critique

Abstract

This paper intends to introduce the way in applying Gagne’s nine events of instruction in developing computer-based Math Instruction for College Students in Saudi Arabia. It particularly provides directing in the process of improving the interface of users and the presentation of the content within the instruction. So, the instruction based on the nine events can be delivered. This guidance or direction is aimed to activate all of the necessary cognitive process of the students and support the students reach the instructional goal.

Using Gagne’s Nine Events in improving Computer-Based Math Instructional Strategies for College Students in Saudi Arabia

From kindergarten through high school, mathematics is a required course through all levels of public instruction. It is also one of the determining methods that college study used in many standardized tests, such as GRE and SAT. In real life, mathematics skills are also required. In everyday life, many activities are related to mathematical skills such as counting money, exchanging currencies, doing measurements, determining interest rate, etc.

In the last five years, the Graduate Record Examinations (GRE) became very popular in Saudi Arabia. Despite its main goal as one of the necessary to enroll in for most graduate schools in the United States, GRE® is also given a better chance to enroll King Abdullah Foreign Scholarship Program especially for graduate students(MHE, 2014). Moreover, GRE® becomes used by some Saudi universities to measure their learners’ skills proficiency in both English and Math. Plus, Some international business companies and institutions require a certain score to be eligible to get a job or enrollment in the training program. For example, the Kin Fahad University requires students to have 260 scored in the GRE test to be eligible to apply in some programs (Almawi, 2013). Recently, the Ministry of Higher Education in Saudi Arabia announced that the graduate students who have good score in GRE would get opportunities to pursue their studies at the North American Universities (MHE, 2014).

The GRE® uses the multiple choice question format in which each question has four or five options market. The GRE® test consists of three sections, Verbal Reasoning, Quantitative Reasoning, and Analytical Writing. Verbal Reasoning section consists of two parts, each containing 20 questions, Quantitative Reasoning section consists of two parts, each containing 20 questions, and Analytical Writing section consists of one section with 2 separately timed tasks: one "Analyze an Issue" task and one "Analyze an Argument" task (Educational Testing Service, 2014).

The Verbal Reasoning section measures students ability to understand what they have read and how they apply their reasoning skills .This section includes three parts, Text Completion Questions ( There are three answer choices per blank, or five answer choices if there is a single blank), Reading Comprehension Questions ( select one answer choice, select one or more answer choice, Select-in-Passage questions), Sentence Equivalence Questions ( these questions require selecting two of the answer choices). The Quantitative Reasoning section measures how well the students analyze and interpret quantitative information. They will need to have an understanding of basic math concepts (arithmetic, algebra, geometry and data analysis). And there’s an increased emphasis on data interpretation and real-life scenarios. This section includes three parts, multiple-choice questions (select one answer choice, select one or more answer choice), Numeric Entry questions (student enters the answer in a box instead of selecting an answer from a list), quantitative comparison questions (students compare between two quantities, then choose the statement that describes the comparison). There is an on-screen calculator provided to reduce the emphasis on computation, putting more focus on your quantitative reasoning skills. (Revised General Test, 2014) The Analytical Writing section measures students critical thinking and analytical writing skills, specifically the ability to articulate complex ideas clearly and effectively. This section includes two parts, first essay where learners express their point of views on a critical issue and the second essay where they evaluate a logical argument.

Among those three sections, The Quantitative Reasoning section is considered more difficult and important than the other sections in Saudi Arabia (Almawi, 2013). Moreover, this section “ seems to remain very difficult for many students to think in order of quantitative reasoning as a conceptually divide entity from mathematical content topics.” (Almawi, 2013).

As it necessary students to have sufficient exposures to math skills and understood the structure utilized in the presented expressions. Most College students learn Math at school with limited access to this type of questions. With this condition, they also do not have frequent practice in analyzing and applying math skills in the real exam.

Using Computer Based Instruction

The definition of Computer-based instruction (CBI) is the way or method of instruction where the computer is utilized as the delivery medium for learners and the computer contains the instruction which is intended to guide, teach, and test the learners until the level of target proficiency is achieved (Jenks & Springer, 2002). The definition of CBI shows that not every material offered in a computer is CBI. This material should be purposely designed for systematic instruction to happen and the goals of learning can be achieved. Plus, The definition also shows that CBI is a whole package of instruction that can provide its users meaningful learning experience. For example, It does not need the presence of, an instructor or other tools to make the learning goals attained.

CBI has proved to display several benefits in students’ learning. According to Foster & Fletcher (2002), there are essentially five features of utilizing this kind of instruction: flexibility of content, sequence, accommodation of the learning pace, adjustability of content presentation, accommodation of learning style, and adjustability of the difficulty level. In terms of flexibility of content sequence,CBI gives options for students to select a different order of content and its presentation content when needful. Accommodation of the learning pace means that CBI let students discover and navigate the instructional content.

The adjustability of content showed in CBI is the advantage that authorizes students to receive several materials based on what they have learned and what still need to develop. The adjustability of the difficulty level indicates to the CBI ‘s ability to be designed with different levels of difficulty that can be picked or automatically fed to correspond the learners’ mastery level. The feature of accommodation of learning style, refers to the value content at CBI can be fit for various learning styles, particularly visual and verbal ones.

It is the features behind the choice of the computer as the way that is recommended to deliver the math instruction for college students in Saudi Arabia for their

Preparation in taking the GRE test. Furthermore, computers are broadly available in both levels as publicly accessible devises available in college labs and as personal devices. In terms of place and time learners have the freedom to access the instruction. They are also in their systematic operational step of cognitive improvement, qualified to solve problems logically and systematically (Driscoll, 2005), and are able to work on the instruction independently.

Development of Instructional Strategies

The development of the instructional strategies is one of the stages in the process of instructional design. This stage focuses on the development strategies for pre activities, presenting information including the sequence and instance, students’ participation in the form of rehearsal and feedback provision, evaluation, and then, follow up activities for enrichment and remediation (Ho, 2010). To have a better understanding of this stage, the Dick & Carey Instructional Design Model in Figure 1 can be utilized as a reference.

Figure 1. Dick & Carey Instructional Design Model. Adapted from “Characteristics of instructional design models.”

As shown in the model of the instructional design above, the development of instructional strategies stage is coming after the perfecting of the previous five stages, the evaluation required to identify goals, analyze context and students, demeanor Instructional analysis, writing performance objectives, develop evaluation Instruction. Therefore, the only things potential to consider are : what can be utilize to motivate studnets, how the knowledge in the material will be presented sequential, what type of reharsel will be displayed, and what kind of activities to enhance transfer, identified the necessery steps that can leade to the learning results, decied what kind of skills and inforamtion the students need to master, well- written instructional objectives and enabling objectives, and constructed the exam for the instruction.

Because of this paper focuses on developing instructional strategies, it expects that the data collected and improved in the previous stages have been done. A reference to the data is obligatory and should be finished continually to make sure that the strategies utilized will provide meaningful learning and the realization the learning objectives.

Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction

Driscoll (2005) divides Gagné’s theory of instruction into three separate components. First one is a classification, or taxonomy of learning result. Second one is the condition of learning by showing specific external and internal conditions required to achieve the learning outcomes. The third component is the nine events of instruction that serve as a form for delivering and improving a unit of instruction.

Taxonomy or classification of learning outcomes describe the humans’ learned capabilities into five domains: cognitive strategies, verbal information, attitudes, motor skills, and intellectual skills Driscoll (2005).And the conditions for learning shows particular learning conditions necessary for the attainment of learning outcomes.Then, the nine events are the methods or strategies to drive the students’ internal cognitive process, which is regarding to the conditions of learning to make sure that learning take place. Driscoll (2005) presented the nine events of instruction as follows:

(1) Gaining Attention,

(2) Informing learners of the objective,

(3) Stimulating recall of prior learning,

(4) Presenting the stimulus,

(5) Providing learning guidance,

(6) Eliciting performance,

(7) Providing feedback,

(8) Assessing performance, and

(9) Enhancing retention and transfer.

The Gagne theory is based on cognitive information processing theory. As the foundation of his theory, the nine events provided above are connected with particular internal cognitive processes. Driscoll (2005) stress on the importance of planning as a part of Gagne’s theory. Teachers should create and develop objectives based on the five domains of learning.

Each of these nine events is an external enhance that activates the particular prior cognitive process so that learning happen successfully and meaningfully.  

Using Gagne’s Nine Events

This section provides more discussion on implementing the Gagne’s nine events of instruction in developing the instructional strategies. Each one of the events is detailed as to give a illustrate view on how the user interface components and content presentation can be improved to enhance each event. The section also includes some figures to serve and clear some points through the events applying.

1. Gaining Attention

Getting the students’ attention is fundamental as learning happen very well when the students are receptive and oriented to knowledge that is going to be presented (Driscoll, 2005). Since the computer-based math instruction only depends on the pre- integrated parts, particularly the user interface and the method of presenting the information. To get the students ’ attention, it should include features and components that can regain and get the students’ attention from when the instruction begin to the end.

At the beginning of the instruction, simple and an interesting or title page can be presented. This splash screen or title page includes the basic information about the instructional title and the author name (Alessi & Trollip, 2001). Other interesting features such as animation or audio can be utilized to gain the students’ attention. However, it should make sure to not cause distraction. Presenting an animation about the importance of math or what skills need to master it is not necessary. Since this first page will show anytime the students begin the instruction, a choice to skip it should be provided by pushing a keyboard key or clicking the mouse (Alessi & Trollip, 2001). Another way by presenting an option to not display this screen may also be integrated. Despite getting students' attention is accomplished by some kind of motive changes (Driscoll, 2005), random motive changes in the instruction cannot reach this goal. Trying to provide this motivation by using different colors or forms of the screen’s styles whenever students move to another page does not give the desired attention for learning goals. Therefore, it should be used to support the attainment of attention from the students.

.2. Informing learners of the objective

The informing learners of the objective event is aimed to activate the self-assumed from the students. When the students know very well what they learn their motivation can be increased and their anxiety can be reduced (Driscoll, 2005). At many times educatores jump into the lesson materials without presenting the lesson goal to the students. They should be involved in their own less goals by showing them with the objectives of their lesson. In this case, learners will be able to decide if they are getting what the teacher is assuming them to get from the lesson.

3. Stimulating recall of prior learning

According to Mayer (2008), students need to link the new knowledge with their prior knowledge for long term retention. The functions of Stimulating recall of prior learning are helping the students for transfer or encoding.

By connecting prior information and reminding learners what they have already learned about the lesson, it's easiest to show how the knowledge is connected while presenting them with a framework or a scaffold for learning. To apply this way in the computer-based instruction, it can be attained by guide the students to go to a prior learned section or to check to the basic rules section.

4. Presenting the stimulus

This stage where the motivation for learning is provided to the students to achieve the instructional goal. Depends on the instructional goal, presenting the actual material to be learned from the students. This is the traditional way that most educatores do on a day-to-day basis. Therefore, students will forget what they have learned by the end of the week.

However, learners have a much better opportunities to recall and remember the knowledge that being taught by chunking the information appropriately and include images, sounds, etc.

Since the computer-based math instruction is utilized to assist students attain both intellectual skills and verbal information learning results, the motivation is in the form of presentation should be arranged into meaningful chunks and able to enhance such learning results.

5. Providing learning guidance

This stage depends on the mastery learning way where the student is given with more flexible time for learning and they can move from section to another based on the complete mastery of the skill necessary. It is the stage to present the instructional materials by guiding the students in their own learning of the material. For instance, if the instruction is teaching how to tell time, at this stage, a clock and explain the different hands and what each represents should be presented.

Without the existing of a teacher, the instruction should be capable to give the best guidance to the students whenever they need. This guidance must address the utilize of the instruction and the material on the instructional subject

6. Eliciting performance

This event pays more attention on giving the students chances to practice the new skill (Driscoll, 2005). At this point, educatores need to give students the opportunities to interact with what they have already learned.

In this computer-based math instruction, this stage should be able to be began by clicking the Practice sub menu that provided under the main menu. A button or A link at the end of this section should be provided to make it available to move to the whole section. It is necessary arrangement to make sure that the students capable to access directly the practice section after finishing the learning session, or without the need to reread the material they have been mastered.

7. Providing feedback

In this event, the instruction should provide an effective feedback after the students complete a particular performance elicitation. Plus, It is not enough to just tell the students that the answer is correct or incorrect. The feedback should be more informative so that the students can understand and correct the mistake (Driscoll, 2005).

8. Assessing performance

Assessing performance is the phase where the students will be formally evaluated for the new skills mastery (Driscoll, 2005). Unlike in the previous event (eliciting performance event), the students do not give hints while they are doing the assessment/test. Teachers evaluate whether the students have achieved the lesson objectives or not. Since the instructional design for the students who are intending to take the GRE, the format of this evaluation should be matched to the sections and contents of the real test.

To attain this phase, a link or a button in the main menu must be available so that the students can access whenever needful. In test construction, the randomization feature for both the questions and their options must be included in this evaluation to decrease memorization of prior test taking experience.

9. Enhancing retention and transfer

The activities of the instructional to enhanced transfer and retention are ordinarily built into the instruction at earlier stages of the nine events (Driscoll, 2005), therefore, Enhancing retention and transfer in math instruction should not be treated as exactly the last event of the instruction. Actually, it should be connected and combined with the other stages so that there is uninterrupted help for the transfer. As said earlier, this instruction should stratify the approach of learning mastery l, where students are engaged in different learning activities. So, When the students are given the chances to discover the instructional material, receive the guidance for learning, do elicitation performance, get feedback and have evolution, they are directly engaged in the event of enhancing retention and transfer.

As a result of the above explanation, it is possible to integrate advantages in the computer-based instruction so that the instruction can be delivered by Gagne’s nine events of instruction. However, since the instruction is self-paced and the students have self-control for navigation menu, theGain's nine events could not be done rigidly through an implementation phase. It should be expected that the instruction will be displayed completely after the complete concatenation of the stages, when the students work on the instruction for the first time

Conclusion

The Gagne’s theory is considered as one of the very popular theories on instructional design. It provides a great instruction for teachers who are looking for a way to build a strong basis for their subjects. An instructional designer should understand this theory well and apply it in his/her instruction effectively. This theory provides an illustrated guide on how to teach effectively and meaningfully.

It is really significant that the designer of computer-based Math instruction for College Students in Saudi Arabia look at all the reasons and factors which can enhance the instruction based on Gagne’s nine events of instruction. However, the designer should understand that they may not be capable to apply the instruction following the sequence of the Gain nine events rigidly as this will not affect negatively the full features of computer technology.

By compiling the component that can enhance the fulfillment of each event, it is wished that students can achieve meaningful learning while utilizing the same instruction to fit their learning need and pace.

References

Alessi, S. M., & Trollip, S. R. (2001). Multimedia for Learning, Methods and Development.

Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Almawi. (2010). Educational Technology influence math. Riyad.

Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction. Boston, MA: Pearson Education,

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Educational Testing Service. (2014). Frequently Asked Questions About the GRE® Test.