Chapter 7 quote

3

chaPter 1

college-level Writing

tanYa Peterson

We all write every day. We write lists, letters, e-mails, and text mes-

sages. We post updates on sites like Twitter and Facebook. We leave

notes for friends, colleagues, parents, or children. We put pen to

paper or fingers to keyboards many times over the course of a day.

This writing shares some basic characteristics. Whether you are writ-

ing a grocery list or penning a thank you to a friend, all writing has a

message, an intended audience, and some sort of order and format.

So what distinguishes all of this writing from the writing you are being

asked to do in your college courses and in the workplace?

College-level writing, also referred to as academic writing, sets

itself apart by requiring the writer to integrate research, reading, and

critical analysis into the writing process. College-level writing requires

both critical thinking and reading skills. The three (critical thinking,

reading, and writing) are unquestionably bound together. Consider

this scenario: Your instructor assigns you a persuasive essay on

the topic of your choice. You review the project guidelines and then

brainstorm for possible topics. Once you decide on your subject, you

head to the library to gather some research so you can expand your

knowledge and gather some evidence to help prove your point. You

read several articles on the subject, sifting through them to identify

those that are useful and pertain to your topic and discarding others

that are not. You highlight passages or sentences you find compelling.

You then set about writing your paper, synthesizing what you have

read with your own ideas, and inserting supporting documentation as

4 Your college writing e xperience

needed. You then review what you have written, reconsider your argu-

ment, and ensure that you have proven your point, potentially revising

as a result. What was involved in that process? You started by think-

ing critically about the assignment and then the subject you decided

to investigate. You then engaged in research and critical reading. You

wrote, and you again stopped to think critically about what you had

written. If you take one of these away—thinking, reading, or writing—

the entire process derails.

The process just described might be slightly different from the

one you were taught to use during your precollege writing training.

Previously, you might have been discouraged from including origi-

nal ideas or personal insight in your writing. However, college-level

writing requires that you learn to skillfully integrate those, along with

reliable research, into your writing. This kind of writing is how you,

as an educated individual, contribute to the overall conversation and

body of knowledge within your chosen field. It is the type of writing

and level of critical thought that employers are seeking in college

graduates.

thinking criticallY Simply put, critical thinking is the ability to look below the surface

and evaluate arguments. Critical thinkers do not automatically accept

things as presented. They ask questions and consider all of the evi-

dence, challenging others and themselves in the process. They apply

these tactics both in their reading and in their own writing.

Though you might not have considered it before, you engage in

critical thinking on a regular basis. Critical thinking allows you to make

decisions. When you chose where to attend college, you most likely

researched several possibilities, compared the offerings with the cri-

teria that were most important to you, asked questions or requested

additional information, and, ultimately, made a choice based on what

you reviewed. You thought critically about what you wanted and what

the various schools offered to make your decision.

5college-le Vel writing

Avoiding Faulty Logic One barrier to critical thinking that we must always be on guard

against is faulty logic. Flawed reasoning, also known as a logical fal-

lacy, comes in a variety of forms. Some faulty arguments are easy to

spot, but others can be quite tricky, disguising themselves with par-

tial truth or evidence taken out of context. Table 1.1 discusses the

most common types. Critical thinkers must always be mindful to avoid

these fallacies in their own writing and to spot them in the arguments

of others.

Table 1.1 LogicaL FaLLacies

Fallacy Description example � Ad hominem Attacks an individual

rather than the argument; often comes in the form of character assault

Those who argue against abortion might cite religious convictions as their reason, but they are clearly antifeminists bent on punishing women.

Bandwagon Insinuates that because something is popular it is true and that the reader is somehow abnormal or missing out by not join- ing in or subscribing to the idea

Everyone agrees that communism cannot work.

Circular reasoning

Uses the argument to prove the argument

All prescription drugs are safe because they are legal.

Either/or reasoning

Falsely asserts that there are only two sides to the issue or two solutions to a problem—the right one and the wrong one

You either believe in absolute freedom, or you favor tyranny.

[continued]

6 Your college writing e xperience

Table 1.1 LogicaL FaLLacies  [continued]

Fallacy Description example � Generalization Makes a broad statement

with little to no support- ing evidence; usually includes words like all, never, and every

Everyone agrees that animal rights are the top concern for the 2012 election.

Non sequitur Asserts a claim that does not logically emerge from the initial statement

You should drive a hybrid vehicle. They are expen- sive cars.

Post hoc Assumes events are con- nected simply because one preceded the other; faulty cause-and-effect reasoning

I went to the store and now I have a flat tire. I should have stayed home.

Red herring Attempts to draw at- tention away from the argument by introducing a new subject

Yes, there are some concerns regarding the safety of the vehicle, but what is important to note is how many jobs have been saved by expanding the product line.

Slippery slope Claims that one action or idea will absolutely lead to another, eventually resulting in a negative outcome

We must allow prayer in schools. If we take that away, we are going to be- come a nation of godless criminals.

Straw man Incorrectly presents opposing viewpoints and then refutes those incorrect points to make the argument appear stronger

My opponent says that we must cut school funding. I am morally opposed to taking education away from our children.

reading criticallY Research and reading are among the key factors that distinguish

college-level writing from that of precollege writing. As has been

7college-le Vel writing

discussed, a college-level writer must employ critical-thinking skills

throughout the writing process. This concept of digging below the sur-

face extends to reading as well. A critical reader does not just read

words on a page and accept them at face value. Instead, the critical

reader pushes deeper to analyze the text. Here are some questions to

consider when reading critically:

●● What are the author’s biases? ●● Is the argument presented valid? ●● Is the argument adequately supported? ●● Are supporting sources reliable? ●● Does the author use faulty reasoning? ●● Does the author consider and/or refute alternative

perspectives?

Critical readers are active readers, and active readers engage with

the text. Like critical thinking, critical-reading skills can be honed. You

can employ a number of strategies to improve your critical-reading

skills and become a more active reader.

Previewing Previewing is a quick review of an article with the intent of identify-

ing the general purpose and main points of the piece. Previewing an

article allows the reader to complete additional, deeper readings with

purpose. A preview often generates questions that you can then use to

guide your second reading.

When previewing an article, you should start by skimming the

article, noting the title and subheadings to get an idea of the orga-

nization of the work. You should also review any tables, graphs, or

other visual aids if present. Finally, read the abstract or introductory

paragraph as well as the concluding paragraph. If the article includes

an author biography, review that as well. Information about the author

can clue you in to potential biases and should not be overlooked.

8 Your college writing e xperience

Annotated Reading Annotated reading should be done once a preview or surface-level

reading has been completed. During an annotated reading, you should

highlight or underline main points and key words or passages. Making

notes about your impressions and ideas in the margins or jotting down

questions makes reading an active process and takes you deeper into

the material. It makes the reading more of a conversation between

the reader and writer, even if it is an asynchronous one. You can also

annotate electronic pieces, by using the highlighting and commenting

features in Microsoft® Word and Adobe® Acrobat® 9 or by using social

bookmarking sites, such as Digg, Reddit, Stumbleupon, or del.icio.us.

StrategieS for SucceSS time to study Online education gives you the ability to attend class from home, but access is only half the story. It is still important that you set aside uninterrupted time to study. College is meant to stretch your mind and challenge your thinking. The reading, writing, and other assignments you encounter in your classes are intended to be demanding. To fully grasp concepts and extend your thinking toward original and inno- vative ideas of your own, you have to thoughtfully engage in your schoolwork. This means annotating (highlighting or taking notes) your reading, using the writing process for your projects, and crafting careful responses on the Discussion Board that go beyond the obvious.

Reviewing A review is similar to a preview; it should focus on the same areas you

focused on during that exercise. Take a second look at the passages

you highlighted during your annotated reading and review any notes

or questions you included in the margins. If your preview generated

questions, check to see if they were answered during your annotated

reading.

9college-le Vel writing

Outlining You might have learned to outline as a prewriting technique (see Chap-

ter 13, Outlining, pp. 143–158), but it also can assist you as a critical

reader. Instead of building an outline to guide your writing, you are

deconstructing the article and putting it into a simplified visual for-

mat. This technique offers a few advantages. First, it tests your com-

prehension of the article’s thesis and main points by challenging you

to restate them in your own words. It also allows you to clearly see the

structure of the article. Finally, it can alert you to missing information

or poorly supported points.

Summarizing Writing a summary of what you have read is a good way to test your

comprehension of the material. However, like outlining, it can also

assist you in spotting holes in an argument or gaps in presented

research. A summary should include the central idea and supporting

points of the article or reading. Take the time to put your summary

down on paper so you can carefully review it, but do not worry about

formatting or editing. This is a tool for you. Remember, a summary

should be in your own words, just like the outline.

Writing allows us to communicate with the world around us. It is a

mode of expression, a vehicle for information, and a means of persua-

sion. You probably produce at least one piece of writing every day, but

in your college courses, you will practice different modes of writing to

strengthen your skills and fine-tune your writing process. As you prog-

ress through your program of study, this practice will help you grow

not only as a writer, but also as a reader and critical thinker.

11

chaPter 2

Writing across the curriculum

Janet stallard

It would be impossible to overemphasize the importance of writing.

Traditionally, colleges saw writing classes as something to get past—

particularly for those majoring in subjects outside the liberal arts. In

the 1980s, colleges began to shift their attitudes toward writing and

their obligation to provide rigorous writing training for their students.

Instead of seeing writing as an isolated subject, the advantages of

emphasizing writing in other classes came to be seen as a benefit.

Janet Emig, a teacher and theorist, posited that writing itself is a mode

of learning. It can seem that writing is just a task, but think of all the

learning created by the writing process. It becomes a meaningful way

to engage in critical thinking, which leads us not just to repeat facts,

but also to analyze and synthesize ideas. This initiative has adopted

the name Writing Across the Curriculum (WAC).

Kaplan University (KU) has adopted WAC as part of its mission to

afford students a robust education, preparing them to succeed aca-

demically and professionally. No matter what major you choose or

career you pursue, writing is an integral requirement. A good example

of this is Albert Einstein, arguably the greatest thinker of the twentieth

century. Although a man of science, Einstein also had to be a man of

words. When he first conceived the theory of relativity, Einstein was

at a loss to explain it to anyone else. In his own mind, it made per-

fect sense; when he first tried to communicate it, he had difficulty.

12 Your college writing e xperience

So, even Einstein had to brainstorm, draft, and revise! The bottom line

is that unshared knowledge is good to no one. It is only our ability to

effectively express ideas that has impact.

wordS from writerS Writing Flexibly “We often think of writing as straightforward but that some- times can make things too rigid. Writing hardly ever happens by writing from the beginning to the end in a straight line.”

—Beth Duckles, Assistant Professor of Sociology

The ability to measure how academically literate students are is

an opportunity for the learner and the college. Alongside curriculum

development, KU has adopted General Education Literacies (GELs).

These literacies allow faculty and administrators to track students’

progress as they move through KU courses. In fact, a WAC GEL is pres-

ent in each course and evaluates the student’s ability to communicate

effectively within a discipline. So, not only will you have your perfor-

mance evaluated by a professional, but you also have the opportunity

to track your own progress. Consistent assessment allows students

to follow their skill growth throughout their program of study. By the

time students graduate, they have an accurate picture of their writ-

ing abilities. After all, this is the mission driving WAC—to empower

students to improve and grow. Like the Einstein example indicates,

we will be most successful when we join our writing skills with our

expertise. In our communication, we want to emphasize accessibility.

We must always manage the needs of our audience and do so without

sacrificing content. WAC is designed to make you such a writer—one

who takes care of his or her reader.

13

chaPter 3

discussion Boards

reBecca torzone

The Discussion Board constitutes the asynchronous component of a

course. Asynchronous means that you do not have to respond right

away; instead, you can take your time throughout the week to think

through the reading and other course material. You can then form

a response and review it carefully before posting it. The Discussion

Board provides a forum for students to ask and answer important

questions about the course material. Discussion is formal, and your

responses, in both content and writing style, should demonstrate

thoughtful reflection and review.

On the Discussion Board, you may respond to Internet “field

trips” and discussion questions centered on the unit’s topic and/or

reading. You also will receive constructive feedback from the instruc-

tor and other students in the class on your understanding of the unit’s

topic. Your participation in this arena is critical to getting the most

out of an online course. Immerse yourself in this environment: Craft

thoughtful, substantive responses to the discussion questions and

to your classmates and the instructor, too. Substantive responses

are thoughtful and original considerations of the discussion topic.

In short, they have substance! Nonsubstantive responses such as “I

agree” or “yes/no” responses do not meet the criteria for Discussion

Board participation. In fact, they do nothing to contribute to the con-

versation or move it forward. This chapter helps you construct effec-

tive and appropriate responses on the Discussion Board.

14 Your college writing e xperience

how to compoSe an appropriate reSponSe on the diScuSSion Board Before heading into the Discussion Board responses for the first time,

be sure to review the requirements for the Discussion Board from your

course syllabus. Each course and/or instructor may have slightly dif-

ferent requirements. Typically, though, instructors expect to see at

least 100 words in a substantive response with no grammatical or

spelling errors.

Discussion Board responses should be on topic, original in

thought, and contribute to the discussion. To help advance the discus-

sion and your understanding of the course material, you should post

responses on the Discussion Board frequently throughout the week.

When you wait to respond until the last day of the unit or in the last

few hours of the unit, or even worse, after the unit has passed, it is

nearly impossible to help advance the discussion and/or gain substan-

tial feedback from your classmates or instructor.

StrategieS for SucceSS managing time You want the most out of your college education, so it is important that you give yourself the time you need to make the most of this time in your life. When you enroll for a class, you might have a one-hour seminar each week, along with other assignments, such as reading, discussion, and a project. It is a good rule of thumb to schedule 3–5 hours per week just for reading, develop- ing a thoughtful discussion response, and then engaging with other students and your instructor on the Discussion Board. When you have a project due in a unit, schedule an additional 3–5 hours that week to give yourself plenty of time to conduct research and use the writing process.

Writing Discussion Board responses clearly means staying on

topic; don’t jump from topic to topic as it will confuse your reader. If

you intend to write about multiple topics, use paragraph breaks and

headings to help clearly transition your response.

15diScuSSion BoardS

To demonstrate your knowledge of the unit’s reading and intended

objectives for the week, incorporate references to the reading mate-

rial in your responses. This helps demonstrate to your instructor that

you understand and can apply what you have read. Be sure to cite the

source giving proper credit, but try to avoid using too many quotes.

Students typically learn better when paraphrasing material and then

illustrating unit or course concepts through personal examples, if

applicable. Just keep in mind that even when paraphrasing, you still

need to cite the sources.

Many times, a discussion question will contain multiple ques-

tions, so it is important to answer each question. It is usually appro-

priate to use paragraph breaks between the questions or paragraph

headings to help clarify which questions you are responding to.

The following is an example of a Discussion Board question and a

response that includes paragraph breaks and headings:

Discussion Board Question Example Part I: Identify a profession you are interested in. Do some research 

and find:

●● Terminology that is commonly used in the profession. Note:

These terms do not have to be exclusive to one profession. ●● Acronyms used in the profession. These can include laws, pro-

fessional organizations, or buzzwords. Examples include FMLA

(Family Medical Leave Act), TQM (Total Quality Management),

or ASQ (American Society for Quality). ●● KSAOs (Knowledge, Skills, Abilities, and Other Characteristics)

that appear to be required in and/or for specific jobs within

this profession.

Part II: Compose your response.

Based on the ideas generated in Part I, compose a Discussion Board

response that highlights at least five terms, acronyms, or KSAOs.

16 Your college writing e xperience

Briefly define or describe each one. (Paraphrase these in your own

words and reference the source.) In addition, explain, in your opinion,

how important it is to use appropriate career-based terminology in your

professional communications.

Discussion Board Response Example Terminology/Acronyms In my line of work as a technical writer, we use the following terminol-

ogy and acronyms.

1.  Technical Specifications: Detailed terms or conditions under

which something, such as a product or an electronic document

like a Web page, is produced.

2.  Statement of Work (SOW): A document that specifies terms and

conditions, as well as the exact tasks associated with a project. If

a project calls for only the development of a prototype, then the

team is not responsible for writing user documentation for the

prototype unless it is part of the SOW.

3.  Document lifecycle: The process associated with creating a docu-

ment like an analysis report or software manual. The lifecycle

begins with ideas for the document and ends when the document

is delivered to the client.

4.  Technical Review: A document review by experts in a particular

field. A technical review is conducted to ensure the content is

accurate from a scientific or technical point of view.

5.  Subject Matter Expert (SME): A person who is an expert in a par-

ticular field. In the review process, a SME may be called on to be a

technical reviewer.

Knowledge and Skills Required for a Technical Writer In general, technical writers must have strong writing and speaking

skills. This is because most technical writers are required to do more than

just write, which is why they are also called technical communicators.

Technical writers work in a variety of professions including information

17diScuSSion BoardS

technology, engineering and other science-related fields, medicine, and

business. Generally, technical writers create user manuals, instructions,

online help guides, and other documents that help non-technical readers

perform or understand more specialized or technical tasks or information

(Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2009). In some rare cases, a person without

a college degree can work as a technical writer; however, as industries

and businesses become more complex and specialized, more employers

require technical writers to have at least a bachelor’s degree in English

or a writing-related field. Other important skills a technical writer must

possess are strong organizational skills and attention to detail, because

they are often not only writers but editors too.

Reference

Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2009). Technical writers. Retrieved from

http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos319.htm

When responding on the Discussion Board, do not use abbrevia-

tions and/or acronyms that are not common; spell out and define acro-

nyms and abbreviations on first use.

When responding to Discussion Board questions or to your class-

mates, ask these questions of yourself before submitting the post:

1. Would a reader understand what this message pertains to with-

out reading any other messages?

2. Have I articulated why I have expressed this opinion? Have I

supported my response with a well-developed argument or

specific references to research (i.e., unit reading or self-directed

research)? Is the post thoughtful, well-constructed, and relevant

to the class?

3. Is my message or response clear? Have I fully explained my

responses?

4. Have I quoted the particular elements of the message that I am

responding to?

18 Your college writing e xperience

5. Have I used complete sentences, proper grammar, syntax, and

citation (where necessary)?

how to incorporate reading into diScuSSion reSponSeS Although your Discussion Board postings should be original, it is

important to back up your thoughts with experts from the field you are

studying. This usually means referring back to the reading from the

course material and especially to the active unit in which you are par-

ticipating. It might also mean conducting some independent research

and providing the references to supplemental materials or sources.

Be sure to cite your sources in the reading, using a proper cita-

tion style. Proper citation (as shown in the previous Discussion Board

example) includes in-text citations for quotes and paraphrases, as

well as a full citation at the end of your post.

how to uSe QueStioning on the diScuSSion Board Participating in Discussion Boards is important because you can dem-

onstrate your knowledge of a topic as well as ask for clarifications

and/or additional input. You can engage either your instructor and/or

classmates on a topic in a number of ways:

1. Ask other students questions about their ideas/experiences.

2. Ask the group a question about the week’s reading if you would

like more information.

3. Discuss a related work issue on which you would like some

feedback.

When incorporating questions in your responses, try asking prob-

ing questions (i.e., Can you tell me more about ? or Can

you provide an example of a time when you used this methodology?)

rather than simple yes/no types of questions. The goal is to spark a

discussion and get others to provide you with some clarifications on

19diScuSSion BoardS

their experiences that illustrate the objective of the unit. When some-

one has responded to you, be sure to acknowledge the response and

ask further questions. You can also summarize your peers’ responses

to show you understand what they have said. Think of this type of

response as a verbal dialogue; it is important to uphold your end of

the conversation just as you would if you were in a conversation with

someone in person.

how to reSpond to peerS on the diScuSSion Board As with the original response to the discussion thread, it is impor-

tant to elaborate when responding to peers on the Discussion Board.

In general, responses should be more substantive than “I agree” or

“Great post.” Just as you are looking for feedback from your peers,

they are looking for quality feedback from you. Again, refer to your

course syllabus for exact posting requirements, but usually there is

a two-post minimum per discussion thread. This is in addition to the

response to the original discussion question.

Here are some tips for responding to your peers:

1. Does your response to another student advance the discussion?

Does it contribute to the overall discussion being developed? A post

can help the conversation move forward in several different ways:

a. Add additional information. Research and share a fact related

to class topics.

b. Elaborate upon a point. For instance, if one of your classmates

makes several points in summary fashion, take one or more of

the points, elaborate, and expand on them.

c. Ask thoughtful questions. If you see something in the post that

you don’t understand, ask about it. Refer to the previous sec-

tion, “How to Use Questioning on the Discussion Board,” p. 18.

d. Disagree. Post a reasonable disagreement, but always

remember to respect someone else’s viewpoint. Provide a ref-

erence to an expert who supports your alternative viewpoint.

20 Your college writing e xperience

2. Is the post appropriate? Posts that are inappropriate in either

tone or content will not be counted for grading purposes (and

may be removed at your instructor’s discretion). Always respect

your instructor and peers. It is fine to disagree with a viewpoint,

but be sure your responses fully and fairly discuss the viewpoint

that you disagree with and do not attack the other student or

instructor.

3. Does the post add value to the discussion, or is it simply a

response to fill a square?

4. Does the post expand on the main theme (in the discussion ques-

tion, assignment posting, or weekly summary)?

5. Here are some additional ways in which you can substantially con-

tribute to the discussion and engage in dialogue with your peers:

a. Share a related personal or professional experience. Com-

ment on others’ experiences. Stay on topic, though.

b. Offer a different perspective on the week’s topic (play devil’s

advocate).

c. Describe an interesting idea from the week’s reading, and

explain what insights you gained from it or how you’re apply-

ing the information.

d. Share another resource you have used as you explored the

course topics (Web links, library articles, etc.).

Discussion responses are an important part of online learning.

When you can discuss a topic in your own words and provide course

reading or other research to support your ideas, you have truly learned

the concepts or ideas in a course. It takes practice to do this well, so it

is important to complete the unit reading first and then take the time

to craft your discussion responses in a thoughtful fashion. In addition,

be sure to review your responses before posting to the board. When

you take the time to respectfully and fully converse on a subject, you

and your classmates will see how far you can actually take a subject.

35

chaPteR 6

the WRiting PRocess

Michael Jensen

Most activities in life involve a process. A recipe for brownies follows

a process and so do the instructions for changing a tire, or changing

a diaper, for that matter. Anytime there are several steps required to

complete a task, a process is involved.

Writing is no different from anything else. In a perfect world, one

moment you would be looking at a blank page and the next you would

be holding a completed essay in your hands. However, the unfortunate

reality is that several steps are required to go from that blank page to

that completed essay.

Not everybody follows the same writing process. For example,

many students follow this process for writing college essays:

1. Get the assignment.

2. Forget about the assignment until the day before it’s due.

3. Remember the assignment and go into a full-blown panic.

4. Pull an all-nighter to complete the essay.

Obviously, some processes are better than others.

The goal of a good process is to add efficiency and quality to the

steps involved in the activity at hand—thus, the philosophy behind

the millions of dollars spent by businesses and the U.S. government

each year. A good writing process should do the same: It should help

you get from the assignment stage to the finished essay stage with a

maximum of efficiency and quality.

36 Nuts aNd Bolts of the WritiNg Process

A quality writing process involves the following three basic

stages, which this chapter explains in detail:

1. Preparation

2. Drafting

3. Document improvement

PreParatioN In the preparation stage (sometimes called prewriting), your goal is

to create and begin organizing the content of your essay. For many

students, this is the most difficult part of writing a paper. There’s a

reason for this, but it’s an invalid reason, as you shall see, and this

difficulty can be overcome by following a quality writing process.

The preparation stage actually involves three phases: (1) planning

the writing, (2) creating the content, and (3) organizing that content.

Phase 1 involves more thinking than writing. In this phase, you

should review the assignment instructions, make sure you understand

exactly what you are supposed to do, and plan your attack. How long

is your essay supposed to be? What type of essay is it—expository or

persuasive? Have you been given a topic, or do you get to choose your

own? If you get to choose your own topic, what are you going to write

about? You need to know all of these things before you can start actu-

ally developing content for your final essay.

Words from Writers Own Your Words “The best writing is exploratory. It can be raw fact or fiction. It does not regurgitate other works. The best writing synthesizes with voice and passion. When you read it, you lose yourself between words, wanting to linger and sprint ahead at the same time.

We live in a world full of words. They scream at us from billboards and whisper to us from the back of our cereal boxes. In this world full of words, the best we can do is make ours count by sharing a small piece

37the WritiNg Process

of ourselves within them. After all, that’s the only thing that makes my words different from yours.”

—Elie Gardner, Photographer and Writer

Students sometimes have a hard time choosing a topic when one

is not assigned. If this is true for you, it might help to do this: Take out

a sheet of paper and draw a vertical line down the middle of the paper,

forming two columns. At the top of one column, write “Things I’m Pas-

sionate About,” and at the top of the second column, write “Things

I’ve Always Wanted to Learn.” Then write down everything you can

think of that falls under those two categories. Once you have the two

lists complete, choose one and go to work. Most students find it much

more meaningful to write about something they care about or have

always wanted to learn more about.

strategies for success Choosing an Essay Topic Think of choosing a topic for an essay of a specific length like this: Assume you are a biologist, and you want to study the biology of a frozen lake. You have a 5-gallon bucket you can fill with material from the lake. You have two options for filling that bucket: You can remove a sec- tion of ice an inch deep but several feet round, or you can remove a section one inch round but several feet deep. Which will give you a better understanding of the biology of that frozen lake? The deep section, right? It’s a matter of breadth versus depth. You want depth, and in writing, depth means details. You can’t write a detailed essay titled, “The Causes and Effects of the Civil War,” in five pages. But perhaps you could narrow that down to just one battle—for example, Gettysburg. If that was still too broad, you could look at just one aspect of that battle—for example, Pickett’s Charge. The narrower your topic, the more depth you can have, and it’s that depth—those details—that makes an essay not only readable but also interesting and engaging.

In Phase 2, you start developing content for the paper. The temp-

tation here is to jump right into the draft, which is understandable, as

38 Nuts aNd Bolts of the WritiNg Process

it seems the most time-efficient thing to do. If your math teacher gave

you 20 questions to complete for a grade, you wouldn’t do 10 “warm-

up” questions to get ready for them, would you?

However, writing is different from math; in communication, it’s not

a matter of right or wrong. It’s more complicated than that, and a more

complicated activity needs a more complicated process. In addition,

Phase 2 is where the biggest challenge facing any writer comes into

play, and that challenge has a name: writer’s block.

The good news is: There’s a specific reason why writers get writ-

er’s block, and following the correct writing process can beat that

challenge. Here’s how:

Imagine that there are two people in your head: an artist and a

judge. The artist is the part of you that is carefree, fun-loving, creative,

silly, and unique. The judge is the part of you that is grown up, mature,

driven to excellence, serious, and judgmental. Everybody has both of

these characters within them, just in different proportions. It’s the artist

in you who wakes up on a beautiful spring morning and says, “I should

call in sick today and go to the mountains for a picnic.” It’s the judge

who says, “You most definitely will not. You have responsibilities. Peo-

ple are counting on you. Now get up, get dressed, and get to work.”

These two characters come into play in the writing process as well.

Remember, when you first receive an assignment, you have nothing com-

pleted. You have a blank screen. You have to fill that screen with some-

thing worthwhile, something that will hopefully express your ideas.

If you jump right into the draft of your essay, in your mind you will

be thinking, “I need to write this essay, and I need to do a good job of

it.” Is that the artist or the judge talking?

That’s right: It’s the judge. Remember from our list of attributes,

though, that judges don’t create things; they only judge things. It’s

the artist who creates things—even content for essays. So picture the

scene with the judge in charge: The artist is sitting at a canvas ready

to create this masterpiece of an essay, but with every brush stroke,

the judge says, “Nope, that’s not good enough for an A.” So, the artist

39the WritiNg Process

tears off the page and starts again. “That’s no good,” says the judge.

“You need a better opening.” If that happens enough times, soon the

artist throws up his hands with disgust and says, “I’m done.” There’s

your writer’s block.

The way to prevent writer’s block is to take the judge out of the

picture. He’ll come back in during the document improvement stage,

but that’s his territory—judging the quality of existing material. During

the prewriting stage of the writing process, however, you must let the

artist play.

English teachers call letting the artist play brainstorming, and you

can do it in several different ways. Some people make lists; others put

pen to paper (or fingers to the keyboard), set a timer, and start writing,

not stopping until the timer goes off. Others do what is often called

mind-mapping or webbing. The important thing is to let the artist play

with no judgment at this stage of the process. Right now, you want to

develop content. It doesn’t have to be perfect content—that will come

later. You just want something to work with. Remember, it’s always

easier to work with something than with nothing.

Words from Writers I Find It Hard to Write “So, why write? Good question. In spite of all the obsta- cles I throw in my own path, writing is still something I return to because I have something to say, and I love the act of creating. Any act of creation is an act of hope. And sometimes the writing flows—maybe only once or twice a year—but when it does, I am transported. I forget to eat, miss appointments, and don’t hear the phone. Those euphoric moments are enough to make me hold out and plug on. Whether the writing flows or flounders, in the end I have made something with heart and hands, a quivering little thing as flat as these pancake pages, imbued with the hope that someday, somewhere, someone will read my words—not because they are required to, but because my stories speak to them. And if no one ever reads them, then perhaps the act of creation is gift enough in itself.”

—Christiane Buuck, Writer and Liturgical Artist

40 Nuts aNd Bolts of the WritiNg Process

Writers often forget the third phase of the preparation stage—

organizing the content—and if that happens, the second phase was a

waste of time. Once your artist has generated some content, you have

to give it shape before it’s ready to put into the draft of an essay.

Picture the raw material from your brainstorming like concrete spin-

ning in the back of a concrete truck. That concrete is potentially quite

valuable, but not if it’s poured directly on the ground. If that happens,

it’s just a mess. Instead, forms are built to shape the concrete. These

forms are built in whatever shape the contractor wants the concrete to

eventually take. Only after the forms are put into place is the concrete

poured. Then, the concrete can form the foundation of a building.

Your brainstorming material is the same as this concrete; it’s in

rough form and needs to be shaped. Here is one example:

Suppose you do a quick brainstorming exercise about gun control,

and develop the list shown in Table 6.1.

Handgun Murder Gangs

Accidents Concealed carry

Switzerland Armor-piercing bullets

Violent crime

Rifle Second Amendment

Drugs Children

Other countries Australia

High-capacity magazines Self-defense

Robbery NRA

Shotgun Safety locks

England Bullets

Danger in the home Castle Doctrine

Table 6.1 Brainstorm list on gun control

This is your raw material. The next step is to look for commonalities

and create categories like this:

●● Dangers related to guns ●● Types of guns/accessories ●● Gun rights ●● How other countries view guns

41the WritiNg Process

Now put the individual items from the previous list under one of the

categories, as shown in Table 6.2.

Dangers related to guns

Types of guns/ accessories Gun rights Other countries

Robbery Murder Gangs Drugs

Accidents Children

Safety locks Violent crime

Handgun Rifle

Shotgun Bullets

Armor-piercing bullets

High-capacity magazines

Second Amendment NRA

Concealed carry Self-defense

Castle Doctrine

England--handgun ban

Australia--ban Swiss--100%

ownership

Table 6.2 Groupings of list on gun control

Note that as you build these groupings, you might also think of new

additions. For example, under “gun rights,” you might add “Revolu-

tionary War minutemen” and “dictators imposed gun control in Rus-

sia, Germany, Cuba, etc.” and “Federalist Paper #46.”

Now review your information. What do you have? Do you see any

patterns emerging? Do you see an argument emerging? How might you

work with these groups now?

Put these groupings together in different ways, and you have

possible outlines. For example, the two following outlines could grow

from this information:

Outline #1

I. Introduction with thesis: Despite the Second Amendment and

America’s history of gun rights, guns are too dangerous to

remain legal.

II. Historical gun rights

a. Second Amendment

42 Nuts aNd Bolts of the WritiNg Process

b. Federalist Paper #46

c. Concealed carry laws

III. Types of guns today

a. Rifles

b. Shotguns

c. Handguns

d. High-capacity magazines

e. Armor-piercing bullets

IV. Current dangers

a. Violent crime

b. Gangs/drugs

c. Home accidents with children

V. Other countries’ views on gun control

a. England—handguns banned

b. Australia—handguns banned

c. Switzerland—ownership but with extensive training

VI. Conclusion: Despite the history of gun freedom in the United

States, it’s time to follow other countries’ lead and ban firearms.

Here’s another possibility:

Outline #2

I. Introduction with thesis: Despite the fact that some people use

firearms improperly, maintaining the right to keep and bear arms

will keep America free.

II. Current misuses of firearms

a. Violent crime

43the WritiNg Process

b. Gangs/drugs

c. Home accidents with children

III. Other countries’ views on gun control

a. England—handguns banned

b. Australia—handguns banned

c. Switzerland—ownership but with extensive training

IV. Historical gun rights and why they must remain intact

a. Second Amendment

b. Federalist Paper #46

c. Concealed carry laws

V. Conclusion: Despite abuse by some, it is constitutional and

within our rights to keep and bear arms.

Do you see how the information gathered can lead to your outline and

eventual essay?

strategies for success Making Every Word Count Pretend you have two vehicles: a big GMC Suburban as well as a Kawasaki 1000 motorcycle. The Suburban has a 7.3-liter engine, and the motorcycle has a 1-liter engine. The Suburban has far more horsepower than the motorcycle. Yet the motorcycle is much faster because the motorcycle has very little “dead weight.” Most of the motorcycle’s weight is contained in parts that make it go, such as the engine and the transmission. The Suburban, on the other hand, has lots of dead weight, like seats, four-wheel drive components, and a heavy chassis and body panels. Very little of the Suburban’s weight is contained in the parts that make it go. Writing is the same. Every word in your essay should make the essay “go.” Anything in the essay that does not advance your thesis or push your essay forward is dead weight and slows down your reader. Keep your essay lean; make every word count.

44 Nuts aNd Bolts of the WritiNg Process

draftiNg If your preparation was done well, the draft can almost write itself.

This is where an outline comes in. It’s relatively easy to turn this:

IV. Historical gun rights and why they must remain intact

a. Second Amendment

b. Federalist Paper #46

c. Concealed carry laws

into this:

The Founding Fathers recognized Americans’ right to keep

and bear arms through the Second Amendment, which reads,

“A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a

free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall

not be infringed” (U.S. Constitution). In Federalist Paper #46,

James Madison explained that this right was a counterbalance

to the power of the federal government and a standing army.

If the government became tyrannical and turned the army

against the people, then “it may well be doubted whether a

militia [of armed citizens]…could ever be conquered by such a

proportion of regular troops.”

documeNt imProvemeNt This is the stage of the writing process where you should allow the

judge back in. Now that you have created material, organized it into

an outline, and then converted it into a draft, the judge should enter

the picture and decide what works and what doesn’t. This is so much

easier to do now than when you are actually writing the original paper.

Now you have something to judge, and you have just one job to do. If

you judge the essay while you’re writing it, you’re essentially trying to

do two jobs at once—and again, that’s a recipe for writer’s block.

45the WritiNg Process

Document improvement involves three distinct phases:

1. Revising

2. Editing

3. Proofreading

These are separate phases, should be treated as such, and should be

followed in this order. We’ll talk about why in a minute.

Revision is the first phase of the document improvement pro-

cess, and it comes from the Latin word, revisere, which means “to see

again.” If you break the word into its component pieces, you can see

this:

Re + vision

Re = to do again

Vision = sight

Re + vision = to see again

When you revise your paper, you look at the big issues: Did I make

a good argument? Is my argument understandable? Is it logical? Did

I organize my paper well? Is it well balanced? Can my reader find my

thesis? Does my paper back up that thesis? Is the language appro-

priate for my audience? Did I include all my main points? Did I repeat

some of my points unnecessarily?

These are the big things required for a successful paper. Don’t

look at little things like spelling and grammar right now; you’ll get to

that later. For now, you want to make sure that your content is solid,

easy to follow, and persuasive. These are whole-paper and paragraph-

level issues, or as English teachers sometimes call them, HOCs (higher

order concerns).

46 Nuts aNd Bolts of the WritiNg Process

strategies for success Sculpting Your Essay When it comes time to review, edit, and proofread your essay, think of your work like a block of granite, and you’re the sculptor. Does the sculptor take a tiny hammer and chisel to a new block of granite? No, that would take forever. The sculptor uses big tools to make big cuts to remove the big pieces that don’t belong. As the block gets closer and closer to the shape the sculptor eventually wants, he or she uses smaller and smaller tools and makes smaller and smaller changes, until eventually the piece takes shape. An essay is the same way. Don’t start the revision process by fixing the commas; start it by looking at the big picture: Do I make a good argument? Can my reader understand what I’m saying here? Is this essay well organized? Is it balanced? These are big questions, and at this point, you should make big changes—move paragraphs around, cut pieces here, add others there. Once the big changes are in place, look at the sentences. Do they say what you want them to say? Are they clear? Can you improve them? Then look at the words; are you using the right word? Should you use mad or incensed, for example? Finally, look at the tiny things, like punctuation, spelling, and typos. Start big and work small, like a sculptor perfecting a work of art.

Editing is when you look at the smaller issues. Now you’re looking

at word choice, grammar, mechanics, and structure.

Does it make sense now why you revise before you edit? What if

you spend an hour or more going through your entire paper to fix all

of the grammar, usage, spelling, and other errors, and then decide to

cut whole sections out of the essay and include others? You’ve just

wasted all of the time you spent fixing the small things in those para-

graphs, and now you have additional, new paragraphs that you have

to edit, so you’re repeating the process.

Think of document improvement as you would sanding a piece of

wood. When you start, you use a heavy-grit sandpaper to make big

changes to the block of wood. As the wood gets closer and closer to

the shape you want, you use finer and finer grit sandpaper to fine-

tune it. It’s the same with your paper. Make big changes first, and

47the WritiNg Process

then as it gets closer and closer to the shape you want, make smaller

and smaller changes—whole-paper changes, then paragraph-level

changes, then sentence-level changes, then word-level changes, and,

finally, even smaller things, like punctuation.

Proofreading is when you give your paper one last review to make

sure you haven’t missed anything. Double-check your corrections,

watch for typos, run a spell check and a grammar check, but don’t

depend on this solely. Nothing replaces your own proofreading. For

instance, a spell-check does not necessarily flag misused words (then/

than, woman/women).

Make sure the paper is formatted properly, including a cover page

and proper citations if you use outside sources in your writing. If you

do use outside sources, such as journal articles or books, include a

properly formatted references page. Finally, review the assignment

instructions and make sure you’ve done everything required for the

assignment.

49

chaPteR 7

audience

MaRcella M. tieRney

Quick: What do you and Quintilian have in common? Are you scratch-

ing your head and wondering how someone could name their child

Quintilian? Or perhaps you are stumped by the question entirely, ask-

ing yourself instead, “Who is Quintilian and what could we possibly

have in common?” The answer is rhetoric.

Rhetoric is the study of how to write and speak effectively for the

purpose of influencing the thought and conduct of your intended audi-

ence. Quintilian, who lived in CE 35–95 (CE refers to the “Common

Era” and is the academic term for AD, Anno Domini), was a citizen of

ancient Rome known for his writings on oratory and training in rheto-

ric, the art of persuasion. What Quintilian and many writers from the

first century to the twenty-first century have discovered is that the key

to effective writing is wrapped up in this one simple phrase, “know

your audience.” Stated another way, good writers pay careful atten-

tion to the rhetorical situation when writing. The rhetorical situation is

an analysis of the purpose of writing, with special emphasis placed on

the relationship between the speaker/writer, the intended audience,

and the context of the intended message.

Although this might seem like a lot to consider when beginning

a writing project, it is not nearly as complicated as it looks. Suppose

you have been given a writing assignment and the topic is drug abuse.

After consulting numerous periodicals, journals, and books on this

topic, you prepare your outline, narrow your topic to one aspect of

drug abuse, and write your thesis statement. After completing your

50 Nuts aNd Bolts of the WritiNg Process

first and second drafts, you revise your paper once more and submit

the completed assignment to your instructor on time, in the proper

format, and in the designated length. Relieved that your work is com-

plete, you feel proud and confident that it will be well received. Imag-

ine, however, your surprise when your paper is returned to you with a

much lower grade than you had expected. While reading the instruc-

tor’s comments, you discover that you incorrectly assumed that the

intended audience was adults when, in reality, the intended audience

was children in the fifth grade. By incorrectly identifying your target

audience, your content was above the reading level of most fifth grad-

ers and your message was not effectively communicated. Obviously,

the words you use to connect with fifth-grade children are different

from the words you use to connect with adults. Beyond word choice,

the style will be entirely different, too. Different audiences, different

words, different styles—“know your audience” is the crucial first step

toward crafting an intelligent and effective written message.

Before starting a writing project, you should ask yourself the fol-

lowing questions:

1. What is my topic?

2. Who is my audience?

3. Will my language be formal or informal?

4. How will I select my content?

5. Which tone do I want to convey?

If you correctly identify your target audience before you start writ-

ing, it will be easy to complete items 3–5 in the preceding list. Unfortu-

nately, writers don’t always factor audience into the equation. Instead,

they spend the majority of their time researching the topic and then

writing the paper. However, without an analysis of your intended audi-

ence, you are missing an important step. Just as one size doesn’t really

fit all, one writing style does not reach all. If you want your writing to

51audieNce

be effective, remember the rhetorical situation. Here are some tips for

you to use:

●● If your target audience is college students, incorporate refer-

ences that appeal to this group. ●● If your target audience is readers of academic journals, use

university language and higher level reasoning techniques. ●● If your target audience is business executives, incorporate

business-specific words, sorted by industry, to demonstrate

effectiveness and feasibility. ●● If your target audience is teens or primary-school children,

choose age-appropriate words and colorful language to keep

their attention.

Whenever you adapt your writing style to reach a variety of audi-

ences, you become a more proficient writer. Discovering your audi-

ence can even be a fun process. Trust me, once you have established

the habit of stepping back to get a clearer picture of your intended

audience, your writing will incorporate all of the nuances needed to

captivate and engage this select group of readers. For example, imag-

ine yourself speaking, rather than writing, to your intended audience.

Use your imagination to visualize what they look like, how they are

dressed, where they live, where they work, and so forth. Now quickly

record all of these words in your freewriting, paying careful attention

to the group’s demographics (age, gender, socioeconomic status).

strategies for success What Is SAE? SAE is an acronym for Standard American English. Because you will hear your instructors and see project assignments constantly refer to this term, here is a basic definition. SAE is the generally accepted form of writing used in most educa- tional and business environments. SAE is formal writing that adheres to the standard conventions of English grammar.

52 Nuts aNd Bolts of the WritiNg Process

Slang or informal language is not SAE, and you should avoid such informal language in professional communication, such as the papers you write for classes, e-mails to instructors or other school personnel, and all communication in the class- room, including responses on the Discussion Board.

Consider the following writing samples. As you read, take careful

note of the tone (is it humorous or serious?) as well as the words (are

they simple? sophisticated?). Let’s see if you can correctly identify the

intended audience.

●● I like ice cream. Mary likes ice cream. John likes ice cream. Do

you like ice cream?

Intended audience: children ages 2–4

●● Everyone’s favorite dessert, ice cream, has a history dating

back to ancient times. The Roman Emperor Nero (CE 37–67)

is reported to have ordered ice to be transported to Rome

from the Apennines, a mountain range that runs the length

of peninsular Italy, and, more specifically, from the Corno

Grande glacier. This was a logistic feat requiring ingenuity and

engineering to transport the ice quickly and efficiently over

great distances while, at the same time, maintaining its frozen

condition. Once the ice arrived in Rome, it was then mixed with

fruit toppings to create a rare and much coveted sweet treat.

Intended audience: adults

●● Ice cream can certainly be categorized as being a dairy

exchange in the food pyramid; however, when you consider

the grams of fat and carbohydrates in just one serving, this

food is better avoided when you are actively working toward

dietary goals.

Intended audience: health science majors

53audieNce

●● The nonfat, chocolate-almond ice cream is an essential

product that would add variety to the menu of dessert items

available to patrons.

Intended audience: business owner or employees of a

business

In the previous examples, the language, tone, and choice of words

are completely different. Although the subject matter in all four exam-

ples is the same (ice cream), the intended audiences are distinct. One

thing they do have in common, however, is the intended impact. In

each of the examples, the writer is speaking directly to the intended

audience.

Writers have the luxury of painting pictures with words in the

minds of their readers. Writers’ tools are their words. The writer’s can-

vas is the mind of the intended reader or target audience. How you,

as a writer, choose to express yourself is your decision. However, to

achieve the maximum impact and create a lasting impression, you

must first visualize your audience. Once you’ve identified this audi-

ence, use your words to paint a picture so they can see and readily

experience your ideas. Essentially, your words will lead them down

the path you would like them to walk with you. Capturing the reader’s

interest is the key.

55

chaPteR 8

KaPlan univeRsity WRiting centeR ResouRces

Michaella haMMond

The Kaplan University Writing Center offers so many helpful student

resources that the biggest question you might have is, “Where do I

begin?” Have no fear; by the time you are finished reading this chap-

ter, you should have a firm grasp on the many services the Writing

Center has to offer. The Writing Center offers services such as Paper

Review, Live Tutoring, Q&A Service, Reference Library tutorials, and

monthly workshops on a variety of topics, from how to beat writer’s

block to learning discipline-specific editorial citation styles quickly

and easily. In addition, several specialized Writing Center services are

available for students through the English Language Learners (ELL),

Writing Coach, and Writing Fundamentals programs.

In fact, writing is a far more collaborative act than many students

believe—because all of us need encouragement, support, and mean-

ingful feedback about the ideas we want to convey to our readers. The

entire Writing Center staff wants you to feel empowered by learning

when and where to ask for help. All writers, regardless of skill level,

need constructive and holistic feedback, additional practice and tips,

and a place where questions about writing and research are always

welcome. The hope is that you’ll find this support at the Writing Center.

56 Nuts aNd Bolts of the WritiNg Process

Ultimately, empowering you in the writing process means that

Writing Center tutors won’t be your editor or proofreader, but rather

partners who will work with you one-on-one by suggesting areas of

strength, interest, and development. Please note that a Writing Center

tutor will never fix, correct, or edit your paper. What tutors will do—

which many students find far more valuable—is work with you on the

skills you need to become a more independent and effective commu-

nicator in the long run. Although the Writing Center staff understands

that doing well on a paper will help you succeed in school, they also

value the writing process. In other words, they know it takes time,

hard work, and practice to create effective and clear writing through-

out your lifetime.

To be clear, the Writing Center does not guarantee higher grades;

grades on projects are strictly the domain of your Kaplan University

professor. Please use the comments you receive from the Writing Cen-

ter services to create a better draft of your project.

In addition to the ample writing practice you’ll take part in as a

student at KU, one of the biggest tricks to your success as a writer is

to discover when to best use the Writing Center’s resources. The hope

is that you’ll use all of the Writing Center’s tutorials and services at

some point in your education, but, understandably, certain services

are more practical and conducive to your needs depending on where

you’re at in the writing process. This chapter describes a menu of ser-

vices that you might find appropriate during the preparation, drafting,

and document improvement stages of college composition.

So, good luck and have fun exploring what the Writing Center

offers as you continue to build your confidence and skills as a college-

level writer!

a meNu of WritiNg ceNter resources Have you ever visited a restaurant and not known what to order? Many

of us have faced a similar dilemma, especially when the menu is new.

How will I know which entrée is delicious? What do other diners recom-

57K aPl aN uNiversit y WritiNg ceNter resources

mend? What’s the establishment’s signature dish? Will I leave feeling

satisfied? These are just a few of the questions that might go through

your head right before the server comes to take your order.

Although the Writing Center doesn’t serve up blue plate specials,

it does provide a variety of top-notch services tailored to help you with

writing projects for any KU course. For students in their first term to

their last, the KU Writing Center offers Live Tutoring, the Q&A Service,

Paper Review, a comprehensive Reference Library, monthly student

workshops, and specialized outreach programs through the English

Language Learners (ELL), Writing Coach, and Writing Fundamentals

initiatives.

This section of the Guide is dedicated to explaining what these

services are and how you may access them to select the service that’s

right for you. There’s no need to feel overwhelmed by the choices,

especially if they’re new to you. Simply read on to garner a better

understanding of the Writing Center’s services.

Live Tutoring Kaplan University composition professors always staff Live Tutoring

sessions. Although live tutors are not able to read entire essays dur-

ing these sessions, they are happy to discuss targeted areas of your

work, editorial style and citation guidelines, grammar and mechanics,

or writing in general.

The Writing Center is staffed by live, or synchronous, online tutors

at several times throughout the week. What’s wonderful about this

audio-enabled service is a student may chat or talk with a Writing

Center tutor and receive answers instantly in the same one-on-one

session. Most sessions last about 15–20 minutes, and the sessions

allow the student and tutor to have a significant conversation about

the writer’s work, strengths, and areas of growth and development.

Before attempting to seek live help, please confirm on the Writing

Center’s Web site that you are visiting Live Tutoring during the hours

of operation. Whenever a live tutor is not available, you may also visit

58 Nuts aNd Bolts of the WritiNg Process

the Q&A Service and Reference Library, which are available 24 hours

a day.

Q&A Service Let’s say you have a quick writing-related question for a tutor, but you

don’t have time to wait for Live Tutoring. Then, the Q&A Service is the

perfect solution for submitting questions ahead of time so you may

receive a timely e-mail response from a qualified writing expert.

Please ensure that you read through the full Q&A Service submis-

sion process, which is located on the Writing Center’s Web site, to learn

how to best use these services. After using this service a few times, you

will discover how easy to use and rewarding this service can be.

Paper Review The Paper Review service provides a comprehensive look at a student’s

work at any time during the writing process. A student can submit a

draft of his or her writing as an e-mail attachment to a dedicated e-mail

address, which is available at the Writing Center’s Web site. A Kaplan

University composition professor will review the draft and provide con-

crete strategies and suggestions on how to improve the writing.

To reiterate, Writing Center tutors do not edit or rewrite your papers.

Tutors serve as allies in the writing process by guiding you through the

questions they have about your work and specific writing techniques

they recommend based on where you’re at with your draft and research.

Moreover, the Writing Center’s overall approach to grammar, mechan-

ics, and spelling is to highlight patterns of error instead of isolated,

sometimes random, problems with college-level conventions. Stu-

dents and many composition studies experts agree that the best way

to improve one’s use of conventions is to see how and why patterns

of error occur and then to receive concrete feedback on how to fix the

pattern at hand. When you submit your paper for review, tutors review

the paper for appropriate use of conventions. However, they primarily

focus their feedback on the clarity and cohesiveness of your ideas; how

you organize and develop your thoughts; how you integrate outside

59K aPl aN uNiversit y WritiNg ceNter resources

evidence; how you consider the audience, purpose, and context of the

writing prompt; and what big-picture questions they still have for future

drafts. Such an individualized approach to writing feedback helps stu-

dents see tangible progress as they advance in their studies; the Writ-

ing Center staff truly hopes you will see the impact their services can

have on your writing and critical thinking.

Moreover, it’s incredibly important to take ownership of your

writing now by including specific questions or concerns in the paper

review submission request. Please let Writing Center tutors know what

you’re proud of, what areas you’re struggling with, or if you’ve hit a

wall with your writing. It’s much easier for tutors to help you when they

know what kind of feedback you’re interested in receiving in addition

to where you’re at in the writing process. For instance, let the tutors

know if this is a rough draft of a thesis statement or your final draft on

an informative essay about childhood obesity.

Lastly, Writing Center tutors do not review graduate theses, dis-

sertations, résumés, cover letters, or reward-based writing (e.g.,

scholarship applications and writing contests). Your graduate thesis

or dissertation represents the culmination of all your hard work and

learned input of your department’s advising committee and chair.

Please contact the chair or a member of your thesis or dissertation

committee for suggestions and feedback. As for résumés and cover

letters, unless they are for a specific course at KU, Writing Center

tutors do not review them. To learn more about what services are

available to students who are seeking full-time employment, please

contact the KU Career Resource Center for more information.

Reference Library The Writing Center’s Reference Library addresses students’ self-

directed questions about writing; provides sample papers that

showcase effective writing, grammar, and mechanics explanations;

provides tips and tricks on how to correctly format and cite papers

using appropriate editorial styles; and much more. There are over 250

pages of tutorials, with a growing number of multimedia resources,

60 Nuts aNd Bolts of the WritiNg Process

including podcasts, interactive learning modules, and instructional

videos, in the Reference Library. You can save many reference materi-

als to your computer or print them for quick reference.

The Reference Library includes resources on a variety of writing

styles—from persuasive and informative papers to critical essays and

lab reports—as well as tools to help you create an outline, use statistics

effectively, create a strong thesis statement, and work with Microsoft®

Word and PowerPoint®. There are also resources to help students

understand the writing process, such as how to overcome writer’s block

and the difference between revising and editing your writing.

Are you stymied by an editorial style? Do you need help format-

ting your essay with appropriate headers and footers? The Reference

Library also provides resources to help you accurately and ethically

gather college-level research for your writing while also shedding light

on the most popular, discipline-specific editorial styles. Finally, the

library also includes many resources on the mechanics of writing with

in-depth explanations about how to improve punctuation, spelling,

grammar and sentence structure, and style as well as English Lan-

guage Learners (ELL) grammar guidelines. In addition, if there is some-

thing you would like to see in the Reference Library but can’t seem to

find, just let the Writing Center know and the staff will either direct you

to the resource or create one to share.

Workshops The Writing Center’s constructive monthly workshop series encour-

ages students to come together to discuss and collaborate on writing-

related issues with a Writing Center workshop presenter. Past topics

include techniques such as how to avoid plagiarism or how to create

a strong body paragraph. What’s especially handy about these hour-

long workshops is no registration or sign-up is required; simply note

the date and time workshops are available on the landing page of the

Writing Center’s Web site, and click on the appropriate link. If you can’t

attend a live workshop, you can always access the archived link by

visiting our Web site for more details.

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Common workshop topics include the following:

●● Research Strategies ●● Major Writing Errors and How to Avoid Them ●● Preparing for College-Level Writing ●● Writing Lab Reports ●● Hallmarks of Effective Writing ●● How to Effectively Use Writing Center Resources ●● Writing Concisely ●● Writing Effective Thesis Statements ●● How to Beat Writer’s Block ●● ELL Workshop Series ●● And more! New resources are added on a regular basis.

English Language Learners (ELL) Program and Resources The Writing Center offers innovative, nurturing, and rigorous support

for students who are English Language Learners (ELL) and writers.

According to the Conference on College Composition and Communi-

cation’s statement on second language writing and writers, ELL writ-

ers range from “international visa students, refugees, and permanent

residents as well as naturalized and native-born citizens of the United

States and Canada” (2009). Learning English in an academic setting

can be extremely challenging and time intensive. However, you’re not

alone. The dedicated ELL Writing Center staff provides exceptional,

student-centered support to make the language learning process an

enriching and helpful process.

To learn more about ELL services, be sure to refer to Chapter 9,

Support for English Language Learners, pp. 67 –86.

The ELL program offers the following primary services:

●● Personalized Language Plans: Students submit a sample

of writing and receive a writing analysis and goals for skill

62 Nuts aNd Bolts of the WritiNg Process

development along with resources for ongoing and long-term

language learning. ●● Workshop and forum series: One-hour workshops are tailored

to the specific learning needs of ELL students. Past topics

have ranged from “Captioning a Photo: Developing Well-

Ordered and Detailed Paragraphs” to “In Your Own Words:

Paraphrasing, Summarizing, and Avoiding Plagiarism.” ●● Live Tutoring and one-on-one consultation: Live Tutoring ser-

vices as well as one-on-one tutor support are available and

are customized for learners’ needs. ●● ELL-specific resources: The KU Writing Center’s Web site

updates and archives handouts, video tutorials, and other ELL

writing resources for your access.

Writing Coach Program The Writing Coach program embeds a trained writing coach in an online

class to guide students’ writing and to inform students about the range

of Writing Center resources. As Writing Center ambassadors, writing

coaches do not review, edit, or proofread individual papers; such aid

would provide only temporary, “emergency-room” writing care. Instead,

the writing coach and the Writing Center provide writing “health care”

for a lifetime, with an emphasis on preventative measure, empowering

Kaplan University students to become better writers and thinkers.

The writing coach provides editorial style and citation tips, links

to writing resources, and information about Writing Center workshops.

The writing coach establishes a presence in the classroom by upload-

ing content to Doc Sharing within the online course platform, posting

announcements, establishing a Discussion Board thread, and sending

e-mail to students.

After the writing coach establishes a presence in the classroom,

students can initiate contact with the coach, thus beginning a dia-

logue for the semester. Though the writing coach might visit a live

seminar early in the term, the dialogue with students occurs primarily

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via e-mail and through telephone and AOL Instant Messenger (AIM)

conference and weekly AIM “office hours.”

The writing coach also helps students understand individual course

assignments and prepare accordingly. However, the goal of such inter-

action is not simply for the student to succeed on a single paper but to

help the student internalize and “own” the writing process.

Thus, the writing coach best serves the student as the student

prepares to write, not after the writing process is under way and prob-

lems arise.

Ultimately, the writing coach’s job is to become obsolete as the

student and instructor learn how to best use Writing Center resources.

The Writing Coach program’s primary goal ensures that students take

an active role in the learning process, which is one of the primary

goals of the Writing Center: to empower students to take ownership of

their learning by understanding how they write and what resources are

available at Kaplan University.

Writing Fundamentals Program The Writing Fundamentals program is designed to provide support for

students needing help with the basics of writing, those foundational

skills that help writers create clear, effective texts that appeal to a

specific audience. Perhaps you have been out of a formal education

setting for a while and need a refresher on skills such as development,

organization, or grammar. Or, perhaps you find essay assignments

intimidating and difficult to begin. Writing Fundamentals provides you

with a supportive introduction or review of some of the foundations for

successful writing practices.

Writing Fundamentals resources are broken down into manage-

able chunks or steps by select Writing Center tutors. Understanding

and applying these concepts provide writers with a foundation they

will use to communicate effectively throughout their lives—in aca-

demia, the workplace, and beyond. Writing Fundamentals also pro-

vides support through the Writing Fundamentals Outreach Program,

64 Nuts aNd Bolts of the WritiNg Process

where tutors meet one-on-one with students to create and support

plans to improve students’ writing.

A brief overview of Writing Fundamentals services includes the

following:

●● One-on-one consultation: Live Tutoring services as well as

one-on-one tutor support are available and are customized for

Writing Fundamentals’ student needs. ●● Fundamentals-specific resources: The KU Writing Center’s

Web site provides handouts, video tutorials, and links to

workshops (synchronous and asynchronous), as well as other

writing resources.

WheN to use the WritiNg ceNter’s services To continue the metaphor of the Writing Center’s “menu of services,”

knowing when to take advantage of the Writing Center’s services is

a lot like going out to a fancy dinner: You make the reservation, get

dressed up, enjoy four-courses, and then kick back and relax as you

take your coffee with cream and a delectable dessert.

When you’re at a restaurant, you probably know when to order

the appetizer, enjoy the main course, or dig into the double-chocolate

gelato. Although the order and structure of the Writing Center’s ser-

vices aren’t as formulaic or as laid back as drinks and dessert, there is

a great advantage to using certain services during different stages in

the writing process.

This section focuses on recommendations for how to get the most

out of your Writing Center visit based on where you’re at in the writing

process. In fact, based on experience, the most beneficial time to use

the Paper Review service is during the middle stages of the writing

process, not at the very end. It is also most helpful to you if you work

on several drafts of your paper instead of one rushed draft.

Lastly, it bears repeating that the writing process is a recursive

process; in other words, you’ll brainstorm, prewrite, draft, revise, edit,

and publish your work at multiple points while writing a paper or Dis-

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cussion Board post. In fact, the writing process is often displayed as a

circle because writers bounce around and circle through the different

stages of writing. The following recommendations are just that—rec-

ommendations. You might find another process that works just as well

for you, so have fun and explore the many Writing Center resources

available.

Brainstorming and Prewriting

●● Meet with a live tutor or your instructor first to brainstorm

ideas or topics for your paper. ●● Conduct preliminary research in the KU Online Library. ●● Meet with a live tutor to craft a working thesis and outline.

Drafting

●● Review materials in the Reference Library on writing topics

you are unsure about; go back to Live Tutoring for clarification

or ask your question through the Q&A Service. ●● Write your first draft. ●● Submit the first draft to the Paper Review service. It also

helps to ask a friend, coworker, or family member to review a

draft as well.

Revising

●● Revise the first draft based on the holistic comments from the

Paper Review service. ●● Review materials in the Reference Library on writing top-

ics you are unsure about. In addition, take a peek at sample

essays within the mode of writing you’re working on to see

how other writers have approached their audiences. ●● Return to Live Tutoring for clarification or ask your question

through the Q&A Service.

66 Nuts aNd Bolts of the WritiNg Process

Editing and Publication

●● Edit second and subsequent drafts by taking advantage of

the Reference Library’s comprehensive conventions tutorials

(grammar, mechanics, and style). ●● To gain confidence in your progress so far, consider visiting

Live Tutoring one last time to ask targeted questions about

your final draft. ●● Last, but not least, before turning in your final draft, care-

fully proofread your paper by looking for grammar patterns

you have been advised about from the Paper Review service

tutors during the drafting and revising stages.

WraPPiNg it uP Now that you have a better idea of what’s on the Writing Center “menu”

of resources, the hope is that you’ll become a regular. Don’t hesitate to

ask the Writing Center staff questions about existing services. You can

always reach the Writing Center staff with your questions by composing

an e-mail to [email protected] with the subject line, “Q&A.”

The Writing Center staff cannot wait to meet you and help you on

your learning journey!

References Conference on College Composition and Communication. (2009,

November). CCCC statement on second language writing and writ-

ers. Retrieved from the National Council of Teachers of English

(NCTE) Web site: http://www.ncte.org/cccc/resources/positions/

secondlangwriting