstrate higher levels of internalizing behaviors at fifth grade.

Insecure/other attachment likely influences closeness and conflict in the relation- ship through children’s working models and associated behaviors. Disjointed and inconsistent behaviors characterize the insecure/other attachment pattern, making it difficult for teachers to assess these children’s needs, and to provide appropriate responses thereby limiting the amount of closeness in the relationship. Associations between insecure/other attachment and conflictual teacher–child relationships in later childhood are somewhat in line with recent research that found insecure/other children reported higher levels of conflict than their peers in their representations of maternal relationships in later childhood (see Moss et al., 2009). Children may transfer these models of conflictual caregiving relationships with their mothers to their relationships with teachers. It is of note that insecure/other children were more likely that their secure peers to be in a group evidencing increases in conflict in their relationships with teachers over the course of childhood; however, they were no more likely than their secure peers to be in a group that demonstrated elevated levels of conflict with teachers in their pre-kindergarten relationships. These findings may, in part, be explained by researchers’ hypotheses that IWMs play a larger role in children’s psychological development in later rather than early childhood (Moss et al., 2009).

The effects of insecure/other attachment relationships on externalizing and internalizing behaviors in later childhood also partially occurred through elevated levels of the same behaviors in early childhood. Insecure/other children evidenced elevated levels of externalizing and internalizing behaviors in early childhood, which were in turn related to externalizing and internalizing behaviors in fifth grade. Externalizing and internalizing behaviors in early childhood likely place children on trajectories for later elevated levels of the same behaviors through continuity of behavior (e.g., Birch & Ladd, 1998; Patterson et al., 1991).

Interestingly, our results suggested that the effects of insecure/other attachment on externalizing behaviors in late childhood are fully mediated through the combined effects of teacher–child relationships and early externalizing behaviors. On the other hand, the effects of insecure/other attachment on internalizing behaviors at fifth grade were only partially mediated through the combined effects of the teacher–child relationship and early internalizing behaviors. Insecure/other attachment remained a significant predictor of internalizing behaviors even when accounting for the effects of early internalizing behaviors, as well as closeness and conflict in the teacher–child relationship. This later finding is in accord with previous research that found associations between early disorganized attachment and behavior problems, especially internalizing, in later childhood even after controlling for the effects of early behavior problems and experiences in caregiving relationships (e.g., Carlson, 1998; Moss, Smolla, Cyr, Dubois-Comtois, Mazzarello, & Berthiaume, 2006; Shaw & Vondra, 1995; Vondra, Shaw, Swearingen, Cohen, & Owens, 2001).

282 E.E. O’Connor et al.

In regards to internalizing behaviors in later childhood, early internalizing behaviors and relationships with teachers low in closeness appear to be only two of several pathways through which early insecure/other attachment influences later internalizing behaviors. Attachment disorganization, especially insecure/other attachment, involves a collapse of attentional and behavioral strategies that lead these children to view themselves as helpless and defenseless and makes them especially vulnerable to internalizing behaviors (e.g., Moss et al., 1998). These children may evidence increases in internalizing behaviors as they encounter personal disappointment, achievement failure, and loss-related stressors, which are more prevalent in later developmental periods (Brumariu & Kerns, 2010; Goodyear, 2001; Lakdawalla, Hankin, & Mermelstein, 2007).

Limitations and future directions

The current study has multiple limitations and more work is needed to better understand the complex relations between early maternal attachment relationships, early behavior problems, teacher–child relationships, and children’s psychological development. First, the current study relied on teacher reports of relationship quality and maternal reports of behavior problems. It is essential to use observational measures of teacher–child relationships and behavior problems in the home and school. Second, we did not consider mother–child relationships in later childhood, as well as father–child relationships, as potential pathways. It is important to investigate further other potential mechanisms through which early maternal attachment relationships relate to later behavior problems. Third, the NICHD SECCYD sample is relatively low-risk. It is essential to examine mechanisms linking early maternal attachment to later development among higher-risk samples, such as those with children of adolescent parents or living in high-crime areas (e.g., Thompson, 2008).

Conclusion

In sum, results indicate both a teacher–child relationship and early starter pathway linking early maternal attachment relationships to later externalizing and internalizing behaviors, and support the pathway model regarding early maternal attachment and later psychopathology originally outlined by Bowlby (1969/1982, 1973). Findings are also in-line with Bowlby’s (1969/1982) formulation that attachment-related disruptions in early childhood, as is the case of children with insecure/other attachments, negatively impact children’s later psychosocial function- ing through children’s development along deviant pathways (Madigan, Moran, Schuengel, Pederson, & Otten, 2007). The current study expanded on previous research by demonstrating that the genesis of behavior problems, related to attach- ment disorganization, lies not only in deregulated mother–child dyadic relationships (see Madigan et al., 2007) but also in unfavorable teacher–child relationships.

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